Abdullah Mazi 

ID: B180602022
Dept. Of Geography & Environment 
Jagannath University 
14  Batch 
th

Course: GEO-1203 Introduction to Computer Application

Question(2017,2018): What is computer? classify computer on the basis of data

representation and discuss it . Draw the basic organisation of a computer and
discuss it.
Or,
What do you mean by computer? Defined the following terms associated with
computer technologies:
1. Information processing cycle
2. RAM
3. ROM
4. CANs
5. MANs
6. Protocols.

Definition of computer: A computer is a electronic device that performs processes,

culations and operations based on instructions provided by a software or hardware
program.
Generation of computer: Computers, at various stages of their evolution has been
divided into six-generation. Every new generation has certain dramatic
improvements when compared to its previous generations. The six generations of
Computers are- 
1. The mechanical era(1623-1900) 
2. First generation electronic computers(1937-1953) 
3. Second generation(1954-1962) 
4. Third generation(1963-1972) 
5. Fourth generation (1972-1984) 
6. Fifth generation(1984-1990) and 
7. Sixth generation(1990-till date)

1.The mechanical Era(1923-1900): 

Some of the important inventions during this era are were the telescope, the
earliest ,human powered ,submarine ,steam turbine, micrometre ,pendulum clock
,perimeter ,pressure cooker ,thermometer ,power loom ,electromagnetic
.typewriter ,and morse code.
2.First generation electronic computers(1937-1953) some of the important
inventions during this time were  the the electron,microscope,photocopier jet
engine ,helicopter ,atom bomb microwave,and optic fibre etc.
3.Second generation computers: some of the popular inventions were audio
cassette, microscope, microchips ,halogen lamp ,and Videos disks etc.
4.Third generation computers: some of the popular inventions of this time were
calculator,computer mouse, RAM , Arpanet , ATM etc.
5.Fourth generation: some of the popular inventions of this time were the word
processor, video game, laser printer, call phones MS DOCS etc.
6.Fifth generation: some of the popular inventions of this time were the CD-
rom,windows,programs,doppler radar,TV ,first 3d video games, etc.
7.Sixth generation: some of the popular inventions of this time were the WWW,
HTML, HTTP , WEB TV , Java,DVD ,iPod, YouTube etc.
Types of computers:
The six primary types of computers in this category are-
1. Desktop computers
2. workstations
3. notebook computers
4. tablet computers 
5. handheld computers 
6. smart phones

1.Desktop computers:
The most common type of personal computer is the desktop computer a PC that is
designed to sit on a desk or table. These are the the systems you see all around you
in schools,homes, and offices and they are the main focus on this book.
2. Workstations: 
A workstation is a specialised signle user computer that typically has more power
and features than a standard desktop PC . These machines are popular among
scientists, engineers and animators etc.
3. Notebook computers: Notebook computers as their name implies approximate
the shape of an 8.5 by 11 inches notebook and easily fit inside a Briefcase.
4.Tablet computers: the tablet PC is the newest development in portable, full-
featured computers.  Tablet PCs offer all the functionality of a notebook PC, but they
are lighter and can accept input from a special pen called a stylus or a digital pen
that is used to tap or write directly on the screen. 
5.Handheld PCs: handheld personal computers are computing devices small
enough to fit in your hand. A popular type of  handheld computer is the personal
digital assistant. 
6.Smart phones:  Some cellular phones double as miniature PCs. Because these
phones offer advantages features not typically found in cellular phones, they are
sometimes called smart phones. 

Why are computers so important; 

      Comments are those devices that play a very important role in our everyday life.
For example, a computer may offer freedom to communicate, learn or work without
leaving home, pictures, songs, addresses,games,menus, shopping,lists, resumes
the list goes on and on. 
 Home 
 Education 
 Small business 
 Industry 
 Government 
 Health care 
 Banking 
 Communication 
  Police Department 
 Retail 
●Home:
1. Communications
2. Business work done at home 
3. School work
4. Entertainment 
5. Finances 

