The Limit Laws: (A) If Ƒ Is The Identity Function

7001_AWLThomas_ch02p058-121.
qxd 10/1/09 2:33 PM Page 68
The Limit Laws
y (a) If ƒ is the identity function ƒsxd = x, then for any value of x0 (Figure 1.a),
yx
lim ƒsxd = lim x = x0 .
x:x0 x:x0
x0
(b) If ƒ is the constant function ƒsxd = k (function with the constant value k),
then for any x0 value of (Figure 1.b),
x
x0
lim ƒsxd = lim k = k.
x:x0 x:x0
(a) Identity function
y
k yk
THEOREM 1—Limit Laws If L, M, c, and k are real numbers and
x
lim ƒsxd = L and lim gsxd = M, then
x0 x:c x :c
0
1. Sum Rule: lim sƒsxd + gsxdd = L + M
x :c
(b) Constant function
2. Difference Rule: lim sƒsxd - gsxdd = L - M
x :c
FIGURE 1 The functions in Example 3
3. Constant Multiple Rule: lim sk # ƒsxdd = k # L
have limits at all points x0. x :c
4. Product Rule: lim sƒsxd # gsxdd = L # M
x :c
ƒsxd L
5. Quotient Rule: lim = , M Z 0
x :c gsxd M
6. Power Rule: lim [ƒ(x)]n = L n, n a positive integer
x :c
n n
7. Root Rule: lim 2ƒ(x) = 2L = L 1>n, n a positive integer
x :c
(If n is even, we assume that lim ƒ(x) = L 7 0.)

x:c
7001_AWLThomas_ch02p058-121.qxd 10/1/09 2:33 PM Page 69
EXAMPLE 1 Use the observations limx:c k = k and limx:c x = c and

the properties of limits to find the following limits.
x4 + x2 - 1
(a) lim sx 3 + 4x 2 - 3d (b) lim (c) lim 24x 2 - 3
x :c x :c x2 + 5 x: -2
Solution
(a) lim sx 3 + 4x 2 - 3d = lim x 3 + lim 4x 2 - lim 3 Sum and Difference Rules

x :c x: c x:c x:c
= c 3 + 4c 2 - 3 Power and Multiple Rules
lim sx 4 + x 2 - 1d
x4 + x2 - 1 x:c
(b) lim = Quotient Rule
x :c x2 + 5 lim sx 2 + 5d
x:c
lim x 4 + lim x 2 - lim 1

x:c x :c x :c
= Sum and Difference Rules
lim x 2 + lim 5
x :c x:c
4 2
c + c - 1 Power or Product Rule
=
c2 + 5
(c) lim 24x 2 - 3 = 2 lim s4x 2 - 3d Root Rule with n = 2
x : -2 x : -2
= 2 lim 4x 2 - lim 3 Difference Rule

x : -2 x: -2
= 24s - 2d2 - 3 Product and Multiple Rules
= 216 - 3
= 213
THEOREM 2—Limits of Polynomials

If Psxd = an x n + an - 1 x n - 1 + Á + a0 , then
lim Psxd = Pscd = an c n + an - 1 c n - 1 + Á + a0 .

x:c
THEOREM 3—Limits of Rational Functions

If P(x) and Q(x) are polynomials and Qscd Z 0, then
Psxd Pscd
lim = .
x: c Qsxd Qscd
EXAMPLE 2 The following calculation illustrates Theorems 2 and 3:
x 3 + 4x 2 - 3 s - 1d3 + 4s -1d2 - 3 0
lim = = = 0
x: -1 2
x + 5 2
s -1d + 5 6
Eliminating Zero Denominators Algebraically

y Theorem 3 applies only if the denominator of the rational function is not zero at the limit
x2 x2 point c. If the denominator is zero, canceling common factors in the numerator and
y
x2 x denominator may reduce the fraction to one whose denominator is no longer zero at c. If
3
(1, 3) this happens, we can find the limit by substitution in the simplified fraction.
EXAMPLE 3 Evaluate
x
–2 0 1
x2 + x - 2
lim .
(a)
x:1 x2 - x
y Solution We cannot substitute x = 1 because it makes the denominator zero. We test the
yx2 numerator to see if it, too, is zero at x = 1. It is, so it has a factor of sx - 1d in common
x with the denominator. Canceling the sx - 1d’s gives a simpler fraction with the same val-
3 (1, 3) ues as the original for x Z 1:
x2 + x - 2 sx - 1dsx + 2d x + 2
2
= = x , if x Z 1.
x x - x xsx - 1d
–2 0 1
Using the simpler fraction, we find the limit of these values as x : 1 by substitution:
(b)
x2 + x - 2 x + 2 1 + 2
FIGURE 2. The graph of lim = lim x = = 3.
x :1 x2 - x x:1 1
ƒsxd = sx 2 + x - 2d>sx 2 - xd in
part (a) is the same as the graph of
See Figure 2.
g sxd = sx + 2d>x in part (b) except at
x = 1, where ƒ is undefined. The functions
have the same limit as x : 1 (Example 3).
EXAMPLE 4 Evaluate
2x 2 + 100 - 10
lim .
x:0 x2
Solution This is the limit we considered in Example 3. We can create a common factor
by multiplying both numerator and denominator by the conjugate radical expression
2x 2 + 100 + 10 (obtained by changing the sign after the square root). The preliminary
algebra rationalizes the numerator:
2x 2 + 100 - 10 2x 2 + 100 - 10 # 2x 2 + 100 + 10

=
x2 x2 2x 2 + 100 + 10
x 2 + 100 - 100
x 2 A 2x 2 + 100 + 10 B
=
x2
x 2 A 2x 2 + 100 + 10 B
= Common factor x2
1
= . Cancel x2 for x Z 0
2x + 100 + 10
2
Therefore,
2x 2 + 100 - 10 1
lim = lim
x:0 x2 x :0 2x 2 + 100 + 10
1 Denominator not 0 at
= x = 0; substitute
20 + 100 + 10
2
1
= = 0.05.
20
y 2
y1 x THEOREM 4—The Sandwich Theorem Suppose that gsxd … ƒsxd … hsxd for
2
all x in some open interval containing c, except possibly at x = c itself. Suppose
2 also that
y u(x)
lim gsxd = lim hsxd = L.
1 x :c x :c
2
y1 x Then limx:c ƒsxd = L .
4
x
–1 0 1 .
FIGURE 3 Any function u(x) whose EXAMPLE 5 Given that

graph lies in the region between
y = 1 + sx 2>2d and y = 1 - sx 2>4d has x2 x2
limit 1 as x : 0 (Example 5). 1 - … usxd … 1 + for all x Z 0,
4 2
find limx:0 usxd , no matter how complicated u is.
Solution Since
y lim s1 - sx 2>4dd = 1 and lim s1 + sx 2>2dd = 1,

x :0 x :0
y ⎢ ⎢
y sin the Sandwich Theorem implies that limx:0 usxd = 1 (Figure 3).
1

