SEM102 Chapter 2: Limits

Chapter 2: Limits
2.1 Limit of a Function and Limit Laws

Suppose 𝑓(𝑥) is defined on an open interval about c, except possibly at c itself. If 𝑓(𝑥) is
arbitrarily close to the number L (as close to L as we like) for all x sufficiently close to c, we
say that f approaches the limit L as x approaches c, and write
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿,
→
which is read “the limit of 𝑓(𝑥) as approaches c is L”.

Figure 2.1

Example 2.1.1
How does the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 behave near 𝑥 = 2?
𝑥 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑥 𝑓(𝑥)
1.9 2.1
1.99 2.01
1.999 2.001
1.9999 2.0001
1.99999 2.00001

Example 2.1.2
How does the function 𝑓(𝑥) = behave near 𝑥 = 1?

𝑥 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑥 𝑓(𝑥)
0.9 1.1
0.99 1.01
0.999 1.001
0.9999 1.0001
0.99999 1.00001

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SEM102 Chapter 2: Limits

Example 2.1.3
For each function given, determine whether the function has a limit x approaches the indicated
point.

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SEM102 Chapter 2: Limits

2.2 The Limit Laws

 Constant multiple rule: lim kf  x   k lim f  x 

xc xc

 Sum/Difference rule: lim  f  x   g  x   lim f x   lim g  x 

x c x c xc

 Product rule: lim  f x   g  x   lim f  x   lim g x 

xc xc x c

f  x  lim f x 
 Quotient rule: lim  x c if lim g  x   0
x c g  x  lim g  x  xc
x c

n
lim  f  x    lim f  x 
n
 Power rule:
x c  x c 
f  x   lim f  x  if when n is even, lim f x   0
n n
 Root rule: lim
x c x c xc

(a) If f is the identity function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥, then for any value of c,

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim 𝑥 = 𝑐.
→ →
(b) If f is the constant function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑘 (function with the constant value k), then for
any value of c,
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim 𝑘 = 𝑘.
→ →
e

Example 2.2.1
Evaluate the following limits:
(a) lim 5 x  2  (b) lim x 2
x 5
x 5

(c) lim x3 
(d) lim 2 x3  3x 2  x  4
x 5

x 5

Example 2.2.2
Evaluate the following limits:

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SEM102 Chapter 2: Limits

Example 2.2.3
Given f  x   x 2 , g  x   2 x  2 , fill in the blanks below:
x Expression 3.1 3.01 3.001 3.0001
f x  x2
g x 2x  2
 3 f x 
f  x   g x 
f  x   g x 
f x   g x 
f x 
g x 
g 3 x 

g x 
3

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SEM102 Chapter 2: Limits

Example 2.2.4
Hence, find the limit
(a) lim f  x  (b) lim g  x  (c) lim  3 f  x  (d) lim  f  x   g  x 
x 3 x 3 x3 x 3

f x 
(e) lim  f x   g  x  (f) lim  f x   g  x  (g) lim (h) lim g 3  x 
x 3 x 3 x 3 g x  x3

(i) lim g  x  .
3

x 3

Example 2.2.5
Evaluate

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 SEM102 Chapter 2: Limits

Example 2.2.6
Evaluate the limit of

4x2  2x  1 x2  9 x2  4 x 2  3x  10
(a) lim (b) lim (c) lim (d) lim
x4 3x 2  5 x  2 x 4 x x  2 x  2 x2 x2  x  6

x 1 x4  x2  3
(e) lim (f) lim (g) lim 4 x 2  3
x 1 x 1 x2 x 2 5 x 2

2.3 The Squeeze Theorem

It is also known as The Sandwich Theorem or The Pinching Theorem

Suppose that 𝑔(𝑥) ≤ 𝑓(𝑥) ≤ ℎ(𝑥) for all x in some open interval containing c, except
possibly at c itself. Suppose also that
lim 𝑔(𝑥) = lim ℎ(𝑥) = 𝐿.
→ →
Then lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿.
→

Figure 2.2

Example 2.3.1
Given that 1 − ≤ 𝑢(𝑥) ≤ 1 + for all 𝑥 ≠ 0, find lim 𝑢(𝑥), no matter how complicated u is.
→

Example 2.3.2
If √5 − 2𝑥 ≤ 𝑓(𝑥) ≤ √5 − 𝑥 for −1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1, find lim 𝑓(𝑥).
→
Example
lim 3x = 3 lim x3+ 2 = 3 Since, lim 3x = lim x3+ 2 = 3
x->1 x->1 x->1 x->1
Hence, lim f(x) = 3
x->1