1.Communications: Electronic mail continues to be the most popular use for home
computer for communication with family and one other. 
2.Business work done at home: More people are working from home than ever
before.  It is possible for many users to connect to their employees network from
home. 
● Education:
More and more schools are adding computer technology to their curriculum not only
teaching pure computer skills but incorporating those skills onto other classes.
Educators see computer technology as an essential learning requirement for all
students, starting as early as preschool. 
● Small business: Many of today's successful small companies simply could not
exist without computer technology. 
       These tools enable business owners to handle tasks such as daily accounting
chores, inventory management marketing, payroll and many others that once
requested the hiring of outside. As a result, small business become more self-
sufficient and reduce their operating expenses .
● Industry:
       ○     Design 
                  ○     Shipping 
        ○    Process control 
● Government: 
         Population 
         Taxes 
         Military 
         Police 
● Health Care: 
Pay a visit to your family doctor or the local hospital and you'll find yourself
surrounded by computerised equipment of all kinds .
●Banking: 
Today banks cannot exit without computer technology . In the past banks were open
only for a fixed time from 9am to 3pm and all the  information on bank accounts and
transactions were recorded and stored in ledgers and account books. 
 Bankers Automated cleaning services. 
  Online banking. 
  Automated teller machines. 
o Get eash. 
o Request a withdrawal statement. 
o Check account balance.

●Communications:
1. Electronic mail.
 2. Audio and video conferencing. 
3. News Groups .
4. IM(instant messages)

●Police Department: 
Nowadays criminals make use of latest technology to commit crimes. 
The science of making use of the pattern of ridges on a person's figure tip for the
purpose of identification is called fingerprinting computer are also used in DNA
profiling. A DNA profile is built up and the computer can then be used to make
comparisons against know criminals. 
●Retail:Computers are used in supermarkets for a range of purposes such as
receiving storage, retrieving, manipulating and sending data. 

Computers for Organisations: 

Some computers handle the needs of many users at the same time. These powerful
systems are most often used by organisations, such as businesses or schools, and  
are commonly found at the heart of the organisations network.
The largest organisational computers support thousands of individual users at the
same time from thousands of miles away. 
1. Network Servers
2. Mainframe computers 
3. Mini computers 
4. Supercomputers 

1.Network Servers: 
Today most Organisations networks are based on personal computers. Individual
users have their own desktop computers, which are connected to one or more
centralized computers, called network Servers.
 Centralized computer.
 All other computers connected.
 Previous access to network resources.
 Multiple servers are called server frame. 
 Often simply a powerful desktop. 
2.Mainframe computers: 
Mainframe computers are used in large organisations such as insurance companies
and banks, where many people frequently need to use the same data. In a traditional
mainframe environment, each user accesses the mainframes resources through a
device called a terminal.
 Used in large Organisations  
 Handle hundreds or thousands users. 
 Store tremendous amounts of data  
 Users access through a terminal.
3.Mini computer:
First released in the 1960s , mini computers got their name because of their small
size compared to other computers of the day.  The capabilities of a mini computer
are somewhere between those of mainframes and personal computers. For this
reason, mini computers are often called midrange computers. 
 Called midrange computers. 
 Power between mainframe and desktop. 
  Handle hundreds of users. 
 Used in smaller organisations. 
 Users access through a terminal.

4. Supercomputers:
Supercomputers are the most powerful computers made, and physically they are
some of the largest. 
 The powerful computers made .
 Handle large and complex calculations. 
 Process trillions of operations per second. 
 Found in research organisations.

The parts of a computer system: 

A complete computer system consists of four parts. Such as-- 
1. Hardware 
2. Software 
3. Data 
4. Users 
1.Hardware:
The mechanical devices that make up the computer are called hardware. Hardware
is any part of the computer you can touch. A computers hardware consists of
interconnected electronic devices that you can use to control the computer's
operations, input, and output. 
2.Software: 
Software is a set of  instructions that makes the  computer perform tasks. In other
words, software tells the computer what to do. Some programs exist primarily for the
computers use to help it perform tasks and manage its own resources. 
3. Data: 
Data consist of individual facts or pieces of  information that by themselves may not
much sense to a person.  A computer's primary job is to process these tiny pieces of
data in various ways converting them into useful information. For example, if you
saw the  average highway mileage of six different cars all the different pieces of data
might not mean much to you.
4. Users: 
People are the computer operators, also known as users. It can be argued that some
computer systems are  complete without a person's involvement. However no
computer is totally autonomous. Even if a computer can do its job without a person
sitting in front of it, people still design , build, program, and repair computer systems. 
This lack of autonomy is especially true of personal computer systems. 
The information processing cycle:
Using all its parts together, a computer converters data into information by
performing various actions on the data. For example, a computer might perform a
mathematical operation on two numbers, then display the result, or the  computer
might perform a logical operation such as comparing two numbers, then display that
result. These operations are part of a process called the information processing
cycle.
 Input 
 Processing 
 Output 
  Storage 

Input: During this part of the cycle, the computer accepts data from some source,
such as the user or a program, for processing. 
Processing. During this part of the cycle, the computers processing components
perform actions on the data, based on instructions from the user or a program. 
Output. Here, the computer may be required to  display the results of it's
processing. For example, the results may appear as text, numbers, or a graphic on
the computer's screen or as sounds from its speaker. The computer also can send
output to a printer or transfer the output to another computer through a network or
the internet. 
Storage. In this step, the computer permanently stores the results of it's processing
on a disk, tape , or some other kind of  storage medium. As with output, storage is
optional and may not always be required by the user or program. 
Essential computer hardware:
A computers hardware devices fall into of four categories-
1. Processor.
2. Memory. 
3. Input and output. 
4. Storage. 

