lLkepitbitr of 1IL J1)i1qJpillec3

)rofeiloiiri1 ecii1citeoii Qroiiiiicion

Jill i ii ii i

BOARD OF MEChANICAL ENGINEERING

Board Resolution No. 25

Series of 2007

Ai)OI’TION ANt) PROMULGATION OF ‘[lIE REVISED

PI-IILIPPINI( l’IF(lIANhCAI. (.‘()I.)K (2007 FE)I’[ION)

Vb’I—IEREAS, for the practice oI’ niechanical enginecri tie. I he Hoard adopted and
promulgated the PSM [F Code;

WhEREAS, there hasteen an urgent and i niportant iced for the updatemenl and
revision of the said Code to cope up with ttic rapid, continuous advancement in
mechanical engineering technology that has brought about economic rowtli and
development:

WhEREAS, in lesponse to such need, the PS ME. I TIC., and the other alit late
sectors of the profession have come up with the Revised Philippine Mcclianical Code,
2007 Edition;

WHEREAS, this new Code presents topics with a balanced coverate of relevant
fundamental and realworld practices that would ensure our mechanical engineers to
enhance and maintain high professional, technical, and ethical standards br the practice
of mechanical engineering profession;

WHEREAS, the Board is empowered to adopt and promulgate such (ode

pursuant to its power to adopt a Code of Professional Standards fir the practice o I
mechanical engineering under Sec. 9(h). Art. Ii of R.A. No. 8495. known as the
“Philippine Mechanical Engineering Act of I )98”: a.n(.l

WHEREAS, as part of the Rules and Regulations of the Board, violation of any
provision of this Code is a ground for d iscipi i I1aT’y act on against a pro Icssioiial
mechanical engineer, registered mechanical engineer, and certified plant ineclianic

P. PAREDES ST., CORNER MORAYTA STREET, SAMPALOC, MANILA, PHILIPPINES

P0 BOX 2038, MANILA
//4
 ;m(I
NOW, THEREFORE, the Board Resol VCS, OS I IS hereby RCSOI ed, In ;lopI
, submit ted by the
promulgate the Revised Philippine Mechanical Code, 2007 Edition
l paii
Philippine Society of Mechanical Engineers, Inc. (PSM E), ANNEX “A’’, as integra
of the herein Resolution.

This Code shall take effect a fter fifteen (1 5) (lays tbl lowing its lull and complete
in the
publication in the Official Gazette or iii a newspaper I general eiren latini
Philippines.

Done in the City of Manila, this 17 day of October 2007.

ALFRY.
(‘,{inirniaii 7

PALISBO (VACAN’I’)
(_,,/‘ rnber M ember

OS G. ALMELOR
Secretary, Professional
Regulatory Boards

A P PRO \/ ED:

LEONOR TRLPON-ROSFRO
Chairperson

4 ROSAS
RUTH RANA PADJ.LLA
Coinmi ssi oner

PRB-MEF]D-SRB
AYP/CGA/ofie
a: revised me code 2007
PHILIPPINE SOCIETY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS
INTEGRATED ASSOCIATION OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS

CODE COMMITTEE 2008

EDUARDO P. MENCIAS
CHAIRMAN

MEMBERS

VICTORINO Z. SIANGHIO, JR.

PACIFICO 0. ORTALIZA

ALBERTO I. LORESCO, JR.

CARMELITO A. ALUNAN

CIPRIANO A. MARCELO
 1{publlc of II1i Iiipin
rnfcrnwf Ruftzfion QIummon

BOARD OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

MESSAGE

Most cordial greetings to the Philippine Society of Mechanical Engineers

(PSME) as you publish the Philippine Mechanical Code (M.E. Code) 2008 edi
tion.

This publication is an effective research and resources material, not only for
mechanical engineers but also for those who seek relevant information to guide
the general public on efficiency and quality performance. It sets forth the stan
dards of professional conduct thereby ensuring that if faithfully conforms to the
implementation of Republic Act No. 8495, otherwise known as the “Philippine
Mechanical Engineering Act of 1998”, and provides for the remedial measures
or sanctions for any violation.

This contribution to the society epitomizes your earnest desire to harmonize and
unite all mechanical engineers and provide a guiding path in achieving profes
sional excellence, integrity, humility and service. This worthy project of PSME
will surely mark another milestone of success, as you continue to broaden the
horizon and expand the boundaries of Filipino mechanical engineers.

Congratulations and more power!

LEONOR TRIPON-ROSERO
Secretary August 1, 2008

P. PAREDES ST., CORNER N. REYES ST., SAMPALOC, MANILA, PHILIPPINES, 1008

P.O. BOX 2038, MANILA
 3
1ubItc 1TE t1e Ii14phw
Re
ruftnrnt Reu{tHøn mmnn

MESSAGE

Warmest greetings and congratulations to the Officers and Members of

the Philippine Society of Mechanical Engineers (PSME) for this tangible
labor of love, the publication of the 2008 Philippine Mechanical Code
(M.E. Code).

The ultimate and grateful beneficiaries of this repository of valuable

information are in the registered and licensed mechanical engineers and the
public, who continue to repose trust and value to the mechanical engineering
profession. May this comprehensive compilation inspire, motivate and
encourage professionals in the vital participation of fulfilling their mandate
and promoting standards of excellence.

It is the dream of many, if not all to become experts in their chosen fields of
endeavor, and this Code is symbolical of the Society’s commitment to make
sure that the professionals remain true to their sworn duty to serve and
contribute to the progress of our nation, and improve quality of life.

Congratulations on this achievement and more power to PSME!

RUTH RANA-PADILLA
August 1, 2008 Commissioner

P. PAREDES ST., CORNER N. REYES ST., SAMPALOC, MANILA, PHILIPPINES, 1008

P.O. BOX 2038, MANILA
 Rpub{fc of flue
rufeIunaI Reukthnn !Iommiion
4tnttht

MESSAGE

It gives me great pleasure to congratulate the Philippine Society of

Mechanical Engineers (PSME) for the release and issuance of the
2008 Philippine Mechanical Engineering Code (M.E. Code)

This publication truly demonstrates the desire of bringing together

concepts, strategies, formula, method and approaches which can
serve as useful guide in the practice of the mechanical engineering
profession, given the call of globalization. It also provides a ready
reference for practitioners, allies, partners and clients in understand
ing the exact science of engineering.

I sincerely hope that this persistent effort of providing avenue for

harmonization and unity among your professional sector and in
improving relations with the general public will achieve its purpose.

We, in the Professional Regulation Commission, shall continue to

be your partner in our common goal of leading others to attaining
professional values of excellence and integrity.

4’L
NILO L. ROSAS
Commissioner
August 1, 2008

P. PAREDES ST., CORNER N. REYES ST., SAMPALOC, MANILA, PHILIPPINES, 1008

 Rpuhllc uf If tlijpn
roforntt Ruftftnn mmnn

BOARD OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING I

MESSAGE

It is with great privilege that I offer my warmest congratulations to the

Philippine Society of Mechanical Engineers (PSME) and its upcoming
publication of the Philippine Mechanical Code (M.E.Code) 2008 edition.

This vital reference book puts together expertise of private practitioners and
various references for mechanical engineers to continuously cope up with
the advancement of technology, formulating and adopting techniques and
systems relevant in the Philippine condition and to constantly uphold the
ideals of integrity, spiritual values, and commitment to serve the nation.

This effort of the men and women of the PSME functions greatly in the
administrative supervision of the Board over its professionals. Your
invaluable role in providing this reference reflects your commitment to
professionalism. I believe that only through this comprehensive information
campaign that we will be able to observe, implement and uphold
professional excellence.

We in the Board of Mechanical Engineering take pride in this successful

collaboration with PSME and in the Society’s effort to update its members
and the general public on the latest developments in the implementation of
the rules and regulations of Republic Act No. 8495, otherwise known as the
Philippine Mechanical Engineering Act. of 1998’. This M.E. Code is a
worthy project that we are pleased to endorse and support. Rest assured that
I join you in all your endeavors to continuously define, articulate and realize
the progressive development of our chosen profession.

My sincerest congratulations and best wishes to all.

ENGR. A FREDO Y. P0 July 18, 2008

Chairman /
Board of ‘Iechanical Engineering

R PAREDES ST., CORNER N. REYES ST., SAMPALOC, MANILA, PHILIPPINES, 1008

P.O. BOX 2038, MANILA
 ____

PROFESSIONAL REGULATION
C MM Is SI 0 NJ

LEONOR TRIPON-ROSERO
Chairperson

RUTH RANA-PADILLA NILO L. ROSAS

Member Member

BOARD OF MECHANICAL
N G I M E F? I N G

ENGR. ALFREDO Y. P0
Chairman

1
HON. JOVENCIO C. PALISBO VACANT
Member
 PREFACE 2008 EDITION
This code undertakes a significant change for an advanced study of certain provisions of Mechani-
cal Engineering in the realization of our Global climate change and trends, to address relevant
needs of the future. All PSME Chapters have given their contributions to uplift the standards of our
Code to a more meaningful practice of the Mechanical Engineering Profession.

Our present trend is to venture into a cleaner and greener environmental field. For and in consi
derations of these fields, we adopted the latest revision of the American, European and Japanese
Mechanical Codes which were deemed applicable and relevant to Philippine Conditions, the as
pects of which were clearly defined and illustrated. Moreover, prevailing Philippine conditions has
greatly affected and influenced, with the end in view, such that private practitioners’ inputs were
solicited, reviewed and included in many chapters.

All changes, additions and amendments came about after careful and thorough deliberations and
evaluations by the code committee resulting in simple clarifications and explanations

In case of conflicts in the Interpretation of the provisions of this code, the Board of Mechanical
Engineering, Professional Regulation Commission, shall be the arbiter whose decision shall be
final and unappealable.

The Code and Standards Committee welcomes comments, inputs and suggestions for the improve
ment of this code especially on omissions, errors, conflicts, etc... arising from the final printing of
this code. All suggestions / comments shall then be reviewed and deliberated upon for possible
inclusion in the next edition, as this is a continuing process for evaluation, advancement and prog
ress.

4.
czz
L
/

EDUARDO P. MENCIAS
PSME National President 1979, 1980
Chairman, 2008 Code & Standards Committee
 PHILIPPINE SOCIETY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS
INTEGRATED ASSOCIATION OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS

2008 NATIONAL OFFICERS

Saylito M. Purisima President
Renato A. Florencio Executive Vice President
Reynald B. Ilagan VP-External Affairs
Antonio Camelo P. Tompar VP-Techical Affairs
Julius B. Yballe VP- Internal Affairs
Reynaldo P. Uy VP-NCR
Liberato S. Virata VP-Luzon
Arlan B. Banquillo VP-Visayas
Henry M. Gatilogo VP-Mindanao
Alberto I. Loresco, Jr Secretary
Joel M. Aviso Asst. Secretary
Cipriano A. Marcelo Treasurer
Reymundo V. Cruz Asst. Treasurer
Emmanuel C. Tayson Deputy VP-South Luzon
Dean A. Cancino Deputy VP-NCR
Roseller 0. Bucoy VP-Central Visayas
Ulysses Rex P. Bonita Deputy VP-Eastern Visayas
Clarito M. Magno Deputy VP-Mindanao
Arnold A. Umbao PRO Visayas
Jerico T. Borja Director
Benjamin C. Zeta Director
Venerando S. Mesiona, Sr Director
Joseph Rudente F. David Director
Manuel C. Espeleta Executive Director
Vicente B. Vosotros Immediate Past President
Celestino P. Cañeca, Jr 2008 National President +

FORMER NATIONAL PRESIDENTS:

Tobias P. Marcelo • LuisA. Flores • VictorA. Lim Domingo S. Mendoza, Sr. • Pedro B. Manayon •Adelfo D. Urtula • RodolfoA. Vales • Urbano J.
Pobre • ceferino L. Follosco • Pedro F. Loresco • cesar B. Lopez clodoveo V. Soriano, Jr. • Ernesto B. Marcelo • Pedro Ma. Carino Damaso
c, Tria • Luisito M. Reyes • Roberto G. Abiera . Eduardo P. Mencias •Armando C. Pascual • Julio F. Abarquez •Amaldo P. Baldonado • Victorino
Z. Sianghio, Jr. •Antonio Ro. Herrera • Emesto V. Villanueva • Gemeliano F. calinawan • Danilo 0. Bulanadi •Alfredo Y. Po •Alberto D. Dosayla’
Romeo A. Perlado ‘Augusto c. Soliman • Gerardo c. Hernandez Expedito S. Bollozos Sergio c. Balolong ‘Juan C. Cabanayan Gaudencio
R. de Guzman • Ernesto J. Casis • Roberto A. Lozada • Ramon c. Maniago • Danilo R Hernandez • Vicente V. de Guzman • Edimar V. Salcedo
• Ramon F. Solis * Vicente B. Vosotros
CHAPTER TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE
GENERAL
I
Scope• Requirements for Permit Application Standards for Drawings Inspection
2 COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS
6
Scope• Plant Design Procedure • General Requirements • Machinery & Equipment
Anti-Pollution for Industrial Buildings

3 PRIME MOVERS, POWER TRANSMISSION EQUIPMENT,

MACHINES AND MACHINE PARTS 14
Scope Definitions • Guards • Principle of Safe Machine Design Power Transmission
System

4 MACHINE GUARDS AND SAFETIES AT POINTS OF

OPERATION AND DANGER ZONES 30
Scope• Definitions • General Requirements. Die-Casting Machines Wood Working
Machine• Paper and Printing Machines • Textiles and Laundry Machinery• Leather and
Composition Goods Machines • Food and Tobacco Machinery. Chemical Industry
Machines • Rubber and Composition Working Machines Stone, Clay and Glass
Working Machines • Cotton and Seed Cotton Processing Machines • Other Industrial
Machinery in Manufacturing Installations • Protection for Electrical Machinery in
Commercial & Industrial Installations • Personal Protection in Workplaces

5 CRANES AND OTHER HOISTING EQUIPMENT 53

Scope. Definitions • General Requirements for Cranes • Boom Type Mobile Cranes
• Hoists • Derricks in Permanent Location • Auxiliary Hoisting Equipment• Operating
Rules• Inspection

6 ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND

MOVING WALKS 63
Scope. Definitions • Electric Elevator • Machine Rooms and Machinery Spaces
Electrical Wiring, Pipes and Ducts in Hoistways and Machine Rooms• Machinery and
Equipment for Electric Elevators • Hydraulic Elevators • Private Residence Elevators
• Hand and Power Dumbwaiters • Escalators• Moving Walks

7 BOILERS AND PRESSURE VESSELS 130

Definitions • General Requirements for Boiler and Pressure Vessel Installation Specific
Requirements for Fired Tube Boilers • Specific Requirements for Miniature Boilers
• Specific Requirements for Low Pressure Heating Boilers • Unfired Pressure Vessels
Test and Inspection • Boiler Inspection • Blow-Offs, Pressure Reduction, Fire Explosion
Devices • Other Testing Methods

8 HEATING, VENTILATING, REFRIGERATING AND

AIR CONDITIONING 151
Definitions • Air Conditioning and Ventilation Standards • Duct System and Accessories•
Heat Gain Calculations • Refrigeration System • Air Intakes and Outlets • Air Filters
• Noise Abatement • Cold Storage and Refrigeration •Refrigerant Piping, Valves,
Fittings and Related Parts • Pressure Relief Valve • Discharge from Pressure Relief
Devices • Pressure Limiting Devices • Test of Refrigerant Containing Vessels
• Instructions • Helmets • Refrigerant Storage • The Fundamentals in Vapor-Compression
Refrigeration • Anti- Pollution for Ventilating, Refrigeration & Air Conditioning Energy
Conservation for Ventilating, Refrigeration & Air Conditioning • Montreal Protocol
 173
9 FIRE PROTECTION AND PREVENTION

General Requirements• Indoor General Storage. Fire Protection Systems Outdoor

e
General Storage Anti-Pollution for Standards for Indoor and Outdoor General Storag
Standards on Halon 1301 Fire Extinguished Systems Fire Prevention Doctrine
195
10 PUMPS
General Requirements Definitions Pumps Fluid Power Metrication • Metric Pump
Formula
213
11 PIPING

Scope Definitions • General Requirements• Identification Colors for Pipes. Fluid Flow
Velocities • Power Piping System Design • Industrial Gas and Air Piping System
• Refrigerator Piping Systems
241
12 METROLOGY
Purpose and Scope. Definitions • Measurement Concepts • Classification of the
Common Measuring Instruments Used in lndustry• Graduated Manual Measuring tools
• Non-Graduated Manual Measuring Tools• Special Purpose Measuring Tools
• Non-Destructive Inspection Pressure and Vacuum Measurements Thermometry
and Pyrometry. Flow Metering Measurement of Weight The Three Common
Methods of Rotational Speed Measurements • Environmental and Pollution
Measurements
263
13 MACHINE SHOP MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT

Purpose and Scope • Standard Machine • Special Tools and Machinery in Machine Shop
of a Manufacturing Plant • Sizes of Motors for Machine Shop Equipment and Forging
Machinery• Machine Screws Gearing Guarding of Point of Operating in Turning,
Drilling, Shaping, Milling And Grinding Operations
282
14 MANUFACTURING PROCESSES
Definitions Classification of Manufacturing Processes • Processes • Shielded Metal Arc
Welding . Safety Precautions • Pollution Control • Anti- Pollution for Manufacturing Processes
298
15 FUELS AND LUBRICANTS
Fuels . Solid Fuels • Coke • Wood and Hogged Fuel • Miscellaneous Solid Fuels
• Liquid Fuels Storage and Handling of Fuel Oil • Gasoline and Kerosene • Diesel Fuel
‘

Oils • Gaseous Fuels • Diesel Lubricating Oils • Units of Heat Measurement

318
16 MATERIALS

Tools Steels • Standards Steels • Corrosion-Resistant Steels • Heat Treatment of Steel

• Non-Ferrous Alloys. Etching
353
17 INSTRUMENTATION

Purpose • Scope. Definitions • Outline of the Identifications System • Drawings

• Instrument Line Symbols
377
APPENDICES
CODE OF ETHICS
BOARD OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING RESOLUTIONS
 CHAPTER 1 - GENERAL

Chapter 1

GENERAL

Section 1.0 Scope (a) Assembly of pipes on racks and supports,

This chapter provides the general requirements for (b) Complete individual piping system,
works involving machinery design, installations and indicating terminal to terminal valves,
operations. fittings, size and color code.

As used in this code, and as defined in Article I 2.4
Section 3 Paragraph (b) Republic Act No. 8495,
otherwise known as The New Mechanical Engineering
Law, mechanical equipment/machinery or process
shall include steam engines, internal combustion
engines, boilers, turbines, crushers, mills, mixers, 2.5
compressors, cranes, conveyors, hoists elevators,
pipelines, line shafting, etc.; and the term “mechanical
works, plant,” shall include steam plants, internal
combustion engine plant, hydraulic power plants,
pumping plants, refrigerating plants, air-conditioning
plants, mill shops, factories, shipyards, etc. containing 2.6
any mechanical equipment, machinery or process.
2.7
Section 2.0 Requirements for Permit
Application 2.8
All proposed installations, additions or alterations
involving machinery, mechanical equipment or 2.9
process shall be covered by the following plans and
specifications prepared by or under the supervision of
a Professional Mechanical Engineer signed and
sealed by same. Such plans in triplicate shalt
accompany applications for installation and operation
permit.
2.1 General layout plan for each floor drawn to scale
not less than 1:200, in heavy lines the
equipment with super-imposed building outline
in light or suppressed lines. All names of
machinery and brake horsepower or kilowatt
rating should be noted on plan.
Separate plan for the different store rooms, fuel
tanks, fire extinguishing equipment, fire fighting
tools, fire doors, fire escape ladders, etc., which
were not incorporated in Section 2.1.
For air conditioning and refrigeration installation
or ventilation, plans for supply and return
ductwork should indicate the location of outlet
dampers, controls, filters, fire proofing, sound
insulators.
Detailed plans of foundations and supports.
Detailed construction and working plans of
boilers and pressure vessels, if any.
Location plan preferably drawn to scale.
Complete list of machineries showing:
(a) Machinery name:.
(b) Catalogue number, size, model, serial
number
(c) Rated capacity (Ex. Boiler Steam capacity in
Kg/Hr, kW, kJ)
(d) Drive and Revolutions per minute
(1) Direct
(2) V-belt or flat belt

2.2 Plan elevation at least one longitudinal and one (3) Gear reducer
traverse to show inner floor relations indicating
how machines are supported whether through (4) Hydraulic
building structure, separate staging or by
foundations from the ground. (5) Magnetic

2.3 Piping plan in isometric drawing: (6) Chain

I
 ____

CHAPTER 1 - GENERAL

(7) Line Shafting

Electrical windings
(e) Motor or Prime Mover Showing: Cast and malleable iron
(Also for general use electro-magnets,
of all materials) resistance etc.
(1) kW for each machine
000
Steel Concrete
(2) speed in RPM •

(3) total kW installed, or to be installed

Bronze, brass, copper,
/
,“<,i Brick and stone
and compositions
?? ;:;, /
2.10 Flow-sheet if processing plant, manufacturing or
assembly plant with the corresponding standard White metal, zinc, Marble, slate, glass
symbols. lead, babbit, and porcelain, etc.
alloys

2.11 Other Contents of Mechanical Plans:

Magnesium, aluminum,

The Plans shall also contain the signature and

and aluminum alloys hEanh
seal of a Professional Mechanical Engineer with
the following: Rubber, plastic
Rock
electrical insulation

(a) Registration number

(b) Validity Date

— — —
Cork, felt, fabric.
leather, fiber HH Sand

(c) Professional Tax

Place of Issue
Receipt (PTR), Date,
V
Sound
insulation
[—
.ZEEEtEI
Water and other
liquids

(d) Tax Identification Number

Section 3O Standards for Drawings

r ?‘?‘1 Thermal
insulation
Wood
Across grain

Firebrick and Wood-

3.1 Metric Dimension on Drawings. refractory material With grain

Length in metric units that are most generally

used in connection with any work relating to
mechanical engineering are meters and Fig. 1-1 Standard Symbols for Section
millimeters. One meter equals 1,000 millimeters.
On mechanical drawings, all dimensions are Only dimension or precision need be given in decimals
general, given in millimeter, no matter of millimeters; such dimensions are generally given in
how large the dimension may be. In fact, hundredths of a millimeter, for example, 0.02 mm,
dimensions of such machinery as which is equal to .0008 in. As .01 mm is equal to .0004
locomotives and large electric al apparatus in, it is seldom that dimensions would be given with
are given exclus ively in millimeters. This
greater accuracy than hundredths of a millimeter.
practice is adopted to avoid mistakes due
to misplaced decimal points, or misread
dimensions as when other units are used
as well. When dimensions are given in
millimeters, most of them can be given
without resorting to decimal points, as a
millimeter is only little more than 1/32
inch.

2
 CHAPTER 1 - GENERAL
PENCIL LINES INK LINES
THICK THICK
VISIBLE LINE

MEDIUM MEDIUM
MIDDEN LINE 2

THIN TI4tN
3 SECTION LINE

THIN THIN
4 CENTERLINE 4 —

Leader ,— Leader
5 Extension Line Extension Line
Dimension Line
ThIN
I DIMENSION
Oimensin Line
THIN VI_ v/
6 LINE
EXTENSION r161I
LINE
Fig. 1-4 Application of surface symbol to drawings
7. THIN
I
ANDREADERS

1714 THIN

4__ —
— THICK — — __4i CUTTING -PLANE { 8
L —
— THICK —
—

LINES OR
VIEWING-PLANE
LINES
9 4__ —
— THICK —
—

THICK THICK
10 10

}
—.———-——--—-——————— ...—.—._——-—-.——.——————
.

EREAK LINES
4
T__
y THIN

THIN THIN
12 ——
PHANTOM LINE 12 — —

WIDTH AND CHARACTER OF LINES

Fig. 1-5 Proportions for surface symbol
WIDTH AND CHARACTER OF LINES
Three width of lines thick, medium, and thin are recommended
—
—

for use on drawings. Pencil lines in general should be in proportion

to the ink lines except that the ticker pencils will be necessarily
thinner than the corresponding ink lines, but as tick as practicable
for pencil work. Exact thickness may vary according to the size and
type of drawing. For example, were lines are close together, the
lines may be slightly thinner.
SECT1ONA.A
Fig. 1-2 Standard Lines for Engineering Drawings Roughness He,ght (00) 63
Roughness Heriht (1D) 32
Roughness Width Cutoff
-
030
Waxiness Height (00) 002
Waviness Height (ID) 001
Lay (00) Circcn,Ierestiat
las 11001 Asel
Roughness height rating Is
placed at the left of the long Maximum reqsirements forces-
6,.7 leg. The specification of only one tact or bearing area with a rat
,etlng shat indicate the mini ing part of reference surface
mum Value and any lesser value shall be indicated by a percent Roughness Height (00) 63 Mu in.
shall be acceptable. gge value placed above the
extension line as shown further Roughness Height (ID) 32 Mu in.
requirements may be controlled
by notes. Roughness Width Cut-off 030
The specification of maximum .002 -2
Lay designation is indicated by
Waviness Height (0D) 002
value and minlmran Value rough 63
ness height ratings indicates 32 ..L
gre ta symbol plucod at the
right o the long leg.
Waviness Height (ID) 001
permissible range of value
rating Lay (OD) Circumferential
Lay (ID) Axial
.002-2
002
Maximum waxiness height rating
is placed above the horizontal
7i5 Roughness width cutoff rating
is placed below the horizontal
Fig. 1-6 Interpretation of surface symbol data
extensIon. Any lesser rating shall extension when no value is
shown. 0.030 Is assumed.
be acceptable.

.002 - 2 .002-2
Maximum waxiness width rating Where required, maximum
is placed above the horizontal 63 7i’ roughness width rating shed be
extension and to the right of the 3,/’.L. .020 parted at the right of the lay
waviness height rating. Any len symboL Any lesser rating shall
serrating shat be acceptable. be acceptable.

Fig. 1-3 Application of symbols and specifications

for surface finish

3
 CHAPTER 1 - GENERAL

part under this Code provided that all

the programs to be used are
documented and appropriate
SPECIFYARAEAS AFFECTED
-.XX)(-.XXXDIA
XXX.XXX DEEP
SURFACE ROUGHNESS provisions of this Code are satisfied.
X)(X- XX CBORE
2. Program Docum entation:
XXX-XXX DEEP
XXX-.XXX CBORE XX Docum enting a compu ter program
“
,XX)I-XXX DEEP
.XXXX-XXUNF -ZB under this Code shall consist of filing
XXX DEEP MINIMUM FULL FROM THREAD with the Philippine Mechanical Code
Commission (the Commission)
reference publications accessible to
the Commission where the detailed
description of the program or a brief
statement of the theoretical
WELL
backgr ound of the progra m including
GRWD a description of the algorithms used
LAP are found.
//L 3. Computer Generated Computations: A
copy of the output sheets shall be
submitted as part of the design
computations, which shall be
f designating surface roughness on a accompanied by a certific ation by a
Fig. 1-7 Meth
process drawing tor several operations on same surface profess ional mecha nical engine er that
the output sheets are the results
3.2 Scales of Drawing. obtained through the use of
documented programs. The
Drawings made using the International System certification shall include the name
of Units should not be made to scales of 1:2, and document reference number(s) of
1:4, 1:8, etc. If the object cannot be drawn full the specific program(s) used for each
size, it may be drawn 1:2.5, 1:5, 1:10, 1:20, portion of the computer generated
1:30, 1:100, 1:200, 1:500, or 1:1000 size. If the computations being submitted.
object is too small and has to be drawn larger it 4. Computer Generated Drawings:
is drawn 2, 5, or 10 times its actual size. The Computer generated drawings shall
scale therefore shall be written 2:1; 5:1; 10:1. conform to the provisions of Section
1.2, 1.3, and other provisions of this
3.3 Standard sheet sizes: Code.

Standard sheet sizes for mechanical plans and Section 4.0 Inspection
drawings shall be based on a width to length
ration of 1: square root of 2. All borders shall be 4.1 Inspection shall be done during installation to
at least 10 mm from the sheet edge; and all title satisfy inspection office of respective
blocks shall be located at the lower right hand government agency concer ned that all materials
corner inside borders for larger sheets, and and method s of erectio n are inspected in
throughout the lower sheet border for smaller confor mance with this code.
sheets. Standard sheet sizes shall be as follows:
4.2 Annual inspection shall be made to see that:
1. A4:210x297mm
2. A3:297x420mm (a) Equipment as originally installed are still
3. A2:420x594mm safe to operate for at least another year.
4. A1:594x840mm
5. 375x530mm (b) No change, addition or alteration deviating
6. 530x750mm from the original plan was made without
7. 750x1065mm prior permit from the proper government
agency concerned.
A. Use of Computers

1. Computers may be used for all or any

part of the design or mechanical plant,
facility, system, machine or machine

4
 CHAPTER 1 - GENERAL

150mm

drawn by Title drwng. no.

checked
by scale sheet no.

p. m. e. owner

20 20

Fig. 1-8 Title Block

5
 CHAPTER 2- COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL BUILDING

Chapter 2

COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL BUILDING

d. For industrial buildings, all specific demands

Section 1.0 Scope
of the manufacturing processes such as
special mechanical and electrical equipment
This chapter covers general guidelines in the choice
of interior clearances, should be identified.
and design of industrial building. It includes safety
rules and requirements for the various aspects of
industrial buildings, and matters on machinery and Section 3.0 General Requirements
equipment foundation designs.
3.1 Space Requirements
Section 2.0 Plant Design Procedure
a. Work Rooms (referring to maintenance shop
and machine room) shall be at least 3 000
2.1 Basis of the Structure Design.
mm in height from floor to ceiling.
For indust 31 works, the utilization demand of
b. The maximum number of persons working
the industry for which the building is to be used
or will be working shall not exceed one
are of utmost importance in the design of
person per 12 cubic meter. In calculating
buildings.
the working space requirement, no
deduction shall be made for benches or
Aside from geographical location and economic
other furniture, machines or materials but
consideration, the mechanical and electrical
requirements are extremely height exceeding 3 000 mm shall be
equipment
for all modern buildings, particularly excluded.
important
factories.
3.2 Crowding of Floor Space
2.2 Requirements for number, size, location and
a. The floor space in a machine room shall
height of rise for elevators with particular
strictly follow safety requirements and shall
attention to penthouse dimensions and
not be crowded with machineries in a
equipment loads.
manner dangerous to employees, or be over
General requirements for plumbing with crowded with materials or products so as to
a.
particular attention to the location of soil constitute hazards to them.
stacks, standpipes, main pumps, water-
b. Sufficient space shall be provided around
storage tanks and sprinkler systems.
the individual machine or process units to
allow for normal operation, adjustments,
b. If steam is to be produced within the
buildings, requirements of the boiler room ordinary repairs, and for material supplied,
and accessories, such as fuel storage, the in process or completed.
probable location of steam mains and ducts
and their approximate sizes in order to avoid 3.3 Stumbling Hazard
interference with a structure member of
other utilities. a. The parts of floors over which any person is
liable to work shall be sufficiently even to
afford safe walking and safe trucking of
c. Typical lighting demands with particular
attention to ceiling outlets as their proper materials.
locations may influence the framing of the
building and the necessary space required b. Such parts shall be free from holes and
splinters, improperly fitted covers for gutters
for the electric conduits often affect the floor
of conduits, protruding nails and bolts,
design.
projecting valves or pipes, or other

6
 CHAPTER 2- COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL BUILDING
projections and obstructions which might
create stumbling hazards.
3.4 Slipping Hazards
a. Floors, stair treads and landings shall not be
slippery under any condition or made of any
material which will become slippery through
wear. In the case of concrete stairs, it
should have a rough finish and for steel
stairs, checkered plate or standard metals
and non-slip strip shall be used.
b. Stairways, ramps, elevators, platforms and
similar places where slipping may be
especially hazardous, shall be provided with
non-slip walkway surfaces.
3.5 Floor and Wall Opening:
a. Ladder way, floor openings shall be guarded
on all exposed sides, except at the entrance
to the opening, by permanent railings and
toe boards, the passage through the railings
shall be provided with a barrier or gate so
arranged that a person cannot walk directly
into the opening.
b. Stairway floor openings shall be guarded on
all exposed sides, except at the entrance to
he stairway, by permanent railings and toe
boards.
c. For seldom used stairways where traffic
across the opening prevents the use of
permanent railings, the guard shall consist
of a flush-hinged cover of adequate strength
equipped with railings attached thereto so
as to leave only one side exposed when the
cover is open.
d. Hatchway chute, pit and trap door openings
(it cold be an elevator pit or a maintenance
pit) shall be guarded by:
1. Removable railings with toe boards
on not more than two sides and
permanent railings with toe boards
on all other exposed sides, or
2. Flush-hinged cover as specified for
stairway floor openings.
3.6 Manholes and Other Openings
7
a. Manhole floor openings shall be provided
with manhole covers of adequate strength
which need not be hinged.
b. Other floor openings into which persons can
accidentally fall through shall be guarded
either by permanent railings and toe boards
on all exposed sides or by hinged floor
opening covers of adequate strength.
c. When covers for either type are not in place,
the opening shall be constantly attended to
by someone or protected by portable
enclosing railings.
d. Floor openings into which person can
accidentally walk on account of fixed
machinery, equipment or walls shall be
guarded by covers securely held in place
and leaving no openings more than 25 mm
in width or by toe boards on all exposed
sides.
e. All wall openings less than 1 000 mm from
the floor having a height of at least 750 mm
and width of 450 mm from which there is a
drop of more than 2 000 mm shall be solidly
enclosed or guarded by fixed or rolling
barrier rails, picket fences, half doors, or
equivalent barriers, capable of withstanding
a load of at least 100 kg applied in any
direction except vertically upward at any
point on the top or corresponding member.
f. All other wall openings, irrespective of their
width shall, if their lower edge either 80 mm
or less above floor level on the near side or
2 000 mm or more above ground, or floor
level on the far side, be guarded by:
1. A toe board across the bottom of
the opening or
2. An enclosing screen, either solid or
of grilles or slat work with openings
not more than 25 mm in width.
3.7 Railings
a. All railings shall be constructed in a
permanent and substantial manner of wood,
pipe, structure metal or other material of
sufficient strength.
b. Standard railings shall be at least 1 000 mm
from the upper surface of the top rail to floor
level.
 CHAPTER 2- COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL BUILDING
c. Standard railings shall have posts not more
than 2 000 mm apart and an intermediate
rail halfway between top rail and the floor.
d. The dimensions of railings and posts and
the anchoring and framing of members shall
be such that the completed structure shall
be capable of withstanding a load of at least
100 kg applied in any direction at any point
of the top rail.
e. Railing of the following types of construction
shall be deemed satisfactory:
1. For Wood Railings: Top rails and
posts of at least 50 mm x 100 mm
stock and intermediate rails of at
least 50 mm x 50 mm x 20 mm x
100 mm stock. All such railings
shall be smooth and free from large
or loose knots, protruding nails or
bolts, splinters, fine slivers or
cracks.
2. For Pipe Railings: Top rails and
posts of metal pipe of at least 30
mm diameter. And intermediate rails
of metal pipe of at least 25 mm
diameter.
3. For Structural Metal Railings: Top
rails and posts of angle iron at least
38 mm x 38 mm x 5 mm and
intermediate rails of angle iron of at
least 32 mm x 32 mm x 3 mm.
f. All railings shall be of sound material free
from defects and all sharp corners shall be
rounded and smoothed.
g. Toe boards shall be at least 150 mm in
height.
h. Toe boards may be made of wood, iron,
steel or other substantial material.
Toe boards shall be securely fastened in
place with not more than 6-mm clearance
above floor level.
3.8 Stairs
a. All stairs, platforms, and landings shall be of
sufficient strength to sustain safely a live
load of not less than 500 kg with a factor of
safety of four (4)
8
b. Width of stairs except service stairs, i.e.
giving access to oiling platforms, shall in no
case be less than 900 mm and should be at
least 1 120 mm away from all obstruction
except handrails.
c. Except for service stairs, the pitch of
stairways should be between 30° and 38°
from the horizontal and the slope should not
be less than 20° or more than 45°.
d. Where the slope would be less than 20°, a
ramp should be installed, and where the
slope is more than 45°, a fixed ladder should
be provided.
e. No stairway shall have a height of more than
2 750 mm between landings, and
intermediate landings shall have dimensions
of not less than 1 120 mm measured in the
direction of the run.
f. Headroom shall be provided at all points in
the stairwell. The vertical clearance shall not
be less than 2 200 mm from the top of the
tread in line with the face of the riser.
g. Except for service stairs, the treads,
exclusive of noosing or projections, shall not
be less than 230 mm in width and the risers
shall not be more than 200 mm or less than
130 mm in height.
h. There shall be no variation in the width of
the treads and the heights of the risers in
any flight; the top and bottom treads of any
flight should be clean’ distinguishable.
All stairways having four or more risers shall
be equipped with stair railings on any open
side.
j. Enclosed stairways less than 1 120 mm in
width shall be equipped with the stair
railings on any open side.
k. Enclosed stairways less than 1 120 mm in
width shall be equipped with at least one
handrail, preferably on the right side
descending.
Stairways 1120 mm or more in width shall
be equipped with one stair railing on each
open side and one handrail on each
enclosed side.
 CHAPTER 2- COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL BUILDING
m. In addition to the railings provided for in
Section 3.8, stairways 2 250 mm or more in
width shall be equipped with an intermediate
handrail located approximately midway of
the width.
n. Stair railings shall be constructed in a
permanent and substantial manner of wood,
pipe, structural metal or other material of
sufficient strength.
o. The height of stair railings, from the upper
surface of the top rail to the surface of the
tread in line with the face of the riser at the
forward edge of the tread, shall not be more
than 860 mm nor less than 760 mm.
p. Handrails shall be continuous throughout a
flight of stairs and at landings and without
obstructions other than those intended to
prevent persons from sliding.
q. If made of wood, handrails shall be at least
50 mm x 50 mm in cross section and if of
metal pipe, at least 40 mm in diameter.
r. Handrails mounted directly on walls or
partitions shall be fixed by means of
brackets attached to the lower side of the
rails, so as not to interface with the
smoothness of the top and side surfaces of
the rails.
s. Brackets shall be spaced not more than
2 000 mm apart and shall be of sufficient
strength to provide a clearance of at least 40
.m betweent1e rails and walls or any
.)structlon on the walls
t The completed structure shall be capable of
withstanding a load of at least 100 kg
applied in any direction at any point on the
rail.
u. The clear width of. service stairs, such as
stairs in engine and boiler rooms or stairs
leading to service platforms around
machinery, shall be at least 560 mm.
v. The pitch of service stairs shall not be more
than 60° and the width of the treads shall
not be less than 150 mm.
w. Window openings at stair landings, where
the opening is more than 300 mm in width
and the sill is less than 900 mm above the
landing shall be guarded securely by bars,
9
slats, or grill work to prevent persons from
falling through.
x. Ramps used by persons for ascent or
descent from one level to another shall be
limited to a slope of not more than 1 in 10
and shall conform to all relevant
requirements for construction width,
enclosures and railings applying to
stairways.
y. Where railings for ramps may be subjected
to heavy stresses, from trucking or handling
materials, additional strength shall be
provided by use of heavier stock, close
spacing of posts, bracing, etc.
3.9 Fixed Ladders, Catwalks, Runways and
Platforms:
a. All metal parts or fittings of ladders shall be
made of structural steel.
b. Fixed ladders shall be so installed that:
1. The distance from the front of the
rungs to the nearest fixed object on
the climbing side of the ladder is at
least 760 mm.
2. The distance from the back of the
rungs to the nearest fixed object is
at least 160 mm.
3. Except in the case of ladders
equipped with cages, baskets or
equivalent devices, there should be
a clearance of at least 380 mm from
the center line of the ladder on
either side across the front of the
ladder.
c. If fixed ladders are used to ascent height
exceeding 9 000 mm.
1. Landing platforms should be
provided for each 9 000 mm or a
fraction thereof.
2. The sections of the ladder should be
staggered.
d. Catwalks, working platforms or open sided
floors 2 000 mm or more above floor or
ground level, except platforms used for
loading and unloading of height, and small
platforms used for motors or similar
 CHAPTER 2- COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL BUILDING
equipment which cannot afford standing
space for persons, shall be guarded on all
open sides by standard railing and toe
boards.
e. Catwalks used for filling of thanks, cars or
for oiling may have the railing on one side
omitted, if necessary, subject to the hazard
of falling being reduced by the use of
runways not less than 560 mm in width.
f. All runways or platforms constructed over
conveyors or machinery shall be guarded on
all open sides by standard railings and toe
boards.
3.10 Yards, Gates, Roadways, Walkway
a. Plant yards shall be properly drained and
graded in order to facilitate safe access to
buildings and safe handling of material and
equipment.
b. Drain pools and catch basins shall be
provided where necessary, and be properly
covered or enclosed.
c. Ditches, pits and other hazardous openings
shall be provided with substantial covers,
enclosed, or surrounded by substantial
guards.
d. Walkways, roadways and tracks for plant
railways should be carefully laid out in such
a manner as to avoid dangerous grade
crossings.
e. Where the premises are surrounded by
fences or walls, separate entrance and exit
gates should be provided for pedestrians,
vehicular and railroad traffic.
f. Gates for pedestrian traffic should be
located at a safe distance from those for
vehicular and railroad traffic and should be
of sufficient width to permit passage of
employees at rush hours.
g. Safe walkways should be constructed along
the shortest lines between important points.
h. Walkways should not be located under the
eaves of buildings where they may become
slippery.
Where it is necessary for pedestrians to
cross railroad tracks or vehicular roadways,
10
bridges or under pass should be provided,
and the track or roadway should be fenced
so as to prevent direct crossing at such
points.
j. Walking along railway tracks by
unauthorized persons should be prohibited.
k. Railings should be installed along walkways
on bridges, on steep slopes, at slippery
places and at places where pedestrians are
liable to injury by passing vehicles.
Roadways for automobiles, tractors or other
vehicles should be soundly constructed with
surfaces made of good working materials.
m. Roadways should be of adequate width, and
where used by two way traffic, shall be at
least twice the width of the widest vehicle
normally used, plus 1,2500 mm. Sufficient
clearance from overhead structure should
be provided.
n. Where the establishment of grade or level
crossings cannot be avoided, such
crossings should be protected by watchman,
gates or automatic signals.
o. Substantial railings or walls should be
provided along bridges, slopes and sharp
curves.
Section 4.0 Machinery & Equipment
4.1 General Requirements
a. All heavy machinery should be supported on
solid foundations of sufficient mass and
base area to prevent or minimize the
transmission of objectionable vibration to the
building and occupied space and to maintain
the supported machine at its proper
elevation and alignment.
b. Foundation mass should be from 3 to 5
times the weight of the machinery it is
supposed to support, or may be designated
in conformance with Section 2.4. .2.
If the unbalanced inertial forces produced by
the machine can be calculated, a mass of
weight equal to 10 to 20 times the forces
should be used to dampen vibration.
For stability, the total combined engine,
driven equipment, and foundation center of
 CHAPTER 2- COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL BUILDING

gravity must be kept below the foundation’s 4.2 Specific Requirements

top.
a. For Stacks — Stacks and foundation
c. The weight of the machine plus the weight become integral structures. The maximum
of the foundation should be distributed over pressure on the soil is equal to the pressure
a sufficient soil area which is large enough due to the weight and the wind movement.
to cause a bearing stress within the safe Allowable pressure may be taken as the
bearing capacity of the soil with a factor sum of 2,566.36 kg/m
/m deep foundation
2
safety of five (5). plus 2,566.36 kgm
/ due to wind or a total of
2
5,132.73 kg/m
/m depth of the foundation.
2
d. Foundations should be isolated from floor
slabs or building footings at least 25 mm 1. Guyed Steel Stacks. These are
around its perimeter to eliminate used principally because of their
transmission of vibration. Fill openings with relative cheapness. Heavy
watertight mastic. foundations are unnecessary.
Guyed stacks seldom exceed 1.83
When installing machinery above grade m diameter and 30.48 meter high.
level of a building, additional stiffness must Guys are usually applied in one to
be provided in the structural members of the three seats. The angle between the
building to dampen machine vibration. stack and guy wire is usually 60°,
and the angle between wires in a
e. Foundations are preferably built of concrete set is 120° for a set of three.
in the proportion of one (1) measure of
Portland Cement to (2) measures of sand 2. Reinforced Concrete Chimney.
and four (4) measures of screened crushed Together with its base, this chimney
stones. The machine should not be placed forms an integral structure. Wall
on the foundation until (7) days have thickness decreases progressively
elapsed or operated until another seven (7) to the top of the stack. Less area is
days have passed. required than for masonry or self-
supporting steel stack because of
f. Concrete foundations should have steel bar the relatively thin walls compared to
reinforcements placed both vertically and masonry stacks and the elimination
horizontally, to avoid thermal cracking. of the conical flare of the self
Weight of reinforcing steel should be from supporting steel stack. They can
1/2% to 1% of the weight of foundation. be erected rapidly. The success
depends to a great extent upon the
g. Foundation bolts of specified size should be care with which material is selected,
used and surrounded by a pipe sleeve with mixed and poured.
an inside diameter of at least three (3) times
the diameter of the anchor bolt and a length
of at least 18 ties the diameter of the bolt.
No foundation bolts shall be less than 12
mm diameter.

h. Machine should be leveled by driving

wedges between the machine’s base and
concrete foundation and with the aid of a
spirit level. Grout all spaces under the
machine bed with a thin mixture of one part
cement and one part sand. The level
wedges should be removed after grout has
thoroughly set and fill wedges holes with
grout.

11
 CHAPTER 2- COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL BUILDING

Table 2.1 and ramming. The top should

be level and left rough for
Approximate Weight of Guyed Stacks groutings. After pouring, the top
Per Meter of Height should be covered and wet
down twice dialing until the
Thickness of Material forms are removed at the end of
the third or fourth day. The
engine should not be placed on
Stack 2.75 3.57 4.37 4.76 6.35 the foundation until 10 days
Diameter mm mm mm mm mm have elapsed, nor operated until
(mm) Weight of Stacks kg/rn after another 10 days.
750 61.29 75.39 - -

840 67.35 82.70 (b) Soil Bearing Pressure. The

915 73.46 90.29 111.00 - -
first objective is achieved by
990 79.27 97.45 119.95 136.19 -
makings its supporting area
104.90 127.25 144.53 192.66 sufficiently large. The safe
1065 85.02
1220 97.15 119.50 144.83 165.54 223.50 loads vary from about 4,890
1370 135.74 165.24 185.65 250.62 2 for alluvial soil or wet clay
kg/rn
150.49 182.82 208.45 273.86 . (The latter is
to 12,225 kg/rn
2
1525
1675 200.85 229.16 301.43 assumed to be a safe load
1830 218.58 249.13 327.35 average.) in computation 2,406
kg! m may be used as weight
b. For Steam Turbines Foundations should
—
of concrete.
have sufficient weight and mass to hold the
turbine rigid against vibration. The (c) Depth. The foundation depth
maximum unit pressure of turbine and may be taken as a good
generator on the reinforced concrete should practical rule, to be 3.2 to 4.2
. Concrete shall be
not exceed 17.62 kg/cm
2 times the engine stroke; the
1-2-4 mixture, well placed and seasoned. It lower factor for well-balanced
multi-cylinder engines and
should be designed to support the machine
higher factor for engines with
load plus 25% for impact, condenser load,
floor loads and dead loads. fewer cylinders, or on less firm
soil.
c. Diesel Engines — Manufacturers supply
foundation drawings with each engine sent (d) Weight. The minimum weight
out. In the absence of such drawing, required to absorb vibration
foundations may be designed but in no could be expressed as a
event should absurdly shallow foundations function of the reciprocating
be allowed. Foundations perform three masses and the speed of the
functions: engine. However, for practical
1. Support the weight of the engine. purposes it is simpler to use the
empirical formula.
2. Maintain proper alignment with the
driven machinery, and Wf=e XWeX’Ji

3. Absorb the vibration produced by Where: Wf = weight of the foundation in kgs

unbalanced forces created by we = weight of the engine in kgs
reciprocating revolving masses. e = an empherical coefficient
engine speed, rpm
(a) Materials. The foundations
should be concrete, of I part
cement, 2 parts sand and 4
parts broken stone or gravel (50
mm max). The entire
foundation should be poured at
one time, with no interruption
than are required for spacing

12
 CHAPTER 2- COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL BUILDING

Table 2.2 (f) Anchor Bolts To prevent

Values of “e” in Foundation Formulas pulling out of the bolts when the
nuts are tightened, the length
Type of Engine Cylinder Arrangement e embedded in concrete should
Ci/s be equal to at least thirty (30)
Single-acting Vertical 1 0.15 times the bolt diameter. The
Single-acting Vertical 2 0.14 upper ends are surrounded by a
Single-acting Vertical 3 0.12 50 mm or 75 mm sheet metal
Single-acting pipe, 460 mm to 610 mm long to
Vertical 4,6,8 0.11 permit them to be bent slightly
Single-acting Horizontal 1 0.25 to fit the holes of the bedplate.
Single-acting Horizontal duplex 2 0.24
Single-acting Horizontal twin duplex 4 0.23
Double-acting Horizontal 1, 2 0.32
Double-acting Horizontal with tandem 4 0.20 Section 5.0 Anti-Pollution for Industrial
Building
(e) Volume of Foundation. If the
weight and speed of the engine
5.1 All machines! equipment which characteristically
are not known, the volume of generate noise shall be provided with
concrete for the foundation may appropriate enclosures to control emissions so
be estimated from the data in
as not to cause ambient noise level higher than
the following table: the quality standards set by the government
agency concerned. If impractical, the buildings
Table 2.3
housing the same should be appropriately
Volume of Concrete Foundation, 3
tm
kW designed or should be provided with means to
achieve compliance with the standards.
No. of cylinders 1 2 3 4 5-8
High speed engine 0.152 0.095 0.076 0.065 0.057 5.2 Buildings intended for noisy manufacturing
Medium speed engine 0.190 0.118 0.095 0.080 0.072 activities should be appropriately designed or
Low speed engine 0.228 should be provided with means so as not to
0.152 0.114 0.099 0.087
cause ambient noise level higher than the
standards set by the government agency
concerned.

