ANATOMY

What is Anatomy ?
Anatomy is the branch of biology, concerned with the study of the structure of living organisms
and their parts. It is the structural study of organism including their systems, organs and tissues.
In simple words, anatomy is the GPS of our body.
This picture represents the STANDARD ANATOMICAL POSITION which one must remember in
order to learn about anatomy.

What is standard Anatomical position?

Standard anatomical position is what will help us to have reference points. We need to know the
standard anatomical position because the human body is dynamic and keeps changing
positions.
Anatomical position is like a body-map, it is a reference position where:
· Body is standing upright
· Feet shoulder width apart and parallel
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· Toes forward
· Arms to the sides
· Palms facing forward
· Face in the front
· Eyes are wide open

This is the starting position for all muscle actions. Refer to Figure. The body is standing upright
with the arms at the sides and the palms of the hand facing forward (supine). All muscle actions
are given from this position, and although muscle actions can be done from other positions, the
textbook action is from the starting position. For example: standing in the anatomical position,
flex the elbows. The forearm comes forward in the sagittal plane. However, if you stand in the
normal standing position with your arms by your side and your palms facing your thigh, and you
flex your elbow, your forearm moves in the frontal plane, and you are standing with arms
“akimbo”. Likewise, if you abduct your whole arm so that it is parallel to the floor and flex your
elbow, again the movement is in the frontal plane. These three examples all involve elbow flexion,
but the resultant action is very different. The true action of elbow flexion, as with almost all
actions, is from the anatomical position.

What are Anatomical directions?

ANTERIOR: In front of

POSTERIOR: After, behind, towards the rear

DISTAL: Away from origin

PROXIMAL: Near or close to the origin

SUPERIOR: Above

INFERIOR: Below

LATERAL: Towards the side away from midline

MEDIAL: Towards the midline

CENTRAL: Deep

PERIPHERAL: Superficial

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An anatomical plane is a hypothetical or imaginary plane used to transect or divide the human
body in order to describe the location of structures or directions of movements.

1. Sagittal plane: divides the body into right and left halves.
a. Mid-sagittal plane: divides equally into right and left halves.
b. Right sagittal & left sagittal plane: divides the body into right and left unequal halves
respectively.

2. Frontal plane / coronal plane: divides the body into anterior and posterior or front and back.

3. Transverse plane: divides the body into superior and inferior parts.

NOTE

A personal trainer deals with teaching the right forms of an exercise to a client which involves
movement.

What makes a movement happen?

Bones, joints, muscles and connective tissues are the components of a movement.

So, a personal trainer must know the basic anatomy of all these components.

Ahead in this chapter, we shall be studying the anatomy of all these components which bring
about “movement''.

5
 1. BONE ANATOMY& SKELETON

This picture indicates Anatomy of a Typical Bone

WHAT IS A BONE?

Bone is an osseous tissue composed of

calcium salts. It resists tensile and
compact forces. This section deals with
bones + bony markings. By virtue of their
name, the skeletal muscles are attached
to the skeleton and operate on the bone
to cause movement. The markings on the
bones (the bony markings) are the
specific locations where muscles attach.

WHAT IS BONE OSSIFICATION?

Ossification (or Osteogenesis) is the
process of laying down new bone material
by cells called osteoblasts.

In simple words, OSSIFICATION is the

process by which Bones are formed from
simple cartilages.
Explanation:
When a fetus is 8 weeks old, its skeleton is nothing but a rubbery tissue, called as cartilage
(explained further in “connective tissues'')As and when the fetus grows and the trimester
advances, these cartilages start getting converted to solid bones, THIS PROCESS IS CALLED
OSSIFICATION.

See the following table for details:

Timetable for the process of human ossification
Time period
Second month of fetal development
Fourth month
Birth to 5 years
5 years to 12 years in females,
5 to 14 years in males
Bones affected
Ossification in long bones beginning
Most primary ossification centres have
appeared in the diaphysis of bone.
Secondary ossification centres appear in the
epiphyses
Ossification is spreading rapidly from the ossification
centres and various bones are becoming ossified
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 Bone of upper limbs and scapulae becoming
17 to 20 years
completely ossified
Bone of the lower limbs and oscoxae become
18 to 23 years
completely ossified
Bone of the sternum, clavicles, and vertebrae
23 to 25 years
become completely ossified
By 25 years Nearly all bones are completely ossified

What are the parts of a typical bone?