Processing Devices: 
The procedure that transforms raw data into useful information is called processing. 
To perform this transformation the computer uses two components the processor
and memory. 
    The processor is like the brain of the computer, it organizes and carries out
instructions that come from either the user or the software. The processor usually
consists of one or more specialised chips called microprocessors, which are silvers
of silicon or other material etched with many tiny electronic circuits. 
Memory Devices; 
In a computer memory is one or more set of chips that store data and programs
instructions with temporarily or permanently. 
 RAM
 ROM

RAM(Random Access Memory):  The most common type of memory is called

random access memory. As a result the  term memory is typically used to mean
RAM. RAM is like an electronic scratch pad side the computer. 
      As new data is entered into the computer it is also stored in memory but only
temporarily. Data is both written to and read from this memory. Because of this RAM
is also sometimes called read memory. 
    RAM has a tremendous impact on the speed and power of a computer. Generally
the more RAM a computer has the more it can do and the faster it can perform
certain tasks. 

Unit Bytes 

KB 1024

MB 1048576

GB 1073741824

TB 1.099×10 12

ROM(Read Only Memory):  Unlike RAM, read only memory permanently stores its
data even when the computer is shut off.  ROM is called nonviolentile memory
because it never loses its contents. 
It checks ROM for directions that help it start up and for information about its
hardware Devices.
Input and output Devices:
Input devices accept data and instructions from the user or from another computer
system. Output Devices return processed data to the user or to another computer
system .
The most common input device is the keyboard, which accepts letters, numbers and
commands from the user. Another important type of input device is the mouse, which
lets you select options from on screen menus. You use mouse by moving it across a
flat surface and pressing its buttons. Example of input devices: 
 Keyboard 
 Mouse 
 Touch screen 
 Track ball: microphone 
 Joystick camera 
 Web cam
Output Device:
An output device is a piece of computer hardware that receives data or instructions
from a computer. Essentially, the computer interacts with the output device in some
way. The most common output devices are the monitor and printer, but there are
many others. The key distinction between an input device and an output device is
that the former sends data to the computer, whereas the latter receives data from the
computer. Input and output devices that provide computers with additional
functionality are also called peripheral, or auxiliary devices.

 Monitor
 Printer
 Audio Speakers
 Headphones
  Projector
 GPS
 Sound Card
 Video Card
 Braille Reader
 Plotter
Storage Devices: 
Alternatively referred to as digital storage, storage media.  Or storage medium a
storage device is any hardware capable of holding information either temporarily or
permanently. The picture shows an example of a debo. An external secondary
storage device. 
There are two types of storage devices used with computers; a primary storage
device such as RAM, and a secondary storage device such as a hard drive,.
Secondary storage can be removable, internal or external. 
Software: Software can be categorized according to what it is designed to
accomplish. There are two main types of software. 
1. Systems software.
2. Application software.

1.Systems software: Systems software includes the programs that are dedicated to
managing the computer itself such as the operating system, file management utilities
and disk operating system manages the computer hardware resources in addition to
applications and data without systems software installed in our computers we would
have to type the instructions for everything we wanted the computer to do !
2. Application software: Application software tells the computer how to accomplish
specific tasks, such as word processing or drawing, for the user. Some of the major
categories of these applications include. 
 Word processing software. 
 Spreadsheets .
 Database management software. 
 Graphic programming software. 
 Multimedia authoring applications for building digital movies.
 Entertainment and education software. 
 Web design. 
 Games etc.

Operating system(OS) Basics: 

Definition: Operating system (OS) is system software that manages computer
hardware, software resources, and provides common services for computer
programs.
It is a software that works as an interface between a user and the computer
hardware. The primary objective of an operating system is to make computer system
convenient to use and to utilize computer hardware in an efficient manner. The
operating system performs the basic tasks such as receiving input from the
keyboard, processing instructions and sending output to the screen.