13
 CHAPTER 3— POWER TRANSMISSION EQUIPT., PRIME MOVERS, MACHINES AND MACHINE PARTS
Chapter 3
POWER TRANSMiSSION EQUIPMENT,
PRIME MOVERS, MACHINES AND MACHINE PARTS
Section 1.0 Scope
This chapter covers provisions for safe machine
design, guarding and similar considerations for users
and designers of power transmission equipment,
prime movers, machines and machine parts. It
includes provisions for safe use, design and guarding
of danger zones except those within the points of
operation of machinery utilized in various industries.
Considerations for machine guarding and safety
provisions at the point of operation are covered under
Chapter 4. Provisions of this chapter shall not be
interpreted as alternatives to those described in other
chapters of this Code.
Scope 2.0 Definitions
Accidental Contact shall mean inadvertent physical
—
contact between personnel or other materials with
power transmission equipment, prime movers,
machines or machine parts which could result from
slipping, falling, sliding, tripping or any other
unplanned action or movement.
Belt Shifter a device for mechanically shifting belts
—
from tight to loose pulleys or vice versa; or for shifting
belts on steps of step-cone pulleys.
Danger Zone an area around the points of
—
operation, the prime mover and the transmission
system, where personnel or materials other than those
in process in the machine may come in contact, or be
caught by or between moving and/or stationary parts
of the machine. This includes areas where materials or
stock are fed into, processed and/or discharged from
the machine.
Electric Motors normally a prime mover utilizing
—
magnetic energy from flowing electric currents to
produce mechanical energy, usually in the form of
rotational or shaft energy. While electric motors may
also be designed for other benefits, other than
mechanical work, the provisions for guarding and
safety design for prime movers, moving parts, and
general machine design as provided by this Code shall
apply.
14
Enclosed, Enclosure a method of guarding moving
—
parts so that physical contact by parts of the body is
precluded. This does not prohibit the use of hinged,
sliding or otherwise removable doors or sections to
permit inspection or lubrication.
Flywheel a heavy wheel which by its inertia assists
—
in securing uniform motion of machinery by resisting
sudden changes of speed. A mechanical energy
storage device that stores momentum in a dynamically
balanced rotating mass and releases it through the
action of clutches, cams, gears or other intermittent
arrangement which engages resisting loads against
the momentum of the wheel.
Guarded shielded, fenced, enclosed or otherwise
—
protected according to these provisions by means of
suitable enclosures, covers, casing trough, “U” guards,
shield guards, standard railings, or by means of
isolation or remoteness of location where permitted in
these provisions, to minimize or remove the possibility
of accidental contact.
Guarded By Location that the moving parts are so
—
protected by their remoteness from the floor, platform,
walkway, or other working level, or by their location
with reference of accidental contact or dangerous
approach to by persons to object.
Internal Combustion Engine a type of prime mover
—
utilizing the energy from expanding combustion gases
to produce mechanical energy. Internal combustion
engines may be classified according the type of fuel
used (i.e. gasoline, diesel, propane, etc.); according to
the arrangement of combustion cylinders (i.e. vertical
in-line, vee, Lenoir, Brayton, Otto, jet, 2-stroke, 4-
stroke, etc.). Suitable guarding and protection shall be
provided against heat, vibration, noise, explosion and
fire.
Machine the driven unit, appliance or equipment as
—
distinguished from the driving unit, transmission
equipment or prime mover. The machine shall consist
of fixed and movable parts characteristic to the
process or type of operation which it is intended to
perform.
 CHAPTER 3- POWER TRANSMISSION EQUIPT., PRIME MOVERS, MACHINES AND MACHINE PARTS

Machine Parts as used in this code shall mean all

—

moving parts of the machine, except those forming

Section 3.0 Guards
I
part of the point of operation. 3.1 General Requirements
Nip-Point Belt and Pulley Guard a device which
-
a. Type of Guarding Required. Where
encloses the pulley and is provided with rounded or guards are required, they shall be of proper
rolled edge slots through which the belt passes. design, constructed of materials as listed in
Table 3.1, adequately rigid and secured in
Pneumatic Motor — a type of prime mover utilizing the place, and shall shield, fence, rail, enclose,
potential energy guard or otherwise protect the employee
against accidental contact with the
Point of Operation — the part of the machine which dangerous moving parts of prime movers,
performs an operation on the stock or materials and! power transmission equipment, machine
or that point of location where stock or material is fed and machine parts.
to the machine. A machine may have more than one
point of operation. b. Guards may be provided with hinges or
removable mechanisms whenever it may be
Power Transmission Equipment all mechanical
—
necessary to change belts, make
means of transmitting power from a prime mover to a adjustments or apply lubrication to the
machine. guarded parts.
Prime Mover — an engine or motor operated by 3.2 Specific Requirements
steam, gas, air, electricity, liquid or gaseous fuel,
liquids in motion or other forms of energy and whose a. Disk guards shall consist of a sheet metal
main function is to drive or operate, either directly or disk not less than 0.80 mm (Gauge #22 u.s.
indirectly, other mechanical equipment. Std. gauge), or other material that will give
equivalent rigidity. Such disks, where
Process Machine a machine designed and operated
-
installed, shall be securely fastened to
for a specific purpose and includes machine tools and exposed sides of spokes or parts equivalent
processing devices subject to regular attention. to spokes in rotating power transmission
equipment and machine parts. Materials
Tail Rod the extension of piston rod passing through
—
used for disk guards shall have smooth
a stuffing box in the outside head of an engine surface, free from burns, slivers, nails, bolt
cylinder, compressor cylinder or pump cylinder. heads, or other projection provided,
however, that round head machine screws
Transmission Machinery shall refer to a closed
—
or bolts may be used with metal disks under
system of machine parts through which mechanical conditions that make counter-sinking
energy from a prime mover or energy source is impracticable.
transferred, relayed, converted, regulated, controlled
and delivered to another machine system or b. A shield guard shall consist of:
appliance. The system may comprise of shafting,
wheels, drums, pulleys, couplings, clutches, drive 1. A suitably rigid frame filled or
belts, sheaves, chain and sprockets, gears, torque sheathed with wire mesh,
connectors, speed reducers, or other power expanded-, perforated- or solid
transferring device. sheeting material such as metal,
plywood, plastic or the similar
Turbine — a prime mover consisting of fixed and covering material; or
moving blades or vanes which direct and harness
energy from flowing fluids and converts it to 2. Metal, plywood, plastic or its
mechanical energy. Flow energy of working fluids or equivalent sturdiness which will,
media include but are not limited to: expanding steam without frame, give the required
as in the case of steam turbines; expanding protection. If the area of shield
combustion gases for gas turbines; and flowing water guard, wire mesh, expanded metal
(as it falls from a higher elevation to a lower) as for in a frame exceeds 0.55 m
, it shall
2
hydraulic turbines. be reinforced. The wire mesh or
expanded metal may be fastened to
a frame of 9 mm diameter round

15
 CHAPTER 3— POWER TRANSMISSION EQUIPT., PRIME MOVERS, MACHINES AND MACHINE PARTS
rod, 20 mm x 20 mm x 3 mm angle
iron or some other metal
construction of at least equivalent
strength.
3. Trough or “U” guards shall be
constwcted of material specified in
Table 3.1. Edges shall be smooth
and, if the size of guard so requires,
these edges shall be reinforced.
4. An enclosure guard shall be
constructed of material specified in
Table 3.1, except for standard
railing; and shall be so installed that
it completely guards the power
transmission equipment or moving
parts so that physical contact is
prevented.
c. Railing guards and toeboards where
required under any item in this code shall
comply with the provisions of Section 2.3.7.
3.3 Clearances
a. Where the guard or enclosure is within 100
mm from the moving parts, openings on the
guard shall be of such size as will prevent
passage of any object greater than 12 mm
in diameter.
b. Where guards are located more than 100
mm and less than 380 mm from moving
parts, the maximum opening shall not be
more than 50 mm and where slotted guards
are used, the width of the opening shall be
not greater than 25 mm.
c. Standard railing guards shall be placed no
less than 380 mm no more than 500 mm
from any moving parts, provided however
that where clearances from other moving
parts of are less than 380 mm, such parts
shall be guarded as required elsewhere in
this code.
3.4 Opening for Lubrication
a. Where application of lubrication must be
done, openings with hinged or sliding covers
shall be provided.
b. Where machines or machine parts must be
lubricated while in motion the lubricating
devices shall be located at least 300 mm
from dangerous moving parts unless such
16
parts are guarded and the lubricating
devices, are piped outside the guard.
c. Transmission equipment, machines and
machine parts in inaccessible locations,
which are to be lubricated while they are in
motion, shall be equipped with extension
lubricant fittings or other methods of
lubrication which can be serviced from an
accessible location.
3.5 Guarding of Flywheels
a. Prime Mover Flywheels. Any exposed part
of a flywheel 2 100 mm or less above
working level shall be guarded.
b. When a flywheel extends into a pit or is
within 300 mm of floor and a standard railing
guard is used, a standard toe board shall
also be provided.
c. When it is necessary to move, swing, spin or
push flywheels for starting, guards may be
removable or provided with momentary
openings which shall immediately closed
after such starting operation is completed. A
slot opening for jackbar will be permissible,
as provided in Section 3.5 D.
d. Every jackbar should be equipped with a
hand stop so located that it will safely clear
the flywheel guard when fully inserted but
will prevent the worker’s hand being pinched
between the slot and bar.
e. Machine Flywheels. Machine flywheels
having spokes (or parts equivalent to
spokes), or projections, any part of which is
2 100 mm or less above floor or working
level shall be guarded.
3.6 Flywheel Ball Governors: Fly Ball Governors
located 2 135 mm or less above the floor,
platform or working level having rotating,
projecting or sectional parts, or hazardous
recesses shall be guarded.
3.7 Conveyors:
a. Screw conveyors 2 100 mm or less above
floor or other working level shall be
completely covered with substantial lids
except that screw conveyors 600 mm or less
from its top to the floor or working level,
whether its axis be above or below the floor
level which may be guarded by standard
 CHAPTER 3— POWER TRANSMISSION EQUIPT., PRIME MOVERS, MACHINES AND MACHINE
PARTS

railing guards having toe boards of midrail
height or by substantial cover or gratings.
b. All belt conveyor head pulleys, tail pulleys,
single tension pulleys and dip take-up
pulleys shall be so guarded that the entire
sides of the pulleys are covered and the
guard shall extend in the direction of the run
of the belt at such distance that a person
cannot reach behind it and be caught in the
nip point between the belt and the pulley.
e. Conveyors passing over areas that are
occupied or used by employees shall be so
guarded as to prevent the material handled
from falling on and causing injury to
employees.
f. Where workmen pass under the return
strands of chain conveyors a shallow trough
or other effective means of sufficient
strength to carry the weight of the broken
chain shall be provided.

c. Portable inclined conveyors shall have head 3.8 Process Machine Power Control:
and tail pulleys or sprockets and other
power transmission equipment guarded a. Each process machine driven by an
accordingly. individual prime mover shall be equipped
with emergency stopping device which can
d. Where necessary to pass over exposed be safely actuated from the operator’s
chain, belt, bucket, screw, or roller working position unless the machine is
conveyors, such crossovers shall be equipped with automatic clutch which will
provided with catwalk or bridge with stop or disengage all machine operation.
standard railings and toe boards and shall
have a safe means of access either fixed b. Where an operator attends one or more
ladder, ramp, or stairway. process machines not equipped with
individual drives, each machine shall be
Table 3.1 Materials for “U” Guards equipped with stopping device which can be
13
safely actuated from the operator’s working
B Mm. position at the machine, such a stopping
A Largest C
Minimum Height of device may stop an entire group of
Material Clearance at Mesh or Guard
All Points Opening Thickness
from
machines by stopping the prime mover,
(mm) Allowed Gage No. power transmission or it may be a machine
(mm) Gage #
—
Floor
(mm) Level clutch, cut-off coupling, or tight and loose
(mm)
Woven Wire under 100 10 1.6 mm (#16)
pulley with belt shifter which can stop all the
1,800
Woven Wire 100— 380 50 2.8mm (#12) 1500 machine. Pole or hand shifting of belt is not
Expanded Metal under ico 10 1.25mm (#18) 1,800 considered adequate means for
ExpandedMetal 100—380 50 2.36mm(#13) 1,500 disconnecting the power.
Perforated Metal Under 100 10 .65 mm (#20) 1,800
Perforated Metal 100— 380 50 2.00 mm (#24) 1,500 Exception: Where due to the process,
Sheet Metal Under 100 - .80mm (#22) 1,800 machines must be operated in groups, the
Sheet Metal 100— 380 - .80 mm (#22) 1500 machine power control may stop the entire
Plywood or Under 100 - 6mm 1,800 group of machines, such group drives shall
equivalent
Plywood or
be provided with conveniently located,
100—380 6mm 1,500
equivalent
-

readily accessible, and properly marked or

Solid wood Under 100 - 25mm 1,800 identified emergency stop devices.
Solidwood 100—380 - 25mm 1,500
Wood or metal strip Under 100 10 Wood 19 mm, 1,800 c. Where practicable, each process machine
crossed Metal 1.60mm
-

simultaneously attended or operated by

(#16)
Wood ormetalstrip 100—380 50 Wood 19 mm, 1,500
more than one employee shall be equipped
crossed
—
Metal 1.60 mm with a machine power control for each
(#16) employee exposed to or within the vicinity of
Wood or metal strip Under 100 100 width Wood 19 mm,
—not crossed Metal 1.60 mm
points of operation. Said controls shall be
(#16) interlocked in such a manner to prevent
Wood or metal strip 100— 380 25 width Wood 19 mm, operation of machine unless all controls are
—not crossed Metal 1.60 mm
(#16)
operated simultaneously.
Standard Rail Mm. 380 See standard for railings
(2.3.7) d. Machine power controls shall be maintained
Standard Rail Max. 500 See standard for railings in safe operating condition, and shall be so
(2.3.7)

17

CHAPTER 3— POWER TRANSMISSION EQUIPT., PRIME MOVERS, MACHINES AND MACHINE
designed, installed, and/or located that they
are not likely to operate from accidental
contact with objects or parts of the body.
3.9 Machine Power Control. All machines shall be
equipped with adequate means whereby the
operator of the machine or some other person
may disconnect the power promptly in case of
emergency.
3.10 Revolving and Reciprocating Parts
a. Hazardous revolving or reciprocating parts
in any machine not guarded by the frame or
the machine or by location shall be guarded.
b. Keys, set screws, projections or recess in
revolving parts not guarded by the frame of
the machine or by location shall be
removed, made flush or guarded.
3.11 Collars and couplings shall be cylindrical and no
screws or bolts project beyond largest periphery.
3.12 Clutches, cut-off couplings or clutch pulleys,
having projecting parts where any parts of such
devices is located or 2 100 mm or less above
the floor or working level shall be guarded.
3.13 Guarding of Belt and Pulley Drives:
a. Any part of a belt and pulley drive involving
the use of flat crowned or flanged pulleys,
which is 2 100 mm or less above the floor or
working level shall be guarded.
b. Flat step-cone pulleys drives upon which the
belt operates on one step only, or step cone
pulleys drives where multi-step operation is
obtained by changing the length of the belt
shall be guarded.
c. Every V-belt and pulley drive including V
belt and step-cone pulley drives, any part of
which is 2 100 mm or less above the floor or
working level shall be enclosed.
d. If the bottom of the guard is within 100 mm
of the floor or supporting structure, the
bottom of the guard need not be enclosed.
e. Where a group of flat belt drives is guarded
by a standard railing guard, such drives
shall be considered guarded where the
distance from the vertical plane of the rail to
the nearest point of any belt or pulley is not
less than 380 mm nor more than 500 mm
18
PARTS
and where the distance between any two
adjacent belts or pulleys does not exceed
900 mm.
f. Horizontal overhead belts more than 2 100
mm above a floor, platform or other working
level shall be guarded for their entire length
if located over passageways or working
places.
g. Wherever there pulleys of such dimensions
and so located as to permit passage
between upper and lower runs of belt,
standard railing guard shall be constructed;
or all space traversed by belt shall be
completely barred against passage.
h. Continuous system rope drives so located
that the condition of the rope (particularly
the splice) cannot be constantly and
conveniently observed shall be equipped
with a “telltale” device (preferably electric
bell type) that will give warning when rope
begins to fray.
i. All rope drives shall be guarded as required
for belt drives.
3.14 Counter-balanced belt tensioner and all parts
thereof shall be of substantial construction.
Means shall be provided to prevent the
tensioner from falling in case the belt breaks; or
the area directly beneath the tensioner shall be
guarded by standard railing guards.
3.15 Belt-type variable speed drives located 2 100
mm or less from the floor or working level shall
have all moving parts guarded.
3.16 All gears and sprockets wherever located shall
be guarded adequately.
3.17 Friction drives located 2 100 mm or less above
floor or other working level shall be guarded.
3.18 The chains, sprocket and chain drives, located
with 2 100 mm of the floor or other working
level, shall be guarded.
3.19 Where workmen pass under the chain drives, a
shallow trough or other effective means of
sufficient strength to carry the weight of a
broken chain shall be provided.
3.20 Manually operated power disconnecting devices
shall be designed, constructed and installed that
 CHAPTER 3- POWER TRANSMISSION EQUIPT., PRIME MOVERS,
MACHINES AND MACHINE PARTS

they will remain in the neutral position until 4.11 Exterior shapes or any part of the machines that
intentionally actuated. require frequent contacting or handling should
be so designed as to facilitate convenience in
3.21 Machine Guarding Other Than Point-of- handling, while moving parts that cannot be
Operation: enclosed should, as far as possible, be smooth
in contour.
Relates to the belts, pulleys, gears, shafts and
shafts ends, screws, projections, and all other
Table 3.4
moving machine parts, other than at the point- Threshold Limit Values for Noise Exposure
of-operation, that constitute potential injury
producing conditions. Max. Sound Levels (Slow
Hours of exposure per day, Hrs.
Response), dB
Section 4.0 Principle of Safe Machine 8 90
6 92
Design: 4 95
3 97
4.1 Dangerous moving parts should be enclosed. 2 100
1% 102
I 105
4.2 Parts subject to wear, adjustment, and hand % 110
lubrication should be conveniently accessible. 1/4
115*
*ceiling Value. No exposure in excess of 115 dB is allowed.
4.3 Lubrication should wherever possible be
automatic and continuous when the machine is 4.12 Weight of parts to be handled should be kept
in operation. within the limits at convenience and safety, or
these parts should be so designed that they may
4.4 Consideration should be given to individual drive be conveniently handled by mechanical means.
so that hazards due to driving mechanism may
be minimized. 4.13 Throughout the design of the machine and its
parts, consideration should be given to
4.5 Sharp lighting, contrasts between light and convenience in attaching accessories,
shadow and glare in the vicinity of the point of particularly point-of-operation guards for moving
operation should be avoided. Color contrast parts. In essence, bosses for accessories may
should be considered, as well as the provision of be cast on the framework of machines in such a
integrally mounted lights, and the most effective way as to permit drilling, tapping, and the bolting
probable position of independent lighting units. on of accessories without weakening the
structure of the machine itself.
4.6 Materials should be mechanically conveyed to,
and products from machines wherever possible. 4.14 Consideration in design should be given to the
external shape of the machine so that danger of
4.7 Provision should be made for automatically accident from tripping, falling and collision will
conveying dusts and gases away from a be minimized. Splay-footed supports, for
machine. example, that stand out from the body of the
machine sometimes cause a tripping hazard.
4.8 Noise should be eliminated or reduced to no Corners may often be rounded to lessen the
more than the maximum allowable according to danger from accidental contact.
the table of threshold limit values for noise
exposure. Similarly, employee exposure to such 4.15 Liberal factors of safety should be used in
noise shall be limited according to Table 3.4. determining the strength of parts.

4.9 Vibration should be eliminated or reduced to the
maximum permissible extent.
4.10 Machine motions tiring to the eyes should be
avoided, as when reciprocating or revolving
parts must be viewed through cross screens or
lattice-work.
4.16 Wherever manufacturing circumstances permit,
point-of-operation guards should be installed by
the builder of the machines so that it may be
delivered to the purchases in a fully guarded
condition.
4.17 Consideration should be given to the safe
location or isolation of machines that cannot be
made safe otherwise.

19
 AND MACHINE PARTS
CHAPTER 3- POWER TRANSMISSION EQUIPT., PRIME MOVERS, MACHINES

Section 5.0 Power Transmission Systems or D = 1321,000 P

(3b) NS
5.1 Shafting

a. Torsional Strength of Shafting. In the

The allowable stresses that are generally used in
formulas that follow, the SI system of units ) for main
practice are: 27.6 MPa (282 kg/cm 2
as discussed in Section 12.2.3 is adopted:
power-transmitting shafts; 41.5 MPa (423 kg/cm )
2
for lineshafts carrying pulleys; and 58.7 MPa (599
= angular velocity in radians per second; short shafts, counte r shafts, etc.
) for small,
2
kg/cm
Using these allowable stresse s, the power P
c = distance from center of gravity to
transmitted by a shaft of diameter D, or the
extreme fiber;
minimum diameter of a shaft to transmit a given
diameter of shaft in mm; power P may be determined from the following
D =
formulas:
J = polar moment of inertia of shaft cross
4 (see Table 3.5.1); For main power-transmitting shafts:
section, m
(4a) P N
3
D
N angular velocity of shaft in revolutions
1.755x 106
=

r minute (RPM);
or
P = power transmitted in kW;
(4b) D =‘s/1.755x 106 P
S = allowable torsional shearing stress in
kPa
For lineshafts carrying pulleys:
T = torsional or twisting moment in N-m; N
3
D
(5a) P
1.738x 106
4, = polar section modulus in m
3 (see
Table 3.5.1)
or
The maximum allowable torque or twisting D= 17 3
l.
8x1O
\J 6P
(5b)
moment, Tmax for shaft of any cross-section is:

TmaxSsXZp (1)
For small, short shafts:

(6a) P= N
3
D
For a shaft delivering P kilowatts at N revolutions 0.837x 106
per minute the twisting moment I Newton-meters,
or
Tbeing transmitted is:
(2a) (6b) D= \.JO.837xlO6P
3
T=9,55
P ;
x10
N
N

T=P (2b) Shafts which are subjected to shocks, sudden

or
starting and stopping, etc., should be given a
greater factor of safety resulting in the used of
lower allowable stresses than those just
The torque or twisting moment Tas determined by
mentioned.
this formula should be less than the value
determined by using formula (1) if the maximum
Illustrative Example: What would be the diameter
allowable stress S is not to be exceeded.
of a lineshaft to transmit 7.5 kW if the shaft makes
150 revolutions per minute? Using Formula (5b)
The minimum diameter of a solid circular shaft
required to transmit a given torque Tis:
D= (1.1738x )
6
1x7.5380
.86mm
(3a) D=5.1T
150
ss

20
 CHAPTER 3- POWER TRANSMISSION EQUIPT., PRIME MOVERS, MACHINES AND MACHINE PARTS

Illustrative Example: What horsepower would a fiber. This method may be used to find the
short shaft, 50.8 mm in diameter, carrying but two approximate value of the polar section that
pulleys close to the bearings transmit if the shaft are nearly round. For other than circular
makes 300 revolutions per minute? Using cross—sections, however, the polar section
Formula (6a) modulus does not equal the polar moment
of inertia divided by the distance c.
P = (50.8) x 300 = 46.99 kW
0.837x 106 5.2 V-Belts and Sheaves. The tapered cross-
sectional shape of a V-belt causes it to wedge
Table 3.5.1. firmly into the sheave groove during operation
Polar Moments of Inertia and Polar Section Module so that the driving action takes place through the
sides of the belt rather than the bottom, which
Sectbn rMoment cThert% Po%erSenMoths normally is not in contact with the sheave at all.

a. V-Belt Drives. Belts of the V type,

4 or 0.1667e
a 4
0.20w :: commonly manufactured of fabric, cord, or
combination of these, treated with natural or
synthetic rubber compound and vulcanized
:]d together, provide a quiet, compact, and
[
12 resilient form of power transmission. They
r ivhe,e d is he o,te side
b are used extensively in single and multiple
forms for automotive, home and commercial
( 0
or 0. 08D or 0. 18C equipment and in industrial drives for a wide
range of horsepower extending upwards
from fractional values.
• rr1D
-
4 d
D 32 104
or 0.098(0’—d5 or 4
0.96(D-d
) b. Standard Multiple V-Belt. Five sizes V
belts are designated in the Engineering
? 1.082s
4
Standards for Multiple V-Belt Drives.
¶)J r 3
0.20F Nominal width and thickness dimensions are
or 0.12 F
4 as shown in Table 3.5.2. However, actual
dimensions of V-belts of various
a 30
manufacturers may vary somewhat from
I(
‘/\
I) I A.
or 0 098
6
— O.167s or 0 — 333s these nominal dimensions. Because of this
0 fact, it is recommended that belts of different
4f4 makes should never be mixed on the same
328 16 40 drive. Standard V-belt pitch lengths and
D
or — 1.oa2i or 0. —2.
U permissible pitch-length tolerances are
given in Table 3.5.3.
J/c 48
/.\.. or 0.636s
20
or 0OSs’ Table 3.5.2
Standard Multiple V-Belt Dimensions and
Recommended Test Load

b. Polar Moments of Inertia and Section

Moduli. The polar moment of inertia with
respect to a polar axis through the center of
gravity shall be used for problems involving Belt Section

the torsional strength of shafts since this is

Type A Type B Type C Type D Type E
usually the axis about which twisting of the
shafts takes place.
12.7mm 16.67mm 22.22mm 31.75mm 3810mm
The polar section modulus (also called w (‘/2”) (21/32’) (7/8’) (1-1/4’) (1-1/2’)
section modulus of torsion), Zp for circular ,- 7.94mm 0.32mm 13.49mm 19.05mm 23.02mm
(5/16) (13)32”) (17/32’) (34) (29/32’)
section may be found by dividing the polar Std Test Load 22.73 kg 29.5 kg 38.7 kg 53.77 kg 63.32 kg
moment of inertia, J, by the distance c from
the center of gravity to the most remote

21
CHAPTER 3— POWER TRANSMISSION EQUIPT., PRIME MOVERS, MACHINES AND MACHINE PARTS

c. Measuring a Multiple V-Belt. The pitch of
multiple V-belts is determined by measuring
fixture consisting of two equal diameter
sheaves having standard grooves and
pulled with a standard test load indicated in
Table 3.5.2. One of the sheaves is fixed in
position, while the other is movable along a
graduated scale with the specified tension
applied to it.
the sheaves without injury. Also shown in
Table 3.5.4 is the minimum allowance above
the standard center distance (plus values)
for which the centers should be adjustable
to take up any slack in the belts due to
stretch and wear.
Table 3.5.4 Minimum Center Distance Allowances
for Installation and Take-up of Multiple V-Belts

Range of Minimum Allowance Below (-) and

The sheaves should be rotated at least two Standard Above (+) Standard Center_Distance
revolutions to seat the belt properly in the Lengths A B C D E
sheaves grooves and to equally divide the 26to38 -19+25 -25+25 - - -

total tension between the two strands of the 38 to 60 -19, +38 -25, +38 -38, +38 - -

belt. The pitch length is the length obtained 60 to 90 -19, +51 -32, +51 -38, +51 - -

by adding the pitch circumference of one of 9Oto 120 -25, +64 -32, +64 -38, +64 - -

120 to 158 -25, +76 -32, +76 -38, +76 -51, +76 -

the measuring sheaves to twice the 158to 195 - -32, +89 -51, +102-51, +102-64, +102
measured center distance between them. 195 to 240 - -38, +102 -51, +102 -51, +102 -64, +102
Deviation of the measured pitch length from 240to270 - - -51,+114-64,+114-64,+114
270to330 -51+127-64+127-76+127
the standard pitch length shown in Table - -

-51,+152-64,+152-76,+152
330to420
ould be within the tolerance limits
-
-

3.5.3 420 and - -

-76, * -89, *
also given in this table.
-

over
All dimensions in mm.
*AlIow + values to be 1.5 per cent of belt length above
The grooves of the measuring sheaves
standard center distance for stretch and wear.
should be machined and maintained to the
following tolerances: pitch diameter, ±0.002
e. Selection of Multiple V-Belts. The charts
inch; groove angle, +0 degrees, 2ominutes;
on Figure 3.5.1 appears in Engineering
and groove top width, ±0.002 inch.
Standards for Multiple V-Belt Drives enables
a V-belt of appropriate type to be selected
c. Belt Length and Center Distance. The
for a given RPM of the small sheave, the
relation between center distance and belt
transmitted power of the driving unit, and the
pitch length is given by the following
service factors are known. The selection
formula:
procedure follows:

d) (1) 1. Obtain the equivalent design

L2C+ 1.57 (D÷d)+(D—
2
4C horsepower (convert kW to HP) by
multiplying the transmitted HP by
the appropriate service factor from
forD = pitch diameter of large sheave, in mm
Table 3.5.5.
d = pitch diameter of small sheave, in mm
L = pitch length of belt in mm
2. Enter the chart at the RPM of the
C = centerdistance in mm. and proceed
small sheave
horizontally to a point in vertical line
This formula can be rearranged to solve for
with the design horsepower.
center distance, as follows:

(2) 3. If this point falls in the area marked

C=b 2
+q
— 32(D..bd)
A, then an A size belt is required or,
16

4L 6.28 (D d) If this point falls near the line of

where: b +
separation between two belt size
—

areas, then both sizes may be

d. Installations and Take-up Allowance.
considered as suitable for use. For
After calculating a center distance from a
example, a design horsepower of 40
standard pitch length, provision should be
to be transmitted at a small sheave
made for moving the centers together by an
speed of 800 RPM would call for a
amount, as shown by the minus values in
multiple drive of either C or D size
Table 3.5.4 to permit installing the belts over
V-belts.

22
 CHAPTER 3- POWER TRANSMISSION EQUIPT., PRIME MOVERS, MACHINES AND MACHINE PARTS

f. Power Rating for Multiple V-Belts. The g. Arc of Contact. The arc of contact made by
following formulas and accompanying table the V-belt on the small sheave is of
of constants (Table 3.5.6 to 3.5.9) may be importance when computing the power
used to determine the general horsepower rating of a V-belt for a give drive. This may
rating of a single V-belt. The total be found by the formula:
transmitted power through multiple V-belts
thus, shall not exceed the sum of individual Arc of Contract = 180° (D - — d) 60° (5)
rated capacities of all connected V-belts. C
The recommended power, P which may be where D, d and C are as noted above.
transmitted through a single V-belt for a Correction factors for various arcs of
specified belt speed, S is given by: contact, used in finding power capacities of
multiple V-belts drives (see example) are
P = (0.17) x S°
’
9 — (3.731)YS— 0.0057Z S
3 given in Table 3.5.8.
(3) d
h. Speed of Operation. V-belts operate most
where X, V and Z are factors based on the efficiently at speeds of about 23 meters per
quality of the belt used (Table 3.5.6); d 9 = second. For belt speeds of 25 meters per
equivalent diameter of small sheave which second and more the sheave should be both
is equal to pitch diameter multiplied by small statistically and dynamically balanced.
diameter factor (Table 3.5.7); P = the Speed design and materials may also be
recommended power in kW; and S linear called for and the belt manufacturer should
belt speed in meters per second (mps), or be consulted.

S= (4) 5.3 Transmission Roller Chain.

60 000
a. Standard Roller Chain Nomenclature,
°uvu
BEYOND H.P. B. R. P. M
Dimensions and Loads.
3500 —-- I-
301K RANGES SWOWN.
II REFER TO
251K — — —
--
MANUFACTURER Table 3.5 Service Factors for Multiple V-belts Applications
IU 2ftflt — — II
B / II
LU
Electric Motors —

0
-J
-J
A.C. D.C.
800
700 . Syn-
0 600 Squirrel Cage Single
500 chronou
U.
0 Phase
400
300 7-- /
200 Z7 I—--- Applications
2
S
‘
‘ &
/
100 -

2
-
3
-z
5 67191
810
20 30 40 160 ‘80 100 100 300 500
ew
.E
_j
o.
1()
.

X
0(I) E .

Z
507090 400
HORSEPOWER X SERVICE FACTOR 0

Chart for Selection of V-Belt for Given Drive Service Factors

Agitators --

Paddle-
Table 3.5.7 Small Diameter Factors Propeller 10 10 12
Range of Speed Ratio Small Diameter Factor Liquid
1.000— 1.019 1.00 Semi-Liquid 1.2 tO 14 12 - - - -

1.020—1.032
- - -

1.01 Brick and clay

1.033—1.055 1.02 Machinery - 1.2 1.4 1.4 1.4 2.0
1.056—1.081 1.03 Auger Machine —

1.082—1.109 1.04 Do-Airing

1.110—1.142 1.05 Machines - 1.2 1.4 1.4 1.4 2.0
1.143—1.178 1.06 CuttingTable 1.2 1.4 1.4
1.179—1.222
- 2.0
1.07 Plug Mill 1.5 1.3 t8 1.5 -

1.223 1.274 —
1.08 Mixer - 1,2 1.6 1.4
1.275—1.340 1.09 Granulator 1.2 1.6
- 1.4
1.341—1.429 1.10 Dry Press - 1.2 1.6 1.4 - - - - - - -

1.430—1.562 1.11 Rolls 1.2 1,6

- 1.4
1.563—1.814 1.12 Bakery
1.815—2.948 1.13 Machinery 1.2 - - - - - 1.2 1.0 - - -
2.949 and over 1.14 Dough Mixer

¡%
23
 CHAPTER 3- POWER TRANSMISSION EQUIPT., PRIME MOVERS, MACHINES AND MACHINE PARTS

Compressors 1 2 1 2 1 4 1 4 1 2
Centrifugal — — — — — Table 3.5.7 Length of Correction Factors
Rotary 1.2 1.2 - 1.4 1.4 - 1.2 1.2 1.2 - -

Reciprocating-- 1.2 Standard Belt Cross Section

1.2 1.4 1.2
- - - - - -

Length A I B I C
lor2Cyl. 1.4 1.4 1.5 1.5 - 1.2 - - Designation Correction Factor
Conveyors 1.6 26 0.81 - -

- 1.4 1.6 1.4 -

Apron — — 31 0.84 - -

Belt (Ore, Coal, 1 2 1 4 33 0.86 - -

1 2 1 4
Sand) ..
35 0.87 0.81 -

Belt (Light 1 0 1 2 36 0.88 0.83 -

- 1 0 1 1 -

Package) — —

42 0.90 0.85
1. Chain Pitch: Distance in mm 46 0.92 0.87 -

48 0.93 0.88
between centers of adjacent joint
-

51 0.94 0.89 0.80

members. Other dimensions are 53 0.95 0,90 -

proportional to the pitch.

55 0.96 0.90
2. Tolerance for Chain Length: New 60 0.98 0.92 0.82
62 0.99 0.93
chains subjected to the standard
64 0.99 0.93
measuring load are allowed an 66 1.00 0.94
over-length of 0.99 per meter (1/84
inch per foot), but must not be 68 1.00 0.95 0.85
under-length. 71 1.01 0.95
75 1.02 0.97 0.87
78 1.03 0.98
The Measuring Load is the load in 1.04
80
kilograms (pounds) under which a
chain should be measured for 81 0.98 0.89
length. It is equal to 125 x (Pitch)
,
2 83 0.99
with a minimum of 8.2 kg (18 Ibs). 85 1.05 0.99 0.90
90 1,06 1.00 0.91.
96 1.08 0.92
3. Minimum Ultimate Tensile 1.02
97
Strength in pounds of Standard 105 1.10 1.04 0.94
Series single-strand chain is equal 112 1.11 1.05 0.95
, for multiple-
to 12,500 X (Pitch)
2 120 1.13 1.07 0.97
128 1.14 1.08 0.98
strand chain, multiply by number of
strands. 136 1.09 0.99
144 1.11 1.00
Table 3.6 Factors X, V. and Z for Use in Formula 3 158 1.13 1.02
162 1.03
Values of X, Y, Z factors 173 1.15 1.04
Regular Quality Belts
180 1.16 1.05
Belt Section 1.18 1.07
195
B C D E 210 1.19 1.08
A
240 1.22 1.11
X 1.945 3.434 6.372 13.616 19.914 270 1.25 1.14
Y 3.801 9.830 26.948 93.899 177.74
300 1.27 1.16
Z 0.0136 0.0234 0.0416 0.0848 0.1222 1.19
330
Premium Quality Belts 390 1.23
420 1.24
Belt Section
A B C E 480
f_D
24.478 540
X 2.684 4.737 8.792 18.788
600
Y 5.826 13.962 38.819 137.70 263.04 660
Z 0.0136 0.0234 0.0416 0.0848 0.1222

24
 _
CHAPTER 3- POWER TRANSMISSION EQUIPT., PRIME MOVERS, MACHINES AND MACHINE PARTS

Table 3.8 Arc of Contact Correction Factors

c. Types of Sprockets. Four different designs
A f Type of Drive Arc of Type of Drive or types of roller chains are shown in
Contact VtoV VtoFlatO Contact VtoV VtoFlato sectional views in Fig. 3.5.2. Type A is a
Small plain plate sprocket; type B is a single
Small Correction Factor
.

Correction Factor hubbed sprocket; type C is double-hubbed;

Sheave Sheave
and type D, shows detachable hub
1800 1.00 .75 130° .86 .86 arrangement. Also used are shear pin and
170° .98 .77 120° .82 .82 slip clutch-type sprockets designed to
160° .95 .80 110° .78 .78 prevent damage to the drive or to other
150° .92 .82 100° .74 .74 equipment caused by overloads or stalling.
140° .89 .84 90° .69 .69
A V-Flat drive is one using a small sheave and a large d. Selection of Chain and Sprockets. The
diameter flat pulley. smallest applicable pitch of roller chain is
desirable for quiet operation and high
speed. The horsepower capacity varies with
b. Standard Roller Chain Numbers. The the chain pitch. However, short pitch with
right-hand figure in the chain number is zero high working load can often be obtained by
for roller chains of the usual proportions, 1 the use of multiple-strand chain.
for a lightweight chain and 5 for a rollerless
bushing chain. The numbers to the left of The small sprocket selected must be large
the right-hand figure denote the number of enough to accommodate the shaft. Table
1/8 inch in the pitch. The letter H following 3.5.10 gives maximum bore and hub
the chain number denotes the heavy series; diameters consistent with commercial
thus the number 80 H denotes a 1-inch pitch practice for sprockets with up to 25 teeth.
heavy chain. The hypernated number 2
suffixed to the chain number denotes a After selecting the small sprocket, the
double strand, a 3 triple strand, 4 a number of teeth in the largest sprocket is
quadruple strand chain and so on. determined by the desired ratio of the shaft
speed. Over emphasis on the exactness in
1. Heavy Series: These chains, made the speed ratio may result in a cumbersome
in %-inch and larger pitches, have and expensive installation. In most cases,
thicker link plates than those of the satisfactory operation can be obtained with
regular standard. Their value is a minor change in speed of one or both
only in the acceptance of higher shafts.
tensile or jerk loads at low speeds.
The rollers, bushing diameters, pin
diameters, and widths are the same
as in the standard series.
—
2. Light-Weight Machinery Chain: B
This chain is designated as No. 41.
It is 1/2 inch pitch; 1/4 inch wide; has
0.306-inch diameter rollers and a
c4
0.141-inch pin diameter. The
minimum ultimate tensile strength is
1,500 pounds.
Figure 3.5.2 Simple Types of Sprockets
3. Multiple-Strand Chain: This is
essentially an assembly of two or e. Center Distance Between Sprockets. The
more single-strand chains placed center-to-center distance between
side by side with pins that extend sprockets, as a general rule, should not be
through the entire width to maintain less than 1 1/2 times the diameter of the
alignment of the different strands. larger sprocket and not less than thirty times
For a given power load, a multiple- the pitch nor more than about 50 times the
strand chain can be run at a higher pitch, although much depends upon the
speed than the required single- speed and other conditions. A center
strand chain of a higher pitch. distance equivalent to 80 pitches may be

25
 CHAPTER 3— POWER TRANSMISSION EQUIPT., PRIME MOVERS, MACHINES AND MACHINE PARTS
considered an approved maximum. Very
long center distances result in catenary
tension in the chain. If roller-chain drives
are designed correctly, the center-to-center
distance for some transmissions may be so
short that the sprocket teeth nearly touch
each other, assuming that the load is not too
great and the number of teeth is not too
small. To avoid interference of the sprocket
teeth, the center distance must, of course,
be somewhat greater than one-half the sum
of the outside diameters of the sprockets.
The chain should extend around at least 120
degrees of the pinion circumference, and
this minimum amount of contact is obtained
for all center distances provided the ratio is
less than 3 1/2 to 1. Other things being
equal, a fairly long chain is recommended in
preference to the shortest one allowed by
the sprocket diameters, because the rate of
chain elongation due to natural wear is
inversely proportional to the length, and also
because the greater elasticity of the longer
strand tends to absorb irregularities of
motion and to decrease the effects of
shocks.
If possible, the center distance should be
adjustable in order to take care of slack due
to elongation from wear and this range of
adjustments should be at least one and one-
half pitches. A little slack is desirable as it
allows the chain links to take the best
position on the sprocket teeth and reduces
the wear on the bearings. Too much sag or
an excessive distance between the
sprockets may cause the chain to whip up
and down — a condition detrimental to
smooth running and very destructive to the
chain. The sprockets should run in a vertical
plane, the sprocket axes being
approximately horizontal, unless an idler is
used on the slack side to keep the chain in
position. The most satisfactory results are
obtained when the slack of the chain is on
the bottom.
Center Distance for a Given Length.
f.
When the distance between the driving and
driven sprockets can be varied to suit the
length of the chain, this center distance for a
tight chain may be determined by the
following formula:
C =P[2L—N—n (6)
8 degrees F., use SAE 50.
26
where C = center-to-center distance in mm;
L = chain length in pitches;
P = pitch of chain;
N = number of teeth in large sprocket,
n = number of teeth in small sprockets.
This formula is approximate, but the error is
less than the variation in the length of the
best chains. The length, L in pitches should
be an even number for a roller chain, so that
the use of an offset connecting link will not
be necessary.
1. Idler Sprockets. When sprockets
have a fixed center distance or are
non-adjustable, it may be advisable
to use an idler sprocket for taking up
the slack. The idler should
preferably be placed against the
slack side between the two strands
of the chain. When a sprocket is
applied to the tight side of the chain
to reduce vibration, it should be on
the lower side and so located that
the chain will run in a straight line
between the two main sprockets. A
sprocket will wear excessively if the
number of teeth is too small and the
speed too high, because there is
impact between the teeth and rollers
even though the idler carries
practically no load.
2. Length of Driving Chain. The total
length of a block chain may be
expressed in multiples of the pitch,
whereas for roller chains, the length
should be in multiples of twice the
pitch, because the ends must be
connected with an outside and
inside link.
g. Horsepower Ratings for Roller Chain
Drives. Chain drives should be protected
against dirt and moisture and the oil supply
kept free from contamination. Periodic oil
change is desirable. A good grade of non-
detergent petroleum-base oil is
recommended. Heavy oils and greases are
generally to stiff to enter and fill the chain
joints. The following lubricant viscosities are
recommended: For temperature of 20 to 40
degrees F., use SAE 20 lubricant; for 40 to
100 degrees F., use SAE 30; for 100 to 120
degrees F., use SAE 40; and for 120 o 140
CHAPTER 3- POWER TRANSMISSION EQUIPT., PRIME MOVERS, MACHINES AND MACHINE PARTS

The data for each size of chain are divided Table 3.11 Horsepower Ratings for Roller Chains Drive
into four zones. The first is for Type I
lubrication; the second, Type II lubrication; 1/2 Inch Pitch Standard Single-Strand Roller Chain No. 40 —

and the fourth; for Type IV lubrication, as No.of Revolutions per Minute Small Sprocket —

explained below. The limiting RPM for each Teeth I 50 I200I400I600900I1200I1800I2400I3000I3500I

Smali
lubrication type is read from the column to — Horsepower Rang —

the right of the boundary line shown. 11 — .23 0.80 1.50 2.16 3.11 4.03 4.66 3.03 2.17 1.72
13 .28 t196 1.80 2.59 3.73 4.83 5.99 3.89 2.79 2.21
15 .32 1.12 2.10 3.02 4.35 5.64 7.43 4.82 3.45 2.74
Type I. Manual Lubrication: Oil is 17 .37 1.29 2.40 3.45 4.98 6.45 8.96 5.83 4.17 3.31
applied periodically with a brush or spout 19 I .42 1.45 2.71 3.90 5.62 7.27 10.5 6.88 4.92 3.91
21 .46 1.62 3.02 4.34 6.26 8.11 11.7 7.99 5.72 4.54
can, preferably at least once every 8 23 .51 1.78 3.33 4.79 6.90 8.94 12.9 9.16 6.55 5.20
hours of operation. Volume and frequency 25 .56 1.95 3.64 5.24 7.55 9.78 14.1 10.4 7.43 5.89
should be sufficient to prevent 0.68 2.38 4.43 6.38 9.20 11.9 17.2 13.6 9.76 7.75 IV
33 0.81 2.80 4.24 7.54 9.20 14.1 20.3 17.2 12.3 9.76
discoloration of lubricant in the chain 40
—

0.93 3.24 6.05 8.71 12.5 16.3 23.4 21.0 15.0 11.9
joints. 45 1.06 3.68 6.87 9.89 14.2 18.5 26.6 25.1 17.9 14.2
50 1.18 4.12 7.70 11.1 16.0 20.7 29.8 29.4 21.0 16.7
55 1.31 4.57 8.53 12.3 17.7 22.9 33.0 33.9 24.2 19.2
Type II. Drip Lubrication: Oil drops are 60 1.44 5.02 9.37 13.5 19.4 25.2 36.3 38.6 27.6 -

directed between the link plate edges from

a drip lubricator. Volume and frequency
3/4 Inch Pitch Sta dard Single-Strand Roller Chain No. 50 (Cont.)
should be sufficient to prevent No. of Revolutions per Minute Small Sprocket
—

discoloration of lubricant in the chain

— — —

Teeth iö ôô W öJ1Ô 1500 1800 [zoo[

joints. Precaution must be taken against mat
Sprkt. Horsepower Rating
misdirection of the drops by windage. 11 0.45 0.84 2.25 3.55 6.07 7.86 7.44 5.58 4.42 3.62
13 0.54 1.07 2.70 4.26 7.26 9.42 9.56 8
7.17 5.67 4.65
Type III. Bath or Disc Lubrication: With 15 0.63 1.17 3.15 4.97 8.48 11.0 11.9 8.89 7.03 5.76
17 0.72 1.34 3.60 5.69 9.70 12.6 14.3 10.7 8.48 6.95
bath lubrication the lower strand of chain 19 0.81 1.51 4.06 6.42 10.9 14.2 16.9 12.7 10.0 8.22
runs through a sump of oil in the drive 21 0.90 1.69 4.53 7.15 12.2 15.8 19.3 14.7 11.6 9.55
housing. The oil level should reach the 1.00 1.86 5.00 7.89 13.4 17.4 21.3 16.9 13.3 10.9
25 1.09 2.04 5.47 8.63 14.7 19.1 23.3 19.1 15.1 12.4
pitch line of the chain at its lowest point 30 1.33 2.42 6.66 10.5 17.9 23.2 28.4 25.1 19.9 16.3 IV
while operating. With disc lubrication, the 33 1.57 2.93 7.86 12.4 21.2 27.4 33.5 31.7 25.1 20.5
chain operates above the oil level. The 40 1.81 3.38 9.08 14.3 24.4 31.1 38.7 38.7 30.6 25.1
45 2.06 3.84 10.3 16.3 27.8 36.0 43.9 46.2 36.5 29.9
disc picks up oil from the sump and 50 — 2.30 4.30 11.6 18.2 31.1 40.3 49.2 54.1 42.8 35.1
deposits it onto the chain, usually by 55 II 2.56 4.77 12.8 20.2 34.5 44.7 54.6 62.4 49.3 40.5
means of a trough. The diameter of the 60 — 2.81 5.25 14.1 22.2 37.9 49.1 59.9 71.1 56.2 46.1
disc should be such as to produce rim
speeds between 600 fpm minimum and 3/4 Inch Pitch Standard Single-Strand Roller Chain No. 60 —

8,000 fpm maximum. No. of Revolutions per Minute Small Sprocket

—

Teeth
Small
I 50 I 100 200 500 I 700 I 900 1200 1400 1600 I 1800
Type IV. Oil Stream Lubrication: The Sprkt. Horsepower Rating
lubricant is usually supplied by a 11 0.78 1.44 2.69 6.14 8.32 10.5 11.9 9.45 7.70 6.49
13 093 1.72 3.22 7.34 9.96 12.5 15.30 12.10 9.89 8.34
circulating pump capable of supplying 15 1.08 2.01 3.76 8.57 11.0 14.6 18.9 15.0 12.3 10.3
each chain drive with a continuous stream 17 1.24 2.30 4.31 9.81 13.3 16.7 21.7 18.2 14.8 12.5
of oil. The oil should be applied inside the 19 I 1.40 2.60 4.86 11.1 15.0 18.8 24.4 21.5 17.5 14.70
21 1.56 2.89 5.41 12.3 16.7 21.0 27.2 24.9 20.3 17.10
chain loop evenly across the chain width, 23 1.72 3.19 5.97 13.6 18.4 23.2 30.0 28.6 23.3 19.6
and directed at the lower strand. 25 1.88 3.49 6.53 14.9 20.2 25.4 32.9 32.4 26.4 22.5
30 2.29 4.25 7.95 18.1 24.6 30.9 40.0 42.6 34.7 29.2 IV
33 2.70 5.02 9.40 21.4 29.0 36.5 47.3 53.6 43.7 36.9
Consult chain manufacturers when it
—

40 3.12 5.80 10.90 54.7 33.5 42.1 54.6 62.7 53.4 45.0
appears desirable to use a type of 45 II 3.55 6.90 12.3 28.1 38.1 47.8 62.0 72.2 63.7 53.7
lubrication other than that recommended. 50 3.97 7.38 13.8 31.5 42.7 54.0 69.5 80.0 74.6 62.9
55 4.40 8.18 15.3 34.9 47.3 59.4 77.0 88.4 86.1 72.6
60 4.84 8.99 16.8 38.3 51.9 65.3 84.6 97.2 98.1 82.7
The extreme right portion of the tabulated
data is shown in boldface. This represents
ratings in the galling range. For optimum
results, it is recommended that the roller
chain manufacturer be given the
opportunity of evaluating conditions of
operation if these horsepower ratings apply.

