Titanium

You will find the figures mentioned in this article in the German issue of MTZ MATERIALS
12/2002 beginning on page 1020.

Schätzung des Motordrehmoments

aus dem Drehzahlsignal

Determining
Engine Torque
from the Engine-Speed Signal

IAV GmbH, the Fraunhofer-Institut für Informations- und Daten-

verarbeitung (Fraunhofer Institute for Information and Data Pro-
cessing – IITB) and Audi AG have developed a cost-effective
method for estimating indicated engine torque. This method is
based on evaluating engine speed and, apart from boost-pres-
sure information, requires no other sensed values.

By Hermann Fehrenbach, 1 Introduction system therefore does not get any feedback
on the level of torque actually being gener-
Carsten Hohmann,
Engine torque is a central parameter in ated by the engine.
Thorsten Schmidt, powertrain management. And yet knowing torque would be an
Sensor technology that measures engine advantage on numerous counts: for in-
Winfried Schultalbers
torque is not featured in mass-produced ve- stance, it would be possible to implement a
and Henning Rasche hicles for cost reasons. The engine control torque feedback control that could compen-

MTZ worldwide 12/2002 Volume 63 9

DEVELOPMENT Engine Management
sate influencing variables very easily. Com-
plex open-loop control algorithms in en-
gine management could be replaced with a
simple closed-loop control algorithm.
2 Measuring Alternating
Torque
Alternating torque is determined by using
a highly accurate measurement of crank-
shaft angular speed. The method is based
on a procedure [3] to determine alternating
torque that has been developed and patent-
ed by the Fraunhofer Institute. This proce-
dure is applied in the XSERUM engine diag-
nosis system.
2.1 Model Approach
The model used for non-contact torque
measurement is described in [1]. Here, the
torque balance for a single-cylinder engine
is produced by assuming a sufficiently rigid
crankshaft and adequate detachment from
the drivetrain as follows:
Eq. (1)
The free torque at the crankshaft is
made up of a constant and an alternating
component. The mass moment component
of the reciprocating parts — 1
2
Θ’ϕ· 2 , on the
other hand, consists of an alternating com-
ponent only. Gas-pressure torque compris-
es the actual drive torque in the form of a
–
positive constant component Mg and an al-
~
ternating component Mg. In an initial ap-
proximation, frictional torque and load
torque can be assumed to be constant com-
– –
ponents Mr and Ml at one operating point
(speed/load). In the steady-state case, drive
–
torque and the sum of frictional torque Mr
–
and load torque Ml are balanced, giving the
simplified equation
Eq. (2)
In experiments, it is possible to prove
that the root-mean-square value of alter-
~
nating gas-pressure torque Mgrms is propor-
tional to the energy converted, and thus
10
–
proportional to M g. In order to determine
~
the alternating gas-pressure torque Mg in
the steady-state condition, therefore, it is
possible to use the sum of free torque Θϕ··
and mass moment — 1
2
Θ’ϕ· 2 .
In the transient-state case, it is true to
say:
Eq. (3)
With the aid of transient tests, it is possi-
~
ble to show that ΔM<< M. Therefore, ΔM can
be neglected. This means that the torque
profile within a working cycle must be re-
–
garded as sufficiently steady so that M g
~
can be derived from Mg, as in the steady-
state case.
To calculate net torque, the left-hand
part of equation (1), i.e. the sum of free
torque and mass moment, it is necessary to
know Θ and Θ’, as well as angular speed ϕ·
and angular acceleration ϕ··. In order to cal-
culate Θ and Θ’, the following data must be
known for engine masses and geometry:
■ mass moments of inertia of rotating
parts
■ oscillating masses of pistons and con-
necting rods
■ stroke
■ connecting rod length and
■ pin bore offset.
The root-mean square (rms) value of net
torque,
Eq. (4)
where ϕ0 =720 °crank angle, is proportional
to the energy converted and therefore pro-
–
portional to M l. This correlation between
– ~
M l and MNrms is used for generating a map.
–
Values measured for load torque M l are al-
located to values measured for speed and
the rms values calculated for net torque. Al-
ternatively, it is also possible to allocate
values measured for indicated mean pres-
sure Pmi to the rms values calculated for net
torque. This means that once the relevant
map has been taught in for a specific en-
gine type, it is possible to show the current
load torque or indicated mean pressure for
any working cycle during operation.
2.2 Signal Processing
High-precision angular speed measure-
ment is the point of departure for “sensor-
less” torque determination. Using an induc-
tive sensor or a Hall sensor as pickup, the
speed signal is picked off either at the
starter ring gear or at a special speed sensor
wheel. This is done using nothing but the
engine's own sensors. Low-pass filtering
rids this signal of high-frequency influ-
ences. This measurement is taken as the ba-
sis for determining the characteristic of an-
gular speed ϕ· , and, following subsequent
differentiation, the characteristic of angu-
lar acceleration ϕ··. For low-pass filtering and
differentiation, steep-edge FIR filters are
used.
3 Influencing Parameters under
Investigation
Determining torque is aggravated by a va-
riety of influencing parameters depending
on the engine and operating point. These
influencing parameters need to be known,
taken into account and compensated for in
an appropriate manner.
3.1 Geometric Tolerances in
Sensor Wheels
Crankshaft angular speed must be deter-
mined with extreme precision for an accu-
rate estimation of torque. Production toler-
ances, however, mean that the sensor
wheels used for measuring angular speed
in some cases exhibit significant error, e.g.
off-centre bearing and/or tooth pitch er-
rors. These tolerances may account for as
much as +/- 0.5° crank angle. Distortions of
this magnitude produce non-tolerable er-
rors in determining angular speed and, con-
sequently, also in determining alternating
torque.
Two suitable modes of compensation [4,
5] are presented in [2]. One of the methods
suitable for adapting the sensor wheel uses
the antiphase properties of the gas-pres-
sure torque and mass moments to deter-
mine the geometric tolerances of the sensor
wheel employed. The great advantage of
this method lies in the ease with which it is
applied and also in the fact that, apart from
the number of cylinders and teeth, it re-
quires no other prior knowledge about the
engine under study. The second method
chooses the approach of modelling crank-
shaft energy to ascertain the sensor wheel
tolerance. By adapting the sensor wheel it
is possible to reduce the sensor-wheel in-
duced error by at least one order of magni-
tude.
The importance of adapting the sensor
wheel becomes clear in the example of mis-
fire detection based on cylinder-selective
evaluation of torque characteristics. With
perfect engine operation, the alternating
torque contributed by each cylinder should
be identical. When an engine misfires, the
alternating torque contributed by the cylin-
der concerned falls dramatically. Figure 1
shows the case of a six-cylinder diesel en-
gine misfiring at maximum speed and low
load. It is not possible to detect the misfir-
ing cylinder from the alternating torque
profile automatically. Only when the sen-
MTZ worldwide 12/2002 Volume 63