Types of Operating Systems:

Operating system can be organized into four major types:
1. Real time 
 2. Single user/single tasking 
3. Single user/multitasking 
4. Multi user/multitasking. 
The following describe each type of OS.
1.Real time OS:
The real-time operating system used for a real-time application means for those
applications where data processing should be done in the fixed and small quantum
of time. It is different from general purpose computer where time concept is not
considered as much crucial as in Real-Time Operating System.Real-time operating
system synchronized the process. So that they can communicate with each other.
Resources can be used efficiently without wastage of time.RTOS are controlling
  traffic signal;
 Nuclear reactors Control scientific experiments, 
 medical imaging systems, 
 industrial system, 
 fuel injection system, 
 home appliance are some application of Real Time operating system

2.Sigle User/ Single-Tasking OS:

An operating system that allows a single user to perform just one task at a time is a
single user/multitasking operating system. To a user a "task" is a function such as
printing a document writing a file to disk, editing a file, or downloading a file from a
network server. To the operating system, a task is a process, and small and simple
OSs can only manage a single task at a time. 
3. Single-User/Multitasking operating systems:
A simple-user/multitasking operating system is one that allows a single user to
perform two or more functions at once. It takes a special operating systems to keep
two or more tasks running at once. The most commonly used personal computers
usually run such OSs, including Microsoft windows and the Macintosh operating
systems. 
 The multitasking features of these OSs have greatly increased the productivity
of people in a large variety of jobs. 
 For instance, to an office worker,it is important to be able to send a large
document to a printer and be able to do other work on his or her computer
while it is  being printed. 

4. Multi-User/ Multitasking OSs:

A Multi-User/Multitasking operating system is an operating system that allows
multiple users to use programs that are simultaneously running on a single network
server, called a terminal server. This is not at all the same as connecting to a
network server for the sake of accessing files and printers. The software that makes
this possible is called a terminal client. In a Multi-User/ Multitasking operating system
environment,all or most of the computing occurs at the server. Examples of Multi-
User OSs include UNIX, VMS , and mainframe operating systems such as MVS.
Computer Network :
What is a Server-based network?
A Server-based network is a network in which network security and storage are
managed centrally by one or more servers.
How Server-based Networks Work?
In a server-based network, special computers called servers handle network tasks
such as authenticating users, storing files, managing printers, and running
applications such as database and e-mail programs. Security is generally centralized
in a security provider, which allows users to have one user account for logging on to
any computer in the network. Because files are stored centrally, they can be easily
secured and backed up.
Server-based networks are more costly and complex to set up and administer than
peer-to-peer networks, and they often require the services of a full-time network
administrator. They are ideal for businesses that are concerned about security and
file integrity and have more than 10 computers.

What Is a Client-Server Network?

A client-server network is a central computer, also known as a server, which hosts

data and other forms of resources. Clients such as laptops and desktop computers
contact the server and request to use data or share its other resources with it.
A client-server network is designed for end-users, called clients, to access resources
such as files, songs, video collections, or some other service from a central
computer called a server.

How Does It Work?

Imagine a customer sitting at a restaurant. He is waiting for the server to come by
and take his order. The same rules apply in a client-server network; the client, which
can be a laptop, desktop, a smartphone, or pretty much any computerized device,
can make a request from the server.
The client uses the network as a way to connect with and speak to the server. Just
as the customer speaks to his server, the client uses the network to send and
receive communications about its order, or request. The server will take the request
and make sure that the request is valid. If everything checks out okay, then the
server will fetch the request and serve the client.
The server can make a request from the client as well. It may want to check up on
the status of the client, or ask if it has received any security patches, or if it still
needs resources from the server. If not, the server will close the connection in order
to free up network traffic.
What is a Peer to Peer Networks? 
Peer-to-peer (P2P) computing or networking is a distributed application architecture
that partitions tasks or workloads between peers. Peers are equally privileged,
equipotent participants in the application. They are said to form a peer-to-peer
network of nodes.

How Does It Work?

In P2P networks, clients both provide and use resources. This means that unlike
client-server systems, the content-serving capacity of peer-to-peer networks can
actually increase as more users begin to access the content (especially with
protocols such as Bittorrent that require users to share, refer a performance
measurement study. 
This property is one of the major advantages of using P2P networks because it
makes the setup and running costs very small for the original content distributor.
Peers make a portion of their resources, such as processing power, disk storage or
network bandwidth, directly available to other network participants, without the need
for central coordination by servers or stable hosts.Peers are both suppliers and
consumers of resources, in contrast to the traditional client-server model in which the
consumption and supply of resources is divided. Emerging collaborative P2P
systems are going beyond the era of peers doing similar things while sharing
resources, and are looking for diverse peers that can bring in unique resources and
capabilities to a virtual community thereby empowering it to engage in greater tasks
beyond those that can be accomplished by individual peers, yet that are beneficial to
all the peers.