EXAMPLE 6 The Sandwich Theorem helps us establish several important limit rules:
–
(a) lim sin u = 0 (b) lim cos u = 1
–1 y – ⎢ ⎢ u:0 u:0
(c) For any function ƒ, lim ƒ ƒ(x) ƒ = 0 implies lim ƒ(x) = 0.

x: c x:c
(a)
Solution
y (a) In Section 1.3 we established that - ƒ u ƒ … sin u … ƒ u ƒ for all u (see Figure 4.a).
y ⎢ ⎢ Since limu:0 s - ƒ u ƒ d = limu:0 ƒ u ƒ = 0, we have
2
1 lim sin u = 0 .
y 1 cos u:0

–2 –1 0 1 2 (b) From Section 1.3, 0 … 1 - cos u … ƒ u ƒ for all u (see Figure 4.b), and we have
(b) limu:0 s1 - cos ud = 0 or
FIGURE 4 The Sandwich Theorem lim cos u = 1 .

u:0
confirms the limits in Example 6.
(c) Since - ƒ ƒsxd ƒ … ƒsxd … ƒ ƒsxd ƒ and - ƒ ƒsxd ƒ and ƒ ƒsxd ƒ have limit 0 as x : c, it
follows that lim x:c ƒ(x) = 0 .
THEOREM 5 If ƒsxd … gsxd for all x in some open interval containing c, except
possibly at x = c itself, and the limits of ƒ and g both exist as x approaches c,
then
lim ƒsxd … lim gsxd .

x:c x :c
The assertion resulting from replacing the less than or equal to (…) inequality by the
strict less than (6) inequality in Theorem 5 is false. Figure 2.14a shows that for u Z 0,
- ƒ u ƒ 6 sin u 6 ƒ u ƒ , but in the limit as u : 0, equality holds.
Exercises
Using Limit Rules

51. Suppose limx:0 ƒsxd = 1 and limx:0 g sxd = - 5 . Name the
rules in Theorem 1 that are used to accomplish steps (a), (b), and
(c) of the following calculation.
2ƒsxd - g sxd lim s2ƒsxd - g sxdd

x :0
lim = (a)
x :0 sƒsxd + 7d2>3 lim sƒsxd + 7d2>3
x:0
Calculating Limits lim 2ƒsxd - lim g sxd

x :0 x :0
A lim A ƒsxd + 7 B B 2>3

Find the limits in Exercises 11–22. = (b)
2
11. lim s2x + 5d 12. lim s - x + 5x - 2d x :0
x: -7 x: 2
2 lim ƒsxd - lim g sxd
13. lim 8st - 5dst - 7d 14. lim sx 3 - 2x 2 + 4x + 8d x :0 x: 0
A lim ƒ(x) + lim 7 B 2>3

t: 6 x: -2
= (c)
x + 3 x:0 x :0
15. lim 16. lim 3ss2s - 1d
x: 2 x + 6 s :2>3 s2ds1d - s - 5d 7
= =
y + 2 s1 + 7d2>3 4
17. lim 3s2x - 1d2 18. lim
x: -1 y: 2 y 2 + 5y + 6
19. lim s5 - yd 4>3
20. lim s2z - 8d1>3 52. Let limx:1 hsxd = 5, limx:1 psxd = 1 , and limx:1 r sxd = 2 .
y: -3 z :0 Name the rules in Theorem 1 that are used to accomplish steps
3 25h + 4 - 2 (a), (b), and (c) of the following calculation.
21. lim 22. lim
h:0 23h + 1 + 1 h :0 h
lim 25hsxd
25hsxd x:1
Limits of quotients Find the limits in Exercises 23–42. lim = (a)
x :1 psxds4 - rsxdd lim spsxds4 - rsxddd
x: 1
x - 5 x + 3
23. lim 24. lim
x: 5 x 2 - 25 x: -3 x 2 + 4x + 3 lim 5hsxd
4x: 1
A lim p(x) B A lim A 4 - r(x) B B

x 2 + 3x - 10 x 2 - 7x + 10 = (b)
25. lim 26. lim
x: -5 x + 5 x: 2 x - 2 x:1 x:1
2 2
t + t - 2 t + 3t + 2
27. lim
t2 - 1
28. lim
t2 - t - 2 45xlim
:1
hsxd
A lim p(x) B A lim 4 - lim r (x) B