sor wheel has been corrected, Figure 2, is it
possible to determine the misfiring cylin-
der with certainty.
3.2 Boost Pressure Dependency
The torque estimation method is also to pro-
duce reliable results in conjunction with su-
percharged engines. With this type of en-
gine, however, other conditions prevail
than in the case of the naturally aspirated
engines considered in the basic model. The
higher cylinder charge in a supercharged
engine produces a higher alternating gas-
pressure torque amplitude. Particularly
transient cycles in controlled turbochargers
may lead to problems in this regard. In such
cases, the boost pressure is not always the
same during operation as the relevant
speed/load combination point recorded on
the map under steady-state conditions. The
different boost pressure produces a differ-
ent alternating torque, and thus the wrong
load point on the map. To determine load
torque, therefore, it is necessary to detach
the relevant map and estimated alternating
torque (as an input parameter) from boost
pressure. To do this, the alternating torque
characteristic must be freed from its boost-
pressure-related compression component.
The information from the boost pressure
sensor can be used for estimating the com-
pression component. Simulation suggests
using a characteristic curve to map the de-
pendency of alternating torque on boost
pressure. In order to determine this curve
on a data-driven basis and confirm the sit-
uation by experiment, boost pressure vari-
ation measurements have been conducted.
The measurements confirm the assump-
tion made in the simulation that it is possi-
ble to draw an approximately linear curve,
also showing that the characteristic curve
is not speed-dependent.
Boost pressure compensation also re-
moves any dependency on atmospheric
pressure. This could otherwise lead to vari-
ation in estimating torque, e.g., during op-
eration at higher altitudes.
3.3 Further Influencing Variables
As evident from equation (2), errors in de-
termining the engine's mass parameters
enter torque estimation in linear manner.
In order to avoid major error, these parame-
ters must therefore be determined as accu-
rately as possible. The masses and geome-
try of the crankshaft drive are generally
subject to tight tolerances, thereby en-
abling these values to be taken from design
data. The method is shown to be tolerant to
error in determining the TDC as long as
such is in the range of up to 2 °crank angle.
In practice, this accuracy can be regarded as
given. Examination of further influencing
MTZ worldwide 12/2002 Volume 63
variables has shown that the method is not
affected by influences caused by varying
exhaust backpressure. It was possible to al-
lay fears that influences caused by the age-
ing of toothed belts and dual mass fly-
wheels might adversely affect the reliabili-
ty of the torque measuring method. In or-
der to quantify these possible influences,
measurements were carried out on various
toothed belts and dual mass flywheels. It is
not possible to establish any reproducible
correlation with the age of the toothed belt
and dual mass flywheel in alternating
torque. Measurement variation was less
than 2 %.
Alternating torque occurs at the valve
gear, periodically influencing crankshaft
speed. The effect of valve gear torque was
determined by separate measurements in
which the torque taken up by the camshaft
was measured with the help of a wire
strain gauge. In the case of a four-cylinder
in-line engine, alternating torque was
shown to have rms values of up to 11.5 Nm
for those components at firing frequency.
Map-based evaluation, of the type car-
ried out for non-contact torque measure-
ment, makes implicit allowance for this
torque. However, further-reaching non-
map based evaluations of alternating
torque must not leave this torque to infer-
ence. This torque can be taken into account
at justifiable cost and effort using a model-
based approach.
4 Extended Model-Based
Approach
The extended model-based approach al-
lows for the influencing variables men-
tioned in the previous section, making the
torque measurement method suitable for
application in the vehicle. Figure 3 shows a
block diagram illustrating the torque esti-
mation method.
The speed signal obtained from period
measurement first passes through sensor
wheel adaptation. For each engine, the sen-
sor wheel tolerance need only be learned
once and then filed. Subsequent processing
with digital FIR filtering and subsequent
torque calculation then takes place in the
same way as in the basic model. Here, iner-
tial force compensation counterbalances
the influence of torque from the reciprocat-
ing masses, making it possible to ascertain
pure alternating gas-pressure torque. Boost
pressure compensation frees the alternat-
ing torque determined from its boost-pres-
sure induced component. As a result, the
method can also be used for supercharged
engines. The aim of the torque measure-
ment method is to determine the indicated
mean pressure or effective mean pressure
Titanium MATERIALS
(or load torque). Estimating the chosen vari-
able from the measured input variable
(speed) and alternating torque is done us-
ing a map previously taught-in for each en-
gine type. This map describes the correla-
tion between alternating torque, speed and
indicated mean pressure.
5 Sensitivity and Accuracy in
Steady-State Testing
On examining torque measurement accu-
racy, two results in principle come to light:
firstly the accuracy with which alternating
torque is estimated, and secondly the devi-
ation from the reference by the variable Pmi
actually sought. Various dynamic measure-
ments were carried out to determine devia-
tion:
■ measurements at variable speed
■ measurements at variable load and
■ measurements at variable speed and
load for simulating normal driving.
In order to verify the accuracy of the esti-
mation, it is possible to compare the alter-
nating torque estimated with the alternat-
ing torque calculated from the pressure
characteristic measured in the same test.
Conducted on the test bed, these measure-
ments differ from the reference by less than
+3/-5 %. Figure 4 shows an example of alter-