(See the picture simultaneously as you read the following explanation)

Articular cartilage:
It is a connective tissue [explained in coming pages], which is present at the ends or surfaces of
each and every bone in our body. Its purpose is to attach one bone to another.

Diaphysis:
The diaphysis is the main or midsection (shaft) of a long bone. It usually contains bone marrow
and adipose tissue (fat). It is a middle tubular part composed of compact bone which surrounds
a central marrow cavity which contains red or yellow marrow.

Bone marrow:
Bone marrow is the spongy tissue inside some of your bones, such as your hip and thigh bones.
It contains cells which make the red blood cells (that carry oxygen through your body), the white
blood cells that fight infections, and the platelets that help with blood clotting.
The two types of bone marrow are "red marrow" (Latin: medulla ossiumrubra) and "yellow
marrow" (Latin: medulla ossiumflava), which is mainly made up of fat cells. Red blood cells,
platelets, and most white blood cells arise in red marrow.

Metaphysis:
The metaphysis is the wide portion of a long bone between the epiphysis and the narrow
diaphysis. It contains the growth plate, the part of the bone that grows during childhood and as it
grows, it ossifies near the diaphysis and the epiphyses.

Epiphysis:
At the joint, the epiphysis is covered with articular cartilage. The epiphysis is filled with red
bone marrow, which produces red blood cells.

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Endosteum:
In anatomy the endosteum is a thin vascular membrane of connective tissue that lines the
surface of the bony tissue that forms the medullary cavity of long bones. This endosteal
surface is usually reabsorbed during long periods of malnutrition, resulting in less thickness
of bone!

Periosteum:
Periosteum, dense fibrous membrane covering the surfaces of bones, consisting of an outer
fibrous layer and an inner cellular layer. The outer layer is composed mostly of collagen and
contains nerve fibers that cause pain when the tissue is damaged.

Medullary cavity:
The medullary cavity (medulla, innermost part) is the central cavity of bone shafts where red
bone marrow and/or yellow bone marrow (adipose tissue) is stored. Hence, the medullary
cavity is also known as the marrow cavity.

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 THE SKELETON
The aim of the following section on the bones of the human body is to provide the students
with the basic knowledge needed to benefit from the literature on sports injuries and also to
aid them in analyzing how the bones react to the stresses and strains to which they are
subjected in different training exercises.

Humans are born with around

270 to 300 bones, the number
decreases to 206 at an adult age.
Ossification continues till the age
of 25 years.

Skeleton is divided into following

2 parts:

1. Axial Skeleton
2. Appendicular skeleton.

1. AXIAL SKELETON: Consists of Head/skull, Neck and Trunk

· Skull: · Rib Cage:

- 14 Facial Bones - 8 Cranial = 22 - 24 Ribs - 1 Sternum = 25

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· Vertebral Column:

- 7 Cervical

- 12 Thoracic

- 5 Lumbar

- 5 Sacral (fused)

- 4 Coccygeal (fused)
= 33

Total = 80 Bones In Axial Skeleton

2. Appendicular Skeleton:

It Involves Upper Limbs And Limbs. It Has 126 Bones.

• Pectoral Girdle:

- 2 Clavicles

- 2 Scapulae

· ARMS:

. - 2 HUMERI

· FOREARMS:

- 2 RADIUSES
- 2 ULNAS

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· Wrist / hands: · Pelvis /hip:
- 16 Carpals - 10 Metacarples - 2 Right And Left
- 28 Phalanges

· Thighs:
. - 2 Femurs

· Legs: - 2 Patellas (knee Caps)

- 2 Tibias - 2 Fibulas

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· Ankle And Feet:

- 14 Tarsals
- 10 Meta Tarsals
- 28 Phalanges

Total no. of Bones in appendicular skeleton = 126

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 TYPES & FUNCTIONS OF BONES
Four different types of bones that exist have a definite function in the body.