t: 1 t: -1 = (c)
- 2x - 4 5y 3 + 8y 2 x:1 x:1 x: 1
29. lim 3 30. lim
x: -2 x + 2x 2 y: 0 3y 4 - 16y 2
1 1 1 2s5ds5d 5
x - 1 x - 1 + x + 1 = =
31. lim 32. lim s1ds4 - 2d 2
x: 1 x - 1 x: 0 x
u - 1 4
y3 - 8 53. Suppose limx:c ƒsxd = 5 and limx:c g sxd = - 2 . Find
33. lim 3 34. lim 4
u:1 u - 1 y : 2 y - 16 a. lim ƒsxdg sxd b. lim 2ƒsxdg sxd
x :c x :c
2x - 3 4x - x 2
35. lim 36. lim ƒsxd
x: 9 x - 9 x: 4 2 - 2x c. lim sƒsxd + 3g sxdd d. lim
x :c x: c ƒsxd - g sxd
x - 1 2x 2 + 8 - 3
37. lim 38. lim 54. Suppose limx:4 ƒsxd = 0 and limx:4 g sxd = - 3 . Find
x: 1 2x + 3 - 2 x: -1 x + 1
a. lim sg sxd + 3d b. lim xƒsxd
2x 2 + 12 - 4 x + 2 x :4 x :4
39. lim 40. lim g sxd
x: 2 x - 2 x: -2 2x + 5 - 3
2
c. lim sg sxdd 2
d. lim
x :4 x: 4 ƒsxd - 1
2 - 2x - 5 2
4 - x
41. lim 42. lim
x: -3 x + 3 x: 4 5 - 2x 2 + 9 55. Suppose limx:b ƒsxd = 7 and limx:b g sxd = - 3 . Find
a. lim sƒsxd + g sxdd b. lim ƒsxd # g sxd
Limits with trigonometric functions Find the limits in Exercises x :b x :b
43–50. c. lim 4g sxd d. lim ƒsxd>g sxd
x :b x: b
43. lim (2 sin x - 1) 44. lim sin2 x 56. Suppose that limx:-2 psxd = 4, limx: -2 r sxd = 0 , and
x: 0 x: 0
limx:-2 ssxd = - 3 . Find
45. lim sec x 46. lim tan x
x: 0 x: 0 a. lim spsxd + r sxd + ssxdd
1 + x + sin x x : -2
47. lim 48. lim (x 2 - 1)(2 - cos x) b. lim psxd # r sxd # ssxd
x: 0 3 cos x x: 0
x : -2
49. lim 2x + 4 cos (x + p) 50. lim 27 + sec x 2
c. lim s - 4psxd + 5r sxdd>ssxd
x: -p x: 0 x : -2
,
Using the Sandwich Theorem
63. If 25 - 2x … ƒsxd … 25 - x
2 2
for -1 … x … 1, find
limx:0 ƒsxd .
64. If 2 - x 2 … g sxd … 2 cos x for all x, find limx:0 g sxd .
65. a. It can be shown that the inequalities
x2 x sin x
1 - 6 6 1
6 2 - 2 cos x
hold for all values of x close to zero. What, if anything, does
this tell you about
x sin x
lim ?
x:0 2 - 2 cos x
Give reasons for your answer.
T b. Graph y = 1 - sx 2>6d, y = sx sin xd>s2 - 2 cos xd, and
y = 1 together for -2 … x … 2 . Comment on the behavior
of the graphs as x : 0 .
66. a. Suppose that the inequalities
1 x2 1 - cos x 1
- 6 6
2 24 x2 2
hold for values of x close to zero. (They do, as you will see in
Section 10.9.) What, if anything, does this tell you about
1 - cos x
lim ?
x: 0 x2
Give reasons for your answer.
T b. Graph the equations y = s1>2d - sx 2>24d,
y = s1 - cos xd>x 2 , and y = 1>2 together for -2 … x … 2 .
Comment on the behavior of the graphs as x : 0 .
,
One-Sided Limits
One-Sided Limits
To have a limit L as x approaches c, a function ƒ must be defined on both sides of c and its
values ƒ(x) must approach L as x approaches c from either side. Because of this, ordinary
limits are called two-sided.
, c 6 b and approaches arbi-

if ƒ(x) is defined on an interval (c, b), where
trarily close to L as x approaches c from within that interval, then ƒ has right-hand limit L
y at c. We write
lim ƒsxd = L.
y x x:c +

x
The symbol “x : c+ ”
means that we consider only values of x greater than c.
1
Similarly, if ƒ(x) is defined on an interval (a, c), where a 6 c and approaches arbi-
trarily close to M as x approaches c from within that interval, then ƒ has left-hand limit M
x
at c. We write
0
lim ƒsxd = M .
x:c -
–1 The symbol “x : c - ” means that we consider only x values less than c.
These informal definitions of one-sided limits are illustrated in Figure 2. For the
function ƒsxd = x> ƒ x ƒ in Figure 1 we have
lim ƒsxd = 1 and lim ƒsxd = - 1.
x: 0 + x :0 -
FIGURE 1 Different right-hand and
left-hand limits at the origin. y y
f (x) M
L f (x)
x x
0 c x 0 x c
(a) lim+ f(x) L (b) lim _ f (x) M
x: c x: c
FIGURE 2 (a) Right-hand limit as x approaches c. (b) Left-hand limit as x

approaches c.
y
EXAMPLE 1 The domain of ƒsxd = 24 - x 2 is [-2, 2]; its graph is the semicircle in
Figure 3. We have
y 4 x 2
lim 24 - x 2 = 0 and lim 24 - x 2 = 0.
x: -2 + x :2 -
The function does not have a left-hand limit at x = - 2 or a right-hand limit at x = 2. It

does not have ordinary two-sided limits at either -2 or 2.
x
–2 0 2
FIGURE 3 lim 24 - x 2 = 0 and

x:2 -
lim 24 - x 2 = 0 (Example 1).
x: - 2 +
THEOREM 6 A function ƒ(x) has a limit as x approaches c if and only if it has

left-hand and right-hand limits there and these one-sided limits are equal:
lim ƒsxd = L 3 lim ƒsxd = L and lim ƒsxd = L.

x :c x :c - x: c +
y EXAMPLE 2 For the function graphed in Figure 4,
y f (x) At x = 0: limx:0+ ƒsxd = 1,

2 limx:0- ƒsxd and limx:0 ƒsxd do not exist. The function is not de-
1
fined to the left of x = 0.
At x = 1: limx:1- ƒsxd = 0 even though ƒs1d = 1,
x limx:1+ ƒsxd = 1,
0 1 2 3 4
limx:1 ƒsxd does not exist. The right- and left-hand limits are not
FIGURE 4 Graph of the function in equal.
Example 2. At x = 2: limx:2- ƒsxd = 1,
limx:2+ ƒsxd = 1,
limx:2 ƒsxd = 1 even though ƒs2d = 2.
At x = 3: limx:3- ƒsxd = limx:3+ ƒsxd = limx:3 ƒsxd = ƒs3d = 2.
At x = 4: limx:4- ƒsxd = 1 even though ƒs4d Z 1,
limx:4+ ƒsxd and limx:4 ƒsxd do not exist. The function is not de-
fined to the right of x = 4.
At every other point c in [0, 4], ƒ(x) has limit ƒ(c).
THEOREM 7
sin u
lim = 1 su in radiansd (1)
u :0 u
EXAMPLE 3 Show that sin 2x = 2 .