27
 CHAPTER 3- POWER TRANSMISSION EQUIPT., PRIME MOVERS, MACHINES AND MACHINE PARTS

1 1/4 Inch Pitch Standard Sinqie-Strand Roller Chain No. 100 —

1 Inch Pitch Standard Single-Strand Roller Chain — No. 80
No. of No. of 1 Revolutions per Minute — Small Sprocket
Revolutions per Minute — Small Sprocket
12515011001200130014001500170019001100011200114001
1
I 10 I 25 I 50 I 100 200 I 300 I 400 I 500 I 600 I 700 I Horsepower Rating
.2!sL - — — HorsepoRatingg —
—
[.80 .366.28904 t73 23061491t8lII
11 0.78 1.44 2.69 6.14 8.32 10.5 11.9 9.45 7.70 6.49
13 .03 7.51 10.8 4.0 17.1 29.1 25.2 19.2 15.2
0.9 1.72 3.22 7.34 9.96 12.5 15.3 12.1 9.89 8.34
13
15 1.0 2.01 3.76 8.57 11 14.6 18.9 15.0 12.3 10.3 15
17
:
j2.52 .70 8.77 2.6 6.4 20.0
2.88 .38 10.0 4.5 18.7 22.9
34.0 31.2 23.8 18.9
—

38.9 37.6 28.7 22.7

17 1.24 2.3 4.31 9.81 13.3 16.7 21.7 18.2 14.8 12.5 43.8 44.5 33.9 26.9
19 j3.25 .07 11.3 1 25.8
19 I 1.4 2.6 4.86 11.1 15 18.8 24.4 21.5 17.5 14.7 48.9 51.7 39.4 31.2
27.2 24.9 20.3 17.1 21 j3.62 .76 12.6 - 28.8
21 2.89 5.41 12.3 16.7 21
28.6 23.3 19.6 23 F 4.0 7.46 13.9 31.7 53.9 59.2 45.1 35.8
23 3.19 5.97 13.6 18.4 23.2 30 -

25 4.38 17 15.2 34.6 59.0 59.2 45.1 35.8 IV

25 3.49 6.53 14.9 20.2 25.4 32.9 32.4 26.4 22.5
42.6 34.7 29.2 IV 30 j5.33 .94 18.5 423 71.8 78.9 67.2 53.3
4.25 7.95 18.1 24.6 30.9 40
-

30 84.8 93.3 84.7 67.2

33 16.29 1.7 21.9 50.0
33 5.02 9.40 21.4 29 36.5 47.3 53.6 43.7 36.9 98.0 108 103 82.1
45 40 17.27 3.6 25.3 47. 57.7
40 5.80 10.9 24.7 33.5 42.1 54.6 62.7 53.4 111 122 123 98.0
62 72.2 63.7 53.7 45 18.25 5.4 28.7 58. 65.5
45 6.90 12.3 28.1 38.1 47.8
80 74.6 62.9 50 II j9.25 17.3 32.2 60. 73.5 125 137 145 115
50 7.38 13.8 31.5 42.7 54 69.5
77 88.4 86.1 72.6 55 110.2 19.1 35.7 66.6 81.4 110 138 152 167 132
55 4.4 8.18 15.3 34.9 47.3 59.4
60 4.8 8.99 16.8 38.3 51.9 65.3 84.6 97.2 98.1 82.7
Note: C= 5/9 (F-32)
mis = ft/mi,, x .00508

1 1/4 Inch Pitch Standard Sinole-Strand Roller Chain No. 100 —

1/
Inch Pitch Standard Single-Strand Roller Chain — No. 120
No. ot Revolutions per Minute — Small Sprocket No. of Revolutions per Minute — Small Sçket
10 25 I 50 110012001300140015001600 170018001 900 I I 10 125 I 50 11001150 1200130014001500 600 700 I 800 I
s!S. Horsepower Rating Horsepower Rating III
11 — 0.81 3.45 6.44 12.0 17.3 22.4 27.4132.3 37.1 32.8 27.5 III 11 1.37 j2 10.9 15.6 20.3 . 54.5 46.3 37.9
13 0.97 4.13 7.22 14.4 20.7 26.9 32.8138.7 445 42.1 35.3 13 1.64 13 18.7 24.3 45.3I5.4 65.3 59.5 48.7
15 1.13 4.82 9.00 16.8 24.2 31.4 38.3145.2 51.9 52.2 43.7 15 1.91 .36 8.13 1.9128.3 76.1 73.8 60.4
17 1.30 5.52 10.3 19.2 27.7 35.9 43.9151.7 59.4 63.0 52.8 17 2.19 .99 9.31 5.0 32.4 87.2 89.0 72.8
19 1.46 5.23 11.6 21.7 31.2 40.5 49.5158.3 67.0 74.4 62.3 19 247 .62 10.5 S.22 68.2j3 98.3 105 86.1
21 1.63 - 5.94 11.9 24.2 34.8 45.1 55.1164.974.684. 72.4 21 I 2.75 .27 11.7 31.4 40.7 110 122 100
1.80 7.65 14.3 26.6 38.4 49.7 60.8171.7 82.3 92.8 83.0 23 3.03 .92 12.9 34.7 45 83.91j03 121 139 115
25 1.97 3.37 15.6 29.2 42.0 54.4 90.1 102 94.1 25 3.32 7.57 14.1 38.0 49.2-
9t81112 132 152 130 IV
30 2A0 0.2 19.0 35.5 51.2 66.3 110 124 J 30 4.04 .221 .‘°° 112 137 161 185 171
33 2.83 2.0 22.5 41.9 60.4 78.3 H13 130 146 156 33 4.77 54670.7 102 132 161 190 218 215
40 3.27 3.9 26.0 48.4 69.8 90.4 111 130 150 169 188 40 5,51 5.1 81.7 118 153 186 220 252 263
45 3.71 8.47 5.8 29.5 55.0 79.3 103 126 148 170 192 213 45 5.26 14.3 26.6 49.7 71.6 92.8 134 173 212 249 286 314
50 4.16 9.49 7.7 33.061.688.8 115 141 166 190 215 239 50 v.01 16.0 29.8 55.7 80.2 104 150 194 237 280 322 363
55 4.61 10.5 19.6 36.6 68.3 98.4 128 iJj84 211 238 263 55 7.77 17.7 13.1 61.8 89.0 115 166 215 263 310 356 384
60 II 5.07 11.6 21.6 40.2 75.1 108 140 iJ02 231 261 290 60 3.58 19.6 36.5 68.2 98.2 127 183 237 290 342 390 351

1 ‘/2 Inch Pitt-.h Roller Chain — No. 120 (Cont.)

°“-‘-°‘=“

11/’ Inch Pitch Standard Single-Strand Roller Chain No. 100 (Cont.
—
f Revolutions per Minute Small Sprocket
—

Ff Revolutions per Minute — Small S rocket 19001100011 1oc412ocl11300114001150011600117001 1800 I 1900 120001
11000111001120011 300I140011600I1800j2000122OC2400125001 2600 I SnrI Horsepower Rating
Sork Horsepower Rating 11 37.8 27.1 3116.4 14.8 13.4 12.2 11.2 10.4 9.60
11 III 23.4 114.2 11.6 9.71 8.30 7.20 6.30 5.90 5.60 13 40.8 34.9 .5j21.0 19.0 17.2 15.7 14.4 13.3 5.20
13 30.1 ‘18.2 14.9 12.5 10.6 9.20 8.10 7.60 -
15 50.6 43.2 i[2’.1 23.5 21.2 19.5 17.0 16.5 -

15 37.3 .?45 18.4 15.5 13.2 11.4 10.0 1.70 -

17 61.0 52.1 .2]31 5 28.4 25.8 23.5 21.6 §Z
17 45.0 4.3 15.9 13.8 12.1 -
19 72.1 61.6 2 33.5 30.4 27.8
.
37
•gp - -

19 53.2 tO.5 I ) 8.8 16.3 - -

21 83.8 71.6 . 10.5 - -

21 61.8 t7.0 .JT3 30.11 21.9 19.0 - -

23 96.1 82.0 - -

23 70.9 53.9 7.jE3E J 20.4 - -

25 IV 109 92.9 .7 56.1150.6 45.9117.7 - IV
-

25 80.3 31.1 .Iä5l39i - -

- IV 30 143 122 1oiIE9 a7Al365 1671 - -
iv
30 106 30.31 -
33 180 154 134 117 104 92.9119.2 - - - - -

33 133 115 101 1 i -

40 220 188 163 143 112 27.21 - -

40 163 141 124 11 -

45 263 225 195 136 42.1 - -

45 194 168 148 135 117156. —

50 339 259 167 65.2 - -

50 227 197 173 153 137 -

— -

55 302 266 97.3 — - - -

55 262 227 199 151 58 -
60 252 139 12.0 — - - -
60 299 259 168 68.0

28
 CHAPTER 3- POWER TRANSMISSION EQUIPT., PRIME MOVERS, MACHINES AND MACHINE PARTS

r
2— mcli Pitch Single-Strand Roller Chain No. 160
—

1 3/4 Inch Pitch Standard Single-Strand Roller Chain No. of P

‘s per Minute Small Sprocket
No. 140 Teeth
—

110 ITo 1100l1501200125013001350! 400 I 450 I 500 I

—

No.ot Revolutions per Minute Small Sprocket

-
—

I 10 I 25 I
50 looIlSol200l25oI300I35oI 400 I 450 500 I Horsepower Rating
sg, Horsepower_Rating 11 3.07 7.02 13.1 24.4 35.1 45.5155.6 65.5 75.3 84.9 94.8 96.6 III
11 - 2174.8 9.06116.9 4.4 31.5 38.6 45.5 522 58.9 65.5 720 13 3.67 8.42 15.7 29.2 42.0 54.4166.6 78.4 90.1 102 113.3 124
13 2.5 10.9120.3 9.2 37.8 46.2 54.5 62.5 70.5 78.4 86.2 15 4.28 9.86 18. 34.1 49.0 63.5177.7 91.5 105 119 131 145
15 2.9C 12.7 23. 34.1 44.1 54.0 63.6 73.1 82.4 91.6 101 17 4.90 11.2 20. 39.0 56.1 72.7188.9 105 120 136 150 167
I
17 14.5 27. 50.5161.71 P 83.6 942 105 115 19 .5312.723. 44.a63.282.oI100 118 136 153 170 188
19 3.8 180 30. ,j70.Gi t.1 94.3 106 118 130 21 .16 14.1 26. 49.0 70.5 91.41112 132 151 171 189 209
21 4.2 18.2 34.C 3.4 776 91.4 105 118 132 145 23 .80 15.6 29. 54.1 77.7 jjJj23 145 167 188 208 231
23 4.7’ 20.1 37.t 0.0 85.6 101 116 131 145 160 25 7.44 17.1 31. 85.1 135 159 183 206 228 257
25 5.1 22.0 41.1-
6.6 93.7 110 127 143 159 175 30 .06 20.2 38.7 ‘2. 104 134 164 193 212 251 277 307
30 a’—
62 50f
7 - 114 134 154 174
‘“ 194 213 IV 33 0.724.545. 122 159 194 228 263 296 338 363
.

33 7.4a, 31.6I5.1
,.. 110 135 159 182 206 229 251 40 2.4 28.3 52.t 141 183224 264 304 342 380 410
40 .59 3T.2 127 156 183 211 238 264 290 45 II 4.0 30.1 59.9 111 160 20j 254 300 345 389 430 421
.76 41.5 77.5 112 144 177 208 239 270 300 330 50 5.736.067. 125 180 23285 336 386 439 453 424
II 55 17.4 40.0 74.4 139 199 258 316 372 405 483 455 418
50 10.9]24.9 46.5 86.8 125 162 198 233 268 302 336 370
55 12.1127.6 51.5 96.2 139 179 219 259 297 335 372 362 60 9.1 43.9 81.8 152 219 284 347 409 4151 484 449 403
60 13.3130.456.6 106 152 197 241 284 326 368 396 329

/4 Inch Pitch Standard Single-Strand Roller Chain No. 140 (Cont.) 2inch Pitch Standard Sinale-Strand Roller Chain No. 160 (Cont.)
—
—

Revolutions per Minute— Small Sprocket

—
.
No. 01 Revolutions per Minute Small Sprocket
1550 1600 1650 1700 1750 1800 1850 1900 Ii 00011100 11200 11300 I
—

Teeth 550 1600 1700 1800 1900 11 000111001120011 3001 1400 11500 1600 I omal

: Horsepower Rating
11
Horsepower Rating
J1 73.5 65.2 58.3152.6 47.7 43.6 40.0 34.1 29.6 26.0 23.0
11 III 75.1165.8 52.4 42.9 35.9J_ 26.6 23. 20.7118.5 167 15.2
13
-

13 [108 94.4 83.7 74.9j67.5 61.3 56.0 51.4 43.9 38.0 33.4 18.4
93.9 84.6 67.3 55.1 46.21 34.2 30. 26.6 23.8 21.5 10.8
15 105 83.4 68.3 57.2E 42.4 37. 33.0 29.5 26.6
15 [i 117 103 92.8183.7 76.0 69.4 63.7 54.4 47.1 41.4 7.4
-

17 [161 141 125 1121101 91.7 83.7 76.8 65.6 56.9 42.8
17 126i100 82.4 69.11 51.144 39.8 35.6 24.0 -

19 149 1119 97.4 81.6 60.4 53.0 47.0 42.1 8.6

-
19 [i 166 148 1321119 108 98.990.877.5 67.2 31.7 -

21 194 172 1541138 126 115 105 90.1 76.7 17.3

21 171 138 113 94.8 70.2 ru 6 4.5 45.6 -

23 188 158 129 108 80.4 70.6 2.6 27.1

- -

23 [ö 222 197 1761159 144 131 121 103 66.2 - -

25 IV 251 223 gj 180 163 149 137 117 52.5

-.
- -

25 206 179 147 123 91.1 80.0 70.1 7.0

- - IV
IV
30 251 236 193 161 [i38 119 96.1 21.6
- -

-
30 F 330 293 262 236 215 196 168 90.7 4.7 - -

33 351 325 295 262 24 184 140 44.2

- -

33 274 295 297 243 204 174 129 44.8 - -

I 359 326 2ää’246 200 150 96.8

-

40
- - -

40 316 342 363 297 249 171 77.5 -

- -

- - - -
45 392 356 315 269 217 161 101 37.3
45 349 387 381 308 221 120 7.8 - -

L 387 343 293 237 175 109 37.7jZ

- - - - -
- -

50 30 405 367 278 173 53.7

L 372 315 259 192 120 42.2
- - - - - -

55 96 388 342 236 111 - -

Lc
- - - - - - -

60 348 285 214 136 51.6 - -

306 306 180 35

Fii: °C = 5/9 (°F 32)
- - - - - - -

[ = ft/mm x .00508

29
 CHAPTER 4- MACHINERY DANGER ZONE AND POINTS OF OPERATION
Chapter 4
MACHINE GUARDS AND SAFETIES
AT POINTS OF OPERATION AND
DANGER ZONES
Section 1.0 Scope
This chapter covers provisions for the protection of
machine operators against hazards at the points of
operation of machines. It includes provisions for safe
use, design and guarding of points of operation and
danger zones for machinery utilized in various
industries. Provisions of this chapter shall not be
interpreted as alternatives to those described in other
chapters of this code.
Section 2.0 Definitions
Danger Zone and area of place near or at the point
—
those in process in the machine may come in contact,
or be caught by or between moving and! or stationary
parts of the machine. This includes areas where
materials or stock are fed into, processed and/ or
discharged from the machine.
Doctor Feeds a device employed to keep feed and
—
stock rolls clean and assist in feeding stock into the in-
running or feed rolls on the machine. It usually
consists of curved steel plates mounted in front of, and
leading to each pair of rolls. This plates extends
throughout the length of the rolls with its concave side
toward the rolls and its opposite edge held by spring or
gravity action against the surface of the top rolls.
Drop Hammer a heavy metal cylinder or hammer
—
which is raised a practicable height and dropped so
that the force or energy of the blow is developed
entirely from gravity.
Foot and Hand Press machines actuated by foot or
—
hand power only, and fitted with rams or dies for
purposes of blanking, trimming, drawing, punching,
stamping, forming or assembling cold worked
materials.
30
Impulse Metal Working Machines consists of hot
—
or cold process machines utilizing energy directly from
the prime mover, or from a mechanical storage device
onto a ram through a transmission and control system
that releases this energy in short bursts or power
strokes.
Interlocked Gate Guard a guard or gate barrier at
—
the front or sides of the point of operation which is
interlocked or connected to a tripping device which will
prevent operation of the machine until the hand or
hands of the operator have been removed from the
danger zone.
Plate Shear — machine capable of shearing metal
stock more than 6mm thick
Point of Operation— the portions or areas of a
machine in which mechanical operations on the stock
or materials are performed. Such points of operations
shall necessarily include stock feeding and discharge
points on the machine.
Power Press — motor-driven machines fitted with
rams or dies for purposes of blanking, trimming,
drawing, punching, stamping, forming or assembling
materials.
Pull-Out Protective Device (Hand Fed). A
mechanically operated device attached to the
operator’s hands, wrist or arms which withdraws the
operator’s hands from the danger zone as the ram
descends.
Ram — the reciprocating machine part within a
cylinder. It may also be called plunger, slide or
mandrel.
Sweep Guards a mechanically operated guard that
—
sweeps the hands of the operator out of the way of the
descending ram.
 CHAPTER 4- MACHINERY DANGER ZONE AND POINTS OF OPERATION
Section 3.0 General Requirements
The provisions herein described are classified
according to its applicability with the respective
machine processes or operations, thus:
Class A designation denotes that the specified rule or
provision applicable to all kinds of work or operations
involving said machines.
Class B designations denotes that the specified rule
or provision may be satisfied by equivalent provisions
or adaptations for safely subject to considerations on
the nature of the work, materials, process, or industry
involved.
3.1 Power, Foot and Hand Power Presses.
Power, foot and hand presses shall be guarded
in one or more ways enumerated below. The
points of operation other than those listed below
will be acceptable, provided they afford at least
equal protection for the operator.
a. Automatic Feed. A feed of such character
that the services of an operator are not
required except at intervals to restock the
feeding device or magazine. When this type
of feed is used, the danger zone shall be
completely closed.
b. Semi-Automatic or Mechanical Feed.
When stock is fed under the ram using
machine actuated or detachable feed device
which do not necessitate that the operator’s
hands to enter the danger zone, there shall
be provided a guard, enclosure, or barrier in
front of the ram. Such feed devices may
include dial feed, slide-feed, push-feed,
rotating feed or other similar system.
c. Limited Ram Travel (Hand Fed). The
machine shall be so arranged that the
maximum distance traveled by ram is not
over 10 mm.
d. Ram Enclosure (Hand Fed). A fixed guard
or enclosure entirely surrounding the bottom
of the ram through every point of its travel
shall be so arranged that the operator’s
finger cannot go under the ram while the
press is in operation. There shall be no
shear between the top of the guard and any
part of the ram. The guard may be hinged or
otherwise adapted for ready removal for
purposes of repair or adjustment.
31
e. Interlocking Gate Guard (Hand Fed). A
guard or gate barrier at the front or sides of
the ram may be interlocked to a tripping
device which will not permit the press to
operate until the hand or hands of the
operator have been removed from the
danger zone.
f. Sweep Guard (Hand Fed). A sweep guard
is a mechanically operated guard that
sweeps the hands of the operator out of the
way of the descending ram. Such guard
should be padded to prevent injury should it
strike the operator’s wrist.
g. Pull-out Protective Device (Hand Fed). A
mechanically operated device attached to
the operator’s hands, wrist or arms which
withdraws the operator’s hands from the
danger zone as the ram descends.
h. Two Handed Trip Device (Hand Fed).
This arrangement requires the simultaneous
and continuous action of both hands to
actuate the press.
i. Fixed Guard Across Front and Along
Sides (Hand Fed). A fixed guard or
enclosure across the front and along both
sides of the ram, so arranged that a finger or
fingers cannot go under, over, through, or
around the guard or enclosure while feeding
stock. Such a guard may be an integral part
of the die.
3.2 Squaring Shears (Class A). Mechanically-
driven foot or hand activated squaring shears
shall be provided with a guard which will prevent
the hands of the operator from entering the
danger zone where the knives or shears
traverse. This guard may be a fixed barrier, set
no more than 10 mm above the table; or a self
adjusting barrier no more than 10 mm above the
table, but which will automatically rise to the
thickness of the material.
a. Automatic clamps of “hold-downs” on
squaring shears, with its openings protected
with plastic mesh or screen, may be
acceptable as suitable machine guards.
Hydraulic or pneumatic hold-downs
however, shall be provided with a suitable
means of protection such as U-shaped
finger guards coming down not more than
10 mm from the table. Other equivalent
methods of guarding may be subject of
consideration by the mechanical engineer.

b. Photoelectric Guard systems may consist of
beams of light over the perimeter of the
danger zone. When such beam is broken or
blocked by any part of the operator’s body,
an emergency stop mechanism is actuated.
c. Squaring shears guarded by means of strips
of heavy metal in front of the knife should be
set at such an angle so that the knife cutting
line will be visible to the operator.
3.3 Metal Embossing Machines (Class B). Metal
embossing machines shall be guarded at the
point of operation in the same manner as power
presses or rolls, or shall be provided with a feed
mechanism which will not require the operator to
come into contact with the die.
3.4 Non-Repeat Device (Class A). Hand-fed power
presses shall be so designed that the treadle or
lever shall disconnect from the clutch
mechanism after each stroke. A second device
shall automatically lock the clutch mechanism so
that the press cannot make a second stroke until
the treadle or hand lever is reset to its “ready”
position.
The non-repeat device may not be rendered
inoperative unless proper instruction and
authorization is given by the employer to the
operator in order to permit continuous operation
of the press. Suitable fixed guards, warning
devices and signs shall be provided whenever
the press is in continuous mode.
3.5 Treadle Guards (Class A). A treadle on every
foot controlled power press shall be protected by
means of a guard designed to prevent
accidental tripping. For treadles other than long
bars extending across the machine, the
openings in such guards shall not be more than
twice the width of the foot.
3.6 Circular Metal-Cutting Saws (Class B):
a. Circular metal-cutting saws shall be
provided with a hood that will cover the saw
to at least the depth of the teeth. The hood
shall automatically adjust itself to the
thickness of stock and remain in contact
with the material being cut at the point
where the saw engages the stock.
b. There shall be a provided fixed or manually-
adjusted hood or guard when the space
32
between the
material being cut exceeds 10 mm.
c. If the material to be cut is in the form of
angles: i.e. T-bars, Z-bars, or other section
where the guard may not satisfy the
requirements of Section 4.3.6-a. and 4.3.6-
b; the saw may be covered with a
horizontally sliding guard, or an enclosure
with an opening through which the stock
may be fed.
Exceptions:
1. Saws used for cutting hot metal and saws
with peripheral speed of less than 152
rn/mm.
2. Stereotype Saws, electrotype saws and
similar saws and used for cutting zinc,
copper or brass plate, or soft metals. If a
plate glass shield or similar barrier is
provided above the saw, the same shall be
so placed as to afford protection to the
operator.
3. The exposed parts of the saw blade under
the table shall be guarded.
3.7 Rolls (Class B):
a. The in running side of the rolls shall be
provided with a fixed or self-adjusting barrier
so arranged that the material can be fed to
the rolls without permitting the fingers of the
operator to be caught between the rolls or
between the guard and the rolls.
b. The control device shall be of the constant
I
contact type and shall be so located as to
prevent the employee from contacting the
danger zone, or
c. The prime mover shall be equipped with an
effective brake and there shall be installed
across the front of the rolls at approximately
knee height a control bar, lever, or other
device which when actuated will stop the
motor and apply the brake.
3.8 Bar Stock Machine (Class A). On machine
where revolving bar stock is being machined,
that portion of the bar stock which extends
beyond the machine shall be guarded by a
trough or tube or by other effective means.
3.9 Wire Drawing Machines (Class B)
a. Blocks shall be equipped with a stopping
device so arranged that it will automatically
 CHAPTER 4- MACHINERY DANGER ZONE AND POINTS OF OPERATION
shut down the machine in case the operator
should be caught on the block and be
carried around it, or
b. A device along the operating side of a
continuous drawing frame or unit so
designed that pressure against the device
will instantly initiate the process of stopping
sequence of the machine.
c. Reels shall be equipped with stopping
device so arranged that it will automatically
shut down the block in case the operator
should be caught in the wires as it runs from
the reel, or in case the reel should be drawn
up to the frame.
3.10 Planners (Class A). Openings in the bed of all
metal planners shall be covered with substantial
metal or other suitable covering.
3.11 Alligator Shears (Class B):
a. The upper jaw of the shear shall be
surrounded with a heavy U-shaped metal
strip with the lower edge of the strap just far
enough above the cutting edge of the fixed
jaw to allow the material to be inserted
under it. The clearance from the moving jaw
shall not be over 76 mm, the width of the bar
should be great enough so that the tip of the
moving jaw does not rise above it.
b. A horizontal bar shall be secured to the
lower jaw, parallel to the cutting edge, at a
height sufficient to permit the passage of the
thickest stock, and so positioned to prevent
stock from bending or flying upwards.
3.12 Abrading, Buffing and Polishing Machines
(Class A):
a. Exposed arbors shall be guarded.
b. Arbor ends which are not equipped with a
coarse nuts or equivalent shall be guarded.
3.13 Tumbling Barrels (Class A)
a. Tumbling barrels shall be completely
enclosed or guarded by movable rail guards,
or by other suitable and effective means.
b. If enclosed, tumbling barrels shall be
equipped with an effective lock or brake
mechanism.
33
3.14 Drop Hammers: Drop hammers shall be
equipped with safety stops which will hold the
hammer in the elevated position. Such stops
shall be of the pivoting type and shall be of such
a design that requires the hammer to be lifted to
release the safety stops.
Section 4.0 Die Casting Machines
4.1 Hot Chamber Machine Controls. Every hot
chamber die casting machine shall be equipped
with one of the following controls:
a. Two-hand controls requiring the
simultaneous use of both hands until the die
is completely closed. Removal of either or
both hands during the closing of the die will
stop or reverse the closing cycle, or
b. A single control of the constant pressure
type. This control shall be located at such a
distance from the parting line of the die that
the operator cannot reach into the die at the
parting line with his free hand. Removal of
the hand from the control during the closing
of the die will stop or reverse the closing
cycle, or
c. A sliding gate guard which when closed will
prevent contact by the operator and the die.
This gate shall be interlocked with the
control system so that if the gate is opened
prior to the completion of the closing cycle,
the closing cycle will stop or reverse.
4.2 Cold Chamber Machine Controls. Every cold
chamber die casting machine shall be equipped
with one of the following controls:
a. Two-hand controls requiring the
simultaneous use of both hands until the die
is completely closed. Removal of either or
both hands during the closing of the die will
stop or reverse the closing cycle;
b. A single control of the constant pressure
type. This control shall be located at such a
distance from the parting line of the die that
the operator cannot reach into the die at the
parting line with his free hand. Removal of
the hand from the control during the closing
of the die will stop or reverse the closing
cycle;
c. A sliding-gate guard which when closed will
prevent contact by the operator and the die.
This gate shall be interlocked with the
 CHAPTER 4- MACHINERY DANGER ZONE AND POINTS OF OPERATION
control system so that if the gate is opened
prior to the completion of the closing cycle,
the cycle will stop to reverse:
d. Two-hand controls requiring the
simultaneous use of both hands until the die
is within 50 mm of complete closing. This
control shall have an interlocked limit switch
that maintains a closed circuit for the last 50
mm of the closing cycle. Removal of either
or both hands before the activation of the
limit switch will stop or reverse the closing
cycle.
4.3 Ladling Operation. To activate the plunger in
the shot sleeve a single control shall be
provided. This control shall be a type which
permits the operator to use his free hand for
ladling metal. The push button control shall be
so guarded by a shield or recessed so that it
cannot be activated by any part of the body
other than the finger.
4.4 Hot and Cold Chamber Machines, Helpers
Protection. Where a helper is employed, his
position shall be protected by:
a. A fixed-barrier guard with controls. The
control may be foot-operated and shall be
interlocked with the primary control so that
the machine cannot be started while the
secondary control is activated. If the
secondary control is activated during the
closing cycle, the closing will stop or
reverse; or
b. A sliding-gate guard which when closed will
prevent contact by the helper and die. This
gate shall be interlocked with the primary
control system so that the machine cannot
be started while the gate is opened and
cannot be started until it is closed; or
c. Two-hand controls connected with the
primary controls and requiring simultaneous
use of both hands of the helper before the
machine can be started. Removal of one or
both hands during the closing cycle will stop
or reverse the closing cycle; or
d. A single control of the constant pressure
type connected with the primary controls.
These controls shall be located at such a
distance from the parting line of the die that
the helper cannot reach into the die with his
free hand. Removal of the hand from the
34
control during the closing of the die will stop
or reverse the closing cycle.
4.5 Plunger Control:
a. Every plunger on hot chamber machines
shall be equipped with a control interlocked
with the die which will prevent the operation
of the plunger prior to the closing of the die.
b. Every plunger on cold chamber machines
shall be equipped with a control interlocked
with the die which will prevent the operation
of the plunger unless the die is completely
open or completely closed. Or for the
removal of a stuck plug, a cold chamber
machine may be equipped with two-hand
controls, which operate the plunger and
require simultaneous use of both hands.
4.6 Shields Between Die Casting Machine.
Shields shall be provided between die casting
machines to protect against metal spitting.
These shields shall be located at the parting line
of the die and shall be no less than 1 200 mm
wide and 1 830 mm high.
4.7 Holding Furnaces. Any open holding furnace,
which measures less than 750 mm from the floor
or working level to the furnace top shall be
guarded by means of a ring guard around its
perimeter to a height of at least 750 mm from
the floor or working level.
Section 5.0 Wood Working Machine
5.1 Circular Rip Saw (Class B) Manual Feed:
a. A hood shall be used that will cover the saw
to at least the depth of the teeth.
b. Such hood shall automatically adjust itself to
the thickness of and remain contact with the
material being cut around point where the
stock encounters the saw; or
c. The hood may be a fixed or manually
adjusted hood or guard provided the space
between the bottom of the guard and the
stock does not exceed 12.70 mm.
d. The hood or other guard shall be so
designed as to prevent a kick-back. “Anti
Kick-Back” devices shall be designed to be
effective for all thickness of material.
 CHAPTER 4- MACHINERY DANGER ZONE AND POINTS OF OPERATION
Recommendation: A pushing stick or
manual push rod of suitable design should
be provided for and used by the operator to
feed the short end of the stock through the
hood.
e. Except when grooving, a spreader shall be
provided and fastened securely at the rear
of saw in alignment with saw blade. It shall
be slightly thinner than the saw kerf and
slightly thicker than the saw disc.
f. The exposed parts of the saw blade under
the table shall be guarded.
5.2 Self-Feed Circular-Ripsaw (Class A):
a. A hood or guard shall be used to cover the
saw to at least the depth of the teeth. The
hood or guard need not rest upon the table
nor upon the stock, but shall extend to within
12.70 mm of the stock being worked.
b. The feed rolls or star wheels shall be
enclosed with a cover coming down to within
12.70mm of the stock.
c. A spreader shall be fastened securely at the
rear of the saw in alignment with the saw
blade, except where a roller wheel is
provided at back of saw. The spreader shall
be slightly thinner than the saw kerf, and
slightly thicker than the saw disc.
d. The exposed parts of the saw blade under
the table shall be guarded.
e. Every self-feed circular ripsaw shall be
equipped with an anti-kick-back device
installed on the in-feed side. Such an anti-
kick-back device shall be designed to be
effective for all thickness of stock.
5.3 Circular Crosscut Saw (Class B):
a. A hood or guard shall be used to prevent
contact between the operator and the saw
teeth.
1. The hood shall automatically adjust
itself to the thickness of and remain
in contact with the stock nearest the
point where cutting takes place; or
2. The hood or guard may be a fixed
or manually adjusted provided the
space between the bottom of the
35
guard and the material being cut
does not exceed 12.70 mm.
Exception: Circular crosscut saws with
stationaiy table where the saw moves fotward
when cutting.
b. Circular crosscut saw with stationary tables
where the saw moves forward horizontally
shall have a hood or guard securely
fastened to the table that will cover the saw
when running idle. The hood or guard shall
extend at least 50 mm in front of the saw
teeth when the saw is in its back position.
The width of the hood shall be limited so as
to provide not more than 12.70 mm
clearance on each side of saw blade. There
shall be adequate stops to prevent the saw
from moving beyond the edge of the table.
c. The exposed unused parts of the saw blade
shall be guarded.
5.4 Cordwood and Similar Saws (Class B). All
unused portions of the saw blade shall be
guarded.
5.5 Box Shock Cut-Off Saws (Class B). Box shock
cut-off saws shall be guarded either by a hood
or splitter-type guard. Either type guard shall
cover the top back quarter of the saw and shall
be kept adjusted close to the saw.
5.6 Swing Cut-off Saw (Class A)
a. The saw blade shall be encased on both
sides in such a way that at least the upper
half of the blade and the arbor end will be
completely covered.
b. There shall be an effective device to return
the saw automatically to the back of the
table when released at any point of its travel
such device shall prevent saw from
rebounding and shall not depend on fiber
rope or cord for it to function.
c. If a counterweight is used, all bolts
supporting the bar and weight shall be
provided with nuts and cotter pins. A bolt
may be put through the exposed end of the
counterweight rod, where the weight does
not enclose the rod. A safety chain shall be
attached to the counterweight.
 CHAPTER 4- MACHINERY DANGER ZONE AND POINTS OF OPERATION
d. Limit chains or other positive stops shall be
provided to prevent the saw from swinging
beyond the front edge of the table.
e. Where it is possible to pass behind a swing
cut-off saw the rear of the saw shall be
completely housed when the saw is in back
position. The housing shall include the
swing frame as well as the saw.
5.7 Underhung Swing Cut-Off Saws (Class A).
The saw blade shall be fully enclosed when in
the extreme back position, and the swing frame
shall not pass the vertical position when at its
extreme forward limit. A positive stop shall be
furnished so that the saw cannot pass the front
edge of the table.
5.8 Portable Power Driven Circular Hand Saws
(Class A)
a. Portable circular saw shall be equipped with
guards or hood which will automatically
adjust to the work when the saw is in use.
The guards are provided so that none of the
teeth above the work are exposed to
contact; and when the blade is withdrawn
from the work, the guard shall at least cover
the saw to the depth of the teeth. The saw
shall not be used without a shoe or guide.
b. The saw guards shall be equipped with a
handle or locked or blocked in an open
equipped with a handle or lug by which it
may be temporarily retracted without
exposing the operator’s fingers to the blade.
c. Saw guards shall not be locked or blocked
in an open position and shall be maintained
in good working condition at all times.
5.8 Circular Knives (Class A). Circular Knives
shall be guarded as follows:
a. A hood shall be provided to cover the cutting
edge of the knife.
b. The hood shall automatically adjust itself to
the thickness of the stock and remain in
contact with the stock does not exceed
12.70 mm.
c. A fixed or manually adjusted hood or guard
may be allowed, provided the space
between the bottom of the guard and the
stock does not exceed 12.70 mm.
36
d. The cutter blade under the table shall be
guarded.
5.10 Horizontal Pull Saw (Class A), sometimes
referred to as “Contractor’s Saw” or “Radial Arm
Saw” shall be provided with the following:
a. The saw blade shall be encased in such a
way that at least the upper half of the blade
and the arbor ends will completely be
covered.
b. Limit chains or other positive stops shall be
used to prevent the saw from moving
beyond the front edge of the table. Such
limiting devices shall be so designed and
located that they can be easily inspected
and they shall be maintained in good
condition.
c. Where a horizontal pull saw is used for
ripping purposes, there shall be an anti-kick
back device installed at the in-feed side.
Such a device shall be designed to be
effective for any thickness and the width of
the stock to be cut and shall not be attached
to the saw guard. Automatic feeding devices
when used they shall be guarded.
d. There should be an effective device which
will return the saw automatically to the back
of the table when released at any point of its
travel; such a device shall prevent the saw
from rebounding.
5.11 Band Knives and Band Saws (Class A).
(Including band re-saws having saw blades less
than 175 mm in width or band saw wheel less
than 1 525 mm in diameter) shall be guarded as
follows:
a. All portions of the saw blade shall be
enclosed or guarded except that portion
between the guide rolls and the table. The
down travel guard from the upper wheel to
the guide shall be of an angle bar or channel
construction covering the front and at least
the outside of the blade, and shall be so
adjusted that the blade will travel within the
angle bar or channel.
b. Band saw wheels shall be fully enclosed.
c. Feed rolls of band re-saws and band
ripsaws shall be protected with a semi
cylindrical guard to prevent the hands of the
 CHAPTER 4- MACHINERY DANGER ZONE AND POINTS OF OPERATION
employee from coming in contact with the
in-running rolls at any point.
5.12 Jointer (Class A):
a. All jointers shall be equipped with cylindrical
cutting heads.
b. A suitable guard which will automatically
cover the exposed portion of the cutting
head not engaging the stock shall be used.
The guard shall be capable of protecting the
entire length of the cutting space in the
table.
c. The exposed portion of the cutting head at
the rear of the fence shall be covered.
d. Where equipped with automatic feed, the
feeding mechanism shall be guarded.
e. Where knives are exposed beneath the
table, they shall be guarded.
Recommendations:
1. A safety pusher of suitable design should be
provided and used.
2. The operator must protective eyewear or
goggles and dust mask during operation of
the machine.
5.13 Belt Sanders (Class A). Belt sanders shall
have both pulleys and the unused run of the
sanding belt enclosed. Rim guards will be
acceptable for pulleys with smooth disc wheels
provided the in-running nip points are guarded.
Guards may be hinged to permit sanding on the
pulley.
5.14 Disc Sanders (Class A). Disc sanders shall
have the periphery and back of revolving disc
guarded, and the space between revolving disc
and edge of table shall not be greater than 6.35
mm.
5.15 Drum Sanders (Class A):
a. The exposed parts of the drum except that
portion where the material comes in contact
with the abrasive surfaces shall be guarded.
b. Feed rolls and pressure rolls shall be
enclosed except such parts as may be
necessary to feed stock.
37
5.16 Elbow Sanders (Class A). The revolving head
shall be fully guarded except where abrasive
comes in contact with the material.
5.17 Boring and Mortising Machines (Class A):
a. Only safety-hit chucks with no projecting set
screws should be used.
b. Boring bits should be provided with a guard
that will enclose all portions of the bit and
chuck above the stock.
c. The top of the cutting chain and driving
mechanism on chain mortisers shall be
enclosed.
d. Where counterweights are used, one of the
following measures, or equivalent means
shall be used to prevent the counterweights
from dropping:
1. It shall be bolted to the bar by
means of a bolt passing through
both bar and counterweight, or
2. A bolt shall be put through the
extreme end of the bar, or
3. The counterweight assembly shall
be equipped with nuts and cotter
pins.
5.18 Tenon Machines (Class A). Cutting heads and
saws of tenoning machines shall be guarded.
5.19 Planers, Moulders, Stickers and Matches
(Class A), Shapers (Class B):
a. Knife heads of wood shapers and cutting
heads of other machines, not automatically
fed, shall be provided with guards, or
templates, jigs, or fixtures which will enable
the part to be processed without exposing
the operator’s hands to the danger zone.
b. Single cutter knives in shaper heads shall
not be used. Knives shall balance each
other by weight and shall be so mounted in
the heads as to revolve at full speed without
dangerous vibration. The back ends of the
knives shall extend at least to a point where
it makes a right angle with the axis of
spindle. When the knife extends a distance
equal to or greater than the gripped length
of the knife there shall be separate means to
secure the knife other than the friction
 CHAPTER 4- MACHINERY DANGER ZONE AND POINTS OF OPERATION
between the collar and the knife. Such
means may be a hook, a through bolt, slots
or serrations.
c. Knife heads of automatically fed
woodworking machines such as stickers,
planers, molders, and matchers, shall be
guarded against contact. The feed rolls shall
be enclosed, except as may be necessary to
feed stock. The guard shall be fastened to
the frame carrying the rolls so as to remain
in adjustment for any thickness of stock.
Knives shall be so mounted in the heads as
to revolve at full speed without dangerous
vibration.
d. Double-spindle shapers shall be provided
with a spindle starting and stopping device
for each spindle.
5.20 Automa ..athes (Shoe Lathes, Spoke and
All Other Automatic Lathes of the Rotating
Knife Type) (Class A). A hood or cover shall
be provided to completely enclose the cutter
blades while the stock is being worked. Such
hood or cover may be of sheet steel and
provided with openings no larger than 10 mm in
any dimension.
5.21 Combination Woodworking Machines (Class
B). Each point of operation of all component
machines or tools shall be guarded as required
for each individual tool in a separate machine.
Such machines shall be equipped with a
separate starting and stopping device for each
point of operation.
5.22 Cracked Saws:
a. Any band saw found to have developed a
crack whose length is greater than one-tenth
(1/10) the width of the band, shall be
replaced unless the width is so reduced so
as to eliminate the cracks or unless the
cracked section is repaired.
b. Any circular saw that is found to have
developed a crack whose length exceeds
5% of the diameter of the saw shall be
discarded unless the diameter is so reduced
as to eliminate the crack and the tension is
corrected.
5.23 Maximum Speeds of Circular Saws. The
peripheral speeds of circular saws shall not
exceed 3 600 rn/mm unless the saw has been
manufactured or hammered for a higher speed
38
and is so marked. The following table shows
maximum speeds for various diameter saws.
Table 4.5.23 Maximum Operating Speeds of Circluar Saws.
Pitch Diameter of Saw Max. Circular speed
(mm) (RPM)
5,732
200
4,586
250
300 3,821
350 3,275
400 2,866
2,547
450
2,292
500
550 2,084
600 1,910
650 1,763
700 1,637
1,528
750
5.24 Wobble Saws. Wobble Saws shall not be used.
5.25 Exhaust Systems. Whenever the chips and
sawdust produced by woodworking machines
accumulate on the floor so as to endanger
employees, suitable exhaust system shall be
required.
Section 6.0 Paper and Printing Machines
6.1 Calendar and Similar Rolls (Class B). Each
calendar shall be equipped with a guard or
feeding device, so arranged that the material
can be fed without permitting the fingers of the
operator to be caught by the rolls. The device
shall be so arranged that the operator can
immediately stop the rolls, at the feed point, by
the use of a lever rod or treadle. The rolls shall
be equipped with an automatic trip device that
will stop the machine when the fingers approach
the intake points. “Doctor Feed” is acceptable.
Note: The so-called “Doctor Feed” can be used
on calendar stacks. It is a device employed to
keep the rolls clean and to assist in feeding the
material into the in-running side of each pair of
rolls on the stack. It generally consists of a
cunied steel plate attached in front of, and
leading to each pair of rolls. This plate extends
through the length of the rolls with its concave
side toward the rolls and its opposite edge held
by spring or gravity against the surface of the
top rolls of each pair just above the nip point on
the cut-running side.
In operation the material is fed into the top or
first pair of rolls of the stack and as it emerges, it
is guided by the curved plate of the doctor feed
into the next pair of in-running rolls; and so on
down the stack.
 CHAPTER 4— MACHINERY DANGER ZONE AND POINTS OF OPERATION
6.2 Corner Cutter (Class A). Single and double
machines with or without mechanical power
shall be provided with a guard in front of and to
the side of knives.
6.3 Corner Stayers (Class A). Corner stayers with
or without mechanical power shall be provided
with an automatic device that will instantly stop
the downward motion of the plunger, should the
fingers of the operator come between the
plunger and the anvil.
6.4 Cutter and Creasers (Class A). Drum cylinder
type cutters and creasers shall be guarded so
as to prevent the operator’s hands being caught
between the cylinder and the bed.
6.5 Rotary Scoring Machines (Class A). Scorers
shall have guard in front of in-running discs that
will prevent injury to the operator’s hands while
the machine is in operation.
6.6 Drum Winder on Paper Machine (Class A).
Machine should be so arranged that the drums
run outward. Where the drums run inward on the
operating side a cover or guard shall be
provided for the point of contact between the
drum and the paper roll.
6.7 Job Platen Press (Class B). Job platen
presses with or without mechanical power shall
be provided with one of the following:
a. An automatic feed which does not require
the operator’s hands to be placed between
the platen and bed, or
b. An automatic feed which will prevent the
platen from closing if the hand or hands of
the operator are caught between the platen
and the bed, or
c. A guard or gate, mechanically operated,
which will throw the operator’s hands out of
the way as the press closes. For sweep
guards which lift the hands out of the danger
zone, the guard should rise at least 100 mm
above the platen as the press closes, and
should descend by gravity or be drawn by
springs. The guard shall be so arranged that
it will prevent a shear between the guard
and the top of the platen, or
d. Any other device or tripping mechanism
which will prevent the platen from fully
closing if the hands of the operator should
be between the platen and bed.
39
6.8 Index Cutter (Class B). All knives or plungers
used for cutting strips off ends of books and
similar operations shall be provided with a guard
that will prevent the operator’s hands from
coming into contact with the cutting knife or
plunger as it descends.
6.9 Power-Driven Guillotine Paper Cutters (Paper
Cutters). Power-driven guillotine paper cutters
shall be provided with:
a. (Class A). A non-repeat device that will
automatically lock the clutch mechanism into
place so that the cutter cannot make a
second stroke until the hand lever is again
moved into the starting position, or
b. (Class A). A buffer that will interpose a
positive stop to some moving parts of the
machine whenever the clutch fails to
perform the function of preventing the cutter
from making a repeat stroke. In addition to
the non-repeat device or buffer, such paper
cutters shall be provided with:
1. (Class B). A-two-handed starting
device which requires the
simultaneous action of both hands
during the cutting motion of the
knife, or
2. (Class B). An interlocked starting
device that will interpose a barrier
to interlocking between the starting
levers and clutch which must be
released through a movement of the
hand starting lever before the lever
can be moved to the position where
it applies power to the cutter.
c. (Class A). Simultaneous operation of paper
cutters by more than one operator shall not
be permitted or required by the employer.
Exception: Continuous feed trimmers.
6.10 Paper Box Ending and Edge Attaching
Machines (Class A). Paper box ending and
edge attaching machines shall be provided with
an automatic device which will prevent the
application of injurious pressure if the fingers of
the operators are between the top of the form
and the pressure head.
6.11 Cylinder and Rotary Presses (Class B). The
in-running sides of power-operated rollers or
cylinders shall be provided with a guard so
 CHAPTER 4— MACHINERY DANGER ZONE AND POINTS OF OPERATION
arranged that the material can be fed to the
roller without permitting the operator’s fingers to
be caught between the roller or cylinders.
6.12 Lithographic Presses (Class A). The in-
running side of the cylinder and roller shall be
provided with a guard that will prevent the
operator from being caught between the
cylinders.
6.13 Embossing Machines (Class A). Embossing
machines of the head type shall be equipped
with:
a. A fixed enclosing front and sides of press
with just enough clearance space for
feeding stock. The guard shall be so
arranged that the operator’s fingers cannot
be caught between the press and the die
while feeding stock, or
b. A fixed or a movable front guard connected
to the operating mechanism in such manner
that the operator’s fingers cannot be caught
into the press while feeding stock, or
c. A two-handed starting device which requires
the simultaneous action of both hands to
start the machine.
Exception: Machines equipped with feeding
devices such that the hands of the operator
cannot come in contact with the die.
6.14 Paper Punches and Line Perforators (Class
B). Mechanical or foot power punches and line
perforators shall be provided with an effective
device that will prevent the operator’s fingers
from coming between the punch and die.
Exception: Paper punches and line perforators
where the clearance between the opening for
feeding stock does not exceed 10 mm in the
open position.
6.15 Slotters (Class A):
a. Vertical Slotters
1. The knife shall be provided with a
stripper; or
2. It shall be provided with a guard in
front of the knives so arranged that
the hands of the operator cannot
come into contact with the knives
while machine is in operation.
40
b. Rotary Slotters. A guard shall be provided
in front of the knives so that the hands of the
operator cannot come into contact with the
knives while machine is in operation.
Section 7.0 Textile and Laundry
Machinery
7.1 Shuttles (Class A). All looms shall have shuttle
guards or shall be constructed in such a manner
as to prevent the shuttle from flying off from the
machine.
7.2 Cards (Class A). The cylinder cover or
revolving flat type cards shall be provided with
an interlock, securely bolted in place; or shall be
provided with a stripping device so arranged that
the operator cannot come in contact with the
point of operation.
A licker-in cover shall be provided on all cards
and shall be bolted securely in place so that the
operator cannot readily open it. Thumbscrews
or wing nuts shall not be used.
7.3 Carpet Frayer or Rag Shredder (Class A).
Cylinder door or cover shall be provided with an
interlock so constructed that the cover cannot be
opened while the roller is revolving or the cover
shall be clamped in place and the slot be so
constructed and guarded that the operator’s
fingers cannot come in contact with the roller.
7.4 Carpet Trimmer (Class A). Revolving knives
shall be guarded.
7.5 Stationary Circular Knife (Class A). Circular
Knives or discs shall be equipped with a guard
that will prevent contact with the cutting edges
while the machine is in operation.
7.6 Cotton Picker, Opener and Willower (Class
A). The beater cover shall be provided with
interlocking device so arranged that the cover
cannot be opened while the beater is revolving.
7.7 Picker Machines (Class A). All machines used
in picking wool, hair, rags or other material shall
have the rolls completely covered, except the
opening necessary to feed stock. This opening
shall be constructed or guarded that the
employee’s fingers cannot come into contact
with rolls.
7.8 Pile Cutter or Shearer (Class A). Knife rolls
shall be provided with a cover of guard that will
 CHAPTER 4- MACHINERY DANGER ZONE AND POINTS OF OPERATION
prevent the employee’s fingers from coming in
contact with the rolls.
7.9 Napper (Class A). Rolls shall be provided with a
cover or guard so arranged that the employee’s
fingers cannot be caught in the rolls while
feeding the material.
7.10 Silver and Ribbon Lap Machine (Doublers)
(Class A). A device or cover shall be provided
and so arranged that the employee’s hands
cannot be caught under the lap roll.
7.11 Garnet Machine (Class A). Openings in the
lower frame and between lower frames and floor
shall be guarded. Where metal guards are used,
it shall not be less than 0.953 mm thick.
7.12 Marking Machine (Class A).
a. Each power marking machine shall be
equipped with a spring compression device
of such design as to protect the finger bones
should these be caught between the
marking plunger and platen, or
b. The marking machines shall be equipped
with a control mechanism which will require
the simultaneous action of both hands to
operate the machine, or
c. There shall be a guard that will interpose a
barrier in front of the marking plunger.
7.13 Textile Machines:
Recommendation: Operators designated to
Blow Room, Spinning, Weaving and part of
Finishing Departments must be provided with
suitable dust masks. Illumination of these
working areas shall be maintained at maximum
design levels.
7.14 Washing Machine (Class A).
a. Each front loading washing machine shall
be equipped with an interlocking device that
will prevent the inside cylinder from moving
when the outer door on the case or shell is
open; and it shall also prevent the door from
being opened while inside cylinder is in
motion.
7.16 Power Wringer (Class A). Each power wringer
b. Each washing machine shall be provided
with a safe and effective means for holding
the doors or covers of inner and outer
41
cylinders or shell open during loading or
unloading.
c. Each washing méchine shall be equipped
with brake or other devices to prevent the
inner cylinder from moving while loading or
unloading.
7.15 Centrifugal Extractor (Class A):
a. Each extractor shall be equipped with a
metal cover at least 0.953 mm thick, or its
equivalent sturdiness, which shall entirely
cover the opening to the outer shell. The
cover shall be kept in its closed position
when the extractor is in motion.
b. Each extractor shall be equipped with an
interlocking device that will prevent the
cover from being opened while basket is in
motion; and also prevent the operation of
the basket while the cover is open.
Note: This should not prevent the movement
of the basket by hand to insure an even
loading when the cover is open.
c. No extractor shall be operated at a speed
greater than the manufacturer’s rating,
which shall be stamped on the basket where
easily visible in letters not less than 6 mm in
height. The maximum permissible speed
shall be given in revolutions per minute.
d. Each engine prime mover individually
driving an extractor shall be provided with
an effective speed limiter or governor.
e. The exterior of the basket including hoops or
bands shall be inspected at least every six
months to determine condition of basket.
The extractor shall be dismantled and the
bearings, bearing blocks and basket shall be
inspected at least once a year and all
necessary repairs or replacements made. If
basket shows signs of weakness, it shall not
be used.
f. Each extractor shall be effectively, secured
in position on the floor or foundation so as to
eliminate unsafe vibration.
shall be equipped with a guard across the entire
front of the feed or first roll so arranged that
when struck the machine will immediately stop.
 CHAPTER 4- MACHINERY DANGER ZONE AND POINTS OF OPERATION
7.17 Starching Machine (Cylinder or Box Type)
(Class A). Each starching machine shall have
the rolls or cylinders guarded so as to prevent
contact by the employees while the machine is
in motion.
7.18 Drying Tumbler (Horizontal Conventional
Type) (Class A):
a. Each drying tumbler shall be equipped with
an interlocking device that will prevent the
inside cylinder from moving when the door
on the case or shell is open. Such device
shall also prevent the door from being
opened while the inside cylinders is in
motion.
Note: This should not prevent the movement
of the inner cylinder under the action of a
hand-operated mechanism or under the
operation of an “inching” device.
b. Each drying tumbler shall be provided with
adequate means for holding open the doors
or covers of inner and outer cylinders or
shells while being loaded or unloaded.
c. Each drying tumbler shall be equipped with
brakes or other positive locking devices to
prevent the inner cylinder from moving
during loading and unloading. “Inching
devices” are permitted.
Exception: Shakeout or condition!ng
tumblers where the clothes are loaded into
the open end of the revolving cylinder and
are automatically discharged out of the
opposite end.
7.19 Shaker (Clothes Tumbler, Batch Type) (Class
A):
a. Each shaker or clothes tumbler shall be
equipped with a device that will prevent the
tumbler from moving while the door is open.
The tumbler shall be enclosed or guarded
so as to prevent accidental contact.
b. Each shaker or clothes tumbler shall b€
equipped with brakes or other positiv.
locking devices to prevent the insid.
cylinder from moving when the machine
loaded or unloaded. “Inching devices” are
permitted.
7.20 Dampening Machine (Class A). The rolls on
dampening machines shall be guarded by either
42
a slot or hopper or a rod located directly in front
of the feed and extending the full length of the
roll.
7.21 Ironer (Flatwork Type) (Class A):
a. Each flat-work and collar ironer shall be
equipped with a guard across the entire
front of the feed or first pressure roles, so
arranged that when struck, the machine will
immediately stop.
b. The pressure rolls shall be guarded or
covered so that an employee cannot be
caught or pulled into the rolls.
7.22 Ironer (Body Type) (Class A). Each body
ironer, shall be equipped with a guard across
the entire length of the feed roll or shoe, so
arranged that when struck, the machine will
immediately stop.
7.23 Ironer (Rotary-body Type) (Class A). Each
combined rotary bosom and coat-ironer shall be
equipped with a guard across the entire length
of the feed roll or shoe, so arranged that when
struck, the machine will immediately stop.
7.24 Ironer (Press Type) (Class A)
a. Each ironing press (excluding hand or foot
power presses) shall be equipped with a two
hand device which require the simultaneous
action of both hands to operate the press.
b. Every power-driven ironing press of the type
used in the dry cleaning or garment
manufacturing industry shall be equipped
with two hand controls which will require the
simultaneous use of both hands to apply
heavy pressure or to look the press.
7.25 Laundry Machine. Working areas around the
Laundry Machine shall be provided with non
skid or slip-resistant flooring.
Section 8.0 Leather and Composition
Good Machines
8.1 Dinking and Clicking Machrnes (Class A).
Every dinking machine shall be guarded by at
least one of the following methods:
a. “Safety type” dies shall be used throughout.
Dies of this type shall be at least 75 mm in
height provided with safety grooves or
flanges. This safety flanges reduce the
 CHAPTER 4- MACHINERY DANGER ZONE AND POINTS OF OPERATION
danger of having the operator’s fingers
being caught between top of die and beam.
Other types are provided with horizontal or
vertical handles at least 65 mm in height
above the die proper; or
b. The machine shall be provided with a sliding
table or swinging head which does not
require the operator to place his hands
under the beam or head; or
c. There shall be a two-handed device that
required both hands of the operator to be
removed from under the beam at the
moment of tripping the machine or operation
of the machine; or
d. The point of operation shall be guarded on
all sides. The end guards shall be fixed and
the front and back guards shall be gate
guards of the elevating interlocking type.
8.2 Embossing Machines (Power or Foot Driven)
(Class A). Embossers of the head type shall be
equipped with the following:
a. A fixed guard enclosing front and sides of
platen with stock feeding slots too narrow to
allow insertion of operator’s fingers, or
b. An interlocking gate-guard connected with
the operating mechanism in such a way that
it will automatically protect front and sides of
platen during the power stroke in such
manner that the operator’s hand cannot be
caught by the platen, or
c. An actuating device that requires the
simultaneous action of both hands of the
operator or operators, whenever more than
one person is required to operate the
machine.
d. A sliding or revolving table or other feeding
device which does not require the operator
to place his hands under the platen, or
e. A mechanically operated guard that throws
the hands of the operator out of the way as
the platen descends. Such a guard should
be padded to prevent injury should it strike
the operator’s hand or wrist.
8.3 Heel Compressing Machine (Class A)
a. Heel compressing machines shall be
equipped with a control device that requires
43
a simultaneous action of both hands, or they
shall be provided with a mechanical feeding
device.
b. The plunger shall be guarded either by a
complete enclosure or by a barrier guard in
front of the plunger.
8.4 Skiving Machines (Roll Feed) (Class A). Feed
rolls shall be so arranged that material must be
fed through slot or under a fixed or removable
metal rod or strip directly in front of the feed and
running the full length of the rolls.
8.5 Splitter (Stationary Knife) (Class A). Feed
rolls shall be so arranged that material must be
fed through a slot or under a fixed metal rod or
strip directly in front of the feed and running the
full length of the rolls.
8.6 Splitter (Band Knife) (Class A)
a. All exposed portions of the knife as well as
band wheels shall be enclosed and feed
rolls shall be guarded.
b. An extension of the stopping device shall be
installed across the entire front of the top of
the feed roll so installed that it can be readily
operated from the operator’s working
position.
8.7 Stripper (Class B). Strippers shall be provided
with control device which requires the
simultaneous action of both hands during the
cutting movement of the knife.
8.8 Tanning Drums (Class A). Horizontal revolving
drums shall be guarded, in addition, the drum
shall be provided with a stopping device, to
prevent the movement of the drum while loading
or unloading.
8.9 Roll Type Machines (Class A). The in-running
side of corrugating, crimping, embossing,
pleating, printing, and graining rolls shall be
guarded.
8.10 Dehairing Machines (Class A). All knives used
in removing hair from hides and skins shall be
enclosed except such opening as is necessary
to feed stock.
8.11 Fleshing and Dehairing Machines Special
—
Types. All fleshing and dehairing machines in
which the cylinders have a secondary motion in
addition to a rotary one shall be equipped with a
 CHAPTER 4- MACHINERY DANGER ZONE AND POINTS OF OPERATION