Types of Bones
The human skeleton has five types of bones. Each type is described by its general shape viz. long,
short, flat, sesamoid and irregular. These names are very descriptive of what each type of bone
looks like.

• Long Bones
Long bones are long and are characterized by
the fact they are longer than they are wide.
They generally have tubular shafts and articular
surfaces at each end. The function of long
bones is locomotion. Muscles operating on
long bones allow you to walk, run, crawl, climb,
jump, kick, and hit. The major bones of the
arms and legs are long bones that include the
femur, tibia, fibula, humerus, radius, and ulna.

• Short Bones
Short bones are shorter than long bones and
also have generally tubular shafts and articular
surfaces at each end. Short bones allow
flexibility. For example, the reason you can
make a fist is that the short bones of the finger
can "roll" up into a fist. The short bones include
carpals and tarsal.

• Flat Bones
Flat bones are flat and relatively thin and have broad, flat surfaces. Their function is protection. If
the vital parts of the body were named, they would be the brain, the heart, the lungs, and the
reproductive organs. All these vital parts are protected by flat bones. The brain is completely
encased by the cranium (six flat bones); the heart and lungs are protected by the flat bones of the
rib cage and sternum; the reproductive organs are protected by the flat- boned pelvic girdle (the
innominate - three flat bones).
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• Sesamoid Bones
This bone is embedded within a tendon. They
are typically found in locations where a tendon
passes over a joint, such as the First metacarpal
bone, patella. Functionally, they act to protect
the tendon and to increase its mechanical effect.

• Irregular Bones
Almost any bone that is not a long bone, a
short bone, or a flat bone is an irregular bone.
These bones are variable in size and shape.
They are generally compact in nature and are
distributed throughout the skeleton. These
include the entire vertebral column and the
mandible.

FUNCTIONS OF BONES
As mentioned previously, bones have three primary functions - locomotion, flexibility, and
protection. In addition, bones have three other very important functions - these additional
functions include the following: the manufacture of blood cells; the storage of deposits of
calcium and phosphorus; and support.

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• Blood cells are made in the marrow of bones (in their centers) and released into the blood
stream.

• When a body doesn't ingest enough calcium (as during pregnancy or in post-menopausal
women), the body uses stored calcium by taking it from the bones. This process has the
effect of weakening the bones, which is why it is important to get enough calcium when the
body's needs are high.

• The skeleton provides a support for organs body's needs are high.

BONES OF HUMAN BODY WITH THEIR LABELED PARTS

Bony markings (which are literally markings on the bone) may be characterized by ridges,
depressions, holes, rough areas or smooth areas. These markings are usually the origin or
insertion of muscles. By learning the bony markings, all the origins and insertions of all of the
skeletal muscles can be learned. Drawings of the bones showing the bony markings listed below
are at the end of this section.

The bones and the markings on each bone that are used with the locomotors (skeletal) muscles
discussed in this book are listed in the following section, by body region. The specific bone
markings are noted below the bone on which they occur. Bones that do not have bony markings
that are used for locomotors muscles have markings listed as "none." This does not mean that
these bones do not have markings,, just that they are not important for locomotion. The number
of bones present in each particular body region (part) is denoted in parenthesis after the name of
the bone.

The anterior skeleton

15
The humerus The radius and ulna

Hand

16
The femur The tibia and fibula

The Foot
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2. JOINTS: (Arthrology)

This section deals with the types and actions of the different joints in the body, and the body
actions that each joint can make.

Arthrology
Arthrology is that branch of anatomy that deals with JOINTS or articulations. A joint or
articulation is the connection or junction between two or more bones or between cartilage
and bone.