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SEM102 Chapter 2: Limits

2.4 One-Sided Limits

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SEM102 Chapter 2: Limits

A function 𝑓(𝑥) has a limit x approaches c if and only if it has left-hand and right-hand limis
there and these one-sided limits are equal:
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 ⟺ lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 and lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿.
→ → →

Example 2.4.1
Find the limits for the following,
(a) lim (b) lim
→ . →

Example 2.4.2

Example 2.4.3
 x  2, if x  1

Sketch the graph of the function f  x    x 2  1, if  1  x  2 . Hence find the following
9  2 x if x2

function values or limits.
(a) 𝑓(−1) (b) f 2 (c) lim f x  (d) lim f x 
x  1 x  1

(e) lim f  x  (f) lim f x  (g) lim f  x  (h) lim f  x 

x  1 x 2  x 2  x2

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SEM102 Chapter 2: Limits

2.5 Continuity

Let c be a real number on the x-axis.

The function f is continuous at c if
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑐).
→
The function f is right-continuous at c (or continuous from the right) if
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑐).
→
The function f is left-continuous at c (or continuous from the left) if
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑐).
→

Continuity Test
A function 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous at a point 𝑥 = 𝑐 if and only if it meets the following three
conditions.
1. 𝑓(𝑐) exists (c lies in the domain of f).
2. lim 𝑓(𝑥) exists (f has a limit as 𝑥 → 𝑐).
→
3. lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑐) (the limit equals the function value).
→

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SEM102 Chapter 2: Limits

(a) (b)

Example 2.5.1
Find the values of x for which each function is continuous.

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SEM102 Chapter 2: Limits

Example 2.5.2
,𝑥 ≠ 2
Is the function 𝑓(𝑥) = continuous at x  2 ?
4 ,𝑥 = 2

Example 2.5.3
 x  3, if x  1
Is the function f  x    2 continuous at x  1 ?
2 x  1, if x  1

Example 2.5.4
 x2  9
 if x  3 is continuous at x  3 , what is the value
Given that the function f  x    x  3 ,
 c, if x  3
of c ?

Properties of Continuous Functions

If the functions 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) are continuous at x  c , then the following algebraic
combination are continuous at x  c .
 Constant multiples: kf  x  , for any number k
 Sums/Differences: f x  g x
 Products: f x   g x 
f x 
 Quotients: , provided g c   0
g x 
 Powers:  f x n , n is a positive integer
f  x  , provided it is defined on an open interval containing c,
n
 Roots:
where n is a positive integer

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SEM102 Chapter 2: Limits

1. A function 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous on an interval if it is continuous at every number in

the interval.
2. Any polynomial is continuous everywhere; that is, it is continuous on ℝ = (−∞, ∞).
3. Any rational function is continuous wherever it is defined; that is, it is continuous on
its domain.

Example 2.5.5
Find the values of x for which each function is continuous.

2.5.1 Intermediate Value Theorem for Continuous Functions

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SEM102 Chapter 2: Limits

Example 2.5.6

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SEM102 Chapter 2: Limits

Example 2.5.7
Show that there is a root for the following.
(a) 𝑥 − 𝑥 − 1 = 0 between 1 and 2.
(b) x3  3x  1  0 has a root in the interval  1, 0 .

(c) 𝑥 = cos 𝑥 has a root between x  0 and x  .
2

Example 2.5.8
Show that there is a root of the equation 4𝑥 − 6𝑥 + 3𝑥 − 2 = 0 between 1 and 2.

2.6 Limits Involving Trigonometric Functions

Figure 2.6

 y  sin x and y  cos x are continuous on R .

sin x 
 y  tan x  is discontinuous only at the points where cos x  0 , namely, x   ,
cos x 2
3
Limits
 lim sin 𝑥 = sin 𝑐  lim cos 𝑥 = cos 𝑐
→ →
 lim =1  lim =0
→ →

(a) lim sin 𝑥 = 0.

→
(b) lim cos 𝑥 = 1
→

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SEM102 Chapter 2: Limits

Example 2.6.1
Evaluate the following limits:
lim sin x lim cos x lim sin 2 x
(a) x0
(b) x0
(c) x
6

  1  cos t
(d) lim cos 3x   (e) lim t cos t (f) lim
x

 4 t 0 t 0 t
3

sin x 2 sin t t
(g) lim (h) lim (i) lim
x 0 2x t 0 t t 0 sin t

2.7 Limits Involving Infinity

A line 𝑦 = 𝑏 is a horizontal asymptote of the graph of a function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) if either

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑏 or lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑏
→ →

A line 𝑥 = 𝑎 is a vertical asymptote of the graph of a function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) if either

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = ±∞ or lim 𝑓(𝑥) = ±∞
→ →

Example 2.7.1
x
Study the values of the function f  x   when x is large.
x 12

x 1 10 100 1000 10000

x
f x  
x 1
2

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SEM102 Chapter 2: Limits

Example 2.7.2
2x  1
Study the values of the function f  x   when x becomes very negative.
3x  2
x 1  10  100  1000  10000
2x  1
f x  
3x  2

Example 2.7.3

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SEM102 Chapter 2: Limits

Example 2.7.4

Example 2.7.5

Example 2.7.6

 To say that lim f  x   L means that when x is arbitrarily large then f  x  is arbitrarily
x

near L .
 To say that lim f  x   L means that when x is arbitrarily negatively large then f  x  is
x  

arbitrarily near L .