lim 5x 5
x:0
Solution
Equation (1) does not apply to the original fraction. We need a 2x in the denominator,
not a 5x. We produce it by multiplying numerator and denominator by 2>5:
sin 2x s2>5d # sin 2x

lim = lim
x:0 5x x :0 s2>5d # 5x
2 sin 2x Now, Eq. (1) applies with

= lim u = 2x.
5 x:0 2x
2 2
= s1d =
5 5
tan t sec 2t
EXAMPLE 4 Find lim .
t:0 3t
Solution From the definition of tan t and sec 2t, we have
tan t sec 2t 1 sin t 1 1

lim = lim t # cos t #
t :0 3t 3 t: 0 cos 2t
1 1 Eq. (1)
= (1)(1)(1) = .
3 3
Exercises
3 - x, x 6 2 6. Let g sxd = 2x sins1>xd .

3. Let ƒsxd = • x
+ 1, x 7 2 .
2 y
1 y x
y
y3x
y x sin 1x
3
y x1
2 1
2 x
x 0 1 2 1
0 2 4
a. Find limx:2+ ƒsxd and limx:2- ƒsxd .

b. Does limx:2 ƒsxd exist? If so, what is it? If not, why not?
c. Find limx:4- ƒsxd and limx:4+ ƒsxd . –1 y –x
d. Does limx:4 ƒsxd exist? If so, what is it? If not, why not?
a. Does limx:0+ g sxd exist? If so, what is it? If not, why not?
3 - x, x 6 2
2, x = 2 b. Does limx:0- g sxd exist? If so, what is it? If not, why not?
4. Let ƒsxd = d
x c. Does limx:0 g sxd exist? If so, what is it? If not, why not?
, x 7 2.
x 3,
7. a. Graph ƒsxd = e
2 x Z 1
0, x = 1.
y b. Find limx:1- ƒsxd and limx:1+ ƒsxd .
c. Does limx:1 ƒsxd exist? If so, what is it? If not, why not?
y3x
1 - x 2,
8. a. Graph ƒsxd = e
x Z 1
3
2, x = 1.
y x b. Find limx:1+ ƒsxd and limx:1- ƒsxd .
2
x c. Does limx:1 ƒsxd exist? If so, what is it? If not, why not?
–2 0 2
Graph the functions in Exercises 9 and 10. Then answer these questions.
a. Find limx:2+ ƒsxd, limx:2- ƒsxd , and ƒ(2).
a. What are the domain and range of ƒ?
b. Does limx:2 ƒsxd exist? If so, what is it? If not, why not?
b. At what points c, if any, does limx:c ƒsxd exist?
c. Find limx:-1- ƒsxd and limx:-1+ ƒsxd .
c. At what points does only the left-hand limit exist?
d. Does limx:-1 ƒsxd exist? If so, what is it? If not, why not?
d. At what points does only the right-hand limit exist?
0, x … 0 21 - x 2,
5. Let ƒsxd = •
0 … x 6 1
1
sin x , x 7 0. 9. ƒsxd = • 1, 1 … x 6 2
2, x = 2
y x, -1 … x 6 0, or 0 6 x … 1
10. ƒsxd = • 1, x = 0
1
0, x 6 - 1 or x 7 1
Finding One-Sided Limits Algebraically

Find the limits in Exercises 11–18.
x
0
⎧ x + 2 x - 1
⎪0, x0 11. lim 12. lim+
y⎨ 1 x : -0.5 - A x + 1 x :1 Ax + 2
⎪ sin x , x 0
⎩
lim a ba 2 b
x 2x + 5
–1 13.
x : -2 + x + 1 x + x
14. lim- a ba x ba b
1 x + 6 3 - x
a. Does limx:0+ ƒsxd exist? If so, what is it? If not, why not? x :1 x + 1 7
b. Does limx:0- ƒsxd exist? If so, what is it? If not, why not? 2h 2 + 4h + 5 - 25
15. lim+
c. Does limx:0 ƒsxd exist? If so, what is it? If not, why not? h :0 h
26 - 25h 2 + 11h + 6 tan u u cot 4u

16. lim- 41. lim 42. lim
h:0 h u: 0 u2 cot 3u u: 0 sin2 u cot2 2u
ƒ x + 2ƒ ƒx + 2ƒ
17. a. lim sx + 3d b. lim sx + 3d
x: -2 + x + 2 x: -2 - x + 2
22x sx - 1d 22x sx - 1d Formal Definitions of One-Sided Limits
18. a. lim+ b. lim-
x: 1 ƒx - 1ƒ x: 1 ƒx - 1ƒ 47. Given P 7 0 , find an interval I = s5, 5 + dd, d 7 0 , such that if
x lies in I, then 2x - 5 6 P . What limit is being verified and
Use the graph of the greatest integer function y = : x;, Figure 1.10 in what is its value?
Section 1.1, to help you find the limits in Exercises 19 and 20.
48. Given P 7 0 , find an interval I = s4 - d, 4d, d 7 0 , such that if
:u; :u; x lies in I, then 24 - x 6 P . What limit is being verified and
19. a. lim+ b. lim-
u: 3 u u: 3 u what is its value?
20. a. lim+st - : t ; d b. lim-st - : t ; d
t: 4 t: 4 Use the definitions of right-hand and left-hand limits to prove the
limit statements in Exercises 49 and 50.
sin U x x - 2
Using lim 1 49. lim- = -1 50. lim+ = 1
U :0 U x:0 ƒ x ƒ x:2 ƒ x - 2 ƒ
51. Greatest integer function Find (a) limx:400+ :x ; and