Classification of Joint:

Three types of joints exist- each of which is differentiated by its structure and ability to move:

• Synarthrosis joints (juncturaefibrosae) - immoveable joints

• Amphiarthrosis joints (juncturae cartilagineae)
-joints with slight movement
• Diarthrosis joints (juncturaefree-movement joints

Synarthrosis joints (SUTURE JOINT)

Two bones coming together but with no movement between the bones. In many cases, the
bones have fused together. Three examples of Synarthrosis joints are the innominate bone,
the sacrum, and the cranium.
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The innominate bone is three bones (ischium, ilium and pubic bone) that have fused together to
make one innominate bone. There is no movement between any of these bones. Where the
bones join together is difficult to see. The sacrum is five sacral vertebrae in the child, which fuse
together in the adult into one bone - the sacrum. Likewise, with the coccyx, this lies below the
sacrum. The cranium is made up of the frontal bone, two parietal bones, the occipital bone, and
two temporal bones. The joints between these bones are called sutures.

Two bones coming together but with very slight movement between the bones. There are two
types of amphiarthrosis joints - symphysis Cartilaginous) joints and syndesmosis
(ligamentous) joints. Two examples of symphysis joints are the symphysis pubis (the junction
between the two pubic bones that make up the pubic arch) and the junction between the upper
part of the sternum, the manubrium, and body of the sternum. In forced inspiration this joint
allows the sternum to "bend" a little. An example of a syndesmosis joint is the coraco- acromial
joint (a ligament that joins the coracoid process with the acromion process).

Diarthrosis joints
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Because of its freedom of movement it is often referred to as a true joint. Diarthrosis joints have
several essential structures (characteristics), including the following:

· Articular surfaces of bones. The ends of the bones are smooth and covered with cartilage.

· Articular cartilage. The cartilage covering the end of the bone provides a smooth, cushioned
surface for two bones to come together.

· Articular disk. A disk (or meniscus) may be situated between dissimilar surfaces in order to
facilitate free movement. Articular capsule.

· A ligamentous capsule surrounds the joint and contains synovial fluid, which helps to

· lubricate the joint and serves as a nutrient source.

.
· A synovial membrane lines the articular capsule containing the synovial fluid. Ligaments which
run from one bone to the other which bind and stabilize the joint.

NOTE:

We as trainers won't need to know more about suture joints or amphiarthrosis

in our daily practice, but we would be dealing much with the synovial joints.
So here are the types of synovial joints in the following pages…

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 TYPES OF SYNOVIAL JOINTS
There are six types of diarthrosis/synovial joints:

1. Gliding joint (arthrodia or articulatioplana)

A gliding joint involves bones that lie next to one
another and as movement takes place, they glide
(or slide or rub) together. A good example is
the carpal and tarsal bones, which lie next to
one another. When the wrist or ankle moves,
these bones move slightly against one another.
This movement involves the intercarpal and
intertarsal joints, respectively. Another example
of a gliding joint is the movement between the
head of the rib and the vertebra, or the junction
of the clavicle with the sternum.

2. Hinge joint (ginglymus)

The hinge joint is somewhat self descriptive,
namely two bones acting like a hinge on a door.
Hinge joints are primarily in one plane - flexion
and extension. Good examples are the
interphalangeal joints of the fingers and the
humerus and ulna. The knee and ankle joints
are also hinge joints, but are not as typical, since
they allow slight rotation.

3. Pivot joint (trochoid)

In the pivot joint, the movement is primarily rotation with one bone rotating in a ring of another.
Two good examples of a pivot joint are the radio ulnar joint (where the head of the radius rotates
in the radial notch of the ulnar) and the dens of the axis rotating in the ring of the atlas vertebra.

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4. Ball and socket joint (spheroidea or enarthrosis)

Like the hinge joint, the name of this joint is self-descriptive and consists of a round head or
projection of one bone fitting into a cup or socket of another bone. The hip and shoulder joints are
good examples of a ball and socket joint. Movement is permitted in all planes. Because of its
structure, the hip joint is more stable than the shoulder joint. The hip joint has a deep socket (the
acetabulum of the innominate bone) and a very pronounced ball (the greater trochanter of the
femur). In addition, the hip joint involves large strong muscles, which surround and support the
joint. The shoulder has a very shallow socket (the glenoid fossa of the scapula), fitting against the
greater tuberosity of the humerus.