Example 2.7.7
Evaluate the following limits:
2x  3 3x 2  2 x  4
(a) lim (b) lim
x 4x  2 x   1  3x  5 x 2

(c) lim
2 x  13x  2 x 1
(d) lim
x  4x  9
2
x  x2

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SEM102 Chapter 2: Limits

Example 2.7.8
x2  1
Study the values of the function f  x   when x is close to 0.
x2
x 1 0.1 0.01 0.001 0.0001
x2  1
f x  
x2

x 1  0 .1  0.01  0.001  0.0001

x2  1
f x  
x2

 To say that lim f  x    means that when x is arbitrarily near c from the left but
xc 

different from c , then f  x  is arbitrarily large.

 To say that lim f x    means that when x is arbitrarily near c from the right but
xc 

different from c , then f  x  is arbitrarily large.

 To say that lim f  x    means that when x is arbitrarily near c from the left but
xc 

different from c , then f  x  is arbitrarily negatively large.

 To say that lim f  x    means that when x is arbitrarily near c from the right but
xc

different from c , then f  x  is arbitrarily negatively large.

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SEM102 Chapter 2: Limits

Example 2.7.9
Evaluate the following limits:
2x 2  3 2x2  3 3 3
(a) lim (b) lim (c) lim (d) lim
x  4 x  2 x   4 x  2 x 1 
x 1 x 1 x 1
3x 3x x3 x3
(e) lim (f) lim (g) lim (h) lim
x  2
x  22 x  2
x  22 x2 
2 x  3x  2
2 x2 
2 x  3x  2
2

for (a) and (b) for (c) and (d)

for (e) and (f)

for (g) and (h)

2.8 Limits Involving Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

a 1 0  a 1

y y

Graph
1 1
x x
0 0

 Exponential functions y  a x are continuous on R .

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SEM102 Chapter 2: Limits

a 1 0  a 1

y y

graphs
0 x 0 x
1 1

 Logarithmic functions y  log a x are continuous on R  .

 log e x  ln x

Example 2.8.1
Evaluate the following limits:
5 1 3x  1 2x  1
(a) lim (b) lim (c) lim (d) lim x
x3 3 2
x x  3x x 3x  2 x 3  2

Example 2.8.2
n
 1
(a) Study the limit of the sequence  an  , where an  1   when n is large.
 n
n 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000
n
 1
an   1  
 n
n
 1
(b) Study the limit of the sequence  an  , where an  1   when n is negatively large.
 n
n −1 −10 −100 −1000 −10000 −100000
n
 1
an   1  
 n
n
 1
(c) Study the limit of the sequence  an  , where an  1   when n is large.
 n
n 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000
n
 1
a n  1  
 n

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SEM102 Chapter 2: Limits

n
 1
(d) Study the limit of the sequence  an  , where an  1   when n is negatively large.
 n
n −1 −10 −100 −1000 −10000 −100000
n
 1
a n  1  
 n

 The number e is defined as

1 1
lim 1 + = lim 1 + =𝑒
→ 𝑥 → 𝑥
 e  2.7183 correct to 4 decimal places
 The number is defined as
1 1 1
lim 1 − = lim 1− =
→ 𝑥 → 𝑥 𝑒

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SEM102 Chapter 2: Limits

Example 2.8.3
Evaluate the following limits:
(a) lim ln 1  x  (b) lim ln 1  x 
x0 x

ln1  x   ex  1
(c) lim (d) lim ln x 
x 0 x x 
 e 1
2x
 1
(e) lim 1   (f) lim 2 1 −
x
 x →

Example 2.8.4
Evaluate the following limits:
1 n
(a) lim 1  n n  2
(b) lim 1  
n0
n
 n
n n
 1   n 
(c) lim 1   (d) lim  
n
 n 1 n n  1
 

Exercises

Exercise 2.4 4 – 8; 13; 15 – 16; 20 – 22; 31 – 40; 55 – 58; 63 – 66; 73 – 80; 83 – 84

Exercise 2.5 5 – 8; 11 – 14; 17 – 30; 28 – 34; 40 – 42; 52 – 54

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