Find the limits in Exercises 21–42.
21. lim
sin 22u
22. lim t
sin kt
sk constantd (b) limx:400- :x ; ; then use limit definitions to verify your find-
u :0 22u t: 0 ings. (c) Based on your conclusions in parts (a) and (b), can you
sin 3y h say anything about limx:400 :x; ? Give reasons for your answer.
23. lim 24. lim-
y: 0 4y sin 3h x 2 sin s1>xd, x 6 0
52. One-sided limits Let ƒsxd = e
h :0
25. lim x
tan 2x
26. lim
2t 2x, x 7 0.
x: 0 t: 0 tan t
Find (a) limx:0+ ƒsxd and (b) limx:0- ƒsxd ; then use limit
x csc 2x 2 definitions to verify your findings. (c) Based on your
27. lim 28. lim 6x scot xdscsc 2xd
x: 0 cos 5x x: 0 conclusions in parts (a) and (b), can you say anything about
limx:0 ƒsxd ? Give
x + x cos x x 2 - x + sin x reasons for your answer.
29. lim 30. lim
x: 0 sin x cos x x: 0 2x
1 - cos u x - x cos x
31. lim 32. lim
u :0 sin 2u x: 0 sin2 3x
sin s1 - cos td sin ssin hd
33. lim 34. lim
t: 0 1 - cos t h :0 sin h
sin u sin 5x
35. lim 36. lim
u :0 sin 2u x: 0 sin 4x
37. lim u cos u 38. lim sin u cot 2u

u :0 u: 0
tan 3x sin 3y cot 5y
39. lim 40. lim
x: 0 sin 8x y: 0 y cot 4y
Continuity
EXAMPLE 1 Find the points at which the function ƒ in Figure 1 is continuous and
the points at which ƒ is not continuous.
Solution The function ƒ is continuous at every point in its domain [0, 4] except at
x = 1, x = 2, and x = 4. At these points, there are breaks in the graph. Note the relation-
ship between the limit of ƒ and the value of ƒ at each point of the function’s domain.
Points at which ƒ is continuous:
At x = 0, lim ƒsxd = ƒs0d.

x:0 +
At x = 3, lim ƒsxd = ƒs3d.
x:3
y
At 0 6 c 6 4, c Z 1, 2, lim ƒsxd = ƒscd .
x:c
2 y f (x) Points at which ƒ is not continuous:
1 At
x = 1, lim ƒsxd does not exist.
x:1
x At x = 2, lim ƒsxd = 1, but 1 Z ƒs2d.

0 1 2 3 4 x:2
At x = 4, lim ƒsxd = 1, but 1 Z ƒs4d.
FIGURE 1 The function is continuous on x:4 -
[0, 4] except at x = 1, x = 2 , and At c 6 0, c 7 4, these points are not in the domain of ƒ.
x = 4 (Example 1).
DEFINITION
Interior point: A function y = ƒsxd is continuous at an interior point c of its
domain if
lim ƒsxd = ƒscd.
x:c
Endpoint: A function y = ƒsxd is continuous at a left endpoint a or is

continuous at a right endpoint b of its domain if
lim ƒsxd = ƒsad or lim ƒsxd = ƒsbd, respectively.
x:a + x:b -
If a function ƒ is not continuous at a point c, we say that ƒ is discontinuous at c and

that c is a point of discontinuity of ƒ. Note that c need not be in the domain of ƒ.
A function ƒ is right-continuous (continuous from the right) at a point x = c in its
domain if limx:c+ ƒsxd = ƒscd . It is left-continuous (continuous from the left) at c if
limx:c- ƒsxd = ƒscd. Thus, a function is continuous at a left endpoint a of its domain if it
y is right-continuous at a and continuous at a right endpoint b of its domain if it is left-

y 4 x2
continuous at b. A function is continuous at an interior point c of its domain if and only if
2 it is both right-continuous and left-continuous at c (Figure 2).
x
EXAMPLE 2 The function ƒsxd = 24 - x 2 is continuous at every point of its do-
–2 0 2 main [ -2, 2] (Figure 3), including x = - 2, where ƒ is right-continuous, and
x = 2, where ƒ is left-continuous.
FIGURE 3 A function that is
continuous at every domain point
(Example 2). EXAMPLE 3 The unit step function U(x), graphed in Figure 4, is right-continuous at
x = 0, but is neither left-continuous nor continuous there. It has a jump discontinuity at
y x = 0.
y U(x) We summarize continuity at a point in the form of a test.

1
x Continuity Test
0
A function ƒ(x) is continuous at an interior point x = c of its domain if and only
FIGURE 4 A function that if it meets the following three conditions.
has a jump discontinuity at
the origin (Example 3).
1. ƒ(c) exists (c lies in the domain of ƒ).
2. limx:c ƒsxd exists (ƒ has a limit as x : c).
3. limx:c ƒsxd = ƒscd (the limit equals the function value).
y For one-sided continuity and continuity at an endpoint, the limits in parts 2 and 3 of
the test should be replaced by the appropriate one-sided limits.
4
3
EXAMPLE 4 The function y = :x; is graphed in Figure 5. It is discontinuous at every
y ⎣x⎦ integer because the left-hand and right-hand limits are not equal as :
2 x:n
1 lim :x; = n - 1 and lim :x; = n.
x :n - x: n +
Since :n; = n, the greatest integer function is right-continuous at every integer n (but not
x
–1 1 2 3 4
left-continuous).
The greatest integer function is continuous at every real number other than the
–2 integers. For example,
lim :x; = 1 = :1.5; .
FIGURE 5 The greatest integer x :1.5
function is continuous at every n - 1 6 c 6 n,
In general, if n an integer, then
noninteger point. It is right-continuous, lim :x; = n - 1 = :c ; .
but not left-continuous, at every integer x:c
point (Example 4).
Figure 6 displays several common types of discontinuities. The function in Figure
6.a is continuous at x = 0 . The function in Figure 6.b would be continuous if it had
ƒs0d = 1. The function in Figure 6.c would be continuous if ƒ(0) were 1 instead of 2.
The discontinuities in Figure 6.b and c are removable. Each function has a limit as
x : 0, and we can remove the discontinuity by setting ƒ(0) equal to this limit.
The discontinuities in Figure 6.d through f are more serious: limx:0 ƒsxd does not
exist, and there is no way to improve the situation by changing ƒ at 0. The step function in
Figure 6.d has a jump discontinuity: The one-sided limits exist but have different values.
The function ƒsxd = 1>x 2 in Figure 6.e has an infinite discontinuity. The function
in Figure 6.f has an oscillating discontinuity: It oscillates too much to have a limit as
x : 0.
y y y y
2
y f (x) y f (x) y f (x)
y f(x)
1 1 1 1
x x x x
0 0 0 0
(a) (b) (c) (d)