5. Saddle joint (articulatiosellaris)

In this joint, the opposing bones that come together are convex and concave. The surface of the
joint (bone) is saddle-shaped (like a western saddle used in horse riding). The skeleton only has
a few saddle joints. Saddle joints allow all movements except rotation.
The best example of a saddle joint is the junction between the first metacarpal (of the thumb)
and the greater multiangular (trapezium) carpal (carpo-metacarpal joint of the thumb)

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6. Condyloid joint (articulatioellipsoidea)
This joint is similar to the saddle joint in that a condyle of one bone fits into an elliptical cavity
of another bone, allowing all movements except rotation. The wrist joint with the radius and the
scaphoid (navicular) carpal is an example of a condyloid joint. Another example of a condyloid
joint is the occipital bone and the superior articular process of the atlas (first cervical vertebra.

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3. Muscle Anatomy

This section deals with the body's muscular system. Since this book is geared towards physical
activity and the analysis of movement, the muscles presented and discussed are primarily
locomotor muscles (i.e., the muscles involved in locomotion and physical activity). These
muscles are reviewed and discussed in detail. However, because fitness professionals should
have a basic knowledge of and an appreciation for all the muscles in the body, the body's muscles
are listed and briefly discussed in the next section of this chapter.

The last section of this chapter is the main focal point of this chapter. In this section, each
locomotor muscle is presented in alphabetical order with its origins and insertions and
attachments identified a full-colored illustration of the muscle, and other details about the
muscle.

Muscle Classification

Because biologists are great classifiers, most parts of the body are classified. Nerves are
classified, bones are classified, and muscles are classified. Classification is necessary because
the body has several kinds of muscles, not just one. The early gross anatomist, (i.e., the
individual who studied the body with the naked eye) classified muscles according to where they
were located in the body. In the process, he came up with three basic classes of muscles by
location.

Those muscles that attached to the skeleton he termed skeletal muscles. These muscles and
the bones to which they were attached formed a lever system that, provided locomotion and
movement. However, when he dissected the abdomen (the viscera), he found other muscles.
The stomach is a hollow organ with six big flat muscles that help digest food that enters the
stomach. After leaving the stomach, the food travels down thirty-two feet of intestine, which
has longitudinal and circular muscles in its walls that provide the peristaltic action that
moves the food through the intestine. Because these muscles do not attach to the skeleton
but are present in the viscera, he named them visceral muscles.

Much later, he discovered that blood vessels also have muscles in their walls. Although these
muscles are not in the viscera, he classified them as viscera muscles. Finally, when the gross
anatomist examined the heart, he found that it too is a muscle. Because the heart is a very unique
muscle - different than any other muscle in the body, it forms a class of muscles all by itself, the
cardiac muscle. Therefore, the first attempt to classify muscles involved grouping muscles by
their location. In this process, all the muscles of the body were put into one of three
classifications -skeletal, visceral, and cardiac.
With the advent of the microscope, a new branch of biology began called histology. In this
24
process, the anatomist attempted to determine what the body looked like under a microscope.
Microscopes enable the anatomist to closely examine cells, whether they are nerve cells, brain
cells, bones cells or muscle cells. Subsequently, histologists developed a classification of
muscles that was based on what the muscle cell looked like, a process that produced a way of
grouping muscles called a histological classification.

When the skeletal muscle was examined under the microscope, the histologist saw that it had
light and dark segments that ran down the length of the cells. Because these muscles were
segmented or striated, he classified them as striated muscles. It just so happened that all skeletal
muscles are striated. However, when he examined visceral muscles under the microscope, the
striations were missing - visceral muscles were non-striated. Accordingly, he classified these
muscles as smooth muscles. All visceral muscles are smooth muscles. When he studied heart
muscle under the microscope, it was again different from either of the other two types of
muscles. It had striations. These striations weren't regular, like those of the skeletal muscles;
they were criss-crossed in a network pattern. As a result, he classified heart muscle as a
syncytium (multinucleated) or a branch-striated muscle.