Common Types of Network: 

A computer network is a group of computers linked to each other that enables the
computer to communicate with another computer and share their resources, data,
and applications.
A computer network can be categorized by their size. A computer network is mainly
of four types:
 1. LAN(Local Area Network)
2. PAN(Personal Area Network)
3. MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)
4. WAN(Wide Area Network)
5.

1.LAN(Local Area Network):

 Local Area Network is a group of computers connected to each other in a
small area such as building, office.
 LAN is used for connecting two or more personal computers through a
communication medium such as twisted pair, coaxial cable, etc.
 It is less costly as it is built with inexpensive hardware such as hubs, network
adapters, and ethernet cables.
 The data is transferred at an extremely faster rate in Local Area Network.
 Local Area Network provides higher security.

2 PAN(Personal Area Network):

 Personal Area Network is a network arranged within an individual person,
typically within a range of 10 meters.
 Personal Area Network is used for connecting the computer devices of
personal use is known as Personal Area Network.
 Thomas Zimmerman was the first research scientist to bring the idea of the
Personal Area Network.
 Personal Area Network covers an area of 30 feet.
 Personal computer devices that are used to develop the personal area
network are the laptop, mobile phones, media player and play stations.
There are two types of Personal Area Network:
Computer Network Types
1. Wired Personal Area Network
2. Wireless Personal Area Network

Wireless Personal Area Network: Wireless Personal Area Network is developed by

simply using wireless technologies such as WiFi, Bluetooth. It is a low range
network.

Wired Personal Area Network: Wired Personal Area Network is created by using
the USB.

3.MAN(Metropolitan Area Network):

 A metropolitan area network is a network that covers a larger geographic area
by interconnecting a different LAN to form a larger network.
 Government agencies use MAN to connect to the citizens and private
industries.
 In MAN, various LANs are connected to each other through a telephone
exchange line.
 The most widely used protocols in MAN are RS-232, Frame Relay, ATM,
ISDN, OC-3, ADSL, etc.
 It has a higher range than Local Area Network(LAN).
Uses Of Metropolitan Area Network:
 MAN is used in communication between the banks in a city.
 It can be used in an Airline Reservation.
 It can be used in a college within a city.
 It can also be used for communication in the military.
WAN(Wide Area Network):
 A Wide Area Network is a network that extends over a large geographical
area such as states or countries.
 A Wide Area Network is quite bigger network than the LAN.
 A Wide Area Network is not limited to a single location, but it spans over a
large geographical area through a telephone line, fibre optic cable or satellite
links.
 The internet is one of the biggest WAN in the world.
 A Wide Area Network is widely used in the field of Business, government, and
education.

Examples Of Personal Area Network:

Body Area Network: Body Area Network is a network that moves with a person. For
example, a mobile network moves with a person. Suppose a person establishes a
network connection and then creates a connection with another device to share the
information.
Offline Network: An offline network can be created inside the home, so it is also
known as a home network. A home network is designed to integrate the devices
such as printers, computer, television but they are not connected to the internet.
Small Home Office: It is used to connect a variety of devices to the internet and to a
corporate network using a VPN.

Network Topology: 
Definition: Network Topology is the schematic description of a network
arrangement, connecting various nodes(sender and receiver) through lines of
connection.
Types of network topology: 
1. Bus Topology 
2. Ring Topology 
3. Star Topology 
4. Mesh Topology 
5. Tree Topology 
 6. Hybrid Topology 

1.Bus Topology: 
Bus topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is
connected to single cable. When it has exactly two endpoints, then it is called Linear
Bus topology.

Features of Bus Topology:

 It transmits data only in one direction.
 Every device is connected to a single cable
Advantages of Bus Topology:
 It is cost effective.
 Cable required is least compared to other network topology.
 Used in small networks.
 It is easy to understand.
 Easy to expand joining two cables together.
Disadvantages of Bus Topology:
 Cables fails then whole network fails.
 If network traffic is heavy or nodes are more the performance of the network
decreases.
 Cable has a limited length.
 It is slower than the ring topology.

2.RING Topology:
It is called ring topology because it forms a ring as each computer is connected to
another computer, with the last one connected to the first. Exactly two neighbours for
each device.