y y
y sin 1x
y f (x) 12 1
x
x
1 0
x
0
–1
(e) (f)
FIGURE 6 The function in (a) is continuous at x = 0 ; the functions in (b) through (f )

are not.
Continuous Functions
A function is continuous on an interval if and only if it is continuous at every point of the
interval. For example, the semicircle function graphed in Figure 3 is continuous on the
interval [ - 2, 2], which is its domain. A continuous function is one that is continuous at
every point of its domain. A continuous function need not be continuous on every interval.
y
EXAMPLE 5
(a) The function y = 1>x (Figure 7) is a continuous function because it is continuous at
y 1x
every point of its domain. It has a point of discontinuity at x = 0, however, because
it is not defined there; that is, it is discontinuous on any interval containing x = 0.
(b) The identity function ƒsxd = x and constant functions are continuous everywhere by
x Example 3 .
0
Algebraic combinations of continuous functions are continuous wherever they are
defined.
FIGURE 7 The function y = 1>x is THEOREM 8—Properties of Continuous Functions If the functions ƒ and
continuous at every value of x except g are continuous at x = c, then the following combinations are continuous at
x = 0 . It has a point of discontinuity at x = c.
x = 0 (Example 5).
1. Sums: ƒ + g
2. Differences: ƒ - g
3. Constant multiples: k # ƒ, for any number k
4. Products: ƒ#g
5. Quotients: ƒ>g, provided gscd Z 0
6. Powers: ƒ n, n a positive integer
n
7. Roots: 2ƒ, provided it is defined on an open interval
containing c, where n is a positive integer
Most of the results in Theorem 8 follow from the limit rules in Theorem 1,. For
instance, to prove the sum property we have
lim sƒ + gdsxd = lim sƒsxd + gsxdd
x:c x:c
= lim ƒsxd + lim gsxd, Sum Rule, Theorem 1
x:c x: c
= ƒscd + gscd Continuity of ƒ, g at c
= sƒ + gdscd.
This shows that ƒ + g is continuous.
EXAMPLE 6
(a) Every polynomial Psxd = an x n + an - 1x n - 1 + Á + a0 is continuous because
lim Psxd = Pscd by Theorem 2.
x:c
(b) If P(x) and Q(x) are polynomials, then the rational function Psxd>Qsxd is continuous
wherever it is defined sQscd Z 0d by Theorem 3.
EXAMPLE 7 The function ƒsxd = ƒ x ƒ is continuous at every value of x. If x 7 0, we

have ƒsxd = x, a polynomial. If x 6 0, we have ƒsxd = - x, another polynomial. Finally,
at the origin, limx:0 ƒ x ƒ = 0 = ƒ 0 ƒ .
Exercises 2.5
Continuity from Graphs 5. a. Does ƒs -1d exist?
In Exercises 1–4, say whether the function graphed is continuous on b. Does limx: -1+ ƒsxd exist?
[ - 1, 3] . If not, where does it fail to be continuous and why?
c. Does limx:-1+ ƒsxd = ƒs -1d ?
1. 2.
d. Is ƒ continuous at x = - 1 ?
y y
6. a. Does ƒ(1) exist?
y f (x) y g(x) b. Does limx:1 ƒsxd exist?
2 2
c. Does limx:1 ƒsxd = ƒs1d ?
1 1
d. Is ƒ continuous at x = 1 ?
7. a. Is ƒ defined at x = 2 ? (Look at the definition of ƒ.)
x x
–1 0 1 2 3 –1 0 1 2 3 b. Is ƒ continuous at x = 2 ?
3. 4. 8. At what values of x is ƒ continuous?
y y 9. What value should be assigned to ƒ(2) to make the extended func-
tion continuous at x = 2 ?
y h(x) y k(x) 10. To what new value should ƒ(1) be changed to remove the discon-
2 2 tinuity?
1 1
x x
Applying the Continuity Test
–1 0 1 2 3 –1 0 1 2 3 At which points do the functions in Exercises 11 and 12 fail to be con-
tinuous? At which points, if any, are the discontinuities removable?
Exercises 5–10 refer to the function Not removable? Give reasons for your answers.
11. Exercise 1, Section 2.4 12. Exercise 2, Section 2.4
x 2 - 1, -1 … x 6 0
2x, 0 6 x 6 1 At what points are the functions in Exercises 13–30 continuous?
ƒsxd = e 1, x = 1
1 1
-2x + 4, 1 6 x 6 2 13. y = - 3x 14. y = + 4
x - 2 sx + 2d2
0, 2 6 x 6 3
x + 1 x + 3
15. y = 16. y =
graphed in the accompanying figure. x 2 - 4x + 3 x 2 - 3x - 10
y 1 x2
17. y = ƒ x - 1 ƒ + sin x 18. y = -
ƒxƒ + 1 2
y f (x)
2 (1, 2) cos x x + 2
19. y = x 20. y = cos x
y 2x y –2x 4 px
21. y = csc 2x 22. y = tan
(1, 1)
2
x x tan x 2x 4 + 1
23. y = 24. y =
–1 0 1 2 3 x2 + 1 1 + sin2 x
y x2 1 –1 25. y = 22x + 3
4
26. y = 23x - 1
The graph for Exercises 5–10. 27. y = s2x - 1d1>3 28. y = s2 - xd1>5
2 Limits at Infinity of Rational Functions

y 5x 2 8x 3
y
3x 2 To determine the limit of a rational function as x : ; q , we first divide the numerator
2
and denominator by the highest power of x in the denominator. The result then depends on
Line y 5 the degrees of the polynomials involved.
1 3
EXAMPLE 1 These examples illustrate what happens when the degree of the numerator
x
–5 0 5 10 is less than or equal to the degree of the denominator.
–1 5x 2 + 8x - 3 5 + s8>xd - s3>x 2 d Divide numerator and
(a) lim = lim denominator by x2.
x: q 3x 2 + 2 x: q 3 + s2>x 2 d
–2 NOT TO SCALE
5 + 0 - 0 5 See Fig. 1.
= =
3 + 0 3
FIGURE 2 The graph of the function in
Example 3a. The graph approaches the 11x + 2 s11>x 2 d + s2>x 3 d Divide numerator and
line y = 5>3 as ƒ x ƒ increases. (b) lim = lim denominator by x3.
x: - q 2x 3 - 1 x: -q 2 - s1>x d 3
0 + 0 See Fig. 2.
= = 0
y 2 - 0
8 Horizontal Asymptotes
11x 2
y
2x 3 1
6 If the distance between the graph of a function and some fixed line approaches zero as a
point on the graph moves increasingly far from the origin, we say that the graph
4 approaches the line asymptotically and that the line is an asymptote of the graph.
2 Looking at
x
–4 –2 0 2 4 6 ƒsxd = 1>x (see Figure 3), we observe that the x-axis is an asymptote of
the curve on the right because
–2
1
lim x = 0
–4 x: q
and on the left because