In other words, in addition to classifying muscles according to their location, the advent of
microscopes enabled muscles to be classified according to what they look like under the
microscope. Similar to their classification by location, all the muscles of the body can be put into
one of the three (additional) classifications - striated, smooth, and branch striated.

Another method of classifying muscles involves nerve control. Muscles, like all tissues of the
body, are controlled by the nervous system. What kind of a nerve innervates a particular muscle
will affect whether the muscle can be controlled voluntarily (at will) or whether it is controlled
automatically (involuntarily) Muscles are also classified according to how they are controlled by
the nervous system. If a muscle can be controlled voluntarily, the muscle is called a voluntary
25
muscle. Most skeletal muscles are voluntary although a few are both voluntary and involuntary.

Muscles that individuals have no control over are called involuntary muscles. Most of the
body's visceral muscles are involuntary, although there are a few that are both voluntary and
involuntary. When food is introduced to the stomach, the stomach muscles contract and start
digesting food whether you want them to or not. As such, stomach muscles are involuntary
muscles. Likewise, the cardiac muscle is an involuntary muscle. The muscles that can be both
are called voluntary/involuntary (or mixed) muscles. The muscles involved in respiration are an
example of mixed muscles. You can either breathe automatically, or hold your breath. Table 4-1
summarizes the three methods of classifying muscles and the three categories in each method.

Microscopic
Location Appearance Nerve Control
Skeletal Striated Voluntary
Visceral Smooth Involuntary
Syncytium or Voluntary /
Cardiac Involuntary
Branch striated

Muscle Properties

Muscles have the following four properties or characteristics that make them unique:

· Contractibility - the ability to shorten when innervated, causing movement. This factor is a
unique property of muscles.

· Extensibility - the ability to be stretched beyond their normal resting length. This property
is what enables flexible movement to occur.

· Elasticity - the ability to rebound to their resting length after being stretched.

· Tonicity - a state of hardness of the muscle. When a muscle is exercised, more muscle
fibers become active, and the muscle becomes firmer. This factor is called muscle tone.
While the other properties of muscles can be readily measured, it is difficult to quantify the
level of tonicity.

26
Types of Contraction
Contraction is a unique property of muscle tissue and involves the ability to shorten when
innervated by a motor nerve. However, because more than one kind of contraction exists,
muscle contraction is also classified by type. In anatomy, three kinds of muscle contraction
exist - isotonic contraction, isometric contraction, and isokinetic contraction. If a muscle
shortens and causes movement when it is innervated, this is an isotonic contraction. For
example, if you move a 25-pound dumbbell from a table by curling it, your elbow flexors are
isotonically contracting. On the other hand, if a muscle is prevented from shortening when it is
innervated, this is an isometric contraction. For example, in the previous instance, if the
dumbbell you are trying to curl weighs 400lbs (as opposed to 25 lbs.), and you try to curl it, but
it doesn't move, your elbow flexors are contracting, but not shortening, since no movement is
occurring. In this example, your elbow flexors are isometrically contracting.

When the fields of kinesiology, physical education, and sports medicine were initially being
established, many individuals in these fields discovered that they needed to analyze muscular
movements. Because they found the anatomical Classification somewhat limiting in this
regard, they created a new classification of muscular contractions. When a muscle was
innervated and that muscle shortened and movement took place, they renamed isotonic
contraction as "concentric contraction." When the muscle was innervated and movement did
not take place, that type of contraction was called a "static contraction" instead of an isometric
contraction.

The type of movement (term) that was needed that the anatomist didn't have was what happens
when a muscle moves against gravity, but the muscle lengthens during the movement. Using
the previous example, if the 25-pound dumbbell on a table is actually moved when you attempt
to curl it, your elbow flexors are isotonically or concentrically contracting. If you now slowly
return the dumbbell to the table, then the same muscles that curled the dumbbell are allowing it
to be slowly returned to the table. Your elbow flexors are lengthening, but are doing the work.
Gravity wants to pull the dumbbell quickly to the table. A kinesiologist calls this type of
contraction an "eccentric contraction." Specifically, the muscle is working, but lengthening. If
an anatomist were asked about this, he would say that your elbow flexors are actually slowly
relaxing. Such an analysis is true, but someone analyzing muscular movement needs a
descriptive term to use. In this instance, that term is "eccentric contraction".