Features of Ring Topology:

 A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with large number of nodes,
because if someone wants to send some data to the last node in the ring
topology with 100 nodes, then the data will have to pass through 99 nodes to
reach the 100th node. Hence to prevent data loss repeaters are used in the
network.
 The transmission is unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional by having 2
connections between each Network Node, it is called Dual Ring Topology.
  In Dual Ring Topology, two ring networks are formed, and data flow is in
opposite direction in them. Also, if one ring fails, the second ring can act as a
backup, to keep the network up.
 Data is transferred in a sequential manner that is bit by bit. Data transmitted,
has to pass through each node of the network, till the destination node.
Advantages of Ring Topology:
 Transmitting network is not affected by high traffic or by adding more nodes,
as only the nodes having tokens can transmit data.
 Cheap to install and expand
Disadvantages of Ring Topology:
 Troubleshooting is difficult in ring topology.
 Adding or deleting the computers disturbs the network activity.
 Failure of one computer disturbs the whole network.

3.STAR Topology:
In this type of topology all the computers are connected to a single hub through a
cable. This hub is the central node and all others nodes are connected to the central
node.

Features of Star Topology:

 Every node has its own dedicated connection to the hub.
 Hub acts as a repeater for data flow.
 Can be used with twisted pair, Optical Fibre or coaxial cable.
Advantages of Star Topology:
 Fast performance with few nodes and low network traffic.
 Hub can be upgraded easily.
 Easy to troubleshoot.
 Easy to setup and modify.
 Only that node is affected which has failed, rest of the nodes can work
smoothly.
Disadvantages of Star Topology:
 Cost of installation is high.
 Expensive to use.
 If the hub fails then the whole network is stopped because all the nodes
depend on the hub.
 Performance is based on the hub that is it depends on its capacity

4.MESH Topology:
It is a point-to-point connection to other nodes or devices. All the network nodes are
connected to each other. Mesh has n(n-1)/2 physical channels to link n devices.
Advantages of Mesh Topology:
 Each connection can carry its own data load.
 It is robust.
 Fault is diagnosed easily.
 Provides security and privacy.
Disadvantages of Mesh Topology:
 Installation and configuration is difficult.
 Cabling cost is more.
 Bulk wiring is required.
5.TREE Topology:
It has a root node and all other nodes are connected to it forming a hierarchy. It is
also called hierarchical topology. It should at least have three levels to the hierarchy.

Features of Tree Topology:

 Ideal if workstations are located in groups.
 Used in Wide Area Network.
Advantages of Tree Topology:
 Extension of bus and star topologies.
 Expansion of nodes is possible and easy.
 Easily managed and maintained.
 Error detection is easily done.
Disadvantages of Tree Topology:
 Heavily cabled.
 Costly.
 If more nodes are added maintenance is difficult.
 Central hub fails, network fails.

6.HYBRID Topology:
It is two different types of topologies which is a mixture of two or more topologies.
For example if in an office in one department ring topology is used and in another
star topology is used, connecting these topologies will result in Hybrid Topology (ring
topology and star topology).
Features of Hybrid Topology:
 It is a combination of two or topologies
 Inherits the advantages and disadvantages of the topologies included
Advantages of Hybrid Topology:
 Reliable as Error detecting and trouble shooting is easy.
 Effective.
 Scalable as size can be increased easily.
 Flexible.
Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology:
 Complex in design.
 Costly.

Protocols: 
Protocol Definition: It is a digital language through which we communicate with
others on the Internet. protocol meaning is that it a set of mutually accepted and
implemented rules at both ends of the communications channel for the proper
exchange of information. By adopting these rules, two devices can communicate
with each other and can interchange information. We can't even think of using the
Internet without Protocols. Each protocol is defined in different terms and different
use with unique name. Message travel from sender to receiver via a medium (The
medium is the physical path over which a message travels) using a protocol.

 
'Protocols' are developed by industry wide organizations. All data of protocols are
stored in binary information. Protocol language is a mixture of bits, characters,
integers, etc.

Each of it has its own access method of exchanging data over a computer network,
such as LAN, Internet, Intranet, etc. One of the most common and known protocol
example is HTTP, that is used over the world wide web. there are different protocols
used in internet that are

 TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol)

 ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)
 DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol)
 DNS (Domain Name System)
  FTP (File Transfer Protocol)

HTTP is an application-layer protocol that is used for transferring files on the internet.
It is used by web browsers and servers use to communicate.
There are different types of protocols and different uses of protocol.