–6
1
lim x = 0.
–8 x: -q
We say that the x-axis is a horizontal asymptote of the graph of ƒsxd = 1>x .
FIGURE 2.52 The graph of the
function in Example 3b. The graph
approaches the x-axis as ƒ x ƒ increases.
DEFINITION A line y = b is a horizontal asymptote of the graph of a func-
tion y = ƒsxd if either
lim ƒsxd = b or lim ƒsxd = b.

x: q x: - q
The graph of the function
5x 2 + 8x - 3
ƒsxd =
3x 2 + 2
sketched in Figure 2.51 (Example 3a) has the line y = 5>3 as a horizontal asymptote on
both the right and the left because
5 5
lim ƒsxd = and lim ƒsxd = .
x: q 3 x: - q 3
2
y1
x
0
y –1
x3 – 2
f(x)
–2 x3 + 1
FIGURE 4 The graph of the

function in Example 2 has two
horizontal asymptotes.
1
y x sin x
x
–1 1
FIGURE 5 The line y = 1 is a (b) We calculate the limits as x : q and x : - q :

horizontal asymptote of the function
graphed here (Example 3 b). 1 sin t 1 sin t
lim x sin x = lim+ t = 1 and lim x sin x = lim- t = 1.
x: q t:0 x: -q t :0
The graph is shown in Figure 5, and we see that the line y = 1 is a horizontal
asymptote.
Likewise, we can investigate the behavior of y = ƒ(1>x) as x : 0 by investigating

y = ƒ(t) as t : ; q , where t = 1>x.
Oblique Asymptotes
2 If the degree of the numerator of a rational function is 1 greater than the degree of the
y5 x 235x111 1
2x 2 4 2 2x 2 4 denominator, the graph has an oblique or slant line asymptote. We find an equation for
y the asymptote by dividing numerator by denominator to express ƒ as a linear function
The vertical distance
between curve and plus a remainder that goes to zero as x : ; q .
6
line goes to zero as x → `
5 EXAMPLE 4 Find the oblique asymptote of the graph of
4 Oblique
x52
3 asymptote x2 - 3
ƒsxd =
2x - 4
2 y5 x 11
2 in Figure 6.
1
Solution
–1 0 1 2 3 4 x
x We are interested in the behavior as x : ; q . We divide s2x - 4d into
sx 2 - 3d :
–1
x
-2 + 1
2
-3
2x - 4 x 2 - 3
FIGURE 6
x 2 - 2x
2x - 3
2x - 4
1
This tells us that
x2 - 3 x 1
ƒsxd = = ¢ + 1≤ + ¢ ≤.
2x - 4 2 2x - 4
123 14243
linear g(x) remainder
As x : ; q , the remainder, whose magnitude gives the vertical distance between the
graphs of ƒ and g, goes to zero, making the slanted line
x
g(x) = + 1
2
an asymptote of the graph of ƒ (Figure 6). The line y = g(x) is an asymptote both to the
right and to the left. The next subsection will confirm that the function ƒ(x) grows arbitrarily
large in absolute value as x : 2 (where the denominator is zero), as shown in the graph.
Notice in that if the degree of the numerator in a rational function is greater than the
degree of the denominator, then the limit as becomes ƒ x ƒ large is + q or - q ,
depending on the signs assumed by the numerator and denominator.
Vertical Asymptotes
y
Notice that the distance between a point on the graph of ƒsxd = 1>x and the y-axis
Vertical asymptote approaches zero as the point moves vertically along the graph and away from the origin
(Figure 7.1). The function ƒ(x) = 1>x is unbounded as x approaches 0 because
y 1x 1 1
Horizontal lim x = q and lim x = - q .
1 x :0 + x: 0 -
asymptote
x
0 1 Horizontal We say that the line x = 0 (the y-axis) is a vertical asymptote of the graph of ƒ(x) = 1>x.
asymptote,
y0 Observe that the denominator is zero at x = 0 and the function is undefined there.
Vertical asymptote,
x0
DEFINITION A line x = a is a vertical asymptote of the graph of a function
y = ƒsxd if either
FIGURE 7.1 The coordinate axes are
asymptotes of both branches of the lim ƒsxd = ; q or lim ƒsxd = ; q .
x:a + x :a -
hyperbola y = 1>x .
EXAMPLE 5 Find the horizontal and vertical asymptotes of the curve

x + 3
y = .
x + 2
Solution We are interested in the behavior as x : ; q and the behavior as x : -2,

y
Vertical where the denominator is zero.
asymptote, 6 The asymptotes are quickly revealed if we recast the rational function as a polynomial
x –2 5 x3 with a remainder, by dividing sx + 2d into sx + 3d:
y
4 x2
1 1
1
3 x2
Horizontal 2 x + 2 x + 3
asymptote,
1 x + 2
y1
x 1
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3
–1
This result enables us to rewrite y as:
–2
–3 1
y = 1 + .
–4 x + 2
As
x : ; q , the curve approaches the horizontal asymptote y = 1; as x : -2, the curve
FIGURE 7 The lines y = 1 and approaches the vertical asymptote x = - 2. We see that the curve in question is the graph
x = - 2 are asymptotes of the curve in. of ƒ(x) = 1>x shifted 1 unit up and 2 units left (Figure 7). The asymptotes, instead of
being the coordinate axes, are now the lines y = 1 and x = - 2.
y EXAMPLE 6 Find the horizontal and vertical asymptotes of the graph of