A mix of the aforementioned terms is employed in this book. When a muscle is working but
lengthening, this is referred to as an eccentric contraction. When the muscle is working, but not
changing length, this is called an isometric contraction. When the muscle is working and
shortening, this is either designated as an concentric contraction, or no designation is used at
all, since this is the typical muscle action.
27
Isokinetic contraction is the contraction that happens in an Exercise which is performed with a
specialized apparatus that provides variable resistance to a movement, so that no matter how
much effort is exerted, the movement takes place at a constant speed. Such exercise is used to
test and improve muscular strength and endurance, especially after injury. Example- use of
machines like hydraulic rowers.

Description Human anatomy terms Kinesiological terms

Muscle length shortens Isotoni Concentric
Muscle length doesn't
change Isometric Static
Muscle length increases Isotoni Eccentric
Speed of repetition is
Isokinetic
constant

Structure and Function of Muscles

Although we treat muscles as distinct entities for anatomical convenience, we must remember
that the neuromuscular system does not activate muscles in that way. The nervous system
stimulates portions of contractile tissue to contract in patterns that will produce the desired
effect, and this activation usually involves parts of several muscles acting in fine coordination.
No action recruits all of a muscle, and no action recruits only one muscle. When we say, for
example, that biceps brachii flexes the arm at the elbow; we are making a broad generalization.
Depending on the position of the arm when we make the movement, certain portions of biceps
brachii will be activated. In addition, portions of brachialis will also contract, as well as portions
of certain muscles in the forearm. Portions of triceps brachii will be recruited to temper the
movement and keep it smooth. As the movement occurs, there is a shift in weight and parts of
muscles throughout the torso and legs respond to maintain balance. Therefore, it is not so
much individual muscles that do the work of the body as it is patterns of portions of muscle
tissue.

28
 The Muscle cell
The contractile filaments that perform the work of the muscle are called myofilaments. Two
basic types of myofilaments perform the work of the muscle. One type is the thick, myosin
filament the other is the thin, actin filament. The myosin filament has molecular "heads" that
extend to attractor sites on the adjacent actin filament and bend to bring about contraction.
These myosin and actin filaments lie parallel to each other in an overlapping pattern that
produces the characteristic striped (striated) appearance of skeletal muscle. Several of these
myofilaments together form a sarcomere, which is considered the "unit" of contraction in a
muscle cell.

A string of sarcomeres lined up in sequence form a myofibril (muscle thread) (Fig. 1-1). Sur-
rounding and penetrating the myofibrils is a system of microscopic tubes called transverse
tubules and the sarcoplasmic reticulum. These tubules carry the chemical trigger, calcium, nec
essary to initiate contraction at the molecular level. A muscle cell is composed of several myo-
fibrils.

The expression "muscle cell" is equivalent to the expression "muscle fiber." The number of
muscle cells in the body is believed to remain constant; when we strengthen muscles or
increase their size and bulk, it is the contractile content, not the number, of the cells or fibers
that is changed. Unlike most cells, muscle cells contain many nuclei scattered along the length
of the cell. Multiple nuclei are necessary because muscle cells can be quite long, and their
internal needs, which must be assessed and met by the nuclei; vary from one part of the cell to
the next. Muscle cells are second only to nerve cells in length and can be over 11 inches long in
some muscles.

The Cross-Bridge Theory

The most commonly accepted theory of muscle function is the cross-bridge theory. It attempts
to explain the contractile action of muscle tissue – that is, how muscle tissue shortens when
stimulated by a motor neuron.