two hand control. This control must be arranged be so located that the operator
so that the simultaneous and continuous action cannot reach into the mixer while
of both hands is required to set the machine in pressing the button, or
motion.
2. If belt driven, the belt shifter shall be
8.12 Whitening Machines. The moving parts of the so arranged that it will normally
heads of whitening machine shall be enclosed move the belt toward the loose
except such opening as is necessary to feed the pulley and hold it there while the
stock. mixer bowl is tilted and uncovered
unless the operator pushes the belt
lever toward the tight pulley. The
Section 9.0 Food and Tobacco Machinery belt shifter must be so located that
the operator cannot reach into the
9.1 Pressure Bottling Machine (Class A).
bowl while holding the shifter, or
Pressure bottling machines shall be provided
with an enclosure made of sheet metal not less
3. If clutch driven, the clutch lever shall
than 1.27 mm thick or wire mesh with opening
be so arranged that it will move the
not to exceed 6 mm, and shall be so arranged
clutch out of engagement and hold it
on the machine to confine or safety deflect
there while the mixer is tilted or
broken glass. The enclosure shall extend
uncovered unless the operator
downward at sides and rear to a point level with
moves the clutch lever to engage it.
that part of the machine on which the bottle
The clutch lever shall be so located
stands while being filled and upward to a point
that the operator cannot reach into
of at least 100 mm higher than the top of the
the bowl while holding the lever.
bottle and be so constructed that bottle side is
facing the operator. When the bottling is done
Note: When a pushbutton control is
under a pressure of more than 0.053 kg/mm3
be constructed of metal not used, it is recommended that there
such enclosure shall
should be installed in the circuit a
less than 2.799 mm thick.
loose fitting piston type inverse time
relay designed to open the circuit at
9.2 Cake Center (Band Knife) (Class A). Band
the end of one second operation.
wheels of band knives shall be completely
encased and all portions of the knives shall be
Exception: Mechanically fed and
enclosed or guarded except for that portion
discharged horizontal tilting type
between the guide and the table where the saw
dough mixers in inaccessible
engages the stock. If metal guards were used, it
locations.
shall be of not less than 0.953 mm thick; or if
other material is used, the guard shall be of
9.4 Dough, Cakes or candy Mixers (Horizontal
equal strength and rigidity.
Non-Tilting Dough Mixers Type) (Class A).
Horizontal non-tilting type dough mixers shall
9.3 Dough or Candy Mixers (Horizontal Tilting
have a cover with an interlocking device so
Dough Mixer Type) (Class A).
arranged that power cannot be supplied to the
agitators unless the cover is in place on the
a. Horizontal tilting type dough mixers shall be
provided with a cover over the top of the mixer.
mixer. An interlocking device shall be
provided, so arranged that power cannot be 9.5 Dough Brake (Class A):
applied to the agitators unless the mixer is in
a. Rolls on dough brakes shall be guarded so
operating position, with cover in place.
that the operator’s hand cannot come in
contact with the rolls when in motion, or
b. The mixer when tilted shall be operated with
the covers were open.
b. There shall be installed a stop bar located
1. If equipped with an electrical along the end of the dough table which,
pushbutton that will require the when actuated, will automatically shut off
operator to keep his finger on the power and apply a brake to the rolls.
button when operating the mixer
with the cover open; the button shall

44
 CHAPTER 4— MACHINERY DANGER ZONE AND POINTS OF OPERATION
9.6 Dividers (Class A):
a. All pinch points and shear points from
reciprocating or rotating parts of the divider
shall be enclosed or guarded, to protect the
operator’s hands and fingers.
b. Guards at the front of a divider shall be so
arranged that the weight of the dough can
be adjusted without removing the guard.
c. The back of the divider shall have a
complete cover to enclose all the moving
parts, or each individual part shall be
enclosed or guarded. The rear cover shall
be provided with an electric switch so
arranged that the machine cannot operate
when this cover is open.
ci. The oil holes in the knife at the back of the
divider shall be of such size that employee’s
finger cannot go through the hole.
9.7 Moulders (Class A):
a. Mechanical feed moulder shall be provided
with hoppers so designed and connected to
the proofer that an employee’s hands
cannot go into the hopper where they will
come in contact with the in-running rolls.
b. Hand-feed molders shall be provided with a
belt-feed device or the hopper shall extend
high enough so that the hands of the
operator cannot get into the feed rolls. The
top edge of such a hopper shall be well
rounded to prevent injury when it is struck or
bumped by the employee’s hand.
c. There shall be a stopping device within easy
reach of the operator who feeds the molder
and another stopping device within the
reach of the employee taking the dough
away from the molder.
d. Where a removable crank is used to adjust
the molder for different sizes of loaf by
adjusting a nut on the molder drum,
brackets shall be provided on the side of the
machine for holding the crank when it is not
in use. The brackets should be connected to
a contact switch so that when the crank is
removed, the current is broken and the
machine cannot run unless the crank is
returned to rest on the bracket.
45
9.8 Rotary Dough Kneaders (Class A).
a. Each direct-driven rotary dough kneader
shall be equipped with a guard across the
entire length of the down-running side of
each corrugated kneading roll so arranged
and installed that if struck, the machine will
stop.
b. All dough kneaders other than those direct-
driven shall be equipped with a guard
across the entire length of the down-running
side of each corrugated kneading roll and
shall be equipped with a device which will
quickly disengage the power. The means of
operating such a device shall be so located
and so arranged that the operator can
readily reach it from any working position.
9.9 Slicers and Wrappers (Class A):
a. Where necessary to manually push the last
loaf through the slicing knives the operator
shall be provided with, and shall use a
suitable and adequate device by which the
loaf can be pushed through the knives
without danger to his hands or fingers.
b. The cover over the knife head of
reciprocating blade slicers shall be provided
with an electrical control switch so that the
machine cannot operate unless the cover is
in place.
c. On slicers with endless band knives, the
wiring for the motor shall be so arranged
that a brake will be applied each time the
motor is shut off, or it shall be so arranged
by means of a limit switch that cannot be run
with the side door open. All doors and
removable panels to the cutting heads shall
be either connected to electric switchers or
shall have no latch openings and be so
fastened that they cannot be opened from
the outside through the side door.
ci. When it is necessary to sharpen blades on
the machine, a barrier shall be provided
leaving only sufficient opening to the
sharpening stone to reach the knife blades.
9.10 Candy Cutter (Roller Type) (Class A). The
rolls, or knives of roller and fan type candy
cutters, shall be provided with a cover or guard,
so arranged that the fingers of the operator
cannot come in contact with same. A safety bar
shall also be provided at the in-feed side.
 CHAPTER 4- MACHINERY DANGER ZONE AND POINTS OF OPERATION
9.11 Caramel Slitter (Circular Knife Type) (Class
A). The knives shall be completely covered with
an adjustable guard of sheet metal or wire mesh
(with openings not to exceed 6 mm). In addition
there shall be provided a feedbelt to carry the
material under and away from the knives, or a
slide feed set at an incline that will permit the
material to pass by gravity against the knives on
the intake side and away from the knives on the
discharge side.
9.12 Nougat Cutter (Class A). A hood shall cover at
least the top half of the knife or disc at all times
and be so constructed that the cutting operation
can be performed without danger to the
operator.
9.13 Meat, Fish and Other Food Grinders (Class
A):
a. Every power driven food grinder of the worm
type shall be so constructed, installed or
guarded that eh employee’s finger cannot
come in contact with the worm.
Note: The engineer will accept the following
methods as being in compliance with this
code:
1. A mechanical method of feeding the
worm which will prevent an
employee from contacting the worm
during the feeding operation.
2. A permanently attached neck to the
cylinder enclosing the worm, the
circular opening of which shall be no
more than 63 mm in diameter at a
point at least 115 mm above the
worm.
3. A grating of parallel bars
permanently attached to the hopper
and spaced not more than 32 mm
apart providing the grating is not
less than 38 mm above the hopper
rim.
Other types of grilles or grating are
acceptable, provided the greatest
dimension in any opening does not
exceed 63 mm and is located no
less than 115 mm above the worm,
or more than 115 mm above the
hopper rim. Grilles or grating
attached to pans shall completely
46
cover the hoper opening except for
openings in the grille and shall be
above the bottom of the pan.
4. A hinged interlocking grille or
grating over the hopper or pan
which will open the power circuit
when the grille or grating is lifted.
Such grilles or gratings shall be
designed and located as provided in
item 3 above.
5. In large hand-fed grinders of the
type used in the wholesale or
manufacturing trades, where the
neck exceeds 62 mm diameter and
the opening is not guarded by grilles
or gratings, the distance from the
top of the neck to the worm shall be
not less than 915 mm and minimum
accessible distance from the
working level to the worm shall not
be less than 2 235 mm.
b. A pusher shall be provided for each grinder
and shall be used during the feeding
operation where it is possible to increase the
safety of the operation. Under no
circumstances shall a pusher be used in lieu
of the above methods of guarding.
c. Before cleaning food grinders, the prime
mover shall be disconnected and the
controls locked in the ‘off” position.
9.14 Meat Machines in an Abbatoire:
a. Swing cut-off-saw for cutting carcasses,
shall be provided with adequate guard to
protect the operator while the machine is in
use. The operator should be provided with
head and chest protective equipment.
b. Scalding Tank the scalding tank is filled
—
with boiling water and some chemicals
where carcasses of hogs are placed after
slashing the throat. In most cases, the
scalding tank has no overhead conveyor to
carry the carcasses from the tank to the
dehairing machine, instead this is done
manually by operator.
Recommendation: To prevent slipping
hazards, the catwalk surface should be
made of non skid materials.
 CHAPTER 4- MACHINERY DANGER ZONE AND POINTS OF OPERATION
9.15 Meat Choppers (Class A). Knives or choppers
shall be enclosed.
9.16 Rolls (Class A). Rolls on all machines not
specifically mentioned which require the
presence of the operator to feed the machine
during operation shall be provided with a cover
or guard so arranged that the operator’s fingers
cannot be caught in the rolls.
9.17 Ice Cubing and Ice Scoring Machines (Class
A). Ice cubing and ice scoring machines shall be
enclosed on all sides to a height of not less than
1 830 mm, unless machine is also enclosed on
top with sheet metal or wire mesh guards having
no opening which exceeds 12.7 mm except for
the necessary openings to feed and discharge
the ice.
Recommendation: All doors and removable
panels giving access to the saw should be
connected to limit switches which will not permit
the operation of the saws when the panels are
opened or removed.
9.18 Ice Breaker or Crusher (Class A). A hopper
shall be provided of such size and arrangement
that the hand of the operator cannot come in
contact with the revolving teeth or prongs while
the machine is in operation. If the top of the
hopper is less than 1 050 mm above the floor or
working level, a standard railing shall be
provided to prevent an employee from stepping
or falling into the hopper.
9.19 Tobacco Stem Crusher (Class A). The rolls
shall be so enclosed that it will not be possible
for the operator’s fingers to come in contact with
them.
9.20 Cigar Cutter (Class A):
a. The knives shall be provided with a metal
cover that will enclose the knives, or
b. A feed hopper which completely encloses
the knives shall be provided of such size
and so arranged that material be fed without
the operator’s fingers coming in contact with
the knives.
Section 10.0 Chemical Industry Machines
10.1 Gear or Chain Feeders. Gear or Chain Feeders
should be enclosed.
47
10.2 Extractors.
a. No extractor shall be operated at a speed
greater than the manufacturer’s rating,
which shall be stamped on the basket where
easily visible, in letters not less than 6 mm in
height. The maximum permissible speed
shall be given in revolutions per minute.
b. Each engine individual driving an extractor
shall be provided with an effective engine
stop and speed limit governor.
c. The exterior of the basket including hoops or
bands shall be inspected at least every six
months to determine condition of basket.
The extractor shall be dismantled and the
bearings, bearing blocks, and basket shall
be inspected at least once a year and all
necessary repairs or replacement made. If
basket shows signs of weakness, it shall not
be used. A record of the inspection including
the date and name of person who made
inspection shall be kept on file in the plant.
Exception: Automatic loading and unloading
extractors which are completely enclosed
with an enclosure of sufficient strength to
retain the basket in the event of rupture.
d. Each extractor shall be effectively secured
in position on the floor or foundation so as to
eliminate unsafe vibration.
10.3 Extractors (Screw Cover Type) (Class A):
a. A screw cover type extractors shall be
equipped with a metal cover at least 0.953
mm thick which shall entirely cover the
opening to the outer shell and shall be kept
in its closed position when the extractor is in
motion.
b. The cover for the revolving container shall
be held securely in place by a lock nut on
the spindle or the container shall revolve in
the direction that will tend to tighten the
spindle nuts.
10.4 Extractors (Automatically Fed and
Discharged) (Class A). The revolving bowl
shall b completely enclosed or guarded so as to
prevent contact with it during operation.
10.5 Extractors (Open Top, Bottom Discharge)
(Class A). Every extractor equipped with
removable plate vale in bottom of shell shall be
 CHAPTER 4- MACHINERY DANGER ZONE AND POINTS OF OPERATION
provided with an interlocking device which will
prevent the introduction of the plow into the
• basket until the plate valve has been removed.
10.6 Rolls (Class A):
a. Rolls on all machines, not specifically
mentioned, which require the continued
presence of the operator to feed with a
cover or guard, or
b. A quick stopping or reversing device, so
arranged that the operator can actuate the
device while in his usual working position
should hands be caught.
10.7 Soap Presses (Class A). Hand fed presses
shall be guarded, at point of operation, as
specified in Sections 4.3.1 and 4.3.4.
Section 11.0 Rubber and Composition
Working Machines
11.1 Calender Rolls (Not Paper) (Class A):
a. Safety devices shall be provided across the
front and back of all calendars extending the
full length of the face of the rolls and
designed to initiate instantly the process of
stopping the calender when either pushed or
pulled. The device shall not be more than 1
830 mm nor less than 1 675 mm above the
working floor or platform on which the
operator stands, and shall be within easy
reach of the operator when he is in normal
working position.
b. On each side of all calendars near both
ends of the face of the r’oll, there shall be a
vertical tight wire cable connecting with the
bar tripping mechanism. This shall be from
the top and fastened to the frame within 300
mm of the floor and at a distance of not less
than 25.4 mm from calender frame.
c. At the “bite” of in-running open rolls where
sheeting, duck or other fabric is fed by hand,
a safety bar or cable connected to the
stopping device, shall be placed across the
full length of the face of the rolls. It shall be
so located that the operator’s fingers will trip
the stopping device before coming into
contact with the bite.
d. Calender equipment such as windups, idler
rolls and cooling drums shall be provided
48
with a safety trip device by which the
operator can disconnect the power and stop
the equipment in case of emergency.
11.2 Stopping Limits for Calendars:
a. Old Calenders. All calender drives in use of
contracted for prior to 1985 (the effective
year of issuance of this provision),
irrespective of the size of the rolls, shall be
made capable of stopping within a distance
of no more than 2 percent of the travel from
operating speed. The operating speed shall
be measured from the surface of the drive
roll and expressed in meters per minutes
(m/min). This rule shall apply to calendar
operating speeds up to 61 rn/mm while
running empty.
Exception: Where operating speeds above
61 rn/mm as measured on the surface of the
drive roll are used, stopping distance of
more than 2% may be permissible subject to
engineering determination.
b. New Calenders. All new calender drives
purchased or contracted for after 1985 (the
effective year of issuance of this provision),
irrespective of the size of the rolls, shall be
stopped within a distance no more than 1.75
percent of the travel from operating speed.
The operating speed shall be measured
from the surface of the drive rolls and
expressed in meters per minute (m!min).
This rule shall apply to operating speeds up
76.25 rn/mm while running empty.
Exception: Where operating speeds above
76.25 rn/mm as measured on the surface of
the drive roll are used, stopping distances of
more than 1.75% may be permissible
subject to written justification by a
professional mechanical engineer. Stopping
distances shall be subject to engineering
determination.
11.3 Rubber Mills (Class A).
a. Mills shall be provided with a hopper of such
size and arrangement that it will protect the
operator’s hands against inadvertent contact
with the in-running nip point of the rolls
when feeding material, or
b. Old Group Mills. For mills driven in groups
of two or more; in use, contracted for, or
constructed prior to 1985 (the effective year
 CHAPTER 4— MACHINERY DANGER ZONE AND POINTS OF OPERATION
of issuance of this provision), irrespective of
the size of the rolls, shall be made capable
of stopping within a distance no greater than
2% of the travel of the rolls as measured on
their surface in meters per minute while
running empty.
c. New Group Mills. New mills driven in groups
of two or more; in use, contracted for, or
constructed after 1985 (the effective year of
issuance of this provision), irrespective of the
size of the rolls, shall be stopped within a
distance not greater than 1.75% of the travel
of the rolls as measured on their surface in
meters per minute while running empty.
11.4 Bale Cutters — Guillotine (Class A).
a. All guillotine bale cutters shall be equipped
with a two hand continuous control, or
b. A one-hand continuous control so located that
the operator cannot reach the control and the
point of operation at the same time.
11.5 Bevel Cutters Circular Knife
— Non-
— while these are closing. The danger zone on
Automatic (Class A). The circular knife shall be
covered with a metal hood which shall guard the
cutting edge down to point not more than 12.70
mm above the thickest portion of the material
being cut. A positive stop must be provided to
prevent the knife from passing the front edge of
the table.
11.6 Cuttersheet Rubber (Horizontal Cutter Type)
(Class A). The exposed portion of the knife at
the sides of the sliding table shall be covered
with a metal enclosure so that the operator
cannot come into accidental contact with the
knife when feeding the machine. Any holes or
openings on this enclosure, whenever it may be
necessary to have them, shall not exceed 6mm
in any dimension.
11.7 Power Driven Rotary Saws and Slitters (Hand
Feed) (Class A). A metal hood shall cover the
cutting edge to a point not more than 12.70 mm
above the thickest portion of the stock.
11.8 Tubing Machine (Class A):
a. All hand-fed extrusion machines, including
tubing machines, shall be provided with
hoppers of such height and size of opening
as to make impossible for the operator’s
fingers to reach the worm, or
49
b. A bar or other device, connected with the
switch, so arranged that the operator’s
fingers cannot reach the worm without first
actuating the switch, or
c. A bar or other device arranged to be
operated by knee, thigh, foot or hand
pressure, which will stop the machine.
11.9 Injection Molding Machine (Class A). Every
injection molding machine shall be guarded by
any one or more of the following methods:
a. By a sliding gate guard so designed and
installed that it interposes a barrier between
the dies and the operator before the dies
can close; and shall be so arranged that if
the gate can be opened during the closing
cycle, the cycle will be immediately stopped
or be reversed by the opening of the gate.
The sliding gate guard shall extend over the
top and to each side of the dies such a
distance so that it would be impossible for
the operator to come in contact with the dies
the side of the machine opposite the
operator’s working position shall also be
guarded.
b. By two-handed pressure devices or controls
which require the simultaneous use of both.
the operator’s hands during the entire die
closing cycle.
11.10 Thermosettlng Plastic Molding Presses
(Class A). Every thermosetting plastic molding
press shall be guarded by any one of the
methods covered in Section 4.3.1.
11.11 Tire Machine. The switch pedal which controls
the rotation of the frame while endless piles of
fabric are being adjusted by a bar held in the
operator’s hands must be so connected with the
brake that removal of pressure from the pedal
shall stop the machine.
11.12 Tube Splicer (Class A). Each tube splicer shall
be equipped with a two-hand control.
11.13 Testing and Maintenance (Class A).
a. The stopping device on each mill and on
each calendar shall be tested for operation
during each shift. When a group of rubber
mills is driven by one motor but stopped by
a safety device located at each mill, and
 CHAPTER 4- MACHINERY DANGER ZONE AND POINTS OF OPERATION
when a visible signal such as a lamp is
operated by the motor circuit opening switch
is open, and the safety device has been
tripped, then after mill line has been stopped
by actuating one safety trip for the first test
and before the mills are restarted, the
remaining safety devices may be tripped
and the lamp signals used as an indication
of the proper functioning of the tripping
devices and motor switch. After a particular
stopping device has been used to stop the
motor driving a group of mills for a test, the
same device may not be used for the same
purpose until all the other devices have
been similarly used.
b. Each stopping device shall be tested for
braking distance once a week by a
competent person, and a record of such test
shall be made and kept on file for at least
one year. Such records shall be available to
the division or its employees.
c. The employer shall cause all defects or
substandard condition revealed by the test
to be corrected.
Section 12.0 Stone, Clay and Glass
Working Machines
12.1 Pug Mills (Class A). Pug mills shall be guarded
by:
a. A substantial grating with openings no
greater than 100 mm, said grating to
completely cover the opening, or
b. A cover projecting 100 mm on all sides
which may be raised not more than 200 mm
above the machine or floor, so as to permit
loading into machine on all sides without
screening same through grating, or
c. A hoper completely encircling the opening
through which the machine is fed and
extending 400 mm or more above the blade.
In no case shall the top of the hopper be
less than 900 mm from any floor or working
level used by the pug mill operators or
attendants.
d. Where automatic conveyor feed is used,
said conveyor shall be completely enclosed.
12.2 Wet and Dry Pans, Mullers, Chasers and
Similar Mixing and Grinding Mills (Class A).
When the top of pan is less than 914 mm above
50
the charging floor or platform, a standard railing
or enclosure shall be provided which will prevent
the operator from falling into the pan.
Section 13.0 Cotton and Seed Cotton
Processing Machines
13.1 Saws:
a. All gin stands used in processing field cotton
or seed shall be provided with a positive
guard which shall be designed to prevent
contact with the gin saws while in motion.
The saw blades in the roll box shall be
considered guarded by location if they do
not extend the ginning ribs into the roll box
when breast is in the out position.
b. Moving saws on lint cleaners having doors
giving access to the saws shall be guarded
by interlock barred barriers, or equivalent.
13.2 Gin Stand, Main Drive and Miscellaneous
Drives.
a. Such drives shall be completely enclosed or
guarded by means of standard railings or
equivalent protection provided. When
guarded by standard railing, where the
driver approaches the railing by less than
380 mm, shield guards shall be installed on
the railing extending at least 380 mm
beyond the impairment on either side.
b. V-belt drives within standard railing
enclosures shall have the pulleys guarded.
The open end of the pulleys shall be no less
that 100 mm from the periphery of the
pulleys.
c. Chains and sprockets within 2 130 mm of
the floor or working level shall be guarded.
Chains and sprockets more than 2 130mm
from the floor or working level need not be
guarded provided the bearings are packed
and accessible extension lubrication fittings
are used.
13.3 Elevated Platforms and Transmission
Enclosures.
a. Elevated platforms shall be guarded as
provided in Section 2.3.9 of this Code.
b. Where belts, pulleys, chains, sprockets,
gears or shifting are within 380 mm
horizontally or less than 2 130 mm above
 CHAPTER 4- MACHINERY DANGER ZONE AND POINTS OF OPERATION
the plafform shield guards as provided in
Section 4.13.2 shall be used in addition to
standard railing guards.
13.4 Power Drives
a. Drives between gin stands shall be guarded.
Where individual pulley guards are used, the
guards must extend 100 mm beyond the
periphery of the pulleys.
b. Drives which are accessible above the
shield guard shall be individually guarded.
13.5 Warning Device. A warning device which will
sound an audible signal before machinery is
started shall be installed in all gins. Such signal
shall be intense enough to be heard above the
general noise level.
13.6 Baler. An automatic interlock shall be installed
on all balers so that the upper gates cannot be
opened while the tramper is operating and the
tramper cannot operate while the gates are
open.
13.7 Burr Machines. Top panels of burr extractors
must be hinged and equipped with a sturdy
positive latch.
13.8 Conveyors
a. All accessible screw conveyors shall be
guarded by substantial covers or gratings or
with an inverted horizontally slotted guard of
the trough type, which will prevent personnel
from coming into contact with the screw.
Such guards may consist of horizontal bars
spaced to allow material to be fed into the
conveyor and supported by arches which
shall be not more than 2 440 mm apart.
Screw conveyors under gin stands shall be
considered guarded by location.
b.
All accessible seed cotton conveyors shall
be of the belt type.
c. Wherever practical in existing installations
screw conveyors shall be replaced with belt
conveyors.
d.
Screw conveyors 2 100 mm or less above
floor or other working level shall be
completely covered with substantial lids.
Screw conveyors which are 600 mm or less
above the floor or other working level; or
51
below the floor level may be guarded by
standard railing guards having two boards of
midrail height or shall be covered by
substantial covers or gratings.
e. All belt conveyors head pulleys, tail pulleys,
single tension pulleys and dip take-up
pulleys shall be so guarded that the entire
sides of the pulleys are covered. The guard
shall extend in the direction of travel of the
belt to such a distance that a person cannot
reach behind it and be caught in the nip
point between the belt and the pulley.
f. Portable inclined conveyors shall have head
and tail pulleys or sprockets and other
power transmission equipment guarded
accordingly.
g. Where necessary to pass over exposed
chain, belt, bucket, screw, or roller
conveyors, such crossovers shall be bridged
or catwalked properly equipped with
standard railings and toe boards and shall
have a safe means of access either fixed
ladder, ramp or stairway.
h. Conveyors passing over areas that are
occupied or used by employees shall be so
guarded as to prevent the materials handled
from falling and causing injury to employees.
i. Where workmen pass under the return
strands of chain conveyors a shallow
through or other effective means of sufficient
strength to carry the weight of the broken
chain shall be provided.
Section 14.0 Other Industrial Machinery in
Manufacturing Installations.
14.1 Machine Guards for Operator’s Protection.
Applicable machine guards of the types describe
shall be provided at points of operation and
danger zones to protect the operator from
hazards of accidental contact.
a. Coupling Guards — pairs or groups of
guards which may mesh together to form
an enclosure around the point of operation
during machine operation.
b. Chain Guards fixed-mounted or movable
—
hood guards covering the length of run of -
power of chains.
 CHAPTER 4- MACHINERY DANGER ZONE AND POINTS OF OPERATION

c. Belt Guards — fixed-mounted or movable 15.1 Electrical Safety Hazards shall be painted in
guards or enclosures covering the length of red-orange color.
run of belts.
15.2 Outdoor installations shall be drip proof
d. Distance Rail Guards fixed-mounted or
—
enclosure for weather protection.
movable guards designed to prevent
personnel from moving into danger zones. 15.3 Motor terminal box covers shall be
weatherproof.
e. Hood Guards — fixed-mounted or
retractable enclosures covering the vicinity 15.4 In wet workplaces, water splash motor enclosure
of the point of operation or danger zone. shall be provided.

f. Water Splash Guards fixed-mounted or

— 15.5 In dusty environment, dust hoods shall be
retractable water resistant enclosures placed on top of motor but allowing free
covering the vicinity of the point of the circulation of cooling air.
operation or danger zone and designed to
contain or direct liquid splashes and spills. 15.6 Electrical cable conduit pull boxes shall be
weatherproof, liquid-tight, air-light enclosures
g. Explosion Guards — fixed-mounted when installed outdoors.
explosion resistant enclosures covering the
vicinity f the point of operation or danger Section 16.0 Personal Protection in
zone and designed to contain flying Workplaces
materials.
16.1 Personal Protective Equipment. Personnel
h. Fire Explosion Doors retractable type
Protective Equipment (PPE) shall be considered
—

explosion resistant enclosures covering
vicinity of the point of operation of danger
zone and designed to contain energy
bursts and flying materials.
i. Railings and Screen Doors Retractable
—
the last line of defense against hazards in the
work environment. The engineer shall specify
and require the use of PPE to protect personnel
from known or possible hazards in the
workplace.

type railings or access doors resistant to 16.2 Employers’ shall protect their employees by
flying materials and encloses the vicinity of providing appropriate and approved protective
the point of operation or danger zone, and tools, devices, equipment and appliances such
is designed to isolate the same without as, but not limited to the following:
impairing ocular inspection.
a. Head Guards
14.2 Machine guards provided for mechanical power b. Face Shields
transmission from the prime mover to the point c. Eye Goggles
of operation shall be made of enclosure that d. Ear Muffs
permits visual inspection at a distance while e. Nose Aspirator
machine is running. f. Hand Gloves
g. Arm Sleeves Shield
14.3 For easy identification of safety hazards, all
h. Body Apron Shield
machine guards shall be painted in yellow color,
i. Leg Sleeve Shield
and restricted floor area shall be painted with
yellow strip line in walk aisles around the
j. Foot Safety Shoes
k. Foot Rubber Boots
machinery.
163 Radiation hazards in workplaces shall be
14.4 For automatic start-stop machines, a warning identified and appropriate warning signs shall be
sign, tag or nameplate shall be displayed in posted.
strategic location in the workspace.
16.4 Eye hazard from welding arc electrical flashes in
Section 15.0 Protection for Electrical welding shop shall be shielded by wood panel
Machinery in Commercial & Industrial barrier as protection for observers and other
Installations personnel in the work area.