8 y – 28 8
7 x 4 ƒsxd = - .
2
6 x - 4
5 Vertical Solution We are interested in the behavior as x : ; q and as x : ;2, where the
Vertical 4 asymptote, x 2
asymptote,
denominator is zero. Notice that ƒ is an even function of x, so its graph is symmetric with
3 Horizontal
x –2 2
respect to the y-axis.
asymptote, y 0
1 (a) The behavior as x : ; q . Since limx: q ƒsxd = 0, the line y = 0 is a horizontal
x asymptote of the graph to the right. By symmetry it is an asymptote to the left as well
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
(Figure 8 ). Notice that the curve approaches the x-axis from only the negative side
(or from below). Also, ƒs0d = 2.
(b) The behavior as x : ;2. Since
lim ƒsxd = - q and lim ƒsxd = q ,

x: 2 + x :2 -
FIGURE 8 Graph of the function in .
Notice that the curve approaches the x-
the line x = 2 is a vertical asymptote both from the right and from the left. By sym-
axis from only one side. Asymptotes do
metry, the line x = - 2 is also a vertical asymptote.
not have to be two-sided. There are no other asymptotes because ƒ has a finite limit at every other point.
EXAMPLE 7 The graph of the natural logarithm function has the y-axis (the line x = 0)
as a vertical asymptote. We see this from the graph sketched in Figure 9 (which is the
y reflection of the graph of the natural exponential function across the line y = x) and the
y ex
4 fact that the x-axis is a horizontal asymptote of y = e x (Example 5). Thus,
3 lim ln x = - q .
x :0 +
2 y ln x
The same result is true for y = loga x whenever a 7 1.
1
x
–1 1 2 3 4 EXAMPLE 8 The curves
–1
1 sin x
y = sec x = cos x and y = tan x = cos x
FIGURE 9 The line x = 0 is a vertical
asymptote of the natural logarithm both have vertical asymptotes at odd-integer multiples of p>2, where cos x = 0 (Figure 10).
function .
y y
y sec x y tan x
1 1
x x
– 3 – – – 3 – – –1
0 3 0 3
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
FIGURE 10 The graphs of sec x and tan x have infinitely many vertical
asymptotes .

The Limit Laws: (A) If Ƒ Is The Identity Function

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The Limit Laws: (A) If Ƒ Is The Identity Function

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7001_AWLThomas_ch02p058-121.

qxd 10/1/09 2:33 PM Page 68

The Limit Laws

THEOREM 1—Limit Laws If L, M, c, and k are real numbers and

(If n is even, we assume that lim ƒ(x) = L 7 0.)

EXAMPLE 1 Use the observations limx:c k = k and limx:c x = c and

(a) lim sx 3 + 4x 2 - 3d = lim x 3 + lim 4x 2 - lim 3 Sum and Difference Rules

= c 3 + 4c 2 - 3 Power and Multiple Rules

lim x 4 + lim x 2 - lim 1

= 2 lim 4x 2 - lim 3 Difference Rule

= 24s - 2d2 - 3 Product and Multiple Rules

THEOREM 2—Limits of Polynomials

lim Psxd = Pscd = an c n + an - 1 c n - 1 + Á + a0 .

THEOREM 3—Limits of Rational Functions

EXAMPLE 2 The following calculation illustrates Theorems 2 and 3:

Eliminating Zero Denominators Algebraically

2x 2 + 100 - 10 2x 2 + 100 - 10 # 2x 2 + 100 + 10

FIGURE 3 Any function u(x) whose EXAMPLE 5 Given that

y lim s1 - sx 2>4dd = 1 and lim s1 + sx 2>2dd = 1,

(c) For any function ƒ, lim ƒ ƒ(x) ƒ = 0 implies lim ƒ(x) = 0.

FIGURE 4 The Sandwich Theorem lim cos u = 1 .

lim ƒsxd … lim gsxd .

Using Limit Rules

2ƒsxd - g sxd lim s2ƒsxd - g sxdd

Calculating Limits lim 2ƒsxd - lim g sxd

A lim A ƒsxd + 7 B B 2>3

A lim ƒ(x) + lim 7 B 2>3

A lim p(x) B A lim A 4 - r(x) B B

A lim p(x) B A lim 4 - lim r (x) B

, c 6 b and approaches arbi-

FIGURE 2 (a) Right-hand limit as x approaches c. (b) Left-hand limit as x

The function does not have a left-hand limit at x = - 2 or a right-hand limit at x = 2. It

FIGURE 3 lim 24 - x 2 = 0 and

THEOREM 6 A function ƒ(x) has a limit as x approaches c if and only if it has

lim ƒsxd = L 3 lim ƒsxd = L and lim ƒsxd = L.

y EXAMPLE 2 For the function graphed in Figure 4,

y f (x) At x = 0: limx:0+ ƒsxd = 1,

EXAMPLE 3 Show that sin 2x = 2 .

sin 2x s2>5d # sin 2x

2 sin 2x Now, Eq. (1) applies with

tan t sec 2t 1 sin t 1 1

3 - x, x 6 2 6. Let g sxd = 2x sins1>xd .

a. Find limx:2+ ƒsxd and limx:2- ƒsxd .

Finding One-Sided Limits Algebraically

26 - 25h 2 + 11h + 6 tan u u cot 4u

51. Greatest integer function Find (a) limx:400+ :x ; and

37. lim u cos u 38. lim sin u cot 2u

Points at which ƒ is continuous:

At x = 0, lim ƒsxd = ƒs0d.

2 y f (x) Points at which ƒ is not continuous:

x At x = 2, lim ƒsxd = 1, but 1 Z ƒs2d.

Endpoint: A function y = ƒsxd is continuous at a left endpoint a or is

If a function ƒ is not continuous at a point c, we say that ƒ is discontinuous at c and

y is right-continuous at a and continuous at a right endpoint b of its domain if it is left-

y U(x) We summarize continuity at a point in the form of a test.

(a) (b) (c) (d)

FIGURE 6 The function in (a) is continuous at x = 0 ; the functions in (b) through (f )

EXAMPLE 7 The function ƒsxd = ƒ x ƒ is continuous at every value of x. If x 7 0, we

2 Limits at Infinity of Rational Functions

and on the left because

lim ƒsxd = b or lim ƒsxd = b.

The graph of the function