When a nerve impulse excites the neuromuscular junction, calcium is released from the
sarcoplasmic reticulum into the fluid surrounding the my ofilaments. This causes a molecular
response in which attract or sites on the actin filaments are exposed, attracting "heads" from
the myosin filaments, which cross the gap between the filaments, attach themselves to their
sites on the actin filaments and bend, propelling the actin filaments into a more deeply
overlapped and interlocked position in relation to the myosin filaments. This shortens the
sarcomere and, as all the sarcomeres in many muscle cells shorten, muscle contraction occurs
(Fig. 1-2). Muscle tissue is capable of shortening by about 40% of its length.
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When nerve stimulation ceases, the calcium is actively transported back into the transverse
tubules, the myosin heads release and contraction stops. The muscle, however, cannot
lengthen on its own. The contractile units (sarcomeres) must be stretched back to their starting
position by an outside force, such as the pull of gravity or an opposing muscle, before it can
again shorten in contraction.

If you imagine the myosin and actin filaments in fully overlapped position, then you can see
how muscle tissue that is shortened in this way can do no further work.

4. Connective Tissues
As the name implies, connective tissue serves a "connecting" function.

Connective tissue is a type of tissue made up of fibers forming a framework and support
structure for body tissues and organs.

Connective tissue is the material between the cells of the body that gives tissues form and
strength. This "cellular glue" is also involved in delivering nutrients to the tissue, and in the
special functioning of certain tissues. Connective tissue surrounds many organs. Cartilage,
blood and bone are specialized forms of connective tissue.

Connective tissue is made up of dozens of proteins, including:

· Collagens (a fibrous protein building block)

· Proteoglycans (a group of proteins that maintain tissue stiffness)

· Glycoprotein's (composed of a protein and sugar)

The combination of these proteins can vary between tissues.

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The most common form of connective tissue is loose connective tissue. There are three main
types:

· Collagenous fibers

· Elastic fibers

· Reticular fibers

Another form of connective tissue is fibrous connective tissue which is found in tendons and
ligaments.

TYPES OF CONNECTIVE TISSUES

Cartilage

Students should aim to recognize and differentiate the 3 types of cartilage, understand the
composition of the extracellular matrix and the role of chondrocytes in producing and
maintaining it.

· Cartilage is a tough but flexible tissue which provides a resilient rigidity to the structures it
supports. The matrix of cartilage consists of elastic and collagenous fibers embedded in
chondroitin sulfate (a jellylike component of the ground substance). The chondroitin sulfate
gives resilience to cartilage, and collagen fibers gives it its strength.

· The cells of mature cartilage are called chondrocytes. They are easy to spot on
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photomicrographs because they lie singly or in groups within chambers in the matrix called
lacunae.

· Unlike other connective tissues, cartilage has no blood vessels or nerves.

A Tendon is a tough band of fibrous connective

tissue that connects muscle to bone. They are
similar to ligaments except that ligaments join
one bone to another. Tendons are designed to
withstand tension. Typically tendons connect
muscles to bones, together a combination of
tendons and muscles can only exert a pulling
force.
(See the picture in which an example of biceps
tendon is given)

Ligaments

A ligament is a short band of tough fibrous

connective tissue composed mainly of long,
stringy collagen fibers. Ligaments connect
bones to other bones to form a joint. (They
do not connect muscles to bones; that is the
function of tendons.) Some ligaments limit
the mobility of articulations, or prevent certain
movements altogether.

Capsular ligaments are part of the articular

capsule that surrounds synovial joints. They
act as mechanical reinforcements.
Extra-capsular ligaments join bones together
and provide joint stability.

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Ligaments are slightly elastic; when under tension, they gradually lengthen. This is one reason
why dislocated joints must be set as quickly as possible: if the ligaments lengthen too much,
then the joint will be weakened, becoming prone to future dislocations. Athletes, gymnasts and
martial artists perform stretching exercises to lengthen their ligaments, making their joints
suppler. The term double-jointed refers to people who have more elastic ligaments, allowing
their joints to stretch and contort further. The word "ligament" comes from the Latin word,
"ligamentum," meaning a band or tie.

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