52
 CHAPTER 5- CRANES AND OTHER HOISTING EQUIPMENT
Chapter 5
CRANES AND OTHER HOISTING EQUIPMENT
Section 1.0 Scope
The provisions in this Chapter apply to overhead
traveling or bridge cranes, storage bridges, gantry
cranes, portal cranes, jib cranes, hammerhead cranes,
pintle cranes, wall cranes, tower cranes, and any
modification of these types which retain their
characteristic features of the above mentioned cranes
except when a provision specifies a particular type of
crane. It also includes safety regulations for mobile
type cranes and hoists.
Section 20 Definitions
Boom. A timber or metal section or strut which is
pivoted or hinged at the heel (lower end) at a fixed
point on a frame, mast, or vertical member. Its head
(upper end) is supported by chains, ropes or rods to
the upper end of the frame, mast or vertical member.
A rope for raising and lowering the payload is run
through a sheave or block at the head of the boom.
The length of the boom shall be taken as the straight-
line distance between the axis of the foot pin and the
axis of the end sheave pin.
Boom Type Excavator. A power operated excavating
crane-type machine used for digging or moving
materials. Some excavators of this type are commonly
known as dipper stick shovels, back diggers, trench
hoe shovels, draglines, grab buckets, clamshell or
orange peel, excavators.
Booming, Luffing or Topping. Raising or lowering
the head of a boom.
Brake (Electric). An electric motor acting as a brake
by regenerative, counter-torque, or dynamic means.
Brake (Electrically Operated). A friction brake
actuated or controlled by electrical means.
Bridge (of an Overhead, Gantry, or Storage Bridge
Crane). Structural member or members supporting
one or more trolleys.
Buffer. A cushioning device at the end of a trolley,
bridge, or other moving part of a crane operating on
rails to minimize shock in the event of collision.
53
Bumper. A device which stops the moving part at the
limit of travel of a trolley, bridges, or crane operating
on rails, and prevents further motion beyond that point.
Cab. An enclosure for housing the operator and the
hoisting mechanism, power plant, and equipment
.
controlling crane.
Cage. An enclosure for housing the operator and
equipment controlling a crane.
Crane. A machine for lifting or lowering a load and
moving it horizontally, in which the hoisting
mechanism is an integral part of the machine. It may
be driven manually or by power and may be a fixed or
mobile machine, but does not include stackers, or lift
trucks.
Some of the common types of cranes are defined as
follows:
1. Boom Type Mobile Crane. A self-propelled crane
equipped with a boom and mounted on a chassis
which is supported on either rubber tires, endless
belts or treads, or railway wheels running on
railroad tracks.
2. Cantilever Gantry Crane. A crane in which the
bridge girders or trusses are extended
transversely beyond the crane runway on one or
both sides. Its runway may be either on the
ground or elevated.
3. Crawler Crane. A boom type mobile crane
mounted on endless tracks or tread belts.
4. Gantry Crane. A crane similar to an overhead
traveling, except that the bridge for carrying the
trolley or trolleys is rigidly supported on two or
more movable legs running on fixed rails or other
runway.
5. Hammerhead Crane. A rotating counterbalanced
cantilever equipped with one or more trolleys and
supported by a pivot or turntable on a traveling or
fixed tower.
6. Jib Crane. A fixed crane consisting of a supported
vertical member from which extends horizontal
 CHAPTER 5— CRANES AND OTHER HOISTING EQUIPMENT
swinging arms carrying a trolley hoist or other
hoisting mechanism.
7. Locomotive Crane. A boom type mobile crane
consisting of a self-propelled car operating on a
railroad track, upon which is mounted a rotating
body supporting the power operated mechanism
together with a boom capable of being raised or
lowered at its head (outer end) from which is led to
the wire rope or chain connected to the hoisting
mechanism for raising or lowering a load.
8. Motor-Tractor Crane. (see crawler crane).
9. Motor Truck Crane. A boom type mobile crane
mounted on a motor truck frame or rubber-tire
chassis.
10. Overhead Travelling or Bridge Crane. A crane
on a pair of parallel elevated runways, adapted to
lift and lower a load and carry it horizontally
parallel to, or at right angles to, the runways, or
both; and consisting of one or more trolleys
operating on the bridge, which in turn consist of
one or more girders or trusses mounted on trucks
operating on the elevated runways with its
operation limited to the area between the runways.
11. Pillar Crane. A fixed crane consisting of a vertical
member held at the base, with horizontal revolving
arm carrying a trolley.
12. Pillar Jib Crane. A fixed crane consisting of a
vertical member held at the base, with horizontal
revolving arm carrying a trolley.
13. Pintle Crane. A crane similar to the hammerhead,
but without a trolley, and which supports the load
at the outer end of the cantilever arm.
14. Portal Crane. A gantry crane without trolley
motion, which has the boom attached to a
revolving crane mounted on a gantry, with the
boom capable of being raised or lowered at its
head (outer end).
15. Semi-Gantry or Single Leg Crane. A gantry with
one of the bridge rigidly supported on one or more
movable legs, running on a fixed rail or runway,
the other end of the bridge being supported by a
truck running on an elevated rail or runway.
16. Semi-Portal Crane. A portal crane mounted on a
semi-gantry frame instead of a gantry frame.
17. Tower Crane. A portal crane, with or without an
opening between the legs of its supporting
54
structure, adapted to hoist and swing load over
high obstructions and mounted upon a fixed or
mobile tower-like gantry. The revolving crane may
be supported on the lower tower by a revolving
mast or by a turntable.
18. Tractor Crane. (caterpillar crane) (see crawler
crane).
19. Wall Crane. A crane having jib with or without a
trolley and supported from a side wall or line of
columns of a building so as to swing through an
arc.
Crane Runway the structure upon which a crane
—
runs, and may be:
1. A structure consisting of columns, longitudinal
bracing and elevated beams, girders, or trusses,
to support traveling or bridge cranes.
2. Elevated beams, girders, or trusses in a building
or on the side of a building, for supporting traveling
cranes.
3. Surface tracks or rails.
4. Tracks or rails on walls or trestles.
Derrick. A structure or building appurtenance for
hoisting, but does not include a hoistway nor a car or
platform traveling thorough guides.
Hoist. A mechanical contrivance for raising or
lowering a load by the application of a vertical pulling
force, but does not include a car or platform traveling
through guides.
Some of the common types of hoist are defined as
follows:
1. Base-Mounted Electric Hoist. A hoist similar to
an overhead electric hoist, except that it has a
base or feet and may be mounted overhead, on a
vertical plane, or in any position for which it is
designed.
2. Clevis Suspension Hoist. A hoist whose upper
suspension member is a clevis or a U-shaped
structural member designed to carry pulling loads.
3. Hook Suspension Hoist. A hoist whose upper
suspension member is a hook.
4. Monorail Hoist. A trolley suspension hoist whose
trolley is suspended from a single rail.
 CHAPTER 5- CRANES AND OTHER HOISTING EQUIPMENT
5. Overhead Electrical Hoist. A motor-driven hoist
having one or more drums or sheaves for rope or
chain, and supported overhead. It may be fixed or
traveling
6. Simple Drum Hoist. A hoist with one or more
drums controlled by manually operated clutches,
brakes or ratchet and pawl on drum and control
levers, which is operated by hand or power.
Note: This type of hoist is known to the trade as a
contractor’s hoist and is usually a portable unit
7. Double Drum Hoist. A simple drum hoist having
two independent hoisting drums.
8.
Single Drum Hoist. A simple drum hoist having
only one hoisting drum.
9. Single Fixed Drum Hoist. A single drum hoist
with the drum geared or fixed directly to the power
unit (including the speed reducing apparatus)
instead of by means of friction clutches.
10. Triple Drum Hoist. A simple drum hoist having
three independent hoisting drums.
11. Trolley Suspension Hoist. A hoist whose upper
suspension member is a trolley, for the purpose of
running the hoist below a suitable runway, it may
be either floor or cage-operated.
Jib: (1) A horizontal arm, for supporting a trolley or fall
block, which does not change its inclination with the
horizontal; or (2) An extension added to the head of a
boom for increasing the reach.
Radius (of a Crane or Derrick). The horizontal
distance from the center of rotation of a tower,
hammerhead portal or pillar crane, or derrick to the
center of the hook or load.
Swinging or Slewing. The act of moving a boom
through a horizontal arc.
Trolley. A truck or carriage on which the hoisting
mechanism is mounted and which travels on an
overhead beam, or track. It may be either “over
running” (riding above its wheels); or “under-running”
or suspended under the beam, bridge, or track.
Truck (of an Overhead, Gantry, or Locomotive
Crane). The framework and wheels operating on the
runway or rails and supporting the bridge, trolley, or
body of the crane.
55
Section 3.0 General Requirements For
Cranes
3.1 Access to Cage, Cab or Machine House
Required:
a. Access to the cage, or machine house shall
be afforded by a conveniently placed
stationary ladder, stairs, or platform
requiring a step-over. No gap exceeding 300
mm (and in no case exceed 815 mm) shall
be so located that a person approaching or
leaving the crane shall not be exposed to
dangerous shear hazards.
b. For the bridge and gantry cranes, there shall
be a ladder, stairs or other safe means
provided for convenient access to the bridge
walkway. Where the cage is attached to and
below bridge girders, no portion of the cage
or cage platform shall be in the protected
area between the girders unless there are
adequate bridge stops or bumpers to
prevent the trolley from passing over said
projected area opposite the cage.
c. When necessary to go out on booms or
bridges to oil the blocks or other parts of the
machinery, each boom or bridge shall be
equipped with a suitable oiler’s walkway or
platform with grab irons giving access to the
outrig blocks and machinery. Permanent
elevated platforms attached to the building
at the end of the bridge crane runways and
at the same level of the bridge will be
acceptable in lieu of the oiler’s platform on
the bridge. Single girder or monorail bridges
with underhung trolleys and hoists are
exempt from this requirement provided the
hoists and trolleys are serviced or repaired
from a safe portable ladder or other safe
temporary means. Booms which can be
and are safely lowered to a safe location for
such servicing operation will be exempt from
this requirement.
d. Where practicable every overhead traveling
crane walkway shall have a headroom of at
least 1 950 mm. However, when such
headroom is not practicable, the crane
walkway shall have at least 1 500 mm
clearance or it shall be omitted from a crane
and a permanent elevated platform attached
to the building at the end of the crane
runway be provided.
 CHAPTER 5- CRANES AND OTHER HOISTING EQUIPMENT
3.2 Outdoor Cages, Cabs, or Machine Houses.
The cages, cabs, or machine houses on cranes
used in inclement weather shall be enclosed to
protect the operator.
3.3 Warning Devices:
a. A gong or other effective warning signal
shall be mounted on each cage or cab
controlled crane equipped with a power
traveling mechanism. Cage or cab
controlled cranes operating over areas
congested with employees may be required
to be equipped with automatic warning
devices which can be sounded continuously
while the crane is in motion.
b. Any cage or cab controlled crane whose
warning device has become inoperative
shall not be operated until the warning
device is repaired or replaced. Temporary
crane operation will be permitted provided
there is an available flagman whose sole
duty is to warn those in the path of the crane
or its load.
3.4 Fire Extinguisher. A carbon-tetrachloride,
carbon dioxide, or other non-conducting
medium, portable fire extinguisher shall be kept
in the cage, cab or machine house of each
electric or internal combustion engine crane.
Note: Careshould be taken when using carbon
tetrachioride in an enclosed space and such
space should not be re-occupied until thoroughly
ventilated.
3.5 Controllers:
a. Each electric cage-operated crane shall be
provided with a device which will disconnect
all motors from the line in case of power
failure or interruption. This device or
disconnecting means shall not permit any
motor to be restarted until the controller
handle is brought to the ‘off” position, or a
reset switch or button is operated.
b. For floor-operated cranes, the controller or
controllers, it rope-operated shall
automatically return to the ‘off’ position
when released by the operator.
c. Lever operated controllers shall be provided
with a mechanical device which will hold the
handle in the “off” position requiring
56
voluntary effort to move it from the “off’
position to the “on’ position.
d. All electrically operated cranes shall have
their controller plainly marked to indicate its
functions and which equipment it controls.
e. The controller operating handles shall be
located within convenient reach of the
operator.
f. As far as is practicable, the movement of
each controller handle shall be in the same
general direction as the resultant
movements of the load.
g. The controls for the bridge and trolley shall
be so located that the operator can readily
see the direction of travel while operating
the controls.
h. All electric cranes of the same type
operating in a given plant shall e so wired
that like motion of controller handles will
produce like effect in similar controlled
mechanisms.
3.6 Hoist Limit Switches. The hoisting motion of all
electric overhead traveling cranes shall be
provided with a suitable and effective enclosed
type limit switch so placed and arranged as to
disconnect the hoist motor and apply the brake
in time to stop the motor before the hook passes
the highest point of safe travel.
3.7 Brakes:
a. Each electric crane hoist motor shall be
provided with an electrically or mechanically
operated brake so arranged that the brake
will be applied when the power is cut off
from the hoist. This brake shall have
sufficient holding torque to sustain not less
than one and one-half times the rated load.
b. Each independent hoisting unit shall be
equipped with two braking means except for
worm-geared hoist where the angle of the
worm is such as to prevent the load from
lowering. One brake shall be covered by
above, and each braking means shall be
capable of sustaining or safely controlling
the lowering of not less than one and one
half (1 1,4) times the rated load.
c. Each ingot-pouring crane shall be provided
with two (2) brakes each of which shall have
 CHAPTER 5- CRANES AND OTHER HOISTING EQUIPMENT
sufficient torque to sustain one and one-half
(1 1/2) times the rated load.
3.8 Foot Brake Pedal. Foot brake pedals shall be
so roughened or covered with high friction
material that the operator’s foot will not easily
slip off.
3.9 Locking Device. A locking device capable of
withstanding 50 percent more than the
maximum rated load shall be provided on each
hand or foot operated hoisting motion brake
unless a paw is provided on the drum.
3.10 Brakes for Bridge and Swinging Motion:
a. On cage-operated cranes with the cage
mounted directly on the bridge grinders, a
foot brake to properly retard and stop the
motion of the bridge shall be installed unless
the bridge stops automatically when the
power is cut off. This does not apply to
underslung cab monorail cranes.
b. Brakes for retarding the motion of the bridge
shall be capable of retarding it at the rate of
305 mm/mm., while full load is being carried.
c. The swinging or slowing mechanism on
boom-type cranes shall be provided with a
brake or lock having adequate holding
power in either direction. The lever
operating this brake or lock shall have a
device by which it can be secured in the
hold or locked position.
3.11 Booming Mechanism. All boom-type cranes
equipped with a mechanism for raising and
lowering the boom shall comply with the
following requirements:
a. Brake. Worm geared boom hoist
mechanism the worm angle of which is such
as to permit the loaded boom to lower shall
be equipped with a brake to hold the loaded
boom in any position.
b. Ratchet and Pawl. A ratchet and pawl, shall
be provided on the mechanism for raising
and lowering the boom, unless a self-locking
worm and gear is part of the mechanism.
There shall be no intervening clutch
between any boom hoist drum and its
reduction gear train.
Note: A worm and gear shall be accepted
as self-locking under this code when full
57
rated load at maximum radius can be held
suspended without the help of the boom
hoist brake and with crane mechanism
stationary.
3.12 Runway Bumpers. At the limits of travel of the
bridge or gantry structures, bumpers shall be
provided which will prevent bridge or gantry
structures from leaving the ends of the rails. If
the bumpers engage the tread of the wheel they
shall be of a height at least equal to the radius of
the wheel.
3.13 Trolley Bumpers:
a. Bumpers shall be provided at each end of
the trolley travel to prevent trolleys leaving
the rails. If the bumpers engage the tread of
the wheel they shall be of a height at least
equal to the radius of the wheel.
b. If there is more than one trolley on the same
bridge girders, buffers or other cushioning
shall be placed between the trolleys.
3.14 Bridge or Gantry Buffers. If there is more than
one crane on the same runway, buffers or other
cushioning devices shall be placed between the
crane at both ends of the bridge or gantry.
3.15 Truck Fenders:
a. Bridge truck wheels, except on under hung
cranes shall be equipped with fenders which
extend below the top of the rail and project
in front of the truck wheels.
b. Gantry, tower, hammerhead, or portal crane
truck wheels shall be equipped with wheel
guards, or be otherwise similarly guarded at
both ends of each truck to prevent a person
being crushed beneath the wheels. The
clearance between the guard and the rail
shall be such as will afford maximum
protection against crushing injuries.
Wherever practicable 12.70 mm clearance
shall be maintained.
3.16 Capacity Marking and Load Indication:
a. The maximum rated load of all cranes shall
be plainly marked on each side of the crane,
and if the crane has more than one hoisting
unit, each hoist shall have marked on it or its
load block its rated capacity; and this should
be clearly legible from the ground or floor.
 CHAPTER 5— CRANES AND OTHER HOISTING EQUIPMENT
b. Each variable radius boom-type crane shall
be equipped with a safe load diagram or
table which will give a clear indication of the
permissible loads at the various radii.
c. If change-speed gear is used on the lifting
motion, the rated load for each speed shall
be similarly indicated.
3.17 Runway Repair. No repairs on traveling crane
runways or within such proximity to same as to
constitute a hazard to workmen shall be made
unless a wheel stop of a height at least equal to
the radius of the wheel is secured to each rail
and a warning sign is placed on each rail a
reasonable distance from the worker, or properly
shielded rail-road torpedoes or watchman are
used to warn workers of the approach of the
crane.
3.18 Crane Runways:
a. Runway columns shall be securely
anchored to foundation.
b. The structure shall be free from excessive
vibration under operating conditions.
c. Runway girders shall be level and parallel
within commonly accepted engineering
tolerances.
3.19 Rails:
a. Rails shall be securely attached to the
girders or to the foundation.
b. Rails shall be level, in elevation with each
other, parallel and in correct span within
commonly accepted engineering tolerances.
3.20 Clearances. All traveling cranes the supporting
trucks or wheels of which travel rails on the
ground shall have at least 600 mm clearances
between the crane and stationary structures or
stacks or piles of materials. Where impossible to
obtain said clearance in existing installation
such impaired passageway areas shall be well
marked or placarded or when practicable shall
be guarded by standard railings or barricades to
prevent traffic.
58
Section 4.0 Boom Type Mobile Cranes
4.1 Operating Levers:
a. Lever operated controllers shall be provided
with a mechanical device which will hold the
handle in the “off” position requiring
voluntary effort to remove it from “off’ to the
“on” position.
b. The operating levers shall be located within
convenient reach of the operator.
4.2 Boom Stops. Booms shall have a device
designed and constructed to prevent the boom
from falling over backwards.
4.3 Capacity Marking. Substantial plates of metal
or other durable material shall be attached at a
conspicuous place on the crane have cast or
stamped thereon the rated load at the maximum
and minimum radii. Suitable signs shall also
provide the rated load for at least two other
points on the boom, and which shall be visible
on the boom along both parallel and transverse
tot the line of travel. The indicators shall be
given for loads both with and without outriggers
when such outriggers are provided.
4.4 Access to Cage, Cab, Machine and Boom
Blocks:
a. Boom type mobile cranes and boom type
excavators shall be provided with steps and
handholds or other safe means so located
as to give convenient and safe access to the
cage, cab, or machine house.
b. When necessary to go out on booms to oil
the blocks or other parts of machinery, each
boom shall be equipped with substantial
oiler’s walkway or platform and grab-irons
giving access to the outrig blocks and
machinery. Booms which can be safely
lowered thereto for necessary service are
exempted from this code.
4.5 Protection for Operators of Outdoor Cranes.
The cages, cabs, or machine house on outdoor
cranes shall be enclosed to protect the operator
from the inclement weather except when such
enclosure would interfere with the safe operation
of the crane.
4.6 Gage Glasses. Gage glasses shall be of the
reflex type or shall be guarded by means of wire
 CHAPTER 5- CRANES AND OTHER HOISTING EQUIPMENT
mesh or similar guard to prevent injury from
flying pieces of glass.
4.7 Couplers:
a. If locomotive cranes are equipped with
couplers these must be extended to clear
the revolving tank end of the crane.
b. Automatic couplers shall be provided on
cranes that switch or couple to cars so
equipped.
4.8 Lubricator Glass. The steam lubricator glasses
on all locomotive cranes and steam shovels
shall be effectively guarded to prevent injury to
flying glass unless the lubricator is of the bull’s
eye type or sight feed glass.
4.9 Brake or Locking Device. Boom type mobile
cranes shall be equipped with an effective brake
or swing lock for the swinging mechanism. The
braking mechanism shall be equipped with a
device to secure it in holding position.
4.10 Booming Mechanism:
a. Every worm guarded booming mechanism
whose worm angle is such as to permit the
loaded boom to lower shall be equipped with
a brake to hold the loaded boom in any
position.
b. A ratchet and pawl shall be provided on the
mechanism for raising and lowering the
boom, unless a self-locking worm and gear
is part of the mechanism or unless the
booming mechanism is of such design as to
prevent the free fall of the bottom upon
release of the boom hoist brake.
Note: A worm and gear will be accepted as
self-locking under this code when full rated
load at maximum radius can be held
suspended without the help of the boom
hoist brake and with crane mechanism
stationary.
4.11 Rigging of the Boom Hoisting Line:
a. No line shall be wound on any free running
drum of a boom type mobile crane.
b. All boom type mobile cranes shall have one
end of the boom line dead ended except
where ends of the boom line are on
59
separate drums permanently keyed to the
same shaft.
4.12 Warning Device. An adequate whistle, gong,
bell or other warning device shall be provided for
all boom type mobile cranes.
4.13 Wheel Guards. Locomotive cranes shall be
provided with either a running board which shall
extend full width of the truck bed. And with a
grab iron extending across and near outer end
of the truck bed, or with a pilot or fender which
will prevent a man being crushed beneath the
truck wheels.
4.14 Truck Wedges or Jacks. Where loads greater
than the capacity of the springs are to be lifted,
locomotive cranes shall be provided with
suitable removable wedges or jacks for
transmitting loads from the crane body directly
to the wheels without permitting the truck
springs to function, when handling heavy loads.
These wedges should be removed, or jacks
released in a positive manner, for traveling.
4.15 Fire Extinguisher. A carbon tetra-chloride,
carbon dioxide, ansul, or other non-conductive
medium hand fire extinguisher shall be kept in or
just outside the cage cab or machine house of
each electric, internal combustion engine or
steam driven mobile boom type crane.
4.16 Lighting. Boom type mobile cranes which
operate at night shall have loads hooks and
working areas adequately illuminated. Such
lighting can be accomplished either by outside
lighting placed on the booms or cabs. Boom
heads and hooks should be painted with high
visibly yellow or other contrasting colors.
Section 5.0 Hoists
5.1 Limit Switches. Each overhead electric hoist
motor shall be equipped with an effective
enclosed type limit switch so placed and
arranged as to disconnect the motor and apply
the brake in time to stop the motor before the
hook passes the highest point of safe travel.
5.2 Brakes:
a. Each electric hoist motor shall be provided
with an electrically or mechanically operated
brake so arranged that the brake will be
applied when the power is cut off from the
hoists. This brake shall have sufficient
 CHAPTER 5- CRANES AND OTHER HOISTING EQUIPMENT
holding torque to sustain not less than one
and one-half times the rated load.
b. Each independent hoisting unit shall be
equipped with two braking means except
worm geared hoists, the angle of whose
worm is such as to prevent the load from
lowering and simple drum hoists which need
have but one braking means. One brake will
be so covered by:
1. Above and each braking means
shall be capable of sustaining or
safely controlling and lowering not
less than one and one-half (1 %)
times the rated load.
2. The hoisting drum of all hand power
hoists shall be equipped with an
effective brake, and shall be
provided with a ratchet and pawl of
sufficient strength to hold the load in
any position.
5.3 Hoist Trolley Frames. Trolley frames shall be
so constructed so as to avoid dangerous
spreading under load. Trolley frames, which
shows signs of excessive spreading under load
shall not be used until repaired or replaced.
5.4 Capacity Marking. Each hoist designed to lift
its load vertically shall have its rated load legibly
marked on the hoist or load block or some
equally visible space.
5.5 Stops:
a. Stops shall be provided at the end of
monorails and crane runways and may
contact either the frame of the wheels.
Stops designed to contact the wheels shall
be of a height not less than the radius of the
wheel.
b. A stop, which shall operate automatically,
shall be provided at each switch, dead end
rail or turn table to prevent the trolley from
running off when the switch is open.
c. Every overhead monorail system of tracks,
which employs the use of traveling transfer
bridges between tracks, which employ the
use of traveling transfer bridges between
stationary rails, shall be equipped with
automatic locking devices which will
positively lock the traveling bridges rail to
the stationary rails when the bridges is
60
positioned for trolley travel from stationary
rails to movable bridges or vice-versa.
5.6 Control Equipment. Operating controls shall
be plainly marked to indicate the direction of
travel.
5.7 Warning Device. Each cage controlled hoist
shall be equipped with an effective warning
device.
Section 6.0 Derricks in Permanent
Location
6.1 Construction:
a. Derricks of appropriate design, proper
strength and size for the work to be
performed shall be constructed of steel or
suitable alloy or of sound, seasoned number
of adequate cross-section considering its
use, unit strength, resistance to or protection
against deterioration and shall be anchored
so as to prevent tripping or collapsing.
Braces and fittings of suitable metal,
adequate strength and appropriate design
shall be used and maintained in proper
adjustment while the derrick is in operation.
b. Guyed derricks should have at least six
guys (only under special consideration of
circumstances shall guyed derricks be
allowed to have less than four guys).
c. Guys shall be of adequate strength and
where exposed to the weather shall be
galvanized or otherwise adequately
protect ed agains t weathering.
d. If boom is longer than the mast, means shall
be provided to prevent the top gooseneck,
spider, gudgeon, pin or guy plate from being
pulled off when the boom is in high position.
e. Reinforcing steel shall not be used for guy
line anchors unless its specifications for
tensile strength, elastic limit, ductility,
bending properties, and finish are at least
equivalent to those required in ASTM
“Standards Specifications for Structural
Steel or Bridges and Buildings” (A7-42).
6.2 Load Indication:
 CHAPTER 5- CRANES AND OTHER HOISTING EQUIPMENT
a. Every derrick shall have plainly marked on it
the length of the boom, the rated load and
the corresponding radius.
b. Derricks of variable radius shall have
substantial plated metal or other durable
material conspicuously posted on which
shall be given the rated load of at least four
different radii of operation, including the
maximum and minimum radius.
6.3 Hoisting Ropes. Wire ropes running from
hoisting machine to derrick shall be guarded if
within 2 135 mm of floor or platform.
6.4 Access to Sheaves, Bearings and Blocks. If
necessary to go out on derrick booms to service
sheaves, bearing or blocks, said boom must be
equipped with substantial oiler’s catwalk and
necessary grab irons to give access to the
equipment to be serviced.
Section 7.0 Auxiliary Hoisting Equipment
7.1 Hoisting Chains and Ropes:
a. All chains, wire ropes, and fiber ropes used
for hoisting purposes shall be of sufficient
strength to safely lift or otherwise handle the
loads. The maximum allowable working
loads shall be based on manufacturer’s
tables.
b. Every hoist chain, wire rope and fiber rope
in hoisting drums shall be of sufficient length
that the hoist hook shall at least reach the
floor, ground, or lowest working level.
Where this is not practicable lower-limit
switches may be used to restrict the
downward limit of travel.
Exemption: Chain hoists employing pocket
sheaves instead of drums.
7.2 Hooks, Slings and Fittings. All hooks, slings
and other fittings shall be of correct size for the
work to be done and shall have strength
sufficient to safely sustain the loads imposed
upon them.
7.3 End Attachment:
a. Where socketing is done it shall be done
with zinc (spelter) or in a manner specified
by the manufacturer of the wire rope.
61
b. Eye splices shall be made in a manner to
develop maximum splice efficiencies as set
forth in the manufacturer’s tables.
c. Where wire rope clip attachments are used
they shall be made with U-bolts on the dead
or short end of the rope and saddle on the
live end.
d. No ‘Contractor’s Standby” (knot and clip)
attachment shall be used as an end
connection on any permanent hoisting sling
or rope.
e. The maximum number of clips for end
attachment shall be not less than those
indicated in the manufacturer’s table, but in
no case shall it be less than three for any
permanent installation. The clips shall be
spaced at a distance equal to at least six
times the diameter of the rope.
f. All clip or clamp bolts shall be kept tight.
g. Where swaged or compressed fittings are
used they shall be applied in a manner
specified by the manufacturer.
7.4 Chain Splices:
a. No hoist chain shall be spliced by any
makeshift means.
b. Knots shall not be tied in the chain to
shorten it.
c. Lap link, cold shuts or patent repair links
shall not be used for hoist chain or slings
unless such device will develop greater
strength than the chain.
7.5 Hoist of Sling Hooks, Rings, and Chain
Links, Defective. The use of deformed or
defective hooks, rings, or chain links shall be
discontinued forthwith. Deformed hooks or rings
shall be reshaped only by the manufacturer of
the hooks or rings under proper metallurgical
control and proof tests unless the employer is
equivalently competent to make these repairs
and tests.
7.6 Sheave Nip-Points. All nip or contact points
between ropes and sheaves which are
permanently located within 2 135 mm from the
floor or working platform shall be guarded.
 CHAPTER 5- CRANES AND OTHER HOISTING EQUIPMENT

Section 8.0 Operating Rules 8.6 Signalling. Only qualified employees shall give
signals. No one would give signal except
8.1 Size of Load. A crane, derrick, or hoist shall not employees who are specifically designated and
be loaded beyond the rated capacity or safe authorized to do so by the employer. Crane
working load whichever is smaller. operators shall not accept signals except from
those specifically designated and authorized to
8.2 Attaching the Load: give same.

8.7 Posting of Signals Required. It is

a. The load shall be attached to the hook by
means of slings or other suitable and
effective means which shall be properly
rigged to insure the safe handling of the
load.
b. Chain and wire rope slings shall be freed of
kinks or twists before use.
c. Baskets, tubs, skips, or similar containers
used for hoisting bulk materials shall be
loaded so as not to exceed their safe
carrying capacity.
recommended that the following Standard
Signals be adopted and used in connection with
all hoisting operations. Other signal codes or
system may be used however if they provide
quick and precise transmission of instructions to
the operator. Regardless of the signal system
employed, there shall be conspicuously posted
in the vicinity of the hoisting operation legible
chart depicting and explaining the system of
signals used.
a. One.hand Signals:

1. Hoist. With forearm vertical,

8.3 Riding on Loads. No employee shall be
forefinger point, move hand in small
required to or shall ride on loads, slings, hooks,
buckets or skip boxes except under condition or horizontal circle.
exceptions covered by other rules of the
division. 2. Lower. Arm extended, palm down,
hold position rigidly.
8.4 Holding the Load:
3. Stop. Arm extended, palm down,
a. When a load of any kind is to be suspended hold position rigidly.
for any considerable time, the dog or pawl,
of one is provided shall be used in addition 4. Emergency Stop. Same as (c), but
to the brake which shall also be applied. move hand rapidly, right and left.

b. Cranes, hoists, or derricks shall not be left 5. Raise Boom; Arm extended, fingers
unattended while load is suspended over closed, thumb• pointing upward
water, is barricaded or is blocked up or move hand up and down.
otherwise supported from below during
repairs of emergency. 6. Lower Boom. Same as (e), but with
thumb pointing down.
8.5 Limit Switch:
7. Swing Boom. Arm extended, point
a. Before an electric crane is operated for the with finger in direction of motion.
first time during any shift, the operator shall
test the operation of the limit switch over a 8. Bridge Travel. Arm extended, hand
cleared area under no load and shall report open and slightly raised wave
any defect to his employer who shall have forearm in direction of travel, while
the defect corrected before the crane is facing in that direction.
permitted to operate.
9. Rock or Trolley Travel. Palm
b. The limit switch shall never be used as an upward, fingers closed, thumb
operation control unless designed for such pointing in direction of motion, jerk
use. Where such limit switches are used as and horizontally.
operating controls there shall be a second
limit switch located behind the control limit
switch.

62
 CHAPTER 5- CRANES AND OTHER HOISTING EQUIPMENT

b. Two-hand Signals: 7. Stop Booming. One short blast.

1. Hoist. Hold both arms horizontal at
sides, fully extended and move
upward and return.
2. Lower. Hold both arms horizontal at
sides, fully extended and move out
and return.
3. Stop. Hold both arms horizontal at
sides, fully extended. Same as (a)
without motion.
4. Move Slowly. Same as (a) or (b),
but with other hand held near
(behind or below) the hand giving
the signal.
5. Raise Boom and Lower Load.
Use (e) and (b) together.
6. Lower Boom and Raise Load.
Use (f) and (a) together.
7. Dog Off Load and Boom. Clasp
finger of one hand with fingers of
other, palm facing each other.
c. Whistles Signals:
1. Hoist. Two short blasts.
2. Lower. Three short blasts.
3. Stop. One short blast.
4. Emergency Stop. Series of short
blasts.
5. Raise Boom. Four short blasts.
6. Lower Boom. Fie short blasts.
8. Swing Boom to Right. One long
and two short blasts.
9. Swing Boom to Left. One long and
three short blasts.
10. Stop Swinging Boom. One short
blast.
8.8 Provision for Preventing Accidents Due to
Proximity of High Voltage Lines. The
provisions contained in Philippine Electrical
Code or Ordinances relative to clearances,
warning signs and other safeguards for the
prevention of electrical accidents due to
contacting high voltage lines shall be complied
with operation of voltage lines.
Section 9.0 Inspection
9.1 The employer shall require that fast moving
parts such as wire ropes, bearings gears,
frictions clutches, chain drives and other parts
subject to wear be inspected at adequate
intervals and any unsafe conditions must be
corrected. The Engineer must be required to
keep properly accomplished logbooks indicating
the date of inspections in the action made of
each and every equipment under his area of
supervision.
9.2 Mechanically and electrically operated brakes
shall be inspected periodically or as often as
necessary. Repairs and adjustments when
necessary should be made immediately.
9.3 Cranes handling molten metal shall be
inspected at least once a week when in use and
necessary repairs made accordingly.

63
 CHAPTER 6- ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS

Chapter 6

ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS

AND MOVING WALKS

Section 1.0 Scope Car Door or Gate, Electric Contact An electrical

—

device, the function of which is to prevent operation of

This chapter provides definition of terms commonly
used in the subject of elevators, moving walks,
dumbwaiters, and escalators. It includes safety
provisions in the design, arrangement, installation and
operation of the equipment. Also in the chapter are
methods of determining the number of elevators
required as well as the maximum rated capacity and
loading of passenger elevator dumbwaiters.
the driving machine by a normal operating device
unless the car door or gate is in the closed position.
Note: This function is subject to the modifications
specified in the Definition of Control, Two-Speed
Alternating Current.
Car Door or Gate Power Closer A device or
—

assembly of devices which closes a manually opened

car door or gate by power other than by hand, gravity
Section 2.0 Definitions springs, or the movement of the car.
Annunciator, Car An electrical signaling device in
—

The top and the walls of the car

Car Enclosure —

the car which may visually or audibly indicate or call
attention to such information as the floor level, full or
overload conditions, manual or automatic operation,
resting on and attached to the car platform.
Car Frame (Sling) The supporting frame to which
—

alarm status and other such information regarding the

the car platform, upper and lower of guide shoes, car
conditions at which the elevator signal register has
safety, and the hoisting ropes or hoisting-rope
been actuated. sheaves, or the hydraulic elevator plunger or cylinder
are attached.
Buffer A device assigned to stop a descending car
—

or counterweight beyond its normal limit of travel by A car frame to which the
Car Frame, Oversiung —

absorbing the momentum of descent of the car or

hoisting-rope fastenings or hoisting-rope sheaves, are
counterweight.
attached to the cross-head or the top member of the
car frame.
Bumper A device other than a buffer, designed to
—

stop a descending or falling car or counterweight Car Frame, Sub-Post A car frame all of whose
—

beyond its allowable lower limit of travel by absorbing members are located below the car frame.
the energy or impact of descent.
Car Frame, Underslung A car frame to which the
—

Buffer, Spring A buffer utilizing a spring to absorb

hoisting-rope sheaves are attached at or below the car
—

the impact of the falling car or counterweight against

platform.
the elevator pit.
Car Platform The structure which forms the floor of
—

Car, Elevator The load-carrying unit including its

the car and which directly supports the load.
—

platform, car, enclosure and car door or gate.

Clearance, Bottom Car The clear vertical distance
—

Car or Counterweight Safety A mechanical device

from the pit floor to the lowest structural or mechanical
—

attached to the car frame or to an auxiliary frame, or

part, equipment or device installed beneath the car
the counterweight frame, to stop and hold the car or
platform, except guide shoes or rollers, safety jaw
counterweight under one or more of the following
assemblies and platform aprons or guards, when the
conditions: predetermined over speed, free-fall, or if
car rests on its fully compressed buffers.
the suspension ropes slacken.
Clearance, Top Car The shortest vertical clearance
—

between the top of the car cross-head, or between the

64
 CHAPTER 6- ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS
top of the car where no cross-head, is provided, and
the nearest part of the overhead structure or any other
obstruction when the car floor is level with the top
terminal landing.
Clearance, Top Counterweight The shortest
— design to materials and other loads such as food,
vertical distance between any part of the
counterweight structure and the nearest part of the
overhead structure or any other obstruction when the
floor is level with the bottom terminal landing.
Compensating-Rope Sheave Switch A device
— net platform area; with a height no more than 1.2
which automatically causes the electric power to be
removed from the elevator driving-machine motor and
brake when the compensating sheave approaches its
upper or lower limit of travel.
Control — The system governing the starting,
stopping, direction of motion, acceleration speed, and
retardation of the moving number.
Control, Single-Speed Alternating Current A —
control for a driving machine induction motor which is
arranged to run at a single speed.
Controller A device or group of devices which
— Elevator, Freight
serves to control in some predetermined manner the
apparatus to which it is connected.
Dispatching Device, Elevator Automatic — A device,
the principal function of which is to either:
(a) Operate a signal in the car to indicate when the
car should leave a designated landing; or
(b) Actuate its starting mechanism when the car is at
a designated landing.
Door, Bi-Parting A vertically or a horizontally sliding
— more compartment located one immediately above the
door, consisting of two or more sections so arranged
that the sections or groups of sections open away from
each other.
Door or Gate, Car or Landing The sliding portion of
— pressure, in a cylinder equipped with a plunger or
the car, the hinged or sliding portion on the landing
through the hoistway enclosure which covers the
opening giving access to the car or the landing.
Door or Gate, Manually Operated A hoistway door
— attached to the car frame or platform.
or a car door or gate which is opened and closed by
hand.
Door or Gate, Power Operated A hoistway door or
— directly attached to the car frame or platform.
car door or gate which is opened and closed by means
of electric motor or other mechanical system utilizing
some motive power other than gravity, spring or
manual operation.
65
Door or Gate, Self-Closing A manually opened
—
hoistway door or gate that automatically closes when
released.
Dumbwaiter —A hoisting and lowering mechanism
laundry, etc., equipped with a car, which moves in
fixed guides and serves two or more fixed landings
through a hoistway. This equipment shall be designed
to carry small materials in a car, or partitioned or
shelved enclosure measuring no more than 0.86 m 2 of
meters and a maximum rated capacity no greater than
225 kg.
Dumbwaiter, Under Counter A dumbwaiter which
—
has its topmost landing located underneath a counter.
Elevator A hoisting and lowering mechanism other
—
than a dumbwaiter or freight elevator which is design
to carry passenger or authorized personnel, in a
protected enclosure (elevator car) which moves along
fixed guides and serves two or more fixed landings on
a hoistway.
— An elevator primarily used for
carrying freight and on which only the operator and the
person necessary for unloading and loading the freight
are permitted to ride.
Note: Its use is subject to the modification specified in
Sec. 6.4.8.
Elevator, Inclined An elevator which travels at an
—
angle of inclination of 70 degrees or less from the
horizontal.
Elevator, Multi-Deck An elevator having two or
—
other.
Elevator, Hydraulic —A power elevator where the
energy is applied, by means of a liquid under
piston; the type of which as follows:
(a) Elevator, Direct—Plunger Hydraulic A —
hydraulic having a plunger or cylinder directly
(b) Elevator, maintained Pressure Hydraulic A —
hydraulic elevator having a plunger or cylinder
(c) Elevator, Electro-Hydraulic — direct-plunger
elevator where liquid under pressure is available
at all times for transfer into the cylinder.
 CHAPTER 6- ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS

(d) Elevator, Roped-Hydraulic A hydraulic elevator

— Hoistway, Blind —The portion of a hoistway (shaft)
having its piston connected to the car with wire where normal landing entrances are not provided.
ropes.
Hoistway Single — A hoisture (shaft) where normal
Elevator, Scenic An elevator designed to permit
—
landing entrances are not provided.
exterior viewing by passengers while the car is
traveling. Hoistway Enclosure The fixed structure, consisting
—

of vertical walls or partitions, which isolates the

Elevator, Passenger An elevator used primarily to
— hoistway from all other areas or from an adjacent
carry persons other than the operator and persons hoistway and in which the hoistway doors and door
necessary for loading and unloading. assemblies are installed.

Elevator, Pit That portion of a hoistway extending

—
Hoistway Door Electric Contact — An electrical
from the threshold level of lowest landing door to the device, the function of which is to prevent operation of
floor at the bottom of the hoistway. the driving machine by the normal operating device
unless the hoistway door is in the closed position.
Elevator, Private Residence A power passenger
—

elevator which is limited in size, capacity, rise, and Hoistway Door I Gate Locking Device — A device
speed, and is installed in a private residence or in a which secures a hoistway door or gate in the closed
multiple dwelling as a means of access to a private position and prevents it from being upended from the
residence. landing side excerpt under certain specified
conditions.
Emergency Stop Switch A device located in the car
—

which when manually operated, causes the electric Hoistway-Unit System A series of hoistway door
—

power to be removed from the driving machine motor interlocks, hoistway door electric contacts or hoistway
and brake of an electric elevator or from the door combination mechanical locks and electric
electrically operated valves and/or motor of a hydraulic contacts, or a combination thereof, the function of
elevator. which is to prevent operation of the driving machine by
the normal operating device unless all hoistway doors
Entrance Locked Out of Service An entrance in
— are in the closed position and, are locked in the closed
which the hoistway door is mechanically locked by position.
means other than the interlock to prevent the door
being opened from the car side without keys or special Hoistway Door Combination Mechanical Lock and
equipment. Electric Contact A combination mechanical and
—

electrical device with two related, but entirely

Escalator — A power-driven, inclined continuous independent functions, which are:
stairway used for raising or lowering passengers.
(a) To prevent operation of the driving-machine by the
Escalators, Tandem Operation Escalators used in
— normal operating device unless the hoistway door
series with common intermediate landings. is in the closed position; and

Factory of Safety The ratio of the ultimate strength

— (b) To lock the hoistway door in the closed position
to the working stress of a member under maximum and prevent it from being opened from the landing
static loading, unless otherwise specified in a side unless the car is within the landing zone.
particular rule.
Note: As there is no positive mechanical connection
Hoistway Access Switch A switch, located at a
— between the electric contact and the door-locking
landing, the function of which is to permit operation of mechanism, this device ensures only that the door will
the car with the hoistway door at this landing and the be closed, but not necessarily locked, when the car
car door or gate open, in order to permit access to the leaves the landing. Should the lock mechanism fail to
top of the car or to the pit. operate as intended when released by a stationary or
retiring car-cam device, the door can be opened from
Hoistway!Shaft — An opening through a building or the landing side even though the car is at the landing.
structure for the travel of elevators, dumbwaiters, or If operated by the normal operating device unless all
material lifts, extending from the pit floor to the roof or hoistway doors are in the closed position and, where
flow above.

66
 CHAPTER 6- ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS
so required by this code, are locked in the closed
positions.
Indicator, Passenger Waiting —An indicator which
show a which landing and for which direction elevator
hall stop-or-signal calls have been registered and are
unanswered.
Landing, Elevator or Material Lift That portion of a
—
floor balcony or platform used to receive and
discharge passengers or freight.
Landing Zone A zone extending from a point 457
—
mm below an elevator or material lift landing to a point
457 mm above landing.
Leveling — Controlled car movement toward the
landing, within the leveling zone, by means of a
leveling device, which vertically aligns the car-platform
sill relative to the hoistway landing sill to attain a
predetermined accuracy.
Leveling Device, One-Way Automatic — A device
which corrects the car level only in case of under-run
of the car, but will not maintain the level during loading
and unloading.
Leveling Device, Two-Way Automatic Maintaining
— A device which corrects the car level on both under
run and over-run, and maintains the level during
loading and unoading.
Leveling Zone The limited distance above or below
— follows:
an elevation or material lift landing with which the
leveling device is permitted to cause movement of the
car toward the landing.
Machine Drive The power unit which applies the
— (b) Moving Walk, Belt Pallet Type A moving walk
energy necessary to raise or lower an elevator or
dumbwaiter.
Machine Drive, Electric —One where the energy is
applied by an electric motor. It includes the motor,
brake, and the driving sheave or drum together with its
connecting gearing, belt or chain, if any, and can be
classified as follows:
(a) Direct-Drive Machine — An electric driving
machine, the motor which is directly connected
mechanically to the driving sheave, drum, or shaft
without the use of the belts or chains, either with
or without intermediate gears.
(b) Geared-Drive Machine A direct drive machine
— landing, and/or operating devices in the car identified
in which the energy is transmitted from the motor
to the driving sheave drum or shaft through
gearing.
67
(c) Traction Machine A direct driven in which the
—
motion of the car is obtained through friction
between the suspension and a traction sheave.
(d) Gearless-Traction Machine A traction machine,
—
without intermediate gearing, which has the
traction sheave and the brake drum mounted
directly on the motor shaft.
(e) Winding-Drum Machine A geared-drive
—
machine in which the suspension ropes are
fastened to and wind on a drum.
(f) Worm-Geared Machine A geared-drive
—
machine in which the energy from other motor is
transmitted to the driving sheave or drum through
worm gearing.
(g) Indirect-Drive Machine —An electric driving
machine, the motor of which is connected
indirectly to the driving sheave, drum or shaft by
means of a belt or chain through intermediate
gears.
Material Lift — A hoisting and lowering mechanism
normally classified as an elevator has been modified
to adapt it for the automatic transfer device.
Moving Walk — A power-driven device made of a
continuous belt treadway or pallets used to convey
passengers and/or materials on a horizontal plane
from one point to another; the types of which as
(a) Moving Walk, Belt Type A moving walk with a
—
power driven continuous belt treadway.
—
with a series of connected and power-driven
pallets to which a continuous treadway is
fastened.
(c) Moving Walk, Pallet Type A moving walk with a
—
series of connected and power-driven pallets
which together constitutes a treadway.
Non-Stop Switch, Elevator A switch, which when
—
operated will prevent the elevator from marking
registered landing stops.
Operator, Automatic Operation wherein the starting
—
of the elevator car is effected in response of the
momentary actuation of operating devices at the
with the landings, and/or in response to an automatic
starting mechanism and wherein, the car is stopped
automatically at the landings.
 CHAPTER 6- ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS

Operating Device The car switch, push button,

— Starter Control Panel, Elevator An assembly of
—

lever or other manual device used to actuate the devices by means of which the starter may control the
control. manner in which an elevator or group of elevators
function.
Overhead Structure All the structural members
—

platforms, etc. supporting the elevator machinery, Static Switching —Switching of circuits by means of
sheaves and equipment at the top of the hoistway. solid state devices.

Parking Device, Elevator An electrical or

— Stopping Devices, Elevator Landing A button or
—

mechanical device the function of which is permit the
opening from the landing side of the hoistway door at
any landing when the car is within the landing zone of
that landing. The device may also be used to close
the door.
Rope Equalizer, Suspension A device installed on
— approaches a terminal landing, independently of the
an elevator car or counterweight to equalize
automatically the tensions in the suspension wire
ropes.
other device, located at an elevator landing which
when actuated, causes the elevator to stop at that
floor.
Terminal Speed Limiting Device, Emergency — A
device which automatically reduces the speed as a car
functioning of the operating device, and the normal-
terminal stopping device, if the latter fail to slow down
the car as intended.

Rope-Fastening Device, Auxiliary A device

— Terminal Stopping Device, Emergency A device
—

attached to the c,ar or counterweight or to the
overhead dead-end rope-hitch support which will
function automatically to support the car or
counterweight in case the regular wire-rope fastening
falls at the point of connection to the car or
counterweight or at the overhead dead-end hitch.
which automatically causes the power to be removed
from an electric elevator driving machine motor and
brake at a pre-determined distance from the terminal
landing, and independently of the functioning of the
operating device and the normal terminal stopping
devices does not slow down the car as intended.

Safety, Self-Resetting A car or counterweight

— Terminal Stopping Device, Machine Final (Stop
safety released and reset by movement in the up Motion Switch) — A final-terminal stopping device
direction. operated directly by the driving machine.

Single Automatic, Operation Automatic operation

— Terminal Stopping Device, Normal — A device or
by means of one button in the car for each landing devices to slow down and stop an elevator,
served and one button at each landing, so arrange dumbwaiter, or material lift car automatically at or near
that f any car of landing button has been actuated, of a terminal landing independently of the functioning of
actuation of any other car or landing operating button the operating device.
will have no effect of the operation of the car until the
response to the first button has been completed. Top Runby (Direct-Plunger Hydraulic Elevator) —

The distance the elevator car can run above its top
Signal Device, Elevator Car Flush One providing a
— terminal landing before the plunger strikes the
signal light in the car, which is illuminated when the mechanical stop.
car approaches the landings at which a landing signal
registering device has been actuated. Transom A panel or panels used to close a
—

hoistway enclosure opening above a hoistway

Signal System, Elevator One consisting of buttons
— entrance.
or other devices located at the landing which when
actuated by a waiting passenger illuminate a flash Travel (Rise) — The vertical distance between the
signal or operate an annunciator in the car indicating bottom terminal landing and the top terminal landing of
floors at which stops are to be made. an elevator, dumbwaiter, escalator, material lift, or
inclined lift.
Slack-Rope Switch A device which automatically
—

causes the electric power to be removed from the Travelling Cable —A cable made up of electric
elevator driving machine motor and brake when the conductors, which provides electrical connection
suspension ropes of a winding-drum machine become between an elevator, dumbwaiter, or material lift car
slack. and fixed outlet in the hoistway or machine room.

68
 CHAPTER 6- ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS
Section 3.0 Electric Elevators
3.1 Construction of Hoistway and Hoistway
Enclosure
a. Enclosure of Hoistways:
1. Fire-Resistive Construction
Required. Hoistways shall be
enclosed throughout their height
with fire-resistive enclosures, and all
hoistways landing openings shall be
protected with fire-resistive entrance
assemblies.
Exceptions:
(a) Partitions between fire-resistive
hoistways and machine rooms
having fire-resistive enclosures
and which are located at a side
of or beneath the hoistway, may
be of un-perforated non
combustible material at least
equal to 1.52 mm sheet steel in
strength and stiffness with
openings therein essential for
ropes, drums, sheaves and
other elevator equipment.
(b) Elevators which are entirely
within one story or which pierce
no solid floors and serve two or
more open galleries, book
stacks, etc., in building such as
power-houses, libraries, open
towers, and similar structures.
(c) Observation elevators which are
adjacent to a building wall
without penetrating the separate
fire-resistive areas of the
building (Fire-resistive entrance
assemblies and a fire resistance
rated wall per Sec. 6.3.1 (b)
shall be used).
2. Fire Resistance Rating. The fire
resistance rating of the hoistway
enclosure, exclusive of entrances
and protective assemblies in other
openings, shall not be less than the
required by the National Building
Code.
69
The fire resistance ratings of the
entrances shall be not less than 1 %
hour.
The fire resistance rating of a
hoistway opening protective
assemblies other than elevator
entrances shall be not less than 1 %
hour as determined with tests
conducted in accordance with
ANSI/ASME E152 Methods of Fire
Tests of Door Assemblies.
The fire resistance shall not be less
than required by Local Code such
as the National Building Code,
National Fire Code and the
Philippine Electrical Code.
3. Non-Fire-Resistive Enclosures.
Where fire-resistive hoistway
enclosures and entrances are not
required by Sec. 6.3.1.1 (a).
Enclosure and entrances shall be
unperforated to a height of 1 830
mm above each floor or landing and
above the treads of adjacent
stairways. Enclosures shall be so
supported and braced as to deflect
not over 25 mm when subjected to a
force of 45 kg applied horizontally at
any point. Unperforated metal
enclosures shall be equal to or
stronger than 1.2 mm sheet steel.
Open work enclosures may be used
above the 1 830 mm level and shall
be of either wire grille at least 2.30
mm diameter steel wire of expanded
metal at least 2.30 mm in thickness.
Glass curtain walls may be used in
elevator hoistways provided the
panels are of laminated glass.
4. Strength of Enclosure. The
hoistway enclosure adjacent to a
landing opening shall be of sufficient
strength to maintain in true lateral
alignment the hoistway entrances.
Operating mechanism and locking
devices shall be supported by the
building wall, if load bearing, or by
other building structure. Adequate
consideration shall be given to
pressure exerted on hoistway
enclosures as a result of windage
and/or elevator operation.
 CHAPTER 6- ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS
3.2 Floor Over Hoistways:
a. Where Required. A metal or concrete floor
shall be provided at the top of the hoistway.
Exceptions: Floors are not required below:
1. Secondary and deflecting sheaves
of traction-type machines located
over the hoistway.
2. Overhead sheaves, governors, and
other equipment where the elevator
machine is located below or at the
side of the hoistway.
b. Location of Floor. The floor shall be
located:
1. Above or level with the tope of the
machine beams where the machine
is located over the hoistway;
2. Below the overhead sheaves where
the machine is not located over the
hoistway.
c. Strength of Floor. The floor shall be
capable of sustaining a concentrated load of
136 kg on any 2 580 mm area and in
addition where it constitutes the floor of the
main or secondary level machinery space, it
shall be designed for a live load of not less
than 611 kg/rn in all open areas. A sign
stating the maximum allowable load of
which the floor is designed shall be
permanently displayed in all main and
secondary machine-room spaces. The sign
shall be of metal with black letters and
figures at least 100 mm high on a white
background.
d. Construction of Floors. Floors may be of
concrete, or may be of metal construction
with or without perforations. Metal floors
shall conform to the following:
1. If of bar-type grating, the openings
between bars shall reject a ball 20
mm in diameter.
2. If of perforated sheet metal or of
fabricated open work construction,
the openings shall reject a ball 25
mm in diameter.
70
3.3 Hoistway Protection in Case of Fire.
Hoistway of elevators shall be provided in cases
of fire as required by the local codes such as the
National Building Code, National Fire and the
Philippine Electrical Code.
3.4 Hoist for all elevators shall be substantially
enclosed throughout their height, and there shall
be no openings except for necessary doors,
windows or skylights.
3.5 Hoistway for elevators outside building shall be
substantially enclosed to a height of at least
3 000 mm provided that the enclosure shall be
continuous to the top of any side on which there
is access to the cage.
3.6 The enclosure shall either be a continuous wall
or substantial grill work, metal bars, or wood
slats.
3.7 Openings fixed enclosures shall not exceed 50
mm in their lesser dimensions, at all places
where moving cars, counter-weights, or sliding
doors present hazard they shall not exceed 10
mm in their lesser dimensions.
3.8 Hoistway enclosures and hoistway doors and
door assemblies shall be of fire-resistive
construction of not less than 1-hour fire
resistance.
3.9 Where four or more elevators serve or the same
portion of a building, they shall be located in not
less than two (2) hoistway and in no case shall
more than four (4) elevators be located in any
one hoistway.
3.10 Window and Skylights:
a. Window and Skylight Frames and Sash.
Windows in the walls of hoistway enclosures
are prohibited. Frames and sashes of
windows in machine rooms and skylights
shall be of metal.
1. Skylights Guards. A guard
securely anchored to the supporting
structure, consisting of a wire mesh
screen of at least 2.325 mm
diameter steel wire with openings
which will reject a ball 25 mm in
diameter, or an expanded metal
screen of equivalent strength and
open area, shall be installed above
every elevator skylight. A similar
screen of at least 1.205 mm
 CHAPTER 6- ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS

diameter steel wire, or of expanded from the landing except with special emergency
metal of equivalent strength and key.
open area, shall be installed below
every elevator skylight. 4.5 Landing opening in passenger-elevator hoistway
enclosure shall be protected preferably by
Section 4.0 Machine Rooms and sliding doors, combination sliding and swing
doors, or swinging doors.
Machinery Spaces
4.6 Access to Machine Rooms and Machinery
4.1 Enclosure Required:
Spaces:
a. Enclosure Required for Elevators Having
a. General Requirements. A permanent safe
Non Fire-Resistive Hoistway Enclosure.
and convenient means of access to elevator
Spaces containing machines, control
machine rooms and overhead machinery
equipment, sheaves, and other machinery
spaces shall be provided for authorized
shall be enclosed with non combustible
persons.
material extending to a height of not less
than 1 830 mm. Openwork material, if used, Where the passage is over a sloping roof
b.
shall reject a ball 51 mm in diameter. having slope exceeding 15 degrees from the
horizontal, an unobstructed, permanent and
4.2 Equipment in Machine Rooms
substantial walkway not less than 610 mm
wide, equipped on at least one side with a
a. Equipment Permitted in Machinery and
standard railing not less than 1 067 mm
Control Spaces. Elevator machine and
high, shall be provided from the building exit
control equipment may be located in a room
door at the roof level to the means of access
or space containing other machinery and
to machine room or machinery spaces.
equipment essential to the operation of the
Railings shall conform to the requirements
building; provided that they are separated
of ANSI A12.1.
from the other machinery or equipment by a
substantial metal grille enclosure not less 4.7 Headroom in Machine Rooms and Overhead
than 1 830 mm high with a self-closing and Machinery Spaces. Elevator machine rooms
self-locking door. The grille enclosures shall
and machinery spaces not located over the
be of a design which will reject a baIl 51 mm
hoistway shall have a clear headroom of not
in diameter.
less than 2 130 mm.
b. Equipment Prohibited in Machine Room.
Where a floor is provided at the top of the
Where the elevator machine and control
hoistway (see Sec. 4.2), elevator machine
equipment are not located at the top of the
rooms and overhead machinery spaces above
hoistway, only machinery and equipment
such floor shall have a clear headroom of not
required for the operation of the elevator
less than the following:
shall be permitted in the elevator machine
room.
a. Machine, control, and motor-generator
rooms, 2 130 mm.
4.3 Where machine room are provided over elevator
shaftways they shall be substantially b. Spaces containing overhead, secondary or
constructed with sufficient room for repair and
deflecting sheaves, and governors, signal
inspection and access shall be by means of iron
machines, or other equipment, 1 372 mm.
ladder or stairs where the machine room
entrance is more than 610 mm above the
c. Spaces containing overhead, secondary and
adjacent floor or roof surface. The angle of
deflecting sheaves, the machine and
incline of such ladder or stair shall not exceed
supporting beams may encroach on the
60° horizontal.
required headroom provided there is a
clearance of not less than 914 mm between
4.4 Landing doors for power driven elevators shall
the underside of such beams and the top of
be provided with interlocks to hold the elevator
the floor.
car immovable while any landing. door is open
and to make it impossible to open any landing
door when the car is more than 80 mm away

71
 __
CHAPTER 6- ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS

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4.8 Lighting and Ventilation of Machine Room
and Machinery Spaces.
(a) Lighting. Permanent electric lighting shall
be provided in all machine rooms and
machinery spaces.
The illumination shall be not less than 108
lux at the floor level, The lighting control
switch shall be located within easy reach of
the access to such rooms or spaces.
Where practicable the light control switch
shall be located on the lock jamb side of the
access door.
(b) Ventilation for Machinery and Control
Equipment. Machine rooms shall be
provided with natural or mechanical
ventilation to avoid overheating of the
electrical equipment and to insure safe and
normal operation of the elevator.

72
 CHAPTER 6- ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS
4.9 Storage of Materials in Machine and Control
Room. Elevator machine and control rooms
shall be maintained free of refuse, and shall not
be used for the storage of articles unnecessary
for the maintenance or operation of the elevator.
Flammable liquids having a flash point of less
than 43.3°C shall not be kept in such rooms.
Section 5.0 Electrical Wiring, Pipes, and
Ducts in Hoistway and Machine Rooms
5.1 Wiring, Raceways, and Cables in Hoistways.
Main feeders for supplying power to the elevator
shall be installed outside the hoistway.
Only such electrical wiring, raceways, and
cables used directly in connection with the
elevator, including wiring for signals, for
communication with the car, for lighting, heating,
air conditioning, and ventilating the car, for low-
voltage fire-detecting systems, for pit sump
pumps, and for heating and lighting the
hoistway, may be installed inside the hoistway.
5.2 Installation of Pipes or Ducts Conveying
Gases, Vapors or Liquids in Hoistways,
Machine Rooms, or Machinery Spaces. Pipes
of ducts conveying gases, vapors, or liquids and
not used in connection with the operation of the
elevator shall not be in any hoistway, machine
room, or machinery space.
Exceptions:
1. Steam and hot water pipes may be installed
in hoistways, machine rooms, and
machinery spaces for the purpose of heating
these areas only, subject to the following:
(a) Heating pipes shall convey only low
pressure steam [34 Kpa or less] or hot
water [100°C or less]
(b) All risers and return pipes shall be
located outside the hoistway.
(c) Traps and shut-off valves shall be
provided in accessible locations outside
the hoistway.
2. Ducts of heating, cooling, ventilating and
venting these spaces only may be installed
in the machine room and machinery space.
3. Pipes for sprinklers only may be installed in
these spaces subject to the following:
(a) All risers and returns shall be located
outside these spaces.
(b) Branch lines in hoistway shall supply
sprinklers at not more than one floor
level.
(c) Shut off valves shall be provided in
accessible locations outside these
spaces.
4. Piping for pit and sump pumps may be
installed.
5.3 Guarding of Exposed Auxiliary Equipment:
a. In machine rooms and secondary machinery
spaces, exposed gears, sprockets, tape of
rope sheaves or drums of selectors, floor
controllers or signal machines, and their
driving ropes, chains or tapes, shall be
guarded to protect against accidental
contact.
5.4 Machinery and Sheave Beams, Supports and
Foundations:
a. Beams and Supports Required.
Machines, machinery, and sheaves shall be
so supported and maintained in place to
prevent any part from becoming loose or
displaced under the conditions imposed in
service.
Supporting beams, if used, shall be of steel
or reinforced concrete. Beams are not
required under machines, sheaves, and
machinery or control equipment which are
supported on floor provided such floors are
designed and installed to support the load
imposed thereon.
b. Loads:
1. Overhead Beams, Floors, and
Their Supports. Overhead beams,
floors, and their supports shall be
designed for not less than the sum
of the following loads:
(a) The loads resting on the beams
and supports which shall
include the complete weight of
the machine, sheaves,
controller, governor and any
other equipment together with
 S
CHAPTER 6- ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALK

that portion, if any of the (see Sec. 6.3.6.3) shall conform to

machine-room floor supported Section 6.3.1.1.
thereon.
2. The floor of the pit shall be
(b) Two times the sum of the approximately level.
tensions in all wire ropes
supported by the beams with 3. Drains connected directly to sewers
rated load in the car. shall not be installed in elevator pits.

2. Foundations, Beams, and Floors 4. Elevator pits shall be water-proofed

for Machinery and Sheaves Not with at least 3/16” steel plate on all
Located Directly Over the sides at a height of not less than
Hoistway. The suppor ts for 1.20 meters including the pit floor.
machines and sheave s located
Exception: Sumps with or without
below or at the sides of the hoistway
shall have the following pumps may be installed.
requirements:
c. Access to Pits. Safe and convenient
(a) The foundation shall support the access shall be provided to all pits, and shall
total weight of the machine, conform to the following:
sheaves, and other equipment,
and the floor if any. 1. Access shall be by means of the
lowest hoistway door or by means
(b) The sheave beams and the of a separate pit access door.
foundation bolts shall withstand
two times the vertical 2. There shall be installed in the pit of
component of the tension in all each elevator where the pit extends
suspension ropes on the more than 914 mm below the sill of
foundation or beams less the the pit access door, a fixed vertical
weight of the machine or ladder of non-combustible material,
sheaves. located within reach of the access
door. The ladder shall extend not
(c) The sheave beams and the less than 1067 mm above the sill of
foundation bolts shall withstand the access door, or handgrips shall
two times the horizontal be provided to the same height.
component, if any, of the
tension in all suspension ropes 3. Pits shall be accessible only to
passing over sheaves or drums authorized persons.
on the foundation or beams.
(d) The foundation shall withstand Where a separate pit access door is
two times the over-turning provided, it shall be self-closing and
moment, if any, developed by provided with a spring-type lock
the tensions in all the arranged to permit the door to be
suspension ropes passing over opened from inside the pit without a
sheaves or drums on the key. Such doors shaD be kept
foundations or beams. locked.