nating torque estimated in a transient test
(load suddenly increased from 10 Nm to 300
Nm at 1500 rpm; six-cylinder diesel engine).
In contrast to alternating torque, Pmi is
estimated using the map previously taught
in under section 4.
Accuracy of the Pmi estimation is gov-
erned by the following factors:
■ integrity of the map
■ quality of map interpolation and
■ quality of boost pressure compensation.
The level of accuracy achieved here in
dynamic measurements is 6 %. Figure 5
shows the estimation generated for indi-
cated mean pressure using the example of
a transient test (load suddenly increased
from 10 Nm to 300 Nm at 1500 rpm; six-
cylinder diesel engine).
As far as accuracy is concerned, it must be
noted that the values given are deviations
from the reference. Non-cooled pressure sen-
sors, however, show an accuracy in the same
order of magnitude. The remaining devia-
tions may in part, therefore, also be attribut-
able to the inaccuracy of the reference.
6 Real-Time Algorithm
Development in the
Development Control Unit
In order to use the torque signal in engine
management, the method must employ
computation carried out in real time. To
11
DEVELOPMENT Engine Management
this end, the above-described algorithm has
been implemented at IAV in a development
control unit. The development environ-
ment ASCET-SD from Etas was used as the
development system. This tool features a
graphic system for developing algorithms
and automatic code generation for modular
VME-bus-based development hardware.
Figure 6 shows a diagram of the set-up.
The hardware mainly consists of the
simulation nodes ES1130 and ES1600. Both
cards are equipped with a PowerPC Proces-
sor and are interlinked via a VME bus.
The speed signals from crankshaft and
camshaft sensor are fed via universal I/O
card ES1620 to the TPU (time processor unit)
of the MPC555 processor situated on the
ES1600. The TPU is a programmable co-
processor which is particularly suitable for
speed measurement tasks. The tooth peri-
ods measured by the TPU and the current
crank angle are sent to the CPU of the
MPC555 on an interrupt-controlled basis.
Tooth periods and crank angles are sent
via the VME bus to the ES1130 card, a high-
speed simulation node (64-bit, 366 MHz)
with a Motorola MPC750 processor. This
hardware is also capable of calculating ex-
tensive algorithms in real time, such as the
FIR filter for limiting the bandwidth and
differentiation of current speed. The algo-
rithm presented in Figure 3 is used for cal-
culating the indicated engine torque on the
ES1130. The ES1130 card is connected to a PC
via a 100 Mbit Ethernet link. This PC is used
for algorithm development, parameterisa-
tion and display of measured values. By
way of option, it is also possible to output
engine torque via a CAN card.
As an additional signal, the method re-
quires boost pressure. As this is measured
as standard in the engine control unit, the
level of boost pressure measured is fed to
the ES1130 via an emulator probe bypass.
An emulator probe enables the simulation
node to read out all of the measurement
and computing variables from the engine
control unit.
The emulator probe bypass provides a
further capability: new engine manage-
ment algorithms using the torque signal
can also be implemented in the ES1130 com-
puting node. The output variable of this al-
gorithm, e.g. the injected fuel quantity
from a torque-based idle controller, is up-
loaded to the engine control unit via the
emulator probe, thereby replacing the orig-
inal algorithm in the current standard code.
7 Summary and Outlook
The method presented here computes the
indicated engine torque of a supercharged
combustion engine by high-resolution
12
evaluation of engine speed. All that is oth-
erwise needed is a boost-pressure sensor
which is increasingly featured as part of
the standard equipment of diesel engines.
It is necessary to enhance the quality of the
speed signal by compensating for the geo-
metric tooth pitch tolerance of the sensor
wheel (see [2]).
The real-time variant of this method has
been implemented in a development con-
trol unit. During the engine calibration
phase, this control unit can be used as a
measurement system.
The high-performance processors used
in the latest control unit generation make it
possible to implement the algorithm in the
mass-produced control unit. The torque sig-
nal can then also be made available for en-
gine management.
This opens up new horizons in control-
ling and monitoring engines: a torque con-
trol system compensates for influencing
variables, new diagnostic processes moni-
tor components and emissions, the moni-
toring concept can be simplified. One par-
ticularly interesting field of application lies
in the detection of misfiring in high-cylin-
der engines, made possible by evaluating
torque on a cylinder-specific basis.
As the method is advanced in the future,
the aim will be to provide a crank-angle re-
solved evaluation of the torque signal. Con-
ditioned in this way, a torque signal can, for
example, be used for estimating cylinder
pressure. Such estimations will pave the
way towards speed-based, cylinder-selec-
tive engine management – without costly
cylinder pressure sensors.
References
[1] Fehrenbach, H.; Held, W.; Zuther, F.: Drehmo-
mentbestimmung bei Verbrennungsmotoren
durch Auswertung der Kurbelwellen-
Winkelgeschwindigkeit. In: MTZ
Motorentechnische Zeitschrift, Nr. 59, 1998
[2] Fehrenbach, H.; Hohmann, C.; Schmidt, T.;
Schultalbers, W.; Rasche, H.: Verfahren zur
Kompensation des Geberradfehlers im
Fahrbetrieb. In: MTZ Motorentechnische
Zeitschrift, 7-8/2002
[3] Fehrenbach, H.; Kirsch, H.; Ruckhäberle, M.:
Verfahren zur Ermittlung von Drehmomenten,
Arbeiten und Leistungen an Verbren-
nungskraftmaschinen, Patentschrift DE 44 45
684, Fraunhofer-Gesellschaft 2000
[4] Fehrenbach, H.; Hohmann, C.: Verfahren zur
Kompensation von Geometriefehlern von
Drehgeberrädern für Verbrennungsmotoren,
Patentanmeldung 102 02 688.2, Fraunhofer-
Gesellschaft 2002
[5] Schmidt, Th.: Verfahren zur Kompensation
des Geberradfehlers im Fahrbetrieb, Offenle-
gungsschrift DE 101 07 892 A1, IAV GmbH
2002
MTZ worldwide 12/2002 Volume 63