Types of Protocols

A protocol technologies is required for communication between computers. To

connect different types of computers from a variety of computer vendors, protocols
must be first standardized. The ARPA (Advanced Research Project Agency) part of
the US Defense program was the first to introduce the concept of a standardized
protocol. ARPA is a resource sharing network connecting different computers at
universities and laboratories in the US. The concept of the protocol and its layer
structure, emerged from the ARPA network. ARPA developed an integrated network
using packet protocol and is also renowned for its development of packet switching.

TCP
Transmission control protocol is used for communication over a network. In TCP
data is broken down into small packets and then sent to the destination. However, IP
is making sure packets are transmitted to the right address.
Internet Protocol (IP)
IP is also working with TCP. It is an addressing Protocol. IP addresses packets route
them and show different nodes and network Unless it reaches its right destination.
The IP protocol is developed in 1970.
FTP
File transfer protocol is basically used for transferring files to different networks.
There may be a mass of files such as text files, multimedia files, etc. This way of file
transfer is quicker than other methods.
SMTP
Simple mail transfer protocol manages the transmission and outgoing mail over the
internet.
HTTP
HTTP is based on client and server model. HTTP is used for making a connection
between the web client and web server. HTTP shows information in web pages.
Ethernet
Ethernet is a most important for LAN communication. Ethernet transmits the data in
digital packets. If any computer wants to use this protocol they should contain
Ethernet Network Interface Card (NIC). The card is implemented with unique
address code fixed in the microchip.
Telnet
Telnet is an established with some rules which are used to connect to another
computer. Telnet is mainly used for the remote login process. The computer which is
requesting for a connection that is a local computer and which is accepting the
connection that is a remote computer. If you give a command in a local computer
that command is executed in the remote computer. Telnet is also based on client
and server model.
Gopher
Gopher is an application layer protocol, which is used for searching and retrieving
documents from remote sites. This is possible to start an online connection with
other computers through gopher.

Introduction to Internet: 
What is internet? 
       The internet is a network of networks. The internet is a globally connected
network system that uses TCP/IP to transmit data via. various types of media. The
internet is a network of global exchanges including private, public, business,
academic and government networks connected by guided, wireless and fiber optic
technologies. 

The internet's major services:

          The internet acts as a carrier for several different services each with its own
distinct features and purposes. The most commonly used internet services are -
1. The world wide web.
2. Electronic mail. 
3. News 
4. File transfer protocol 
5. Chat
6. Instant messaging 
7. Online services 
8. Peer to peer services. 
Computer Troubleshooting:
 
Definitions:
Troubleshooting is the process of identifying and solving technical problems. It starts
with general issues and then gets more specific.

Most troubleshooting begins with hardware. Hardware is any physical device that
you use to operate your computer. The guts of the computer are the CPU and RAM
(Random Access Memory), but outside parts like your monitor count too.

Software is computer coding that is placed on your computer's hard drive such as
Google Docs. Software applications are virtual and trickier to troubleshoot.

Ever had times when you couldn't access your favorite website? Connectivity allows
devices to talk to one another and share information.
Tips and Tricks
Hardware:

Begin your troubleshooting by resetting the power button.

Let's go over some tips and tricks for fixing a hardware problem.

 Reboot - power cycling your computer is one of the best and easiest ways to
troubleshoot. It tends to just reset everything and hopefully get rid of whatever
glitch is causing issues.
 Unplug peripheral devices - remove any tool that is connected to a computer
like an extra drive, or a scanner.
 Check your cables and power cords to make sure they are connected
properly.
 Memory - do you have enough memory? Various files and applications can
quickly overtake your memory.
 Check printer - make sure you send a document to the correct printer and
look for printer jams. Check that the printer has paper and ink.
Software:
Got a software problem? Let's see if we can fix it.
Make sure the software is installed correctly. Like in hardware, restarting the
program might just fix the glitch. Trying switching browsers such as using Google
Chrome instead of Firefox.
Make sure your software is updated. Have you ever heard of a computer bug? It's a
coding error and keeping current with software patches can help you avoid them.
Experiencing slow downs? Try to make a habit of clearing your cache and cookies,
and stay current with your software updates.
Remember that sometimes you might encounter a problem you can't fix. To prevent
permanent loss, make sure you backup your data. Try saving it online (cloud
storage), in flash drives, or even as attachments in an email to yourself.
What if you try all these ideas and still encounter issues? Many companies like
Microsoft have a list of frequently asked questions (FAQs) and tips. Save your
instructions and manuals - these are a great reference for your troubleshooting
questions. Try a search engine to see if other people have probably encountered the
same problem.
Before contacting Information Technology, keep a list of error messages,
screenshots or printouts. A picture is worth a thousand words.
Connectivity:
How do you pinpoint a connectivity issue?