5.5 Pits. d. Illumination of Pits. A permanent lighting

fixture shall be provided in all pits, which
a. Where Required. A pit shall be provided for shall provide an illumination of not less than
every elevator. 54 lux at the pit floor. A light switch shall be
provided and shall be so located as to be
b. Design and Construction of Pits. accessible from the pit access door.

1. The construction of the pit walls, the e. Stop Switch in Pits. There shall be
pit floor, and any pit access doors installed in the pit of each elevator an

74
 CHAPTER 6- ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS
enclosed stop switch or switches meeting
the requirements of Section 6.D.11.3(g).
The switch shall be so located as to be
accessible from the pit access door. Where
access to the pits of elevators in a multiple
hoistway is by means of a single access
door, the stop switch for each elevator shall
be located adjacent to the nearest point of
access to its pit from the access door.
In elevators where access to the pit is
through the lowest landing hoistway door a
stop switch shall be located approximately
457 mm above the floor level of the landing,
within reach from this access floor and
adjacent to the pit ladder if provided. When
the pit exceeds 2010 mm in depth, an
additional stop switch is required adjacent to
the pit ladder and approximately 1220 mm
above the pit floor. Where more than one
switch is provided, they shall be wired in
series.
f. Minimum Pit Depths Required. The pit
depth shall be not less than is required for
the installation of the buffers, compensating
sheaves if any, and all other elevator
equipment located therein, and to provide
the minimum bottom car clearance and
runby required by Section 6.C.7.
5.6 Bottom and Top Clearances and Runbys for
Elevator Cars and Counterweights
a. Bottom Car Clearances. When the car
rests on its fully compressed buffer, there
shall be a vertical clearance of not less than
610 mm between the pit floor and the lowest
structural or mechanical part, equipment or
device installed beneath the car platform
except guide shoes or rollers, safety-jaw
assemblies, and platform aprons, guards, or
other equipment located within 305 mm
horizontally from the sides of the car
platform (see Apendix D, Fig. D3).
Trenches and depressions or foundation
encroachments permitted by the exceptions
in Section 6.3.6.2 shall not be considered in
determining this clearance. When the car
rests on its fully compressed buffer, no part
of the car or any equipment attached thereto
shall strike any part of the equipment
located therein.
75
b. Bottom Runby for Counterweighted
Elevators. The bottom runby of cars and
counterweights shall be not less than the
following:
1. Where oil buffers are used, 152
mm.
Exceptions:
(a) Where practical difficulties
prevent a sufficient pit depth or
where a top clearance cannot
be provided to obtain the runby
specified, it may be reduced.
(b) Where spring-return type oil
buffers are used, the runby may
be eliminated by amounts not
be eliminated so that the buffers
are compressed by amounts not
exceeding 610 mm when the
car floor is level with the
terminal landings.
2. Where spring buffers are used:
(a) Where generator-field control is
used, 152 mm.
c. Bottom Runby for Uncounterweighted
Elevators. The bottom runby of
uncounterweighteci elevators shall be not
less than the following:
1. 76 mm where the rated speed does
not exceed 0.13 m/s.
(a) 152 mm where the rated speed
exceeds 0.13 mIs.
d. Top Counterweight Clearances. The top
counterweight clearance shall be not less
than the sum of the following:
1. The bottom car runby.
(a) The stroke of the car buffer
used.
(b) 152 mm
(c) Where an oil buffer is used for
the car and no provision is
made to prevent the jump of the
CHAPTER 6 ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS

counterweight at car buffer hoistway, shall be not less than 51

engagement, add: mm.

one-half the gravity stopping 4. Between Cars and Landing Sills.

distance based on 115% of the
rated speed.
(d) Where car spring buffers are
used, add one-half the gravity
stopping distance based on
governor tripping speed.
Exceptions: (Sec. 6.3.7.4): Section
6.3.7.4 (a) and (b) may be modified
correspondingly when the bottom car
runby has been reduced or eliminated
as provided in Section 6.3.7.2 (a),
Exceptions (1) and (2).
The clearance between the car-
platform sill and the hoistway edge
of any landing sill, or the hoistway
side of any vertically sliding
counterweighted or
counterbalanced hoistway door or of
any vertically sliding
counterbalanced biparting hoistway
door, shall be not less than 13 mm
where side guides are used, and not
less than 19 mm where corner
guides are used. The maximum
clearance shall be not more than 38
mm.

e. Overhead Clearances Where Overhead 5. Clearances Between Loading

Beams Are Not Over Car Crosshead. Side of Car Platforms and
Where overhead beams or other overhead Hoistway Enclosures. The
hoistway construction, except sheaves, are clearance betweem the edge of the
located vertically over the car, but not over car-platform sill and the hoistway
the crosshead, the following requirements enclosure or fascia plate for the full
shall be met: width of the clear hoistway-door
opening shall be not more than 127
1. Such beams or construction shall be mm.
located not less than 610 mm
horizontally from the crosshead. Exception: Where vertically sliding
hoistway doors are installed, the
f. Horizontal Car and Counterweight clearance specified may be increased to
Clearances 190 mm. For heavy duty, elevators or
extra-wide door openings, the clearance
1. Between Car and Hoistway may be increased where necessary,
Enclosures. The clearances subject to the approval of the enforcing
between the car and the hoistway authority.
enclosure shall be not less than 19
mm except on the sides used for 6. Measurement of Clearances. The
loading and unloading. clearances specified in Sec. 6.C.8
shall be measured with no load on
2. Between Car and Counterweight the car platform.
and Counterweight Screen. The
clearance between the car and the g. Protection of Hoistway-Landing
counterweight shall be not less than Openings
25 mm. The clearance between
counterweight and the 1. Entrances for Passenger
counterweight screen and between Elevators and Freight Elevators
the counterweight and the hoistway authorized to carry employees:
enclosure shall be not less than 19
mm. (a) Horizontal slide, single or multi
section.
3. Between Cars in Multiple
Hoistway. The running clearance (b) Swing, single-section.
between the cars and any
equipment attached thereto, of (c) Combination horizontal slide
elevators operating in a multiple and swing.

76
 CHAPTER 6- ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS

c. Mounting used between panel sections shall

(d) Power-operated, vertical slide
biparting counterbalanced, or
vertical slide counterweighted
which slide down to open,
where located at entrances
used by passenger (see Section
6.D.8.5).
(e) Hand or power-operated vertical
slide which slide up to open.
2. For Freight Elevators. Entrances
shall be one of the following types:
be of non-combustible material and of
substantial construction.
d. Panel opening shall be glazed with clear
wire glass not less than 6.3 mm thick.
e. The center of the panel shall be located not
less than 1370 mm nor more than 1680 mm
above the landing; except that for vertically
sliding biparting counter-balanced doors, it
shall be located to conform with the
dimensions specified insofar as the door
design will permit.

(a) Horizontal slide, single or multi- f. The vision panels in horizontally swinging
section. doors shall be located for convenient vision
when opening the door from the car side.
(b) Swing, single-section.
g. Wire-glass panels in power-operated doors
(c) Combination horizontal slide shall be substantially flush with the surface
and swing. of the landing side of the door.

(d) Center-opening, two-section 5.8 Hoistway Door Locking Devices

horizontal swing (subject to
restrictions of Section 6.C.9.3).
(e) Vertical slide counterweighted,
single or multi-section.
— and
Hoistway Door Power Operators
a. Locking Devices. Doors shall be provided
with door locking devices, hoistway access
switches and parking devices.

3. Limitations of Use of Double 5.9 Entrances, Horizontal Slide Type

Swing Entrances.
a. Landing Sills. Landing Sills shall:
(a) For freight elevators which can
be operated only from the car; 1. Be of metal and of sufficient
or strength to support the loads to be
carried by the sills when loading and
(b) For freight elevators not unloading the car, and be secured
accessible to the general public in place;
which can be operated from
outside the hoistway, and which 2. Be substantially flush with the floor
are located in factories, surface of the elevator landings and
warehouses, garages and so designed and maintained as to
similar industrial buildings. provide a secure foothold over the
entire width of the door opening.
5.7 Hoistway Door Vision Panels:
Exceptions [Section 6.C.9.6 (a) (2)].
a. The area of any single vision panel shall be
not less than 0.016 m
2 and the total area of (a) Where necessary, sill may be
one or more vision panels in any hoistway beveled or the landing floor may
door shall be not more than 0.051 m
.
2 be ramped. The angle with the
horizontal shall be not greater
b. Each clear panel opening shall reject a ball than 76 mm in 305 mm for
152 mm in diameter. beveled sills nor greater than 25
mm in 305 mm for ramped
landings.

77
 CHAPTER 6- ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS

(b) The top surface or beveled sills 1. Stops shall be provided in the
shall not be more than 38 mm entrance assembly to prevent
above the adjacent floor hangers from over-running the end
surface. of the track.

3. Hanger Tracks and Track 2. For power-operated doors, they

Supports. The tracks and their shall be constructed to withstand,
supports and fastenings for power without damage or appreciable
operated doors shall be constructed deflection, and imposed static load
to withstand without damage or equal to four times the weight of
appreciable deflections, an imposed each panel as applied successively
static load equal to four times the downward and upward at the
weight of each panel as applied vertical centerline of the panel.
successively downward and upward
at the vertical centerline of the 5.11 Panels. Panels shall conform to the following:
panel.
a. The panels shall overlap the top and sides
4. Entrance Frames. Frames shall of the opening and each other, in the case
conform to the following: of multispeed entrances, by not less than 16
mm.
(a) if used, they shall overlap the
wall surface on the hoistway 1. The clearance between the panel and
side and provide a uniform the frame and between related panels of
surface on the hoistway side of multispeed entrances shall not exceed
the wall parallel to the plane of 9.5 mm.
the panels.
2. The leading panel edge of side-opening
(b) They shall be securely entrances shall not close into pockets in
anchored to the sills, and to the the strike jamb and shall be smooth and
building structure or to the track free of sharp projections.
supports.
3. The meeting panel edges of center-
Anchors and fastenings to suit opening entrances shall be smooth and
the wall construction are free of sharp projections.
required. The head of the
entrance frames shall not be The meeting panel edges of center-
used to support the weight of opening entrances shall be protected
the wall over the frame. with not less than one resilient male
member extending the full height of the
(c) They shall be made of panel. The meeting edges may
noncombustible material with a interlock by not more than 9.5 mm.
melting point no less than
982°C, Combustible material 4. The panels shall have no area or
not more than 1.6 mm thick or molding depressed or raised more than
low melting point 6.3 mm from the exposed surface,
noncombustible material may unless they are parallel to the direction
be applied for decorative of panel motion. Areas depressed or
purposes. raised more than 3.2 mm from the
adjacent area and not parallel to the
5.10 Hangers. Hangers shall conform to the direction of panel motion, shall be
following: beveled at not more than 30° to the
panel surface.
a. Means shall be provided to prevent the
hangers from overrunning the end of the 5. Combustible materials not more than
track. 1.6 mm thick or low melting point
noncombustible materials may be

78
 CHAPTER 6- ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS

applied to the panel surface for transmitted to the rails as a result of loading
decorative purposes. and unloading operations.

6. The entrance assembly shaH be capable d. Panels. Panels shall conform to the
of withstanding, a force of 113 kg following:
applied on the landing side at right
angles to and approximately at the 1. The panels shall be constructed of
center of a panel. This force shall be noncombustible material.
distributed over an area of
approximately 102 mm by 102 mm. Exception: A structural core made of
There shall be no appreciable combustible material may be used if
permanent displacement or deformation covered with not less than 0.455
of any parts of the entrance assembly mm sheet metal.
resulting from this test.
(a) The lower panel of vertical
7. If any combustible material or low biparting entrances and the top
melting point material, is used in the of the panel of vertical slide
entrance assembly, should be entrances which slide down to
consumed or should melt, the allowable open, shall be provided with a
movement towards the hoistway of the truckable sill designed for the
panels from their normal operating loads specified in Section
position shall not exceed 16 mm at the 6.3.9.9 (a) (1). Provisions shall
top or at the bottom. be made to transmit the panel
sill to the building structure.
5.12 Entrance, Vertical Slide Type
(b) Panels of biparting
a. Landing Sills. Landing Sills shall: counterbalanced entrances
shall conform to the following:
(a) be of metal and of
sufficient strength to (c) They shall be provided with
support the loads to be means to stop the closing
carried by the sills when panels when the distance
loading and unloading car between the closing rigid
can be secured in place. members of the panel is not
less than 19 mm.
(b) be firmly anchored to the
building structure in (ci) A fire-resistive, non-shearing,
substantially the same and non-crushing member of
place as the elevator either the meting or overlapping
landing floor. type shall be provided on the
upper panel to close the
b. Entrance Frames. The uprights and lintels distance between the rigid door
used to frame the opening shall be securely sections when in contact with
fastened to the building structure at the top the stops.
and bottom and to the wall.
(e) Rigid members which overlap
c. Rails. The panel guide rails shall be the melting edge and center
securely fastened to the building structure latching devices are prohibited.
and the entrance frame, at intervals,
throughout their entire length. (f) The panels with their
attachments shall overlap the
Rails and their supports shall withstand the entrance frame and sill by not
forces specified in Section 6.3.9.1 (d) (6). less than 51 mm in the closed
Where truckable sills are provided as position.
specified in Section 6.3.9.1 (ci) (2), the rails
shall withstand any reactions which may be (g) The clearance between a panel
and the frame lintel, between a

79
 CHAPTER 6- ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS
panel and the sill, and between
related panels of multi-speed
entrances, shall not exceed 25
mm.
(h) The entrance assembly shall be
capable of withstanding a force
of 113 kg applied on the landing
side at right angles to, and
approximately at the center of
the panel. This force shall be
distributed over an area of
approximately 102 mm by 102
mm. There shall be no
appreciable permanent
displacement of deformation of
any parts of the entrance
assembly resulting from this
test.
(i) Means shalt be provided to
close the opening between the
upper panel of pass-type
entrances and the entrance
frame lintel. The sum of the
clearance between the panel,
the device used to close the
opening, and the entrance lintel
shalt not exceed 25 mm. The
device used shall be made of a
material having a melting point
of not less than 982°C.
5.14 Access to Hoistway for Inspection,
Maintenance or Repairs. Access means
conforming to the requirements of Section
6.C.10.1 shall be provided at one upper landing
to permit access to top of car, and at the lowest
landing if this landing is the normal point of
access to the pit.
a. Hoistway Door Unlocking Device.
Elevators having hoistway doors which are
unlocked when closed with car at landing,
shall be provided with hoistway door
unlocking devices or devices confirming to
the requirements of Section 6.C.10.2.
b. Location and Design of Hoistway Door
Unlocking Devices. Hoistway door
unlocking devices shall conform to the
following:
1. The device shall unlock and permit
the opening of the hoistway door
from the access landing irrespective
of the position of the car.
80
2. The device shall be installed only at
the access landings.
Exception: For emergency use see
Sec. 6.C.10.3.
3. The device shall be designed to
prevent unlocking the door with
common tools.
4. The unlocking device keyway shall
be located at a height no greater
than 2 110 mm above floor.
Note: For diagram representation,
see Appendix E.
5.15 Access to Hoistway for Emergency
Purposes. Hoistway door unlocking devices
confirming to Section 6.C.10.2 (a) and (c) may
be provided for all hoistway doors subject to the
following:
a. The elevator shall have hoistway doors
which are unlocked when closed with the
car at the floor or locked but can be opened
from the landing by means effective only
when car is in the landing zone.
1. The operating means for unlocking
the doors shall be kept on the
premises by the person responsible
for the maintenance and operation
of the elevators in a location readily
accessible to qualified persons in
case of an emergency but where
they are not accessible to the
general public.
Exception: Sec. 6.C.10.3 (b):
Emergency hoistway doors which
shall be provided with unlocking
devices confirming the requirements
of the Section 6.C.9.
Note: (Sec. 6.C.10.3): For diagram
representation, see Appendix E.
Section 6.0 Machinery and Equipment for
Electric Elevators
6.1 Car and Counterweight Guide Rails, Guide
Rail Supports and Fastenings.
CHAPTER 6- ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS

a. Guide Rails Required. Passenger and

freight elevators shall be provided with car
and counterweight guide rails.
b. Material. Guide rails, guide-rail brackets, rail
clips, fish plates, and their fastenings shall
be of steel or other metals conforming to the
requirements of this section.
Exception: Where steel may present an
accident hazard, as in chemical or explosive
plants, guide rails may be of selected wood
or other suitable non metallic materials
provided the rated speed of the car does not
exceed 0.76 meter per second.
1. Requirements for Steel, Where
Used:
(a) Rails, brackets, fish plates, and
rail clips shall be made of open-
hearth steel or its equivalent
having a tensile strength of not
less than 379 MPa and having
an elongation of not less than
22% in a length of 51 mm.
(b) Bolts shall conform to
ANSI/ASTM A307, or
equivalent.
(c) Rivets shall conform to
ANSI/ASTM A502, or
equivalent.
2. Requirements for Metals other
than Steel. Metals other than steel
may be used provided the factor of
safety is not less than, and the
deflections are not more than, the
values specified in this Section, and
provided that the cast iron is not
used.
c. Rail Section. Guide rails shall be T-section,
conforming to the nominal weights and
dimensions shown in Fig. 6.D.1.3 and Table
6.D.1.3.
Exception: Other approved shapes may be
2. They shall have a sectional area
sufficient to withstand the
compressive forces resulting from
the application of the car or
counterweight safety device.
d. Maximum Load on Rails in Relation to
the Bracket Spacing
1. With Single Car or Counterweight
Safety. Where a single car or
counterweight safety is used, the
maximum suspended weight of the
counterweight, including the weight
of any compensating ropes or
chains and of any traveling cables
suspended therefrom, per pair of
guide rails, shall not exceed the
maximum specified in Fig. 6.D.1.4
(a) (1) for the size of the rail and the
bracket spacing used.
Exceptions: The bracket spacing
may exceed the values specified in
Fig. 6.D.1.4 (a) (1) for a given
weight of car plus its rated load or
for a counterweight with safety, per
pair of guide rails, provided:
(a) the guide rail is reinforced; or
(b) rail of larger size is used;
in Sec. 6.D.1.4, exceptions (1) and
(2) above, the moment of inertia of a
single reinforced rail or of a single
larger size T-section about the axis
(x-x) parallel to the base of the rail
shall not be less than that required
by Fig. 6.D.1.4 (a) (2) for the given
weight of car plus load, or the
counterweight with safety device, at
the bracket spacing used.
Table 6.D.1.3
Guide Rail Dimension
Nominal Nominal Dimensions, in.
Weight A B C D E
Kg/rn -

used subject to the following requirements: 11.91 61.91 88.90 15.88 31.75 7.94
16.37 88.90 114.3 15.88 38.10 7.94
1. They shall have a section modulus 17.86 88.90 127.0 15.88 44.45 7.94
and moment of inertia equal to or 22.32 88.90 127.0 15.88 50.01 12.70
greater than that of the section 27.53 107.95 139.7 19.05 50.01 12.7
shown in Fig. 6.D.1.3 for a given 33.48 101.60 139.7 28.58 50.80 14.29
loading condition. 44.65 127.00 139.7 38.10 57.15 17.46

81
 CHAPTER 6- ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS

2. With Two (Duplex) Car or 6.2.1 Rail Joints and Fish plates
Counterweight Safeties. Where
the car or counterweight is provided a. Type and Strength of Rail Joints. Metal
with two safety devices, the loads guide rail sections shall be joined together
specified in Fig. 6.D.1.4 (a) (1) may as specified in 6.D.1.4 (b).
be increased by the factors
specified in Table 6.D.1.4 (b). b. Design and Construction of Rail Joints.
The joints of metal guide rails shall conform
3. Counterweight With No Safety. to the following requirements:
Guide rails for counterweights not
provided with a safety device shall Table 6.D.1.4 (b)
be fastened to the building structure Load Multiplying Factor for Duplex Safeties
at intervals not more than 4 880
mm, and the weight of the Vertical Distance bet. Multiply Load in
counterweight for each size of guide Safeties, Fig. 6.4.1.4 (a) (1) by
rail shall not exceed that specified in 18 or more ft. 2.00
Table 6.D.1.4 (c)(1). 15ft 1.83
12ft 1.67
Intermediate tie brackets, 9ft 1.50
approximately equally spaced, shall
be provided between the guide rails Table 6.D.1.4 (c) (I)
at intervals as specified in Table Guide Rails for Counterweight Without Safeties
6.D.1.4 (c) (2).
Max. Bracket
Intermediate tie brackets are not Weight of Nominal Weight
Spacing without
required to be fastened to the Counterweight, Of guide rail,
Reinforcement,
building structure. kg kg/rn rn
6,804.0 11.91 4.88
Exception: The bracket spacing 12,247.2 16.37 4.88
specified may be increased by an 17.86 4.88
13,154.4
amount determined by Figs. 6.D.1.4
18,144.0 22.32 4.88
(a) (1) and 6.D.1.4 (a) (2), subject to
25,401.6 27.53 4.88
the following requirements:
36,288.0 33.48 4.88
(a) Where guide rails are reinforced
or a larger rail section is used
having a moment of inertia Table 6.0.1.4 (c) (2)
about an axis parallel to the Intermediate Tie Brackets
base [axis x-x Fig. 6.D.1.4 (a)
(2)], at least equal to that of the Nominal Distance Bet. No. of Intermediate
rail sections shown in Table Fastening to Building Tie Brackets
6.D.1.3, based on the weight of Structure, cm
the counterweight; and 0to366 0
366 to 427 1
(b) Where intermediate tie 427 to 488 2
brackets, approximately equally
spaced, are provided between NOTE:
the guide rails at intervals of not m = ftx0.305
over 2 130 mm. kg = lbxO.454
kg/rn = Ib/ftxl.49
6.2 Brackets, Fastenings, and Supports. The
guide rail brackets, their fastenings and 1. The ends of the rails shall be
supports, such as building beams and walls, accurately machined with a tongue
shall be capable of resisting the horizontal and matching groove centrally
forces imposed by the class of loading with a located in the web.
total deflection at the point of support not in
excess of 3 200 mm.

82
 CHAPTER 6- ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS

2. The backs of the rail flanges shall Table 6.4.1.9

be accurately machined, in relation Minimum Size of Rail-Fastening Bolts
to the rail guiding surfaces, to a
uniform distance front to back of the Nominal Weight kg/m Mm. Diameter of Bolts, mm
rails to form a flat surface for the 11.91 12.70
fish plates. 16.37 15.88
17.86 15.88
3. The ends of each rail shall be bolted 22.32 15.88
to the fishplates with not fewer than
27.53 19.05
four bolts.
-

33.48 19.05
44.65 19.05
Table 6.D.1.6 (b)
Minimum Thickness of Fish plates, and
Minimum Diameter of Fastening Bolts d.. Type of Fastening. Guide rail shall be
secured to their brackets by clips, welds or
Nominal Weight bolts.
Mm. Thickness Mm. Diameter of
kg/m of Fish Plates, Bolts, mm
Bolts used for fastening shall be such
mm
strength as to withstand the forces specified
11.91 14.29 12.70 in Section 6.D.1.5.
16.37 17.46 15.88
17.86 7.46 15.88 Size of Bolts for Fastenings. The size of
e.
22.32 17.46 15.88 bolts used for fastening the guide rails or rail
27.53 20.64 19.05 clips to the brackets shall be not less than
33.48 — 20.64 19.05 specified in Table 6.D.1.9.
44.65 20.64 19.05
f. Bolt Holes for Fastening. The diameter of
4. The width of the fishplates shall be holes or the width of slots for fastening bolts
not less than the width of the back shall not exceed the diameter of the bolt by
of the rail. more than 1.6 mm.

5. The thickness of the fishplates and
the diameter of the bolts for each
size of guide rail shall not be less
than specified in Table 6.D.1.4 (b).
6. The diameter of bolt holes shall not
exceed the diameter of the bolts by
more than 1.6 mm for guide rails nor
3 200 mm for fishplates.
Exception: Joints of different design and
construction may be used subject to the
approval of the enforcing authority,
provided they are equivalent in strength
and will adequately maintain the
accuracy of the rail alignment.
c. Bracket Fastenings. Guide-rail brackets
shall be secured to their supporting structure
by means of bolts, rivets, or by welding.
Fastening bolts and bolt holes in brackets
and their supporting beams shall conform to
the requirements of Sections 6.D.1.8 to
6.D.1.10.
6.2.2 Car and Counterweight Buffers
a. Spring, Oil, or Equivalent Buffers. Buffers
of the spring, oil, or equivalent type shall be
installed under cars and counterweights of
passenger and freight elevators.
Spring buffers or their equivalent may be
used where the rated speed is not in excess
of 1.02 m/s.
Exception: Where type C safeties are used
(see Sec. 6.D.6.7 (a), car buffers are not
required provided solid bumpers are
installed.
b. Location. Buffers or bumpers shall be
located so as to retard the car and
counterweight without exceeding allowable
design stresses in the car frame and
counterweight frame.
c. Construction and Requirements for Solid
Bumpers. Solid bumpers used with Type C
safeties shall be made of wood or other
suitably resilient material of sufficient
strength to withstand without failure and

83
 CHAPTER 6- ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS

impact of the car with rated load, or the 1. Retardation. Oil buffers shall
counterweight, descending at governor develop an average retardation not
tripping speed. 2 and shall
in excess of 9.81 rn/s
develop no peak retardation greater
The material used shall be of a type which 2 having a duration
than 24.54 m/s
will resist deterioration or be so treated as to exceeding 1/25 sec with any load in
resist deterioration. the car from rated load to a
minimum load of 68 kg when the
d. Construction and Requirements for buffers are struck with an initial
Spring Buffers. speed.

1. Stroke. The stroke of the buffer 2. Factor of Safety for Oil-Buffer

spring, as marked on its marking Parts. The factor of safety of parts
plate, shall be equal to or greater of oil buffers, based on the yield
than as specified in Table 6.D.2.4 point for compression members and
(a). on the ultimate strength and
elongation for other parts, at gravity
2. Marking Plate. Each spring buffer retardation with the maximum load
shall have permanently attached to for which the buffer is designed,
it a metal plate marked in legible shall be not less than the following:
and permanent manner to show its
stroke and load rating. (a) 3 for materials having an
elongation of 20% or more in a
Table 6.0.2.4 (a) length of 51 mm.
Minimum Spring Buffer Stroke
(b) 3 1/2 for materials having an
Rated Car Speed Minimum Stroke elongation of from 15 to 20% in
cm/s mm alength of 51 mm.
0.50 or less 38.1
63.5 (c) 4 for materials having an
0.51 to 0.75
101.6 elongation of from 10 to 15% in
0.76 to 1.20
alength of 51 mm.
Table 6.4.2.5
(d) 5 for materials having an
Minimum Oil Buffer Strokes
elongation of less than 10% in a
*Minimum length of 51 mm except that
155% of cast iron shall have a factor of
Rated Speed Rated Speed Stroke
safety of 10.
rn/s m/s mm
1.02 1.17 69.85
3. Means for Determining Oil Level.
1.14 1.31 88.90 Oil buffers shall be provided with
1.27 1.46 107.95 means for determining that the oil
1.52 1.75 158.75 level is within the maximum and
1.78 2.04 209.55 minimum allowable limits. Glass
2.03 2.34 279.40 sight gages shall not be used.
2.29 2.64 349.25
2.54 2.92 431.80 4. Approval of Oil Buffers. Oil buffers
3.05 3.51 628.65 shall be approved by the enforcing
3.56 4.09 857.25 authority subject to the following:
4.06 4.67 1098.55
4.57 - 5.26 1409.70 (a) The buffer shall be approved on
5.08 5.84 1739.90 the basis of the engineering
tests; made by a qualified
e. Construction and Requirements for Oil testing laboratory or by the
Buffers: manufacturer and witnessed by
a representative of such
qualified testing laboratory.

84
CHAPTER 6- ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS

Tests shaH be made on a buffer (1) For car oil buffers, the total
of each type or design to be weight of the car as marked
approved and having the on the car crosshead data
following oil porting: plate plus 68 kg.

(b) The porting having the range of (2) For counterweight oil
maximum loads for which the buffers, the weight of the
buffer is designed. counterweight used.

(c) The porting having the range of (b) The maximum load rating shall
minimum loads for which the be not less than:
buffer is designed.
(1) For car oil buffers, the total
The firm or person installing the weight of the car as marked
buffer shall submit to the on the cross head data
enforcing authority an authentic plate plus the rated load;
copy of the test certificate.
(2) For counterweight oil
5. Upon receipt of an authentic copy of buffers, the weight of the
the test certificate stating that the counterweight used.
buffer tested has met the specified
test requirements, the enforcing 7. Buffer Marking Plate. Every
authority shall approve the use of installed oil buffer shall have
such buffers. Oil buffers tested in permanently attached thereto a
accordance with the test metal plate, marked by the
requirements of prior editions of this manufacturer in a legible and
Code shall be acceptable without permanent manner, indicating:
being re-tested, on submittal by the
person or firm installing the buffers (a) the maximum and minimum
of the test certificate stating that the loads and the maximum striking
buffer, when tested, met the speeds for which the buffer may
specified test requirements of that be used in conformity with this
edition of the Code. The approval section;
shall include buffers of the same
type or design having a greater or (b) the permissible range in
shorter stroke, up to a maximum of viscosity of the buffer oil to be
2 130 mm and having oil porting for used, stated in Saybolt Seconds
any load range within the maximum Universal at 37.8°C;
and minimum loads for which the
buffer has been tested, provided (c) the viscosity index number of
that the installer certifies on the the oil to be used;
plans and specifications filed with
the enforcing authority that the (d) the pour point in degrees
buffer as installed will conform to Centigrade of the oil to be used.
the requirements of Section 6.D.2.5
(a). 6.2.3 Counterweights

6. Load Ratings of Oil Buffers. The a. General Requirements of

minimum and maximum load ratings
of car and counterweight oil buffers,
as indicated on the buffer marking
plate, shall conform to the following:
(a) The minimum load rating shall
be not greater than:
Counterweights.
1. Frames. Weight sections of a
counterweight shall be mounted in
structural or formed metal frames so
designed as to retain them securely
in place [See Sec. 6.D.3.2 (e)].

85
 CHAPTER 6 - ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS
2. Tie Rods. At least two tie rods shall
be provided which shall pass
through all weight sections. Tie rods
shall be provided with lock nut and
cotter pins at each end.
Exception: Tie rods are not required
where other means are provided to
retain weight sections in place if
they become broken.
3. Guiding Members. Counterweight
frames shall be guided on each
guide rail by upper and lower
guiding members attached to the
frame.
6.2.4 Design Requirements for Frames and
Rods.
a. Material. Frames and rods shall be made of
steel or other metals, provided that where
steels of greater strength than those
specified, or where metals other than steel
are used, the factor of safety used in the
design shall conform to the requirements of
Section 6.D.3.2 (c).
b. Factor of Safety. The frame members and
their connections shall be designed with a
factor of safety of not less than 5 with the
elevator at rest and the counter-weight at
the top of its travel.
c. Sheaves. Where a hoisting sheave or
sheaves are mounted in the frame, the
requirements of Sec. 6.D.4.9 shall apply
(see also Sec. 6.D.9.2 and 6.D.9.3 for
requirements for sheaves).
d. Suspension-Rope Hitch or Shapes.
Where counterweights are suspended by
ropes attached directly to the frames by
means of rope fastenings, the rope
attachments shall conform to Section
6.D.4. 10.
e. Securing of Weights in Fames. Filler
weight of counterweight shall be made of
cast iron in a slab form where it should be
tied rigidly to the frame by tie-rods.
f. Compensating Chain or Rope
Fastenings. Compensating chains or ropes
shall be fastened to the counterweight frame
directly or to a bracket fastened to the frame
and shall not be fastened to the tie rods.
86
When compensating ropes are used with a
tension sheave, one end of each rope shall
be provided with a shackle rod, or other
means which provide for individual
adjustment or rope length.
6.2.4 Car Frames and Platforms
a. Car Frames Required. Every elevator shall
have a car frame (see Section 6.B
definitions).
b. Guiding Members. Car frames shall be
guided on each guide rail by upper and
lower guiding members attached to the
frame.
c. Design of Car Frames and Guiding
Members. The frame and its guiding
members shall be designed to withstand the
forces resulting under the loading conditions
for which the elevator is designed and
installed (see Section 6.D.8).
d. Underslung or Sub-Post Frames. The
vertical distance between the center lines of
the top and bottom guide shoes of an
elevator car having a sub-post car frame or
having an underslung car frame located
entirely below the car platform, shall be not
less than 40% of the distance between
guide rails.
e. Car Platforms. Every elevator car shall
have a platform consisting of a non
perforated floor attached to a platform frame
supported by the car frame, and extending
over the entire area within the car enclosure.
The platform frame members and the floor
shall be designed to withstand the forces
developed under the loading conditions for
which the elevator is designed and installed.
Exception: Laminated platforms may be used for
passenger elevators having a rated load of 2270
kg or less. The deflection at any point of a
laminated platform when uniformly loaded to
rated capacity, shall not exceed 1/960 of the
span. The stresses in the steel facing shall not
exceed 1/5 of its ultimate strength and the
stresses in the plywood core shall not exceed
60% of the allowable stresses in Section 3.14 of
the American Plywood Association Plywood
Design Specification. Platform frames are not
required where laminated platforms are
provided.
CHAPTER 6- ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS
f. Materials for Car Frames and Platform
Frames. Materials used in the construction
of car frames and platforms shall conform to
the following:
1. Car frames and outside members of
platform frames shall be made of
steel or other metals.
2. Platform stringers of freight
elevators designed for Class B or C
loading shall be of steel or other
metals.
3. Platform stringers of passenger
elevators and of freight elevators
designed for Class A loading shall
be made of steel or other metals, or
of wood.
g. Cast iron shall not be used for any part
subject to tension, torsion or bending.
1. Guiding supports
2. Guide shoes
3. Compensating rope anchorages
h. Protection of Platforms Against Fire. The
underside of wood platforms, the exposed
surfaces of wood platform stringers, and
edges of laminated platforms shall be
protected against fire by one of the following
methods:
1. Covering with sheet steel of at least
0.4166mm thickness or with equally
fire-retardant material.
2. Painting with an approved fire-
retardant paint having a flame
spread rating of not over 50, applied
in accordance with the instructions
of the manufacturer. Such ratings
shall be based on the test
procedure specified in ANS l/ASTM
E84.
Platform Guards (Aprons). The entrance
side of the platform of passenger and freight
elevators equipped with leveling devices or
truck-zoning devices shall be provided with
smooth metal guard plates of not less than
1.519 mm thick steel, or material of
equivalent strength and stiffness,
87
adequately reinforced and braced to the car
platform and conforming to the following:
1. It shall extend not less than the full
width of the widest hoistway-door
opening.
2. It shall have a straight vertical face,
extending below the floor surface of
the platform, of not less than the
depth of the leveling or truck zone,
plus 76 mm.
3. The lower portion of the guard shall
be bent back at an angle of not less
than 60° nor more than 75° from the
horizontal.
4. The guard plate shall be securely
braced and fastened in place to
withstand a constant force of not
less than 68 kg applied at right
angles to and at any position on its
face without deflecting more than
6.3 mm, and without permanent
deformation.
Where the car entrance on the
truck-loading side is provided with a
collapsible-type gate and the height
of the hoistway door opening is
greater than the distance from the
car floor to the car top, a head
guard extending the full width of the
door opening shall be provided on
the car to close the space between
the car top and the soffit of the
hoistway-door opening when the car
platform is level with the floor at the
truck-loading landing entrance.
Car Frames with Crosshead Sheaves.
Where a hoisting-rope sheave is mounted
on the car frame, the construction shall
conform to the following:
1. Where multiple sheaves mounted
on separate sheave shafts are
used, provision shall be made to
take the compressive forces,
developed by tension in the hoisting
ropes between the sheaves, on a
strut or struts between the sheave
shaft supports, or by providing
additional compressive strength in
CHAPTER 6- ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS
the car frame or car-frame members
supporting the sheave shafts.
2. Where the sheave shaft extends
through the web of a car-frame
member, the reduction in area of the
member shall not reduce the
strength of the member below that
required. Where necessary,
reinforcing plates shall be welded or
riveted to the members to provide
the required strength.
3. Where the sheave is attached to the
car crosshead by means of a single
threaded rod or specially designed
member or members in tension, the
following requirements shall be
conformed to:
(a) The single rod, member or
members shall have a factor of
safety 50% higher than the
factor of safety required for the
suspension wire ropes, but in no
case shall have a factor of
safety of less than 15.
(b) The means for fastening the
single threaded rod, member or
members to the car frame shall
conform to Section 6.D.4.10.
k. Suspension-Rope Hitch Plates or
Shapes. Where car are suspended by
hoisting ropes attached to the car frame by
means of rope shackles, the shackles shall
be attached to steel hitch plates or to
structural or formed steel shapes. Such
plates or shapes shall be secured to the
underside or to the webs of the car-frame
member with bolts, rivets or welds so
located that the tensions in the hoisting
ropes will not develop direct tension in the
bolts or rivets.
Platform Side Braces. Where side bracing
and similar members are attached to car
frame uprights the reduction in area of the
upright shall not reduce the strength of the
upright below that required by this Section.
m. Hinged Platform Sills. Hinged platform sills
shall conform to the following requirements:
1. They shall be provided with electric
contacts which will prevent
88
operation of the elevator by the
normal operating device unless the
hinged sill is within 51 mm of its fully
retracted position, provided that
when in this position, the sill shall
not reduce the clearance specified
in Section 6.C.8.4.
2. The elevator may be operated by
the leveling device in the leveling
zone with the sill in any position.
3. The strength of the sills shall
conform to the requirements of
Section 6.C.9.6.
6.2.6 Car Enclosures, Car Doors and Gates, and
Car Illumination
a. Enclosure Required. Elevators shall be
equipped with a car enclosure.
b. Securing of Enclosures. The enclosure
shall be securely fastened to the car
platform and so supported that it cannot
loosen or become displaced in ordinary
service or on the application of the car
safety or on buffer engagement.
The car enclosure shall be so constructed
that removable portions cannot be
dismantled from within the car.
c. Deflection of Enclosure Walls. The
enclosure walls shall be of such strength
and so designed and supported that when
subjected to a force of 35 kg applied
horizontally at any point on the walls of the
enclosure, the deflection will not reduce the
running clearance below the minimum
specified in Sec. 6.3.8, or not to exceed 25
mm.
1. The elevator shall be used
exclusively for passengers or
exclusively for freight at any one
time.
2. Each compartment shall conform to
the requirements of this Section that
a trap door in the floor of the upper
compartment shall provide access
to the top emergency exit for the
lower compartment.
d. Top Emergency Exits. An emergency exit
with a cover shall be provided in the top of
 CHAPTER 6- ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS

all elevator cars and shall conform to the passengers in case the glass panels
following requirements: break or are dislodged.

1. The exit opening shall have an area 4. Be so mounted in the structure, that
of not less than 0.258 m
, and shall
2 the structure including the glass in
measure not less than 406 mm on place shall withstand the required
any side. elevator tests without damage.

2. The exit shall be so located as to c. Equipment Prohibited Inside Cars.

provide a clear passageway Apparatus or equipment other than that
unobstructed by fixed elevator used in connection with the operation of the
equipment located in or on top of elevator, shall not be installed inside any
the car. elevator car.

3. The exit cover shall open outward Exceptions:

and shall be hinged or otherwise
attached to the car top and so 1. Railroad and conveyor tracks in
arranged that the cover can be freight elevators
opened from the top of the car only.
2. Lighting, heating, ventilating, and
4. The emergency exit cover, when air-conditioning equipment [see
opened, shall automatically actuate Sec. 6.C.3.1 (a)].
a switch to turn-off the power so that
the elevator shall be non-operable 6.2.8 Illumination of Cars and Lighting
even with the restoration of power. Fixtures.

Exception: [Sec. 6.D.5.4 (c)]: The a. Illumination and Outlets Required. Cars
exit cover of a lower deck of a multi- shall be provided with an electric light or
deck elevator can be opened from lights conforming to the following:
either compartment.
1. Not less than two lamps shall be
6.2.7 Car-Enclosure Tops. Tops of car enclosures provided.
shall be so designed and installed as to be
capable of sustaining a load of 136 kg on any 2. The minimum illumination at the car
square area 610 mm on a side and45 kg threshold, with the door closed,
applied at any point. Simultaneous application shall not be less than:
of these loads is not required.
(a) For passenger elevators: 54 lux
a. Equipment Prohibited on Top of Cars. A
working plafform or equipment which is not (b) For freight elevators: 27 lux
required for the operation of the elevator or
its appliances, except where specifically 3. Passenger elevators shall be
provided herein, shall not be located above provided with an emergency lighting
the top of an elevator car. power source on each elevator
conforming to the following:
b. Glass in Elevator Cars. Glass may be used
in elevator cars. Glass exceeding 0.093 m
2 (a) The emergency system shall
in area shall: provide some general
illumination in the car. The
1. Be laminated; intensity of illumination 1220
mm above the car floor and
2. Meet the requirements for laminated approximately 305 mm in front
glass of ANSI Z97.1 except as to of the car operating device shall
transparency; be not less than 22 lux. Lights
shall be automatically turned on
3. Be installed and guarded so as to in all elevators in service
provide adequate protection for immediately after normal car

89
 CHAPTER 6- ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS
lighting power fails. The power
system shall be capable of
maintaining the above light
intensity for a period of at least
4 hours.
(b) Not less than two lamps of
approximately equal wattage
shall be used.
4. Each elevator shall be provided with
an electric light and convenience
outlet fixture on the car top.
b. Passenger-Car Lighting Devices. Glass
used for lighting fixtures shall conform to the
requirements of Section 6.D.5.7.
Suspended glass used in lighting fixtures
shall be supported by a metal frame secured
at not less than three points. Fastening
devices shall not be removable from the
fixture. Glass shall not be drilled for
attachment. Light through supporting wiring
raceways and other auxiliary lighting
equipment, where used, shall be of metal
except where lined with non combustible
materials.
Lighting arrangements using slow-burning
combustible materials for diffusing and
illumination purposes shall be permitted
providing such combustible materials do not
come in contact with lighting equipment.
c. Protection of Light Bulbs and Tubes.
Light bulbs and tubes shall be:
1. Installed and guarded so as to
provide adequate protection incase
the bulb or tube in the structure,
shall withstand the required elevator
tests without damage.
2. So mounted in the structure, that
the structure including the bulb or
tube in the structure, shall withstand
the required elevator tests without
damage.
6.2.9 Car and Counterweight Safeties.
a. The car of every elevator suspended by wire
ropes shall be provided with one or more car
safety devices of one of the types identified
in Sec. 6.4.6.4. The safeties shall be
attached to the car frame, and one safety
90
shall be located within or below the lower
members of the car frame (safety plank).
All car safeties shall be mounted on a single
car frame and shall operate only on one pair
of guide rails between which the frame is
located.
b. Duplex Safeties. Where duplex (two)
safeties are provided, the lower safety
device shall be capable of developing not
less than one-half of the force required to
stop the entire car with rated load (see Sec.
6.4.8.8). Duplex safety devices shall be
arranged so as to function approximately
simultaneously. Type A or Type C safety
devices (see Sec. 6.4.6.4) shall not be used
in multiple (duplex).
c. Counterweight Safeties. Counterweight
safeties shall conform to the requirements
for car safeties.
Exceptions:
1. Where otherwise specified in Sec.
6.4.6.
2. For rated speeds of not over 0.76
m/s, counterweight safeties may be
operated as a result of the breaking
or slackening of the suspension
ropes and may be of the inertia or
other approved types without
governors (see Sec. 6.4.6.6 and
6.4.7).
3. A switch operated by the safety
mechanism is not required for
counterweight safeties (se Sec.
6.D.6.6).
d. Identification and Classification of Types
of Safeties. Car safety devices (safeties)
are identified and classified on the basis of
perlormance characteristics after the safety
begins to apply pressure on the guide rails.
On this basis, there are three types of
safeties:
1. Type A Safeties. Safeties which
develop a rapidly increasing
pressure on the guide rails during
the stopping interval, the stopping
distance being very short due to the
inherent design of the safety. The
operating force is derived entirely
CHAPTER 6- ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALAT.ORS AND MOVING WALKS
from the mass and the motion of the
car or the counterweight being
stopped. These safeties apply
pressure on the guide rails through
eccentrics, rollers or similar devices,
without any flexible medium
purposely introduced to limit the
retarding force and increase the
stopping distance.
2. Type B Safeties. Safeties which
apply limited pressure on the guide
rails during the stopping interval,
and which provide stopping
distances that are related to the
mass being stopped and the speed
at which application of the safety is
initiated. Retarding; forces are
reasonably uniform after the safety
is fully applied. Continuous tension
in the governor rope may or may not
be required to operate the safety
during the entire stopping interval.
3. Type C Safeties (type A with Oil
Buffers). Safeties which develop
retarding forces during the
compression stroke of one or more
oil buffers interposed between the
lower members of the car frame and
a 9overnor-operated type A auxiliary
safety plank applied on the guide
rails. The stopping distance is
equal to the effective stroke of the
buffers.
e. Safeties to Stop Ascending Cars or
Counterweight Prohibited. Safeties shall
not stop an ascending car or counterweight.
f. Governor-Actuated Safeties and Car-
Safety Mechanism Switches Required.
1. Car safeties, and counterweight
safeties, where provided, shall be
actuated by separate speed
governors.
Exception: Speed governor are not
required for the operation of
counterweight safeties of elevators
having a rated speed of not more
than 0.76 m/s.
2. Every car safety shall be provided
with a switch, operated by the car
safety mechanism. This switch
91
shall conform to the requirements of
Section 6.D.7.5.
g. Type A (Instantaneous) Safeties. Type A
safeties may be used on elevators having a
rated speed of not more than 0.76 m/s.
When over-speeding occurs, with the
hoisting rope intact, such safeties shall be
actuated by the governor.
On the parting of the hoisting ropes (free
fall), type A governor operated safeties shall
apply without appreciable delay, and their
application shall be independent of the
speed action of the governor and of the
location of the break in the hoisting ropes
(inertia application), and may be
accomplished by the use of a governor and
governor rigging having a sufficiently high
value of inertia to apply the safety on free
fall independently of the speed action of the
governor.
1. Type C (Combination
Instantaneous and Oil Buffer
Safety). Type C safeties may be
used subject to the following
requirements:
(a) The rated speed shall be not
more than 2.54 m/s.
(b) The oil buffers shall conform to
aB requirements specified in
Section 6.D.2 for oil buffers,
except that the stroke shall be
based on governor tripping
speed and on an average
retardation not exceeding 9.81
.
2
rn/s
(c) After the buffer stroke, as
defined in Sec. 6.D.6.7 (2) has
been completed, provision shall
be made for an additional travel
of the plunger or piston of not
less thanl0% of the buffer
stroke to prevent excessive
impact on the buffer parts and
the auxiliary safety plank.
(d) Where the distance between
guide rails exceeds 2 440 mm,
the safety shall be provided with
two oil buffers of substantially
identical calibration, and the
buffers shall be so located as to
 CHAPTER 6- ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS
develop minimum stresses in
the auxiliary safety plant during
safety operation.
Buffers shall be located in line
with and symmetrically between
the guide rails.
(e) The auxiliary safety plank shall
be so supported and guided
below the car frame that the
clearances for the safety parts
are maintained during normal
operation.
The auxiliary safety plank shall
be so designed that the
maximum stresses in the plant
shall not exceed those specified
for similar car-frame members
in Section 6.D.4.
(f) The rail-gripping device of the
auxiliary safety plank shall be so
arranged and connected as to
prevent the plank from being out
of level more than 13 mm in the
length of the plank when the
safety is operated to stop the
car.
(g) An electric switch shall be
provided and so arranged and
connected that the elevator
cannot be operated by means of
the normal operating device if
any buffer is compressed more
than 10% of its stroke.
(h) Means shall be provided to
prevent operation of the
elevator by means of the normal
operating device if the oil level
in any buffer is below the
minimum allowable Idvel.
h. Compensating Rope Tie-Down.
For rated speeds greater than 3.56
m/s, a device shall be provided to
tie the car and counterweight
together to limit the jump of the car
counterweight as a result of buffer
engagement or application of car or
counterweight safety.
6.2.10 Inspection and Tests
92
a. Routine The examination and operation of
—
equipment at specified intervals by an
inspector to check for compliance with the
applicable Code Requirements.
b. Periodic Routine inspection and tests plus
—
additional detailed examination and
operation of equipment at specified intervals
witnessed by an inspector to check for
compliance with the applicable Code
Requirements.
c. Acceptance The initial inspection and test
—
for a new or altered equipment to check for
compliance with the applicable Code
Requirements.
6.2.11 Speed Governors
a. Car Speed Governors
1. Car safeties, and counterweight
safeties where furnished shall be
actuated by separate governors.
Exception: Speed governors are not
required for the operation of safeties
of counterweights of elevators
having a rated speed of not more
than 0.76 m/s (see Sec. 6.D.6.3 and
6.D.6.6).
2. The governor shall be located
where it cannot be struck by the car
or the counterweight in case of over
travel, and where there is adequate
space for full movement of governor
parts.
b. Car Speed Governors. Speed governors
for car safeties shall be set to trip at car
speeds as follows:
1. At not less than 115% of the rated
speed.
2. Maximum tripping speeds for
intermediate rated speeds shall be
determined from Fig. 6.D.7.2. for
rated speeds exceeding 7.62 m/s,
the maximum tripping speeds shall
not exceed 120% of the rated
speed.
c. Counterweight Speed Governors. Speed
governors, where provided for
counterweight safeties, shall be set to trip at
 CHAPTER 6- ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS
an over-speed greater than that at which the
car speed governor is set to trip, but not
more than 10% higher.
d. Sealing and Painting of Speed
Governors. Speed governors shall have
their means of speed adjustment sealed
after test. If speed governors are painted
after sealing, all bearing and rubbing
surfaces shall be kept free or freed of paint
and a hand test made to determine that all
parts operate freely as intended. Seals shall
be of a type which will prevent readjustment
of the governor tripping speed without
breaking the seal.
e. Speed Governor Over-Speed and Car
Safety-Mechanism Switches
1. Where Required. A switch shall be
provided on the speed governor and
operated by the over-speed action
of the governor when used with type
B and C car safeties of elevators
having a rated speed exceeding
0.76 m/s. A switch shall be provided
on the speed governor when used
with a counterweight safety for any
car speed.
For static control, an over-speed
switch shall be provided regardless
of rated speed and shall operate in
both directions of travel.
Every car safety shall be provided
with a switch operated by the car
safety mechanism when the safety
is applied.
These switches when operated shall
remove power from the driving-
machine motor and brake before or
at the time of application of the
safety.
6.2.12 Governor Ropes
a. Material and Factor of Safety. Governor
ropes shall be of iron, steel, monel metal,
phosphor bronze, or stainless steel. They
shall be of regular-lay construction, and not
less than 9.5 mm in dia. Tiller-rope
construction shall not be used. The factor of
safety of governor ropes shall be not less
than 5.
93
b. Replacement of Existing Governor
Ropes. Replacement of governor ropes
shall be of the same size, material and
construction as the rope originally furnished
by the elevator manufacturer, except that a
rope of the same size but of either different
material or construction may be employed
and a test is made of the car Or
counterweight safety and speed governor
with a new rope to demonstrate that the
safety will function.
c. Splicing Governor Ropes. Governor ropes
shall not be lengthened or repaired by
splicing.
d. Governor Rope Tag. A metal data tag shall
be securely attached to the governor rope
fastening. This data tag shall bear the
following wire rope data:
1. The diameter in mm.
2. The manufacturer’s rated breaking
strength.
3. The grade of material used.
4. The month and year the rope was
installed.
5. Whether non-preformed or pre
formed.
6. Construction classification.
7. Name of the person or firm who
installed the rope.
8. Name of the manufacturer of the
rope. A new tag shall be installed at
each rope renewal.
e. Speed Governor Marking Plate. A metal
plate shall be securely attached to each
speed governor and shall be marked in a
legible and permanent manner with letters
and figures not less than 6.3 mm in height
indicating the following:
1. The speed in meter per minute at
which the governor is set and
sealed to trip the governor-rope-grip
jaws.
2. The size, material and construction
of the governor rope on which the
 CHAPTER 6- ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS

governor jaws were designed to where W = max. rated load kgs.

operate.
A = area, m
2
6.2.13 Capacity and Loading
2. For an elevator having an inside net
Exception: platform area of more than 4.65 m
.
2

Hospital Bed Elevators: Wherein the ratio W = 2

2.458A + 611.36A—621.4
between net area and net load shall be not
more than 0.004 square meters per kilogram. Table 6.D.8.1
Maximum* Inside Net Platform Areas
for the Various Rated Loads
6.3 Minimum Rated Load for Passenger Inside Net
Inside Net
Elevators Rated Rated
Platform Platform
Load, kg Load, kg
Area, m
2 Area, m2
a. All concrete or steel building with more than 4.65
226.80 0.65 2268.00
three stories shall be advised to install
272.16 0.77 2721.60 5.36
passenger elevators.
317.52 0.89 3175.20 6.07
b. For determining number of elevators the 453.60 1.23 3628.80 6.77
following shall be used as basis: 544.32 1.45 4082.40 7.48
680.40 1.76 4536.00 8.18
1. There shall be one elevator per 220 816.48 2.05 5443.20 9.57
persons occupying building other 907.20 2.25 6804.00 1 1.62
than first floor. 113.40 2.70 8164.80 13.65
1360.80 3.13 9072.00 14.98
2. 2 of floor area is
By floor area, 9.3 m 11340.00 18.25
1587.60 3.53
average density of occupancy per
1814.40 3.92 13608.00 21.46
person.
2041.20 4.29
3. Floor area divided by 9.3 equal
*
To allow for variations in cab designs, an increase in
number of persons. the maximum inside net platform are not exceeding
5%, shall be permitted for the various rated loads.
4. ‘Number of person divided by 220 is
number of elevators. e. Use of Partitions for Reducing Inside Net
Platform Area. Where partitions are
c. For determining capacities of elevators the installed in elevator cars for the purpose of
following shall be used as basis for elevator restricting the platform net area for
or elevators capacities. This is on the basis passenger use, they shall be permanently
of carrying within 5 minutes the following bolted, riveted or welded in place. Gates,
percentage of building occupants as follows: doors or handrails shall not be used for this
purpose. Partitions shall be so installed as
1. For apartments 8 — 10% to provide for approximately symmetrical
loading.
2. Forofficesl0—13%
f. Carrying of Freight on Passenger
3. For dept. stores 13 — 15% Elevators. When freight is to be carried on
a passenger elevator, the following
d. The following formulas shall be used for requirements shall be conformed to:
determining the maximum rated load of
passenger elevators: 1. The minimum rated load shall
conform to the requirements of
1. For an elevator having an inside net Section 6.4.8.1 or 6.4.8.4 whichever
platform area of not more than 4.65 is greater;
2
m
2. The elevator shall be designed for
W = 35.10 (A)
2 + 326.224 (A) applicable class of freight elevator
loading.