Wired connections are generally more reliable. If you are using wireless, is it
behaving? Try moving closer to the router or resetting both the modem and router.
Also, keep your Firmware current. Firmware is embedded software that lives on
hardware devices. Firmware is like the operating system for your router and it keeps
it running smoothly.

Ping is a tool that indicates if a connection is working. Ping a site such as Google to
see if the connection is good or if the host computer is unavailable. Ping is available
at the Command Prompt on the Startup Menu.

Computers talk in numbers. That's where the Domain Name System comes in,
which translates site names into Internet Protocol (IP) numbers. An IP address
allows computers to communicate. If a certain website is down, you can try
searching by the site's IP address instead

Introduction to MS Work: 
What is Microsoft Word (MS Word)?
MS Word is the most popular word processing software used today. A word
processor is essentially a computerized version of the standard typewriter. However,
the computer adds features typewriters never dreamed of having like spell check, the
ability to save and store documents, copy and paste functions, the ability to add
images and shapes to documents, and many more. When attached to an email,
electronic documents, created by MS Word can be delivered in seconds. Another
benefit is that it helps the user to type faster and more accurate.
What is MS Word Used For? 
This software is used to create, edit, and format written documents in the workplace,
at school, and at home. Examples include personal and formal business letters,
resumes, cover sheets, and homework. Intermediate and advanced level knowledge
of this software could lead to job opportunities since MS Word is used a lot in the
workplace.

Steps for Learning MS Word: 

 Open, close, resize the MS Word Window

 Create a new document (Highlight template option)
 Navigate around the MS Word Window
 Become familiar with the Microsoft Button menu
 Review formating and other tools on the ribbon

Use Job Seeking Cover Letter to Learn Formatting Tools:

  Become familiar with text formatting tools(Font, bold, italic, underline, size, &
justification)

 Demonstrate highlighting, copy, cut, & paste

 Understand difference between delete and backspace
 Change justification, line spacing, and margins
 Use tab, indent icon, and bullets to indent text
 Add images, pictures, headers, or footers using Insert
 Instruct on how to use the “Spell Check” feature

Complete the Process:

Print or print preview the document
Save, save-as, rename, move, and delete file.

Introduction MS Excel:
Microsoft Excel is a spreadsheet program that is used to record and analyse
numerical data. Think of a spreadsheet as a collection of columns and rows that form
a table. Alphabetical letters are usually assigned to columns and numbers are
usually assigned to rows. The point where a column and a row meet is called a cell.
The address of a cell is given by the letter representing the column and the number
representing a row. Let's illustrate this using the following image.

Why Should I Learn Microsoft Excel?

We all deal with numbers in one way or the other. We all have daily expenses which
we pay for from the monthly income that we earn. For one to spend wisely, they will
need to know their income vs. expenditure. Microsoft Excel comes in handy when we
want to record, analyze and store such numeric data.

Where can I get Microsoft Excel?

There are number of ways in which you can get Microsoft Excel. You can buy it from
a hardware computer shop that also sells software. Microsoft Excel is part of the
Microsoft Office suite of programs. Alternatively, you can download it from the
Microsoft website but you will have to buy the license key.

How to Open Microsoft Excel?

Running Excel is not different from running any other Windows program. If you are
running Windows with a GUI like (Windows XP, Vista, and 7) follow the following
steps.

 Click on start menu

 Point to all programs
 Point to Microsoft Excel
 Click on Microsoft Excel

MS PowerPoint:
Definition - What does Microsoft PowerPoint mean?
Microsoft PowerPoint is a powerful presentation software developed by Microsoft. It
is a standard component of the company's Microsoft Office suite software, and is
bundled together with Word, Excel and other Office productivity tools. The program
uses slides to convey information rich in multimedia. The term "slide" refers to the
slide projector, which this software effectively replaces.

Where do you find or start PowerPoint?

If you have Microsoft PowerPoint or the entire Microsoft Office package installed in
Microsoft Windows, you can find PowerPoint in your Start menu.

Keep in mind that new computers do not include PowerPoint. It must be purchased
and installed before it can be run on your computer.

Open My Computer:

 Click on or select the C: drive. If Microsoft Office is installed on a drive other

than the C: drive, select that drive instead.
 Navigate to the Program Files (x86) folder, then the Microsoft Office folder.
 In the Microsoft Office folder, if there is a root folder, open that folder. Then
open the OfficeXX folder, where XX is the version of Office (e.g., Office16 for
Microsoft Office 2016). If there is no root folder, look for and open a folder that
has "Office" in the name.