94
CHAPTER 6- ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS

g. Minimum Load Permitted. The minimum (b) “THIS ELEVATOR DESIGNED

rated toad for freight elevators in kilograms FOR MOTOR-VEHICLE
shall be based on the weight and class of LOADING”
the load to be handled.
(c) “THIS ELEVATOR DESIGNED
h. Carrying of Passengers on Freight FOR LOADED INDUSTRIAL
Elevators. Freight elevators shall not be TRUCK WEIGHING KG.
permitted to carry passengers. MAXIMUM”.
Exceptions: (d) “NO SMOKING”
1. Elevators not permitted to carry (e) “TELEPHONE BELOW IN
employees may, in case of fire, panic or CASE OF EMERGENCY”
similar emergencies, carry passengers
not greater in number than the rated (f) “IN CASE OF FIRE, DO NOT
load divided by 150. USE ELEVATOR”
2. Elevators, not accessible to the general (g) “CERTIFICATE TO OPERATE
public, may carry employees, provided ELEVATOR”
special permission to do so is granted
by the enforcing authority, subject to the 2. In elevators not permitted to carry
following conditions: passengers, the sign shall read:
“THIS IS NOT A PASSENGER
(a) The rated load of the elevator shall ELEVATOR, NO PERSONS
be not less than that required for a OTHER THAN THE OPERATOR
passenger of equivalent inside net AND FREIGHT HANDLERS ARE
platform area as required by Section PERMITTED TO RIDE ON THIS
6.4.8.1. ELEVATOR”
(b) Hoistway entrances and car doors 3. In elevators permitted to carry
or gates shall conform to the employees subject to the
requirements of the following rule: requirements of Section 6.4.8.5 the
sign shall read: “NO
(1) Hoistway entrances: Section PASSENGERS EXCEPT
6.3.9. EMPLOYEES PERMITTED.”

Such elevators may carry any j. Carrying of One-Piece Loads Exceeding

class of passengers in case of
fire, panic, or similar
emergencies.
Signs Required. Signs, shall be provided
inside the car and shall be located in a
conspicuous position and permanently and
securely fastened to the car enclosure
subject to the following requirements:
1. In every freight elevator, the sign
shall specify the type of loading for
which the elevator is designed and
installed, with one of the following
markings:
(a) “THIS ELEVATOR DESIGNED
FOR GENERAL FREIGHT
LOADING”
the Rated Load. Passenger and freight
elevators may be used, where necessary, to
carry one-piece loads greater than their
rated load provided they are designed,
installed and operated to conform to the
following requirements:
1. A locking device shall be provided
which will hold the car at any
landing independently of the
hoisting ropes while the car is being
loaded or unloaded.
2. The locking device shall be so
designed that it cannot be unlocked
unless and until the entire weight of
the car and load is suspended on
the ropes.

95
CHAPTER 6- ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS

2400

2300

2200

2100

2000

1900

1800

1700

1600

E 1500
0

1400
0)

> 1300

1200

1100
0)
>
0
0 1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
0

NOTE: Rated Car Speed,fprn

rn/s = fpm x 0.00508

3. A removable wrench or other device landing locks when the car is

shall be provided to operate the operated in the up direction.
locking device.
5. A special capacity plate shall be
4. The locking device shall be so provided inside the elevator car and
designed that the locking bars will located in a conspicuous place
be automatically withdrawn should which shall bear the words,
they come in contact with the “CAPACITY LIFTING ONE-PIECE

96
CHAPTER 6- ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS
LOADS,” in letters followed by
figures giving the special capacity in
kgs for lifting one-piece loads for
which the machine is designed.
6. The car frame, car platform,
sheaves, shafts, ropes and locking
device shall be designed for the
specified “Capacity Lifting One-
Piece Loads,” provided that:
(a) In the design of the car frame,
platform, sheaves, shafts, and
ropes, the allowable stresses
may be 20% higher than those
permitted for normal loading;
(b) The factor of safety for the
locking device shall be not less
than 5.
7. The car safeties shall be designed
to stop and hold the specified
“Capacity Lifting One-Piece Loads,”
with the ropes intact.
8. Where there is an occupied space,
or an unauthorized access under
the hoistway, the following
requirements shall be conformed to:
(a) The machine shall be designed
to operate with the “Capacity
Lifting One-Piece Loads” at
slow speed; the car safety shall
be designed to stop and hold
the car with this load
independently of the hoisting
ropes;
(b) The counterweight safety, shall
be designed to stop and hold
the entire weight of the
counterweight independently of
the ropes.
9. For traction machines, where
necessary to secure adequate
traction, additional counterweight
shall be added during the period of
use with one-piece loads so that the
total over-balance is at least equal
to 45% of the “Capacity Lifting One-
Piece Loads.”
10. A special operating device of the
car-switch or continuous-pressure
type shall be provided in the
97
machine room, located near the
driving machine, to operate the
elevator. When this device is
operative, all other operating
devices shall be inoperative. (see
Sec. 6.D.11.1).
11. The “Capacity Lifting One-Piece
Loads” of any passenger traction
elevator shall not exceed 1 1/3
times the rated load of the elevator.
k. Additional Requirements for Passenger
Overload. Passenger elevators and freight
elevators permitted by Section 6.4.8.5 to
carry employees shall be designed and
installed to safely lower, stop and hold the
car with an additional load up to 25% in
excess of the rated load.
6.3.1 Driving Machines and Sheaves
a. Type of Driving Machines
1. All driving machines shall be of the
traction type.
Exceptions:
(a) Winding-drum machines may be
used for freight elevators subject to
the if:
1. They shall not be provided with
counterweights.
2. The rated speed of elevator
shall not exceed 0.25 m/s.
3. The travel of the elevator car
shall not exceed 12.2 m.
(b) Screw nachines conforming to the
require nents of Section 6.D.9.5.
b. Material and Grooving for Sheaves and
Drums. Sheaves and drums used with
suspension and compensating ropes shall:
1. Be of metal and provided with
finished grooves for ropes. The
grooves of sheaves not used to
transmit power may be lined with
non-metallic material. The grooves
of sheaves used to transmit power
may be lined with non-metallic
material provided that in the event
CHAPTER 6- ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS
the lining should fail, there will be
sufficient traction still available in
the groove to safely stop and hold
the car with 125% of the rated load.
2. Have a pitch diameter of not less
than:
(a) 40 times the diameter of the
rope, where used with
suspension ropes;
(b) 32 times the diameter of the
rope, where used with
compensating ropes.
c. Factor of Safety for Driving Machines
and Sheaves. The factor of safety, based
on the ultimate strength of the material, to
be used in the design of driving machines
and in the design of sheaves used with
suspension and compensating ropes shall
be not less than:
1. 8 for steel, bronze, or for other
metals having an elongation of at
least 14% in a length of 51 mm.
2. 10 for cast iron, or for other metals
having an elongation of less than
14% in a length of5l mm.
The load to be used in determining
the factor of safety shall be the
resultant of the maximum tensions
in the ropes leading from the
sheave or drum with elevator at rest
and with rated load in the car.
d. Driving-Machine Brakes. The elevator
driving machine shall be equipped with a
friction brake applied by a spring, or by
gravity, and released electrically. The brake
shall be designed to have a capacity
sufficient to hold the car at rest with its rated
load [see also Sec. 6.D.8.8.J.
6.3.2
e. Screw Machines. Screw machines shall be
of the uncounterweighted type and shall
conform to the requirements of the section
and to the following:
1. The rated speed shall not exceed
0.25 m/s.
2. A car safety device conforming to
the requirements of Section 6.4.6
98
shall be provided unless other
means are provided to limit the
down speed of the car with rated
load to not over 0.89 m/s if there is
a failure of the driving means.
3. Where belts or chains are used to
connect the motor to the driving
machines the following
requirements shall be conformed to:
(a) Belts shall be of the multiple V
belt type.
(b) Two or more separate chains
shall be provided.
(c) The driving means, whether
belts or chains, shall have a
factor of safety of not less than
10.
(d) The machine brake shall be so
located that failure of the driving
belt or chain will not prevent it
from performing its intended
function.
4. The factor of safety of the screw as
a column shall be not less than 3
based on the total weight supported
with rated load in the car.
5. Means shall be provided to maintain
the screw in its vertical position in
case of excessive over-travel.
6. Screws shall be of steel and nuts
shall be of bronze or other material
having an elongation of at least 14%
inalength of 51 mm.
7. A vertical casing, closed at the
bottom, shall be provided to enclose
and protect the screw below the nut.
Terminal Stopping Devices
a. Additional Requirements for Winding
Drum Machines. Final terminal stopping
devices for winding-drum machines shall
conform to the following:
1. Stopping switches, located on and
operated by the driving machine,
shall not be driven by chains, ropes,
or belts.
 CHAPTER 6- ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS
2. Where a two-or three-phase
alternating-current driving-machine
motor is used, the main-line circuit
to the driving-machine motor and
the circuit of the driving-machine
brake coil shall be directly opened
either by the contacts of the
machine stop switch or by stopping
switches mounted in the hoistway
and operated by a cam attached to
the car. The opening of these
contacts shall occur before or
coincident with the opening of the
final-terminal stopping switch.
Exception: Driving machines
equipped with a direct-current brake
and having a direct-current main
line control switch in the driving-
machine motor circuit controlled by
a final terminal stopping switch
located in the hositway and
operated by a cam attached to the
car.
6.3.3 Operating Devices and Control Equipment
a. Additional Operating Devices for
Elevators Equipped to Carry One-Piece
Loads Greater than the Rated Load.
Elevators equipped to carry one-piece loads
greater than their rated load shall be
provided with an additional operating device
of the continuous-pressure type, located
near the driving machine, to operate the
elevator at a speed not exceeding 0.75 m/s
under such conditions. The normal
operating devices shall be inoperative
during such operation. [See also Sec.
6.D.8.7 (j)].
b. For elevators with static control, an inner
landing zone extending not more than 76
mm above and 76 mm below the landing
shall be provided.
c. Electrical Protective Devices. Electrical
protective devices shall be provided in
accordance with the following:
1. Slack-Rope Switch. Winding-drum
machines shall be provided with a
slack-rope device equipped with a
slack-rope switch of the enclosed
manually reset type which shall
99
cause the electric power to be
removed from the elevator driving
machine motor and brake if the
hoisting ropes become slack.
2. Motor-Generator Running Switch.
Where generator-field control is
used, means shall be provided to
prevent the application of power to
the elevator driving machine motor
and brake unless the motor
generator set connections are
properly switched for the running
condition of the elevator. It is not
required that the electrical
connections between the elevator
driving machine motor and the
generator be opened in order to
remove power from the elevator
motor.
3. Compensating-Rope Sheave
Switch. Compensating-rope
sheaves shall be provided with a
compensating-rope sheave switch
or switches mechanically opened by
the compensating-rope sheave
before the sheave reaches its upper
or lower limit of travel, to cause the
electric power to be removed from
the elevator driving machine motor
and brake.
4. Motor Field Sensing Means.
Where direct current is applied to an
elevator armature and shunt field of
a driving machine motor, a motor-
field current sensing means shall be
provided, which shall cause the
electric power to be removed from
the motor armature and brake
unless current is flowing in the shunt
field of the motor.
Exception: Static control elevators
provided with a device to detect an
over-speed condition prior to, and
independent of, the operation of the
governor over-speed switch. This
device shall cause power to be
removed from the elevator driving
machine motor armature and
machine brake.
5. Emergency Stop Switch. An
emergency stop switch shall be
provided in the car, and located in
CHAPTER 6 - ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS

or adjacent to the car operating speed switch shall be provided

panel. When opened, this switch
shall cause the electric power to be
removed from the elevator driving-
machine motor and brake.
Emergency Stop Switches shall:
when required by Sec. 6.D.7.5 (a).
11. Final Terminal Stopping Devices.
Final terminal stopping devices,
shall be provided for every electric
elevator.

(a) Be of the manually operated 12. Emergency Terminal Speed

and closed type; Limiting Devices. Where reduced
stroke oil buffers are provided,
(b) Have red operating handles or emergency terminal speed limiting
buttons; devices shall be provided.

(c) Be conspicuously and 13. Buffer Switches for Oil Buffers

permanently marked “STOP” used with Type C Car Safeties.
and shall indicate and stop and Oil level and compression switches,
run positions; conforming to the requirements of
Sec. 6.D.6.7 (a) (7) and 6.D.6.7 (a)
(d) Be positively opened (8) shall be provided for all oil
mechanically and their opening buffers used with type C safeties
shall not be solely dependent on [See Sec. 6.D.6.4 (c)].
springs.
14. Hoistway-Door Interlocks or
6. Broken Rope, Tape, or Chain Hoistway-Door Electric Contacts.
Switches Used in Connection Hoistway door interlocks or
with Machine Room Normal- hoistway-door electric contacts,
Terminal Stopping Switches. shall be provided for all elevators.
Broken rope, tape or chain
switches, shall be provided in 15. Car-Door or Gate Electric
connection with normal terminal Contacts. Car-door or gate electric
stopping devices located in machine contacts, shall be provided for all
rooms of traction elevators. Such elevators.
switches shall be opened by a
failure of the rope, tape or chain. 16. Normal Terminal Stopping
Devices. Normal terminal stopping
7. Stop Switch in Pit. A stop switch devices, conforming to the
conforming to the requirements of requirements of Sec. 6.D.3.2 shall
Sec. 6.D.11 (e) shall be provided in be provided for every elevator.
the put of every elevator. (See Sec.
6.C.6.5). 17. Car-Side-Emergency-Exit Door
Contact Switches. A car-door
8. Stop Switch on Top of Car. A stop electric contact, shall be provided
switch conforming to the on the car-side-emergency-exit door
requirements of Sec. 6.D.11.3 (e) of every elevator.
shall be provided on the top of every
elevator car. 18. Motor-Generator Over-Speed
Protection. Means shall be
9. Car-Safety Mechanism Switch. A provided to cause the electric power
switch, conforming to the to be removed automatically from
requirements of Sec. 6.D.6 and the elevator driving-machine motor
6.D.7.5 (a) shall be required where and brake should a motor generator
a car safety is provided. set, driven by a direct current motor,
over-speed excessively.
10. Speed-Governor Over-Speed
Switch. A speed-governor over- 19. Electric Contacts for Hinged Car
Platform Sills. Hinged car platform

100
CHAPTER 6- ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS
sills, where provided, shall be
equipped with electric contacts
conforming to the requirements of
Section 6.D.4.12.
d. Requirements for Electrical Equipment
and Wiring. All electrical equipment and
wiring shall conform to the Philippine
Electrical Code.
e. Control and Operating Circuit
Requirements. The design and installation
of the control and operating circuits shall
conform to the following requirements:
If springs are used to actuate
switches, contactors or relays to
break the circuit to stop and elevator
at the terminal landings, they shall
be of the compression type.
2. The completion or maintenance of
an electric circuit shall not be used
to interrupt the power to the elevator
driving-machine motor or brake at
the terminal landings, not to stop the
car when the emergency stop
switch is opened or any of the
electrical protective devices
operate.
Exception: The requirements do not
apply to dynamic braking, nor to
speed control switches.
3. The failure of any single
magnetically operated switch,
contactor, or relay to release in the
intended manner of the failure of
any static control device to operate
as intended, or the occurrence of a
single accidental ground, shall not
permit the car to start or run if any
hoistway door interlock is unlocked
or if any hoistway door or car door
or gate electric contact is not in the
closed position.
f.
4. Elevators with driving motors
employing static control without
motor generator sets shall conform
to the following requirements:
(a) Two devices shall be provided
to remove power independently
from the driving-machine motor.
At least one device shall be an
electromechanical contactor.
a
101
(b) The contactor shall be arranged
to open each time the car stops.
(c) The contactor shall open the
driving-machine brake circuit.
(d) An additional contactor shall be
provided to also open the
driving-machine brake circuit.
This contactor is not required to
have contacts in the driving-
machine motor circuit.
(e) The electrical protective devices
required by Section 6.4.11.3
shall control the solid state
device and both contactors.
(f) After each elevator stop, the car
shall not respond to a signal to
start unless both contactors are
in the energized position.
5. Where generator-field control is
used, means shall be provided to
prevent the generator from building
up and applying sufficient current to
the elevator driving machine to
move the car when the elevator
motor control switches are in the
“OFF” position. The means used
shall not interfere with maintenance
of an effective dynamic-braking
circuit during stopping and stand
still conditions.
6. The control circuits shall be so
designed and installed that the car
speed in the down direction with
rated load in the car, under normal
operating conditions with the power
supply on or off shall not exceed
governor tripping speed or 125% of
rated speed, whichever is the
lesser. (See Sec. 6.D.8.8).
Load-Weighing Devices on Passenger
Elevators and on Freight Elevators
Permitted to Carry Employees. Load
weighing devices will prevent operation of
the elevator may be installed provided they
function to prevent such operation only
when the load on the elevator platform is in
excess of 125% of minimum rated load as
determined by the requirements of Sec.
6.D.8.1.
 CHAPTER 6- ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS

g. Floating (Movable) Platform. Floating signaling device shall be located

platforms which permit operation of the inside the building and audible
elevator when the car door or gate is not in inside the car and outside the
the closed position are prohibited. hoistway. One signaling device
may be used for a group of
h. Operating Devices Symbols elevators.

1. Where reference is made requiring (b) Means of two-way conversation

wording to designate a specific
function, the following symbols shall
be substituted for, or used in
conjunction with, the required
wording:
between each elevator and
readily accessible point outside
the hoistway. (Telephone,
intercom, etc.) If the audible
signaling device, or the means
of two-way conversation, or
both normally connected to the
building power supply, they
shall automatically transfer to a
source of emergency power
within 10 sec after the normal
power supply fails. The power
source shall be capable of
providing for the operation of
the audible signaling device for
at least 1 hr and the means of

H 0 2.
two-way conversation for at
least 4 hrs.

In buildings in which a building

attendant, building employee, or
watchman is not continuously
available to take action when the
2. Identify the main floor by use of the required emergency signal is
following symbol: operated, the elevators shall be
provided with one of the following
additional emergency signaling
devices:

*
Operation and Signaling
(a) A telephone connected to a
central telephone exchange
system.

(b) A weatherproof audible

6.4.12 Emergency
Device signaling device with a
minimum sound rating of 80
a. Car Emergency Signaling Devices. dB operated from the alarm
Elevators shall be provided with the switch and the emergency
following signaling devices: stop switch inside the car
identified “ELEVATOR
1. In all buildings, the elevator shall be EMERGENCY - CALL
provided with the following: POLICE” in letters not less
than 51 mm high. The device
(a) An audible signaling device, shall be mounted on the
operable from the emergency outside of the building near
stop switch and from a switch the main entrance and located
marked “ALARM” which are so that the sign can be read
located in or adjacent to each from the entrance sidewalk.
car operating panel. The Only one outside signal is

102
 CHAPTER 6 - ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS

required if operable from all shall be provided and the

cars of all elevators of the smoke detectors required by
type specified in the building. Sec. 6.D.12.3 (a) (1) shall be
An emergency power system functional. When the switch is in
shall be provided conforming the “by-pass” position, normal
to the requirements of Section elevator service shall be
6.D.12.1 (a). restored independent of the
smoke detectors required by
(c) Means within the car for Section 6.D.12.3 (a) (1) (b).
communicating with or
signaling to an approved When the switch is in the “on”
emergency service which position:
operates 24 hrs each day.
(1) All cars controlled by this
6.4.12.1 Emergency Power. An elevator may be switch and which are on
powered by an emergency power there is automatic service shall
conformance with the requirements of return non-stop to the
Section 6.D.8.8. designated level and the
doors shall open and
Exception: Where the emergency power remain open.
system is designed to operate only one
elevator at a time, the energy absorption (2) A car traveling away from
means, if required, may be located on the the designated level shall
power side of the elevator power reverse at or before the next
disconnecting means. available floor without
opening its doors.
Other building loads such as power and light
that may be supplied by the emergency (3) A car stopped at a landing
power system shall not be considered as a shall have the in-car
means of absorbing the regenerated energy emergency stop switch
unless such loads are using their normal rendered inoperative as
power from the emergency power system soon as the door is closed,
when it is activated. and the car starts toward
the designated level. A
6.4.12.2 Operation of Elevators Under Fire or moving car, traveling to or
Other Emergency Conditions. All away from the designated
elevators having a travel of 7.62 mm or level, shall have the in-car
more, above or below the designated level, emergency stop switch
shall conform to the requirements of Sec. rendered inoperative
6.D.1 2.3. immediately.

a. Phase I and II Operation. (4) A car standing at a floor

other than the designated
1. Phase I Emergency Recall level, with doors open ad
Operation the in-car emergency stop
switch in the run position,
(a) A three position (on, off and by shall conform to the
pass) key-operated switch shall following:
be provided only at the
designated level for each single a. Elevators having
elevator or for each group of automatic power
elevators. The key shall be operated horizontally
removable only in the “on” and sliding doors shall close
“off” positions. the doors without delay
and proceed to the
When the switch is in the “off” designated level.
position, normal elevator service

103
CHAPTER 6- ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS

b. Elevators having power- at each floor and associated

operated vertically elevator machine rooms in
sliding doors provided accordance with NFPA No. 72 E
with automatic or Automatic Fire Detectors,
momentary pressure Chapter 4. The activation of a
closing operation shall smoke detector in any elevator
have the closing lobby or associated elevator
sequence initiated machine rooms other than the
without delay and the designated level, shall cause all
car shall proceed to the cars in all groups that serve that
designated level. lobby to return non-stop to the
designated level. If the smoke
c. Elevators having power- detector at the designated level
operated doors is activated, the cars shall return
provided with to an alternate level approved
continuous pressure by the enforcing authority
closing operation or unless the Phase I key-operated
elevators having switch [Section 6.D.12.3 (a) (1)
manual doors. (a)] is in the “on” position.
Sequence operation, if Smoke detectors and/or smoke
provided shall remain detector system shall not be
effective. self-resetting. The operation
shall conform to the
(5) Door reopening devices for requirements of Section
power-operated doors 6.D.12.3 (a) (1) (a).
which are sensitive to
smoke or flame shall be Exception: [Sec. 6.D.12.3 (a) (1)
rendered inoperative. (b)J: elevator lobbies at
Mechanically actuated door unenclosed landings.
reopening devices not
sensitive to smoke or flame
shall remain operative. Car 2. Phase II Emergency In-Car
door open buttons shall Operation.
remain operative.
(a) A two-position (off and on) key-
(6) All car and corridor call operated switch shall be
buttons and all corridor door provided in or adjacent to an
opening and closing buttons operating panel in each car, and
shall be rendered it shall become effective only
inoperative and all call when the designated level
registered lights and Phase I key-operated switch
directional lanterns shall be [Sec. 6.D.12.3 (a) (1) (a)] is in
extinguished and remain the “on” position or a smoke
inoperative. Position detector [Sec. 6.D.12.3 (a) (1)
indicators, when provided, (b)J has been activated, and the
shall remain in service. car has returned to the
designated or alternate level.
(7) All cars shall be provided The key shall be removable only
with a visual and audible in the “off’ position. When in
signal system which shall the “on” position, it shall place
be activated to alert the the elevator emergency in-car
passengers that the car is operation.
returning non-stop to the
designated level. 6.4.12.3 Floor Numbers. Elevator hoistways shall
have floor numbers, not less than 102 mm in
(b) Smoke detectors shall be height, placed on the walls and/or doors of
installed in each elevator lobby hoistway at intervals where a person in a

104
 CHAPTER 6- ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS

stalled elevator upon opening the car door, safety shall be based on the actual rope
can determine the floor position. speed corresponding to the rated speed of
the car.
6.4.13 Suspension Rope and their Connections.
f= SXN
6.4.13.1 Suspension Means. Elevator cars shall be w
suspended by steel wire ropes attached to
the car frame passing around sheaves The factor of safety shall be calculated by
attached to the car frame specified in the following formula:
Section 6.4.4.1.
N = number of runs of rope underload
Only iron (low-carbon steel) or steel wire (see Note)
ropes, having the commercial classification
“Elevator Wire Rope”, or wire rope S = manufacturer’s rated breaking
specifically constructed for elevator used for strength of one rope
the suspension of counterweights. The wire
material of ropes shall be manufactured by W = maximum static load imposed on all car
the open-hearth or electric furnace process ropes with the car and its rated load at
or their equivalent. any position in the hoistway

Exception: Elevators with screw machines. Note: In the case of multiple roping, the
number of runs of rope (N) under load
6.4.13.2 On Crosshead Data Plate. The crosshead will be: For 2:1 roping, twice the
data plate shall bear the following wire rope number of ropes used; for 3:1 roping,
data: three times the number of ropes used,
etc.
a. The number of ropes.
6.4.13.9 Minimum Number and Diameter of
b. The diameter in millimeter. Suspension Ropes. The minimum number
of hoisting ropes used shall be three for
c. The manufacturer’s rated breaking strength traction elevators, and two for drum-type
per rope in kilograms. elevators.
6.4.13.3 On Rope Data Tag. A metal data tag shall Where a car counterweight is used, the
be securely attached to one of the wire rope number of counterweight ropes used shall
fastenings. be not less than two.

6.4.13.4 Minimum number of hoisting ropes shall be The term “diameter” where used in this
three (3) for traction elevators and two (2) section shall refer to the nominal diameter
for drum-type elevators. as given by the rope manufacturer.
6.4.13.5 Suspension rope tension equalizers shall be The minimum diameter of hoisting and
provided. counterweight ropes shall be 9.5 mm.
6.4.13.6 Drum type elevators shall have not less than Table 6.4.13.8
one (I) turn of the rope on the drum when Minimum Factors of Safety for Suspension Wire Ropes
the car is resting on the fully compressed
buffers. Rope Speed in Feet per Minimum Factor of Safety
mm. (fpm) Passenger Freight
6.4.13.7 Suspension wire ropes shall not be 50 7.6 6.65
lengthened or repaired by splicing. 100 7.95 7.00
150 8.25 7.3
6.4.13.8 Factor of Safety. The factor of safety of the 200 8.6 7.65
suspension wire ropes shall be not less than 250 8.9 7.9
shown in Table 6.4.13.8 Fig. 6.4.13.8 gives 300 9.2 8.2
the minimum factor of safety for 350 9.5 8.45
intermediate rope speeds. The factor of 400 9.75 8.7

105
 CHAPTER 6- ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS

450 10.00 8.9

500 1.25 9.15 a. By individual tapered babbitted rope
600 1.7 9.5 sockets; or
700 11.0 9.8
1000 11.55 10.3 b. By other tyis of rope fastening, if approved
11.9 10.55 by the enf’cing authority, on the basis of
1500
adequate tensile and fatigue tests made by
NOTE.
a qualified laboratory provided that:
rn/s fpm x 0.00508
1. such fastenings conform to the
6.4.13.10 Suspension Rope Equalizers. Suspension
requirement of Section 6.4.13.15
rope equalizers, where provided, shall be of
and 6.4.13.16.
the individual-compression spring type.
2. the rope socketing shall be such as
Exception: Equalizers of other types may of the
to develop at least 80%
be used with traction elevators provided the to the
ultimate breaking strength
equalizers and their fastenings are approved in such
strongest rope to be used
by the enforcing authority on the basis of
fastenings,; and
adequate tensile and fatigue tests made by
a qualified laboratory. Such tests shall show
3. U-bolt type rope clips (clamps) shall
the ultimate strength of the equalizer and its
not be used for such fastenings.
fastenings in its several parts and assembly,
which shall be not less than 10% in excess
6.4.13.15 Adjustable Shackle Rods. The car ends,
of the strength of suspension ropes as
or the car or counterweight dead ends
required by Sec. 6.4.13.8, provided that
where multiple roping is used, of all
equalizers of the single-bar type, or springs
suspension wire ropes of traction type
in tension, shall not be used to attach
elevators shall be provided with shackle
suspension ropes to cars or counterweights
rods of a design which will permit individual
or to deadened hitchplates. Similar
adjustment of the rope lengths.
shackle rods shall be provided on the car or
6.4.13.11 Securing of Suspension Wire Ropes to
counterweight ends of compensating ropes.
Winding Drums. Suspension wire ropes of
winding-drum machines shall have the drum
6.4.13.16 General Design Requirements. Wire rope
ends of the ropes secured on the inside of
fastenings shall conform to the following:
the drum by clamps or by tapered babbitted
sockets, or by other means approved by the
a. The portion of the rope fastenings which
enforcing authority.
holds the wire rope (rope socket) and the
shackle rod may be in one piece (unit
6.4.13.12 Spare rope-Turns on Winding Drums.
construction), or they may be separate.
Suspension wire ropes of winding-drum
machines shall have not less than one turn
b. The rope socket shall be either cast or
of the rope on the drum when the car is
forged steel provided that where the rope
resting on the fully compressed buffers.
socket and the shackle rod are in one piece
(unit construction), the entire fastening shall
6.4.13.13 Splicing and Replacement of Suspension
be of forged steel.
Ropes. Suspension wire ropes shall not be
lengthened or repaired by splicing. If one
c. Where the shackle rod and rope socket are
rope of a set is worn or damaged and
not in one piece, the shackle rod shall be of
required replacement, the entire set of ropes
forged or rolled steel.
shall be replaced.
d. Cast of forged steel rope sockets, shackle
6.4.13.14 Type of Rope Fastenings. The car and
rods and their connections shall be made of
counterweight ends of suspension wire
unwelded steel, having an elongation of not
ropes, or the stationary hitch-ends where
less than 20% in a length of 51 mm,
multiple roping is used, shall be fastened in
conforming to ANSI/ASTM A668, Class B
such a manner that all portions of the rope
for forged steel and ANSI/ASTM A27,
except the portion inside the rope sockets
shall be readily visible. Fastening shall be:

106
 CHAPTER 6- ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS
Grade60/30 for cast steel and shall be
stress relieved.
Exception: Steels of greater strength may be
used provided they have an elongation of
not less than 20% in a length of 51 mm.
e. Where the shackle rod is separate from the
rope socket, the fastening between the two
parts shall be positive and such as to
prevent their separation under all conditions
of operation of the elevator. Where the
connection of the two parts is threaded, the
length of the thread engagement of the rod
in the socket shall be not less than 1 1/2
times the root diameter of the thread on the
rod, and a cotter pin or equivalent means
shall in addition be provided to restrict the
turning of the rod in the socket and prevent
unscrewing of the connection in normal
operation.
Eye bolts used as connections with clevis
type sockets shall be of forged steel
conforming to ANSI/ASTM A668, Class B
(heat treated) without welds.
f. Rope sockets shall be of such strength that
the rope will break before the socket is
materially deformed.
g. The shackle rod, eye bolt, or other means
used to connect the rope socket to the car
or counterweight, shall have a strength at
least equal to the manufacturer’s rated
breaking strength of the rope.
h. Rope fastenings incorporating anti-friction
devices which will permit free spinning of the
rope shall not be used.
6.4.13.17 Tapered Babbitted Rope Sockets.
Tapered babbitted rope sockets shall be of a
design as shown in Fig. 6.4.13.17, and shall
conform to the following:
a. The axial length (I) of the tapered portion of
the socket shall be not less than 4-3/4 times
the diameter of the tope used.
b. The axial length (Lm) of the open portion of
the rope socket shall be not less than four
(4) times the diameter of the rope used.
c. The length of the straight bore (Lmm) at the
small end of the socket shall be not more
than 12.70 mm nor less than 3.2 mm, and
107
its outer edge be rounded and free from
cutting edges.
d. The diameter (d) of the hole at the large end
of the tapered portion of the socket shall be
not less than 2-1/4 times nor more than 3
times the diameter of the wire rope used.
Table 6.4.13.18
Relation of Rope Diameter to Diameter of the
Small Socket Hole
Nominal Rope Maximum Diameter of Hole
Diameter, in. (d’), in.
3/8 to 7/16 inclusive 3/32 larger than nominal rope dia.
1/2 to 3/4 inclusive 1/8 larger than nominal rope dia.
7/8 to 1-1/8 inclusive 5/32 larger than nominal rope dia.
1-1/4 to 1-1/2 inclusive 3/16 larger than nominal rope dia.
e. The diameter (dm) of the hole at the end of
the tapered portion of the socket shall be not
more than shown in Table 6.4.13.18.
Section 5.0 Hydraulic Elevators
6.5.1 Hoistways, Hoistway Enclosures, and
Related Construction.
6.5.1.1 Hoistways, hoistway enclosures, and related
construction shall conform to the requirements
of the following Sections and Article 6.3.
except Sec. 6.3.7.
6.5.2 Machine Rooms and Machinery Spaces
6.5.2.1 Where pumps, motors, valves, and electrical
control equipment are located in spaces
separated from the hoistway enclosure (Sec.
6.3.1.1), such spaces shall be separated from
other parts of the building by enclosures
conforming to the requirements of Sec. 6.3.2.1
(a) and having an access door.
6.5.3 Bottom and Top Clearances and Runby for
Cars and Counteweights
6.5.3.1 Bottom Car Clearance. The bottom car
clearances shall conform to the requirements
of Sec. 6.3.7.1, provided that, in the
determination of the required clearance, any
under-car bracing which is located within 152
mm horizontally from the edge of the car
platform or 76 mm horizontally from the
centerline of the guide rails shall not be
considered.
 CHAPTER 6 - ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS
6.5.3.2 Minimum Bottom and Top Car Runby. The
bottom and top car runby shall be not less
than:
a. 76 mm for rated speeds not exceeding 0.51
m/s;
b. 152 mm for rated speeds exceeding 0.51
rn/s
6.5.3.3 Maximum Bottom and Top Car Runby. The
bottom and the top car runby shall not be
more than 610 mm.
6.5.3.4 Top Car Clearance. The top car clearance
shall be not less than the sum of the following
two items:
a. The top car runby.
b. The largest of the following:
1. 610 mm above the car crosshead
where a crosshead is provided.
2. The height of the refuge space on
top of the car enclosure.
3. The clearance required for
equipment projecting above the car
top (Sec. 6.5.3.5).
6.5.3.5 Equipment Projecting Above the Car Top.
When the car reaches its maximum upward
movement and refuge space is provided, all
equipment, exclusive of guide shoe
assemblies or gate posts for vertically sliding
gates, attached to and projecting above the
car top, shall be at least 152 mm from striking
any part of the overhead structure or any
equipment located in the hoistway.
6.5.3.6 Overhead Obstructions in Hoistway. When
overhead beams or other overhead hoistway
construction except sheaves are located
vertically over the car, but not over the
crosshead, the following requirements shall be
met:
a. The clearance from the car top to such
beams or construction when the car is level
with the top landing shall be not less than
the amount specified in Sec. 6.5.3.4.
b. Such beams or constructions shall be
located not less than 610 mm horizontally
from the crosshead.
108
6.5.3.7 Top Clearance and Bottom Runby of
Counterweights. Where a counterweight is
provided, the top clearance and the bottom
runby of the counterweight shall conform to
the following:
(a) Top Clearance. The top
clearance shall be not less than
the sum of the following:
(1) The bottom car runby.
(2) The stroke of the car buffers
used.
(3) 152 mm.
(b) Bottom Runby. The bottom
runby shall be not less than the
sum of the following:
(1) The distance the car can
travel above its top terminal
landing until the plunger
strikes its mechanical stop.
(2) 152 mm.
The minimum runby specified
shall not be reduced by rope
stretch.
6.5.4 Protection of Spaces Below Hoistway
6.5.4.1 Where the space below the hoistway
is used for a passageway, is occupied
by persons, or, it is unoccupied, is not
secured against unauthorized access,
the following requirements shall be
conformed to:
(a) The cylinder shall be supported
by a structure of sufficient
strength to support the entire load
that may be imposed upon it.
(b) Where a counterweight is
provided, the space below it shall
be inaccessible to persons or the
counterweight shall be provided
with a safety device operated as
a result of breaking or slackening
of the counterweight suspension
ropes.
 CHAPTER 6- ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS
(c) The car shall be provided with
buffers of one of the following
types:
1. Spring buffers of a design
which will not be fully
compressed when struck by
the fully loaded car at the
maximum speed attained in
the down direction.
(d) Car buffer supports shall be
provided which will withstand
without permanent deformation
the impact resulting from buffer
engagement by the car with its
rated load at the maximum speed
attained in the down direction.
6.5.5 Mechanical Equipment
6.5.5.1 Information on Elevator Layout. Elevator
layout drawings shall, in addition to other data,
indicated the following:
a. The bracket spacing.
b. The estimated maximum vertical forces on
the guide rails on the application of the
safety, where provided.
c. For freight elevators with Class B or C
loading, the horizontal forces on the car
guide rail faces during loading and
unloading and the estimated maximum
horizontal forces in a postwise direction on
the guide rail faces on the application of the
safety, where provided.
d. Outside diameter and wall thickness of
cylinder plunger, and piping and the working
pressure.
6.5.5.2 Car Safeties. Car safeties where provided
shall conform to the requirements of Section
6.4.6 and to the following:
a. The safety shall be of a type which can be
released only by moving the car in the up
direction.
b. The switches required by Sec. 6.4.7.5 shall,
when operated, remove power from the
driving machine motor and control valves
before or at the time of application of the
safety.
109
6.5.5.3 Counterweight Safeties. Counterweight
safeties, where provided in accordance with
the requirements of Sec. 6.5.4.1 (b), shall
conform to the requirements of Sec. 6.4.6,
provided that safeties shall be operated as a
result of the breaking or slackening of the
counterweight suspension ropes, irrespective
of the rated speed of the elevator.
6.5.5.4 Capacity and Loading. The requirements of
Section 6.4.8 covering capacity and loading
shall apply to hydraulic elevators, provided
that with Class C2 loading the load during the
loading and unloading shall not exceed the
rated load of the elevator unless all parts of
the hydraulic equipment are designed for the
maximum pressure developed as a result of
this load.
6.5.6 Driving Machine
6.5.6.1 Driving Machine and Connection
a. Type of Driving Machine. The machine
shall be of a direct plunger type or indirect
plunger (suspension type).
b. Connection to Driving Machine:
1. the driving member of the driving
machine shall be attached to the car
frame or platform with fastenings of
sufficient strength to support that
member with a factor of safety of
not less than 4.
2. Indirect plunger or Suspension type:
Where the raising of lift is achieved
by the use of ropes or chains
interposed between the ram and the
car, the following requirements shall
apply:
(a) Ropes shall correspond to the
following conditions:
(1) The nominal diameter of the
ropes shall be at least 8 mm
(2) The tensile strength of the
wire shall be:
2.1 1570 N/mm or
1770 N/mm for
ropes of single
tensile.
CHAPTER 6 - ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS

2.2 1370 N/mm for (c) Plunger Stops. Plungers shall

the outer wires be provided with solid metal stops
and 1660 N/mm and/or other means to prevent the
for the inner plunger from traveling beyond the
wires of ropes of limits of the cylinder. Stops shall
dual tensile. be so designed and constructed
as to stop the plunger from
(3) The ratio between the maximum speed in the up
pitch diameter of direction under full pressure
sheaves and pulleys without damage to the hydraulic
and the nominal system. For rated speeds
diameter of the exceeding 0.51 rn/s where a solid
suspension ropes metal stop is provided, means
shall be at least 40, other than the normal terminal
regardless of the stopping device shall be provided
number of stands. to retard the car to 0.51 mIs with a
retardation not greater than
6.5.6.2 Plungers gravity, before striking the stop.
(See Sec. 6.5.7.7).
(a) Plunger Connection. Where the
plunger is the driving member and (d) Plunger-Follower Guide. A
is subjected to eccentric loading, plunger-follower guide may be
the following requirements shall used provided it is arranged so
apply: that the elevator is always in a
position where the unsupported
(1) The plunger connection to the length of the plunger conforms to
car shall also be so designed the ‘maximum free length”, and to
and constructed as to transmit open the power circuit if this
the full eccentric moment into length is exceeded.
the plunger with a factor of
safety of not less than 4. 6.5.6.3 Cylinders

(2) The plunger and the plunger
connection to the car shall
also be so designed and
constructed that the total
vertical deflection of the
loading edge of the car
platform due to eccentric
loading of the car shall not
exceed 19 mm.
(b) Plunger Joints. Plungers
composed of more than one
section shall have joints designed
and constructed to:
(1) carry in tension the weight of
all plunger sections below the
joint with a factor of safety of
not less than 4; and
(2) transmit in compression the
gross load on the plunger with
a factor of safety of not less
than 5 based on ultimate
strength.
(a) Materials. The cylinder and
connecting couplings for the
cylinder shall be of materials with
a factor of safety of not less than
5 based on the ultimate strength
and with an elongation of not less
than 10% in 51 mm.
(b) Clearance at Bottom of
Cylinder. Clearance shall be
provided at the bottom of the
cylinder so that the bottom of the
plunger will not strike the safety
bulkhead of the cylinder when the
car is resting on its fully
compressed buffer.
(c) Cylinder and Plunger Heads.
Heads of cylinders, and heads of
plungers subject to fluid pressure,
shall conform to the following
requirements:
(1) Cylinder Heads. Bottom
heads of cylinders only shall

110
CHAPTER 6- ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS

be of dished seamless cylinder head. Safety bulkheads

construction, concave to shall conform to the requirements
pressure. of Section 6.5.6.3

Exception: If the bottom of Exception: Where a double

the cylinder is supported and cylinder is used and where both
if the cylinder is not below inner and outer cylinders conform
ground, Sec. 6.5.6.3 (c) (1) to the requirements of Sction
does not apply. 6.5.6.3.

(2) Dished Seamless Heads, 6.5.6.4 Welding

Convex to Pressure. Dished
seamless head, convex to (a) Welding of part on which safe
pressure if used on plungers, operation depends shall be done
shall have a maximum in accordance with the
allowable working pressure of appropriate standards established
not more than 60% of that for by the American Welding Society.
heads of the same
dimensions with pressure on (b) All welding of such parts shall be
the concave side. done by welders qualified in
accordance with the requirements
(3) Reinforced Heads. of the American Welding Society.
Reinforced heads shall be At the option of the manufacturer,
designed and constructed so the welders may be qualified by
that the maximum stress at one of the following:
rated capacity shall not
exceed 83 MPa for mild steel (1) The manufacturer
and 1/5 of the ultimate
strength of the material for (2) A professional consulting
other metals. engineer

(4) Heads Subjected to (3) A recognized testing

Mechanical Loads in laboratory
Addition to Fluid Pressure
Loads. Pressure heads Exception (Sec. 6.5.6.4):
subjected to mechanical load Tack welds not later
in addition to fluid pressure incorporated into finished
load shall be designed and welds carrying calculated
constructed that the combined loads.
stress will not exceed the
limits specified in Section 6.5.7 Valves, Supply Piping, and Fittings
6.5.6.3 (c) (2) and (3).
6.5.7.1 Valves, Supply Piping, and Fittings
(d) Means for Relief of Air or Gas.
Cylinders shall be provided with a (a) Working Pressure. Valves,
means to release air or other gas. piping, and fittings shall not be
subjected to working pressure
(e) Safety Bulkhead. Cylinders exceeding those recommended
installed below ground shall be by the manufacturer for the type
provided with a safety bulkhead of service for which they are used.
having an orifice of a size that
would permit the car to descend (b) Threads. Threads of valves,
at a speed not greater than 0.076 piping and fittings shall conform to
rn/s nor less than 0.025 m/s. A standards on Pipe Threads
space of not less than 25 mm (Except Dryseal).
shall be left between the welds of
the safety bulkhead and the

111

CHAPTER 6- ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALK
(c) Pipe Supports. Piping shall be so
supported as to eliminate undue
stresses at joints and fittings,
particularly t any section of the
line subject to vibration.
(d) Flexible Hydraulic Connections.
Flexible hose and fitting
assemblies, and flexible
couplings, mv be used for
hydraulic connections. Where
between the check valve
installed
or control valve and the cylinder,
they shall conform to the following
requirements:
(1) Flexible hose and fitting
assemblies shall:
(a) not be installed within the
hoist-way, not project into
or through any wall.
Installation shall be
accomplished without
intro-ducing twist in the
hose, and shall conform
with the minimum bending
radius of SAE 100 R2
type, High Pressure, Steel
Wire Reinforced, Rubber
Covered Hydraulic Hose
specilied in SAE J517D.
(b) have a bursting strength
sufficient to withstand not
less than 10 times
working pressure. They
shall be tested in the
factory or in the field prior
to installation at the
pressure of not less than
5 times working pressure
and shall be marked with
date and pressure of test.
(c) be compatible with the
fluid used;
(d) be of non-reusable type
fittings;
(e) be permanently marked
with the SAE hose type
identification and the
required replacement
date which shall not be
112
S
more than 6 years beyond
the installation date.
(2) Flexible couplings shall be so
designed and constructed that
failure of the sealing element
will not permit separation of
the parts connected.
6.5.7.2 Relief and Check Valves
(a) Pump Relief Valves. Each
pump or group of pumps shall be
equipped with a relief valve
conforming to the following
requirements:
(1) Type and Location. The
relief valve shall be located
between the pump and the
check valve and shall be of
such a type and so installed in
the by-pass connection that
the valve cannot be shut off
from the hydraulic system.
(2) Setting. The relief valve shall
be preset to open at a
pressure not greater than
125% of working pressure.
(3) Size. The size of the relief
valve and by-pass shall be
sufficient to pass the
maximum rated capacity of
the pump without raising the
pressure more than 20%
above that at which the valve
opens. Two or more relief
valves may be used to obtain
the required capacity.
(4) Sealing. Relief valves having
exposed pressure
adjustments, if used, shall
have their means of
adjustments sealed after
being set to the correct
pressure.
Exception [Sec. 6.5.7.2 (a)]:
No relief valves is required for
centrifugal pumps driven by
induction motors, provided the
shut-off, or maximum
pressure which the pump can
develop, is not greater than
CHAPTER 6- ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS

135% of the working pressure excess of 0.51 m/s [see Sec.

at the pump. 6.5.6.2 (c)j.

(b) Check Valve. A check valve (b) Requirements. Emergency

shall be provided and shall be so
installed that it will hold the
elevator car with rated load at
any point when the pump stops
or the maintained pressure drops
below the minimum operating
pressure.
6.5.7.3 Material. Supply piping materials,
valves, and fittings shall conform to
the applicable provision of Power
Piping except that nonductile
materials shall not be used. The other
materials that may be used shall have
a factor of safety of not less than 5
based on tensile strength and an
elongation of not less than 10%.
Exception: Flexible hydraulic hose
and fitting assemblies, and flexible
couplings.
terminal speed limiting devices
shall conform to the following:
(1) They shall operate
independently of the normal
terminal stopping device and
shall function to reduce the
speed of the car should this
device fail to slow down the
car at the terminals as
intended.
(2) They shall provide retardation
not in excess of 9.81 m/s
.
2
(3) They shall be so designed
and installed that a single
short circuit caused by a
combination of grounds or by
other conditions shall not
prevent their functioning.

6.5.7.4 Wall Thickness. The minimum wall (4) Control Means Affected.
thickness shall conform to the
following requirements: (a) Direct Plunger
(Maintained Pressure
(a) For working pressure up to 1,72 Type). The emergency
MPa, piping equal to standard terminal and normal
schedule 40 steel pipe may be terminal stopping
used without stress analysis. devices shall not control
the same controller
6.5.7.5 Threading. Pipe lighter than switches to complete the
Schedule 40 shall not be threaded. circuit to the control
valves unless two or
6.5.7.6 Supply Line Shut-Off Valve. A more separate and
manual shut-off valve shall be independent switches
installed in the supply line to the are provided, two of
cylinder of every hydraulic elevator which shall be closed in
where the cylinder is not exposed to the appropriate direction
inspection. The shut-off valve shall be of travel.
located in the machine room.
(b) Electro-Hydraulic. For
6.5.7.7 Emergency Terminal Speed the up direction of travel
Limiting Devices. at least two control
means are required, one
(a) Where Required. Emergency or both to be controlled
terminal speed limiting devices by the emergency speed
shall be installed where a limiting device and the
reduced stroke buffer is used and other or both by the
for the up direction where the car normal terminal stopping
speed exceeds 0.51 m/s to insure device. If, in the up
that the plunger does not strike its direction, the pump
solid limit of travel at a speed in motor is the only control

113
 CHAPTER 6- ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS

means, two magnetic range of the free suspension of the car and
switches, both of which not exceeding 76 mm.
shall be closed to
complete the motor b. The enclosure may be omitted on the upper
circuit, are required to landing on continuous pressure operation
satisfy this rule. If, elevators serving only adjacent landings
however, the pump (one floor travel) provided the floor opening
motor is one control at the upper landing is protected by an
means and there is a enclosure and gate at least 914 mm high
second control means, with openings that will reject a ball 25 mm in
(e.g., a valve) only one diameter and the gate is provided with a
magnetic switch for the combination mechanical lock and electric
pump motor is required. contact.
For the down direction,
the emergency terminal c. The enclosure may be omitted on the upper
speed limiting and landing of elevators having continuous
normal terminal stopping pressure operation and serving only
devices shall each adjacent landings (one floor travel), where
directly or through the floor opening is provided with a vertically
separate switches affect lifting hatch cover which is automatically
the control valve. Where raised and lowered vertically by he
two magnetic switches ascending and descending car, provided
are used, the emergency this cover meets the following requirements:
terminal speed limiting
and normal terminal 1. It is fitted with guides to insure its
stopping devices each proper setting.
may control one or both.
2. It is designed and installed to
6.5.7.8 Final Terminal Stopping Devices. Final sustain a total load of 3.59 kPa or
terminal stopping devices are not required. 136 kg at any one point.

Section 6.0 Private Residence Elevators 3. It is equipped with an electric

contact which will prevent the
6.1 Hoistway, Hoistway Enclosures, and Related upward travel of the car when a
Construction force of 9 kg is placed at any point
on the top of the hatch cover.
6.1.1 Hoistway Enclosure Construction. The
hoistway shall be solidly enclosed throughout its d. The hoistway enclosure may be omitted on
height without grillwork or openings other than elevators located in existing open stairway
for landing or access doors, except that exterior areas or other existing open areas provided
windows within the hoistway shall be of that:
sufficient strength to support in true alignment
the hoistway doors and gates and their locking 1. The car platform is equipped with a
equipment. The fire resistance rating shall be in device which will meet the
accordance with the requirements of Section requirements of Section 6.6.1.1 (a)
6.3.1.1 (b). stop the car if it is obstructed in its
downward travel;
a. The enclosure may be omitted on the lowest
landing served, unless it opens directly into 2. The car gate is automatically locked
a garage, provided the car platform is except when the car platform is
equipped with a device which if the platform within 152mm of a landing.
is obstructed in its downward travel by a
force of 1.8 kg or more applied anywhere at 6.1.2 Pits
its lower surface, will open an electric
contact in the control circuit and thus stop a. Pits Maintenance. Where a pit is provided,
the downward travel of the car within the it shall be kept clean and free from dirt and
rubbish. The pit shall not be used for

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I
 CHAPTER 6- ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS
storage purposes and shall be maintained
free of an accumulation of water.
b. Pit Guard. A pit provided in other than a
hoistway that is enclosed for its full travel of
the car shall be guarded by a railing at least
914 mm high and the entrance shall be
provided with a door or gate.
6.1.3 Top Car Clearance. The top car clearance
shall be not less than 152 mm plus 25 mm for
each 0.07 m/s of the rated speed in excess of
0.15 m/s.
6.1.4 Between Car and Hoistway Enclosures or
Counterweight. There shall be a clearance of
not less than 19 mm between the car and the
hoistway enclosure, and between the car and
its counterweight.
6.1.5 Between Car and Landing Sill. The
clearance between the car platform and the
landing sill shall be not less than 13 mm nor
more than 38 mm.
6.1.6 Guarding of Suspension Means
a. Suspension Means Passing Through
Floors or Stairs. Ropes and chains
passing through a floor or stairway outside
the hoistway enclosure shall be enclosed
with a solid or openwork enclosure. If or
openwork, the enclosure shall reject a ball
12.70 mm in diameter. Means for inspection
shall be provided. The floor openings shall
not be larger than is necessary to clear the
suspension means.
6.2 Cars
6.2.1 Car Frames and Platforms. Materials used
in construction of car enclosures, frames, and
platforms shall conform to the following:
a. Cars shall have a metal or combination of
metal and wood car frames and platforms
having a factor or safety of not less than 5
based on rated load.
b. Cast iron shall not be used in any member
of the car frame or platform other than for
guides or guide shoe brackets.
6.2.2 Car Enclosure.
a. Car Enclosure Required. Except at
entrances, cars shall be enclosed on all
115
sides and on the top. The enclosures shall
be constructed of solid or of openwork
material which will reject a bell 12.70 mm in
diameter.
b. Securing Enclosures. Car enclosures shall
be secured in conformance with the
requirements of Sec. 6.4.5.2 and 6.4.5.3.
c. Glass in Elevator Cars. Glass, where used
in elevator cars, shall conform to the
requirements of Sec. 6.4.5.7.
6.2.3 Car Doors and Gates. A car door or gate
which, when closed, will guard the opening to
a height of at least 1680 mm shall be provided
at each entrance to the car. Car doors may
be of solid or openwork construction which will
reject a ball 76 mm in diameter.
Collapsible car gates shall be of a design that,
when fully closed (extended position), will
reject a ball 76 mm in diameter.
a. Car Door or Gate Locking Devices.
Where the hoistway enclosure is not
continuous for the full travel of the car, the
car door or gate shall be provided with a
mechanical lock that will lock the car door or
gate if the car is more than 152 mm away
from a landing.
b. Car Door or Gate Electric Contacts.
Every car door or gate shall be provided
with an electric contact.
The design of the car door or gate electric
contacts shall be such that for a sliding door
or gate, the car cannot move unless the
door or gate is within 51 mm of the closed
position. If the door or gate swings outward
to open, the car door or gate must be closed
and locked before the car can move.
6.2.4 Light in Car. The car shall be provided with
an electric light. The control switch for the
light shall be located in the car and near the
car entrance. The minimum illumination at the
car threshold, with the door closed, shall be
not less than 54 lx.
6.3 Safeties and Governors
6.3.1 Safeties Required. Each elevator shall be
provided with a car safety. Where the space
below the hoistway is not permanently
secured against access, the counterweight
 CHAPTER 6- ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS

shall be provided with a safety conforming to 6.5.4 Replacement of Chains and Sprockets. If
the requirements of Section 6.63.2. chains are used as a suspension means and a
worm chain is replaced, all chains must be
6.3.2 Operation of Safeties. The car safety shall replaced. If a chain sprocket is replaced due
be of the inertia or other approved type to wear, all sprockets must be replaced.
operated by the breakage of the suspension
means or by the action of a speed governor. Section 7.0 Hand and Power
If of the speed governor type, the governor Dumbwaiters
shall operate the safety at a maximum speed
of 0.38 mis. On the breakage of the 7.1 Hoistways, Hoistway Enclosures, and
suspension means, the safety shall operate Related Construction
without delay and independently of the speed
governor action. 7.1.1 Applicable Requirements. Hoistways,
hoistway enclosures, and related construction
6.4 Limitation of Load, Speed, and Rise shall conform to the requirements of Article
6.3 except for the following Sections which do
6.4.1 Capacity. The rated load shall not exceed 318 not apply:
kg and maximum inside net platform area
shall not exceed 1.1 m . the minimum rated
2 Sec. 6.3.1.1(d) Strength of Enclosure
load shall be not less than that based on 1.91
kPa of inside net platform area of 159 kg Sec. 6.3.1.2 Floor Over Hoistways
whichever is greater.
Sec. 6.3.2.1 (a) Enclosures Required
6.4.2 Speed. The rated speed shall not exceed 0.20 for Elevators Having
m/s. Fire-Resistive
Hoistway Enclo-sures
6.4.3 Rise. The rise shall not exceed 15 m.
Sec. 6.3.2.2 Equipment in
6.5 Suspension Means Machine Rooms

6.5.1 Suspension Ropes. On elevators having a Sec. 6.3.2.7 Headroom in Machine

rated load of 204 kg or less and operating at a Rooms and Overhead
rated speed of 0.15 mis or less, ropes shall be Machinery Spaces
not less than 6.3 mm in diameter. Where the
rated load exceeds 204 kg or the rated speed Sec. 6.3.2.8 (b) Ventilation for
exceeds 0,15 rn/s the ropes shall be not less Machinery and
than 9.5 mm in diameter. Control Equipment

6.5.2 Factor of Safety of Suspension Means. Sec. 6.3.4 Guarding of Exposed

The factor of safety of the suspension means Auxiliary Equipment
shall be not less than 7 based on the
manufacturer’s rated breaking strength. Sec. 6.3.6 Pits
When the car and counterweight are Sec. 6.3.7 Bottom and Top
suspended by steel ropes and the driving Clear-ances and
means is an endless steel roller type chain, Runbys for Elevator
the factor of safety of such chain with the Cars and Count
rated load in the car shall be not less than 8 erweights
based on the ultimate tensile strength.
Sec. 6.3.8 Horizontal Car and
6.5.3 Arc of Contact of Suspension Means on Count-erweight
Sheaves and Sprockets. The act of contact Clearance
of a wire rope on a traction sheave shall be
sufficient to produce traction under all load 7.1.2 Enclosures for Machine Rooms and
conditions up to rated load. The arc of contact Machinery Spaces Hand and power
of a chain with a driving sprocket shall not be dumbwaiter machines and their control
less than 140 deg. equipment may be located inside the hoistway

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 CHAPTER 6- ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS

enclosure at the top or bottom without conspicuously displayed on the landing side in
intervening enclosures or platforms. letters not less than 51 mm high, the words:
Power dumbwaiter machines and control “DANGER-DUMBWAITERS-KEEP CLOSED.”
equipment located outside the hoistway shall
be enclosed as required for electric elevators 7.1.7 Size and Location of Hoistway-Door
by Sec. 6.3.2.1 (a) except that control Openings
equipment located outside the hoistway may
be enclosed in a metal cabinet equipped to a. For Power Dumbwaiters. The size and
prevent access by unauthorized persons. location of openings shall conform to the
following:
7.1.3 Pits. Pits are not required.
1. Size of Openings. The width and
7.1.4 Types of Entrances height of openings shall not exceed
the width and height of the car by
a. For Power Dumbwaiters. Entrances shall more than 25 mm in each
be one of the following types: dimension.

1. Horizontal slide, single or multi- Exception: One door opening may

section. be of sufficient size to permit
installing and removing the car, but
2. Swing, single-section. shall not be more than 1450 mm in
height.
3. Combination horizontal slide and
swing. 2. Location of Door Opening. The
bottom of the door opening shall be
4. Vertical slide biparting counter not less than 610 mm above the
balanced. floor.

5. Vertical slide counterweight, single- Exceptions:

or multi-section.
b. For Hand Dumbwaiters. Entrances shall
be one of the following types:
1. Manually operated vertical slide
counterweighted, single or multi-
section.
2. Manually operated vertical
biparting counter-balanced.
7.1.5 Closing Hoistway Doors of Hand
Dumbwaiters. All doors shall be kept closed
except the door at the floor at which the car is
being operated or is being loaded or
unloaded.
Manually operated doors shall be equipped
with approved devices to close them
automatically when released by heat. Self-
closing doors may be equipped with hold-open
devices provided that such devices shall be
equipped with fusible links which will release
the doors in case of excessive heat.
(1) Undercounter dumbwaiters.
(2) Dumbwaiters where load is
handled on wheel trucks.
(3) Dumbwaiters having hoistway
doors equipped with hoistway
door interlocks.
slide
(4) Where the sill of the
dumbwaiter landing is 1520
mm of the pit floor.
b. For Hand Dumbwaiters. The width of the
door opening shall not exceed the width of
the car by more than 152 mm, and the
maximum height of the opening for any
height of the car shall be 1370 mm. The
bottom of the door openings shall be not
less than 610 mm above the floor at each
landing; except that for the upper landing of
undercounter dumb-waiters, the bottom of
the opening shall be not less than 102 mm
above the floor.

7.1.6 Signs on Hoistway Doors of Hand 7.1.8 Rails for Entrances, Vertical Slide Type.
Dumbwaiters. Every hoistway door shall have The panel guide rails shall conform to the

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 CHAPTER 6- ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS
requirements of Sec. 6.3.9.1 (c), except that
they may be fastened only to the entrance
frame.
7.1.9 Overlap of Entrance Panels for Entrances,
Vertical Slide Type. The entrance panels
with their attachments shall overlap the
entrance frame and sill by not less than 12.7
mm.
7.1.10 Hoistway-Door Locking Devices
a. For Power Dumbwaiters
At landings where the bottom of the
door opening 610 mm or more
above the floor, the hoistway doors
shall be provided with hoistway-unit
system hoist-way door combination
mechanical locks and electric
contacts.
2. At landings where the bottom of the
door opening is less than 610 mm
above the floor, the hoistway doors
shall be provided with hoistway-unit
system hoistway door interlocks.
Exceptions: Hoistway-unit-system
hoist-way door combination
mechanical locks and electric
contacts may be used for hoistway
doors under the following
conditions:
1. Dumbwaiters with a travel of
4570 mm or less: For the top
landing door and for any door
whose sill is located not more
than 1220 mm below the sill
of the top landing door.
2. Dumbwaiters with any travel:
For any door whose sill is
within 1520 mm of the bottom
of the pit.
b. For Hand Dumbwaiters. Hoistway doors
shall be provided with spring-type latches to
hold them in the position. Such latches may
be released from both the hoistway and
landing side, irrespective of the position of
the car.
7.1.11 Hoistway Access Doors. Access opening
shall be provided in the hoistway enclosure for
maintenance and inspection of dumbwaiter
118
machines and their control equipment located
inside the hoistway enclosure. Access
openings shall:
(a) be of adequate size and so located as to
permit required maintenance and inspection;
(b) have a maximum width of 610 mm and
maximum height of 610 mm.
(c) be provided with doors which shall be kept
closed and locked.
7.2 Cars
7.2.1 Construction of Cars. Cars shall conform to
the following requirements:
a. They shall be of solid openwork
construction, and of such strength and
stiffness that they will not deform
appreciably when the load leans or falls
against the sides of the cars.
b. Non-metal cars sections shall be reinforced
with metal from the bottom of the car to the
point of suspension.
c. Metal car sections shall be riveted, welded,
or bolted together.
d. Cars may be provided with hinged,
permanent, or removable shelves.
e. The total inside height of the car shall not
exceed 1220 mm.
f. Cars shall be provided with a platform.
Exception: Sec. 6.7.2.1 (f): The platform
floor may be made hinged or removable or
may be omitted in non-residential buildings,
subject to the approval of the enforcing
authority.
Note Sec. 6.7.2.1 (f): The omission of the
platform floor is frequently desired by
department stores, dress manufacturers,
clothing manufacturers, and similar
establishments in order to carry dresses,
coats, etc. which are longer than the 1220
mm height permitted for the car.
7.3 Capacity and Loadings
7.3.1 Maximum Rated Load and Maximum Inside
Net Platform Area
 CHAPTER 6- ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS

a. Maximum Rated Load. The 7.5.3 Belt-Drive Machine. Belts used as the
rated load shall not exceed 1,000 driving means between the motor and the
kilograms. machine of power dumbwaiters shall conform
to the following requirements:
b. Maximum Inside Net Platform
Area. The inside net platform a. Where flat belts are used, the rated speed
area shall not exceed 1.00 square shall be not more than 0.25 m/s.
meters.
b. Where multiple V-belts are used, the rated
7.3.2 Capacity Plate. A metalplate shall be speed shall be not more than 0.76 rn/s.
fastened in a conspicuous place in the car and
shall indicate the rated load in letters and 7.5.4 Driving-Machine Brakes. Electric and hand
numerals not less than 6.3 mm high, stamped, driving machines shall be equipped with
etched, or raised on the surface of the plate. brakes as follows:

7.4 Car and Counterweight Safeties
7.4.1 Where Required. Car and counterweight
safeties shall not be required except for
protection of spaces below hoistway for all
dumbwaiter cars and counterweights having a
rated load over 11.3 kg. Where required, the
car and counterweight safeties may be
operated as a result of breaking the
suspension means and may be of the inertia
type without governors. Car safeties may be
located in the car crosshead.
a. Electric driving machines shall have
electrically released brakes applied
automatically by springs in compression or
by gravity when power is removed from the
motor.
b. Hand driving machines shall be equipped
with handbrakes or automatic brakes which
will sustain the car and its rated load. When
the brake is applied, it shall remain locked in
the “On” position until released by the
operator.

7.5 Driving Machines and Sheaves Exception Sec. 6.7.5.4 (b): For rated loads
of 9.1 kg or less, the brake may be omitted
7.5.1 Types of Power Driving Machines provided the machine has sufficient friction
Permitted. Driving machines shall be one of to hold the car and its rated load at any
the following types: floor.

a. Winding-drum 7.5.5 Hydraulic Dumbwaiters. Hydraulic driving

machines, valve, supply piping, fittings and
b. Traction tanks shall conform to the requirements of
Section 6.5.6, 6.5.7.
c. Rack and Pinion
Exception: when roped-hydraulic machines
d. Screw are used, design need not conform to the
requirements of Section 6.5.5.1, 6.5.6.2 and
e. Direct-Plunger 6.5.6.3 (b).

f. Belt-Drive — Single Belt 7.6 Car and Counterweight Guides and Guide
Fastenings
g. Chain-Drive
7.6.1 Guides for Dumbwaiters Having a Capacity
h. Roped-Hydraulic of more than 9.1 kg. Car and counterweight
guides shall be of metal, wood, or wood and
7.5.2 Factor of Safety of Driving Machines and metal bolted together.
Sheaves. Driving machines and sheaves
shall be designed with a factor of safety, 7.6.2 Guides for Dumbwaiters Having a Capacity
based on the static load (the rated load plus of 9.1 kg or less. Car and counterweight
the weight of the car, ropes, counterweights, guides shall be of metal, wood and metal
etc.) of not less than 6 for steels, and 9 for bolted together, metal tubes, or spring steel
cast iron and other materials. wires maintained in tension.

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 CHAPTER 6- ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS
7.6.3 Use of the Set of Guides for Car and
Counterweight. The same set of guides may
be used for both the car and counterweight.
7.6.4 Guide Fastenings and Joints. Guides shall
be securely fastened to the hoistway.
Guide joints shall be either tongue and groove
or doweled and fitted and splice plates.
7.7 Counterweights
7.7.1 Design of Counterweights. Counterweights
for dumbwaiters, having a capacity of more
than 45.4 kg and a rated speed of more than
0.51 m/s, shall be of either solid or section
construction. If made in sections, the sections
shall be secured by not less than two tie rods
passing through holes in all section except
where metal counterweight frames are
provided. Tie rod shall have lock nuts secured
by cotter pins.
7.8 Means of Suspension and Fastenings
7.8.1 Power Dumbwaiters. Cars and
counterweights, except for dumbwaiters
having direct-plunger hydraulic or rack and
pinion of screw-type driving machine, shall be
suspended by one or more iron or steel-wire
hoisting ropes or chains secured to the car on
counterweight or rope hitch by babbitted
sockets, rope clamps, or equally substantial
fastenings. Wire ropes may have marlin
covers.
7.8.2 Types of Chains Permitted for Power
Dumbwaiters. Chains where used shall be
roller, block or multiple-link silent type.
7.8.3 Factors of Safety for Power Dumbwaiters.
The factor of safety, based on the static load,
of car and counterweight suspension means
shall be not less than the value specified in
Table 6.7.8.3 for actual speed of rope or chain
corresponding to the rated speed of the
dumbwaiter.
7.8.4 Hand Dumbwaiters
a. Rated Loads Exceeding 34.0 kg.
Dumbwaiters having a rated load exceeding
34.0 kg shall be suspended by steel wire
ropes or chains having a factor safety of not
less than 4 1/2.
120
b. Rated Loads of 34.0 kg or less.
Dumbwaiters having a rated load of 34.0 or
less may be suspended by manila or
braided-cotton ropes having a factor of
safety of not less than 6.
Section 8.0 Escalators
8.1 Protection of Floor Openings
8.1.1 Protection Required. Floor openings for
escalators shall be protected against the
passage of flame, heat and/or smoke in
accordance with provision of the local codes.
8.2 Protection of Trusses and Machine Spaces
Against Fire
8.2.1 Protection Required. The sides and
undersides of escalators trusses and
machinery spaces shall be enclosed in fire-
resistive materials. Means may be provided
for adequate ventilation of the driving machine
and control spaces.
8.3 Construction Requirements
8.3.la Geometry. The width between balustrades
shall be measured on the incline at a point
636 mm vertically above the nose line of the
steps, and shall not be less than the width of
the step. It shall not exceed the width of the
step by more than 330 mm with a maximum of
163 mm on either side of the escalator. The
handball shall be a minimum of 102 mm
horizontally and 25 mm vertically away from
adjacent surfaces. The center line of the
handrail shall be not more than 254 mm,
measured horizontally, from the vertical plane
through the edge of the exposed treadway.
(See Sec. 6.8.3.3 (b) for step width
requirements and Fig. Fl, Appendix F.)
8.3.lb Inclination Angle. Inclination angle for
escalator shall be not less than 30 degrees,
but not more than 35 degrees.
8.3.2 Balustrades
a. Construction. A rigid, non-perforated
balustrade shall be provided on each side of
the moving step. The balustrade on the
step side shall have no areas on the step
side shall have no areas or moldings
depressed or raised more than 6.3 mm from
the parents surface. Such areas of
moldings shall have all boundary surfaces
CHAPTER 6 - ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS
beveled unless parallel to the direction of
travel.
Balustrades shall be designed to resist the
simultaneous application of a lateral force of
584 N/m and vertical load 730 N/rn, both
applied to the top of the balustrade.
The skirt panel adjacent to the step shall be
constructed of material having a smooth
surface. Embossed, perforated, or roughly
textured materials shall not be used.
Skirt panels shall not deflect more than 1.6
mm under a force of 68 kg applied to any
exposed point between the upper and lower
combplates.
b. Use of Glass or Plastics in Balustrades.
Glass or plastics, if used in balustrades,
shall conform to the requirements of ANSI
Z97.1, except that there shall be no
requirement for the panel to be transparent.
Exception Sec. 6.8.3.2 (b): Plastics
bounded to a basic supporting panel.
c. Clearance Between Balustrades and
Steps. The clearance on either side of the
steps between the step tread and the
adjacent skirt panel shall not be more than
4.8 mm.
d. Change in Width Between Balustrades.
The width between the balustrades in the
direction of travel shall not be changed
abruptly nor by more than 8% of the
greatest width.
In charging from the greater to the smaller
width, the maximum allowable angle of
change in the balustrade shall be 15 deg.
from the line of travel.
e. Guards at Intersections. A solid guard
shall be provided in the intersection of the
angle of the outside balustrade (deck board)
and the ceiling of soffit.
The vertical front edge of the guard shall
project at least 356 mm horizontally from the
apex of the angle. The escalator side of the
vertical face of the guard shall be flush with
the face of the well way.
The exposed edge of the guard shall be
rounded. Guards may be of glass or plastic
121
provided they meet the requirements of Sec.
6.8.3.2 (b).
Exception Sec. 6.8.3.2 (e): Where the
clearance of the upper outside edge of the
balustrade and the ceiling or soffit is more
than 305 mm or where the intersection of
the outside balustrade and the ceiling or
soffit is more than 610 mm from the
centerline of the handrail.
f. Anti-Slide Device. Anti-slide devices shall
be provided on decks or corn binations of
decks when the outer edge of the deck is
greater than 305 mm from the centerline of
the handrail or, on adjacent escalators,
when the distance between the handrails is
greater than 406 mm.
These devices shall consist of raised objects
fastened to the decks, no closer than 102
mm to the handrail, and spaced no greater
than 183 mm, apart. The height shall be not
less than 19 mm. They shall have no sharp
corners or edges.
8.3.3 Handrail
a. Type Required. Each balustrade shall be
provided with a handrail moving in the same
direction and at substantially the same
speed as the steps.
b. Extension Beyond Combplates. Each
moving handrail shall extend at normal
handrail height not less than 305 mm
beyond the line of points of the combplate
teeth at the upper and lowering landings.
c. Guards. Hand or finger guards shall be
provided at the point where the handrail
enters the balustrade.
d. Distance Between Handrails. The
horizontal distance between the centerlines
of the two handrails, measured on the
incline, shall not exceed the width between
the balustrades (See Sec. 6.8.3.1) by more
than 152 mm, with a maximum of 76 mm on
either side of the escalator (see Appendix F,
Fig. Fl).
8.3.4 Steps
a. Material and Type. Step frames shall be
made of non-combustible material.
 CHAPTER 6 ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS

Steps treads shall be horizontal and made
of non-combustible material which will afford
a secure foothold.
Exception: Step tread material may be slow
burning type if covered on the underside 8.3.7
with sheet metal not less than 0.44 mm thick
or with equivalent fire-resistive material.
b. Dimensions of Steps. The depth of any
step tread in the direction of travel shall be 8.3.8
not less than 400 mm, and the rise between
treads shall be not more than 216 mm. The a.
width of a step tread shall be not less than
406 mm nor more than 1016 mm. (See
Appendix F, Fig. Fl)
c. Slotting of Step Risers. The step riser shall
be provided with vertical cleats which shall
mesh with slots on the adjacent step tread
as the steps made the transition form incline
to horizontal.
Where tightening devices are operated by
means of tension weights, provision shall be
made to retain the weights in the truss if they
should be released.
Step Wheel Tracks. Step wheel tracks shall
be designed so as to prevent displacement of
the steps and running gear if a step chain
breaks.
Rated Load
Structural. For the purposes of structural
design, the rated load in kilograms shall be
considered to be not less than:
Structural rated load = 4.6 WA
where:
A = length of the horizontal projection of
the entire truss, mm

d. Slotting of Step Treads. The tread surface W = width of the escalator, mm.
of each step shall be slotted in a direction (see Sec. 6.8.3.1)
parallel to the travel of the steps. Each slot
shall be not more than 6.3 mm wide and not b. Machinery. For the purpose of driving
less than 9.5 mm deep; and the distance machine and power transmission
from center to center of adjoining slots shall calculations, the rated load in kilograms
be not more than 9.5 mm. shall be considered to be not less than:

Slots shall be so located on the step tread Machinery rated load = 3.5 WB where:
surface as to form a cleat on each side of
the step tread adjacent to the skirt panel. B = 1.32 x rise, meter

8.3.5 Combplates W = width of the escalator, mm

a. Where Required. There shall be a
combplate at the entrance and at the exit of
every escalator.
b. Design of Combplates. The combplate
teeth shall be meshed with and set into the
slots in the tread surface so that the points
of the teeth are always below the upper
surface of the treads.
Combplates shall be adjustable vertically.
Sections forming the combplate teeth shall
be readily replaceable.
8.3.6 Trusses or Girders. The truss or girder shall
be designed to safely sustain the steps and
running gear in operation. In the event of
failure of the track system it shall retain the
running gear in its guides.
(see Sec. 6.8.3.1)
c. Brake. For the purpose of brake
calculations, the rated load in kilograms
shall be not less than:
Brake rated load = 4.6 WB where:
B = 1.732 x rise, meter
W = width of the escalator, mm
(see Sec. 6.8.3.1)
d. Step. The step shall be designed to support
a load of 136 kg on a 152 mm by 254 mm
plate placed on any part of the step with the
254 mm dimension of step travel.
8.3.10 Design Factors of Safety. The factors of
safety, based on the maximum static loads,
shall e at least the following:

122
 CHAPTER 6- ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS
a. Trusses and all supporting structure,
including tracks, shall conform to the AISC
Specifications for Design, Fabrication and
Erection of Structural Steel for Building.
b. For driving machine parts:
1. where made of steel or bronze, 8;
2. where made of cast iron or other
materials, 10.
c. For power-transmission members, 10.
d. Forstep, 5.
8.3.11 Chains. The use of chains with cast iron links
shall not be permitted.
8.4 Rated Speed
8.4.1 Limits of Speed. The rated speed shall be
not more than 0.64 m/s except that higher
speeds may be permitted subject to the
approval of the enforcing authority.
8.5 Driving Machine, Motor and Brake
8.5.1 Connection Between Driving Machine and
Main Drive Shaft. The driving machine shall
be connected to the main drive shaft by
toothed gearing, a mechanical coupling, or a
chain.
8.5.2 Driving Motor. An electric motor shall not
drive more than one escalator.
8.5.3 Brake. Each escalator shall be provided with
an electrically released, mechanically-applied
brake capable of stopping the up or down
traveling escalator with any load up to brake
design load. This brake shall be located either
on the driving machine or on the main drive
shaft. Where a chain is used to connect the
driving machine to the main drive shaft, and
an electrically released, mechanically applied
brake is located on the driving machine, a
mechanically applied brake capable of
stopping down a traveling escalator with a
brake design load shall be provided on the
main drive shaft.
8.5.4 General. Operating and safety devices
conforming to the requirements of this section
shall be provided.
123
a. Starting Switch. Starting switches shall be
of the key-operated type and shall be
located on top or lower landing so that the
escalator steps are within sight.
b. Emergency Stop Buttons. Emergency
stop button shall be accessibly located on
the top and lower landing of each escalator
and shall be protected against accidental
operation. The emergency stop button shall
be located in the right hand newel base
facing the escalator at both landings. An
emergency stop button with an unlocked
cover which can be readily lifted or pushed
aside shall be considered accessible. The
operation of either of this buttons shall
interrupt the power to the driving machine.
It shall not be possible to start the driving
machine by these buttons.
c. Speed Governor. A speed governor shall
be provided, the operation of which will
cause the interruption of power to the driving
machine should the speed of the steps
exceed a pre-determined value, which shall
be not more than 40% above the rated
speed.
Exception [Sec. 6.8.5.4 (c)]: The over-
speed governor is not required where an
alternating current squirrel cage induction
motor is used and the motor is directly
connected to the driving machine.
Note: [Sec. 6.8.5.4 (c), Exception]: The
governor may be omitted in such case even
though a chain is used to connect the
sprocket on the driving machine to the
sprocket on the main drive shaft as
permitted by Sec. 6.8.5.1.
d. Broken Step-Chain Devices. A broken
step chain device shall be provided, that will
cause the interruption of power to the driving
machine if a step chain breaks, and where
no automatic chain tension device is
provided, if excessive sag occurs in either
step chain.
e. Application of an Electrically Released
Brake. An electrically released brake shall
automatically stop the escalator when any of
the safety devices required by Sections
6.8.5.4 (b), 6.8.5.4 (c), 6.8.5.4 (d), 6.8.5.4
(f), 6.8.5.4 (h), 6.8.5.4 (i), and 6.8.5.4 (j)
function.
CHAPTER 6- ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS
f. Broken Drive-Chain Device. When the
driving machine is connected to the main
drive shaft by a chain, a device shall be
provided which will cause the application of
the brake on the main drive shaft and also
stop the drive machine if the drive chain
parts.
g. Stop Switch in Machinery Spaces. A stop
switch, conforming to the requirements of
Sec. 6.4.11.3 (e), shall be provided in each
machinery space where means of access to
the space is provided. This switch, when
opened, shall cause the electric power to be
removed from the escalator driving machine
motor and brake.
Exception [Sec. 6.8.5.4 (g)J: Machinery
spaces in which main line disconnect switch
is located.
h. Skirt Obstruction Device. Means shall be
provided to cause the opening of the power
circuit to the escalator driving machine
motor and brake should an object become
wedge between the step and the skirt panel
as the step approaches the upper and lower
combplates.
Rolling Shutter Device. Rolling shutters, if
used, shall be provided with a device which
shall be actuated as the shutter begin to
close to cause the opening of the power
circuit to the escalator driving machine
motor and brake.
j. Reversal Stop Device. Means shall be
provided to cause the opening of the power
circuit to the driving-machine motor and
brake in case of accidental reversal of travel
while the escalator is operating in the
ascending direction.
k. Step Demarcation Lights. Green step
demarcation lights located below the step
shall be located at both landing in an area
not to exceed 406 mm from combplate.
There shall be a minimum of two fluorescent
lamp fixtures at each landing. The lamps
shall be activated whenever the escalator is
in operation.
Step Upthrust Device. Means shall be
provided to cause the opening of the power
circuit to the escalator driving machine
motor and brake should a step be displaced
against the upthrust tract at the lower curve
124
in the passenger carrying line of the track
system.
m. Tandem Operation. Tandem operation
escalators shall be electrically interlocked
where traffic flow is such that bunching will
occur if the intermediate landing stops.
The interlocks shall stop the escalator
carrying passengers into the common
intermediate landing if the escalator carrying
passengers away from the landing stops.
These escalators shall also be electrically
interlocked to assure that they run in the
same direction.
8.5.5 Signs. A caution sign shall be located at the
top and bottom landing of each escalator,
readily visible to the boarding passengers.
The sign shall include the following wording:
a. Caution
b. Hold Handrail
c. Attend Children
d. Avoid Slides
The sign shall be standard for all escalators
and shall be identical in format, size, color,
wording and pictorials as shown in Fig. F2
Appendix F.
The sign shall be durable and have a
maximum thickness of 6.5 mm with rounded
or beveled corners and edges.
8.5.6 Access to Interior. Reasonable access to
the interior of the escalator shall be provided
for inspection and maintenance.
Section 9.0 Moving Walks
9.1 Design Requirements
9.1.1 Direction of Passage. Passage from a
landing to a treadway or vice versa shall be in
the direction of treadway travel at the point of
passenger entrance or exit.
9.1.2 Load Rating
a. Structural. For the purpose of structural
design, the load rating shall be considered
to be not less than 4.78 kPa of exposed
treadway.
 CHAPTER 6- ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS

b. Machinery. For the purpose of brake c. Grooving. The treadway surface shall be
treadway, and power transmission grooved in a direction parallel to its travel for
calculations, the load rating shall be the purpose of meshing with combplates at
considered to be not less than 3.69 kPa of the landings. Each groove shall be not
exposed treadway. more than 6.3 mm wide at the treadway
surface and not less than 4.8 mm deep; and
9.1.3 Width the distance from center to center of
adjoining grooves shall be not more than 13
a. Limitations. The width of moving walk (the mm. Sides of grooves may slope for mold
exposed width of treadway) shall be not less draft purposes and may be filleted at the
than 560 mm. The maximum width shall bottom.
depend both on the maximum treadway
slope at any point on the treadway, and on 9.1.5 Belt Pallet Type Treadway. Belt pallet type
the treadway speed. The width shall not treadways shall conform to the following:
exceed the value shown in Table 6.9.1.3 (a).
a. Factor of Safety. Pallet connecting chains
b. Change in Width. The exposed width of or other connecting devices between pallets,
treadway shall not be decreased in the and. pallets where part of the propelling
direction of travel. system, shall have a factor of safety of not
less than 10 based on ultimate strength.
This width requirement applied only to
moving walks having entrance to or exit b. Splices. Splicing of the treadway belt shall
from landings. It is not intended to preclude be made in such a manner as to result in a
development of moving walk systems in continuous unbroken treadway surface of
which changes in width are made safe and the same characteristics as the balance of
practical by direct passage from one the belt.
treadway to another, subject passage from
one treadway to another, subject to the c. Grooving. The treadway surface shall be
approval of the enforcing authority. grooved in direction parallel to its travel for
the purpose of meshing with combplates at
Table 6.9.1.3 (a) the landings. Each groove shall not be more
Treadway Width than 4.8 mm deep; and the distance from
center to center of adjoining grooves shall
Maximum Movinq Walk Treadway Width, in be not more than 12.70 mm slides of
Max. 90 fpm Above 90 Above 140 grooves may slope for mold draft purposes
Treadway Max. fpm to 140 fpm to 180 and may be filleted at the bottom.
Slope at any Treadway tpm fpm
point, deg Speed Treadway Treadway
Speed
d. Alignment. Adjacent ends of pallets shall
Speed
0 to 4 Unrestricted not vary in elevation more than 1.6 mm. The
60 40
Above 4 to 8 40 40 40 fasteners that attach the belt to the pallets
Above 8 to 12 40 40 Not shall not project above the exposed
permitted treadway surface.

9.1.4 Belt Type Treadway. Belt type treadways 9.1.6 Pallet Type Treadway. Pallet type treadways
shall conform to the following: shall conform to the following:

a. Factor of Safety. Belt type treading shall
be designed with a factor of safety of not
less than 5 based on ultimate strength.
b. Splices. Splicing of the treadway belt shall
be made in such a manner as to result in a
continuous unbroken treadway surface of
the same characteristics as the balance of
the belt.
a. Factor of Safety. Pallet connecting chains
or other connecting devices between pallets,
and pallets where part of the propelling
system, shall have a factor of safety of not
less than 10 based on ultimate strength.
b. Grooving. The treadway surface of each
pallet shall be grooved in a direction parallel
to its travel. Each groove shall be not more
than 6.3 mm wide at the treadway surface
and not less than 4.8 mm deep; and the

125
 _______

CHAPTER 6- ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS

distance from center to center of adjoining
grooves shall be not more than 13 mm.
Sides of the grooves may slope for mold
draft purposes and may be filleted the
bottom.
c. Intermeshing Pellets. Alternate cleats on
adjacent pallets hsall intermesh so that
there is no continuous transverse gap
between adjacent pallets.
d. Alignment of Pallet Tread Surfaces.
Adjacent ends of pallets shall not vary in
elevation more than 1.6 mm.
9.1.7 Treadway Slope. The slope of the treadway
shall not exceed 3 degrees within 914 mm of
the entrance and exit and shall not exceed 12
degrees at any point.
9.1.8 Speed. Treadway speed shall conform to the
following:
the slider bed shall be reasonably smooth.
It shall be so constructed and it will not
support combustion.
b. Roller Bed. Where the treadway is
supported on a series of rollers, the
combination of roller spacing, belt tension,
and belt stiffness shall be such that the
deflection of the treadway surface, midway
between roller, shall not exceed the quantity
0.239 mm plus 0.004 times the center to
center distance of rollers in millimeter when
measures as follows:
The treadway surface shall be loaded
midway between rollers with a 11.3 kg
weight concentrated on a cylindrical
footpiece 51 mm long by 25 mm in diameter
placed with its long axis across the belt.
Deflection of this footpiece from its unloaded
position shall not exceed the figure obtained
above.

a. Maximum Speed. The maximum speed of The rollers shall be conventric and true
a treadway shall depend on the maximum running within commercially acceptable
slope at any point on the treadway. This tolerances.
speed shall not exceed the value
determined by Table 6.9.1.8 (a).
c. Edge Supported Belt. When the treadway
b. Higher Speeds. The maximum speeds belt is transversely rigid and is supported by
listed in Table 6.9.1.8 (a) apply only to rollers along its edges, the following
moving walks having an entrance or exit to requirements shall apply:
landings. It is not intended to preclude
development of moving walk systems in 1. With the belt tensioned through the
which higher speeds are made safe take-up system, the permissible
practical, subject to the approval of the slope of a straight line from the top
enforcing authority. of a treadway rib adjacent to the
balustrade, in a plane perpendicular
Table 6.9.1.8 (a) to the path of the treadway shall not
Tread Speed exceed 3% when the treadway is
loaded with a 68 kg weight on a 152
Maximum Treadway Slope Maximum Treadway mm by 254 mm plate located on the
At any Point onTreadway, deg. Speed, fpm centerline of the treadway with 254
0 to 8 180
mm dimension in the direction of
Above 8 to 12 140 treadway travel.

2. In order to support the treadway in

NOTE:
1 radian deg. x 0.01 75 case of localized overload, supports
fpmxo.00508 shall be supplied at intervals, not
rn/s =
exceeding 183 mm along the
centerline of the treadway. The
9.1.9 Supports. Support shall conform to the
following: supports shall be located at a level
not more than 51 mm below the
Slider Bed. The carrying portion of the underside of the treadway when it is
a.
treadway shall be supported for its entire loaded under the test conditions
required by the prececing
width and length except where it passes
from a support to a pulley. The surface of paragraph.

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 CHAPTER 6- ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS
d. Pallet and Belt Pallet Type. Pallet wheel
tracks shall be so designed and located as
to prevent more than 3.2 mm vertical
displacement of the treadway should the
pallet connection means break.
9.1.10 Threshold Plates. The entrance to or exit
from a moving treadway shall be provided with
a threshold plate designed and installed to
provide smooth passage between treadway
and landing and vice versa and it shall
conform to the following:
a. Type Required. The threshold plate shall
be provided with a comb.
b. Clearance. The threshold comb teeth shall
be meshed with a set into the grooves in
treadway surface so the points of the teeth
are always below the upper surface of the
treadway.
c. Surface. The suiface of the plate shall
afford a secure foothold. The surface shall
be smooth from the point of intersection of
the comb teeth and upper surface of the
treadway, for a distance not exceeding 102
mm and not less than 25 mm.
9.1.11 Balustrades. Moving walks shall be provided
with an enclosed balustrade on each side
conforming to the following:
a. Construction
1. Balustrades without moving
handrails shall be designed so as to
provide no surfaces which can be
gripped by a passenger. On the
treadway side, the balustrade shall
have no areas or moldings
depressed or raised more than 6.3
mm from the parent surface. Such
areas or moldings shall have all
boundary surfaces beveled unless
parallel to the direction of travel.
The balustrade shall extend at
normal height not less than 305 mm
beyond the end of the exposed
treadway.
2. Glass or plastics panels, if used in
the balustrades shall conform to the
requirements of ANSI Z97.1, except
that there shall be no requirement
for the panels to be transparent.
127
3. Balustrades shall be designed to
resist the simultaneous application
of a lateral force of 584 N/m and a
vertical load of 730 N/rn ,both
applied to the top of the
balustrades.
b. Geometry. The height of the balustrade
shall be not less than 838 mm nor more
than 1070 mm from the treadway to the top
of handrail, measured perpendicular to the
treadway surface. The handrail shall be a
minimum of 102 mm horizontally and 25 mm
vertically away from adjacent surfaces. The
center line of the handrail shall be not more
than 254 mm, measured horizontally, from
the vertical plane through the edge of the
exposed treadway (see Appendix F, Fig.
F3).
c. Clearance with Treadway. If the balustrade
covers the edge of the treadway, the
clearance between the top surface of the
treadway and the underside of the
balustrade shall not exceed 6.3 mm. Where
skirt panels are used, the horizontal
clearance on either side of the treadway
between the treadway and the adjacent skirt
panel shall be not more than 6.3 mm.
9.1.12 Guards at Ceiling Intersections.
a. A solid guard shall be provided in the
intersecting angle of the outside balustrade
(deck board) and the ceiling or soffit.
Exceptions:
(1)Where the distance from the face of the
weliway to the centerline of the handrail
is more than 610 mm.
(2) Where the clearance between the face of
the well way and the upper outside edge
of the balustrade is more than 305 mm.
b. The horizontal length of the guard shall be
such that the vertical edge of the guard shall
be at least 191 mm high. The moving walk
side of the vertical face of the guard shall be
flush with the face of the wellway. The
exposed edge of the guard shall be
rounded. Guards may be of glass or plastic
provided they meet the requirements of
Section 6.9.1.11 (a)(2).
 CHAPTER 6- ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS

9.1.13 Handrails. Handrails shall conform to the
following:
a. Number Required. Two moving handrails
shall be provided on each moving walk.
c.
Exception: A single moving handrail may be
used for moving walks having a slope of 3
degrees or less, a speed of (0.36 mIs), or
less and a width of 610 mm or less.
b. Location. The moving handrail at both the
entrance and exit landings shall extend at
normal height not less than 305 mm beyond
the end of the exposed treadway. The point d.
at which the moving handrail enters or
leaves an enclosure shall be not more than
254 mm above the floor line.
c. Handrail Guards. Hand or finger guards
shall be provided at the points where the
handrails enter the enclosures.
d. Enclosure. The moving handrail return run
and its driving and supporting machinery e.
shall be fully enclosed.
e. Speed. Each moving handrail shall move in
the same direction and at substantially the
same speed as the treadway.
9.1.14 Drive, Motor and Brake
gravity under any load condition up to and
including the rated load condition up to and
including the rated load with the power
supply interrupted do not require brakes.
Application of Brakes. Electrically
released brakes specified in Sc. 6.9.1.14 (b)
shall stop the treadway automatically upon
failure of power or when any of the safety
devices specified in Section 6.9.2 operate.
Brakes on the main drive shaft, if not of the
electrically released type, shall be applied
should the drive chain part.
Speed Reducers. Speed reducers shall
meet the requirements for design and
application as established for various types
in the appropriate Gear Manufacturer’s
Practice Standards.
The loading shall be considered to be
uniform and the service to be 24 hours per
day.
Chain Drives. Chain drives shall be of the
types covered by ANSI B29.1 and
ANSI/SAE SP-68.
When operating at the load rating of the
treadway, the load imposed on such chains
shall not exceed the horsepower rating as
established by these standards.

a. Connection Between Drive and Main The loading shall be considered to be

Drive Shaft. The driving machine shall be
connected to the main drive shaft by toothed
gearing, a coupling or a chain.
f.
b. Brakes Required. Each moving walk shail
be provided with an electrically-released,
mechanically-applied brake capable of
stopping and holding the treadway with any
load up to the load rating. The brake shall
be located on the driving machine, the main
drive shaft, or specially attached braking
surface attached directly to the treadway.
uniform and the service to be 24 hours per
day.
V-Belt Drives. The load imposed on V-belt
drives, when operating at the load rating of
the treadway, shall not exceed the
horsepower rating as established by
ANSIIRMA IP-20.
The loading shall be considered to be
uniform and the service to be 24 hours per
day.

Where a chain is used to connect the driving
machine to the main drive shaft, a brake
shall be provided on the main drive shaft. It
is not required that this brake be of the
electrically-released type if an electrically-
released brake is provided on the driving
machine. 9.1.15 Supporting
Exception [Sec. 6.9.1.14(b)]: Moving walks
which will not run in the down direction by
g. Other Components. Pallet propelling
chains and drive and breaking components
other than those specified shall have a
factor of safety of not less than 10.
Structure. The supporting
structure for the treadway, balustrades, and
machinery shall conform to the requirements
of the AISC Specification for Design,

128
 CHAPTER 6- ELEVATORS, DUMBWAITERS, ESCALATORS AND MOVING WALKS
Fabrication and Erection of Structural Steel for
Buildings.
9.2 Operating and Safety Devices, Electrical
Equipment and Wiring
9.2.1 Devices Required. Operating and safety
devices shall be provided conforming to the
following requirements:
a. Starting Switch. Starting switches shall be
of the key-operated type and shall be
located upper or lower landing so that the
exposed treadway is within sight.
b. Emergency Stop Switches. Emergency
stop buttons or other types of manually
operated switches having red buttons or
handles shall be accessibly located at every
entrance to the exit from a moving walk, and
shall be protected against accidental
operation. The operation of any of these
buttons or switches shall interrupt the power
to the driving machine and to the brake,
where provided. It shall be impossible to
start the driving machine by these buttons or
switches.
c. Broken Drive-Chain Switch. Where the
driving machine is connected to the main
drive shaft by a chain, and where a brake is
located on the main drive shaft when
required by Sec. 6.9.1.14 (b), a device shall
be provided which will cause application of
the brake should the drive chain part.
d. Speed Governor. Moving walks required
by Sec. 6.9.1.14 (b) to be equipped with a
brake, or which are driven by a direct
current motor, shall be provided with a
speed governor which will cause the
interruption of power to the driving machine
and to the brake, where provided, should
the speed of the treadway exceed a pre
determined speed which shall be not more
than 40% above the maximum designed
treadway speed.
Exceptions [Sec. 6.9.2.1 (d)}:
(1) Moving walks driven by alternating
current induction motors directly coupled
to the driving machine.
(2) Moving walks driven by alternating
current induction motors connected to
the driving machine by belts or chains,
129
where the brake is directly coupled to
the driving machine and where a device
is provided that will cause interruption of
power to the motor and apply the brake
should the belts or chains lose tension
of brake.
e. Broken Treadway Device for Belt Pallet
Type and Pallet Type. A device shall be
provided which will cause interruption of
power to the driving machine and to the
brake, where provided, if the connecting
means between pallets break.
f. Power Interruption. Where a device is
required to interrupt power, such interruption
shall not be subject to intentional delay. The
use of a supplemental and independent
device with or without intentional delay is
permissible.
g. Stop Switch in Machinery Spaces. A stop
switch conforming to the requirements of
Sec. 6.4.11.3 (e) shall be provided in each
machinery space where means of access to
the space is provided. This switch, when
opened, shall cause electrical power to be
removed from the driving machine motor
and brake.
Exception: Machinery space in which the
main line disconnect switch is located.
h. Rolling Shutter Device. Rolling shutters if
used, shall be provided with a device which
shall be actuated as the shutters begin to
close to cause the opening of the power
circuit to the moving walk driving machine
motor and brake.
 CHAPTER 7— BOILERS AND PRESSURE VESSELS

Chapter 7

BOILERS AND PRESSURE VESSELS

Definitions:
Locomotive Boiler — a boiler mounted on a self-
Boiler or Steam Generator a closed vessel
— propelled track locomotive and used to furnish
intended for use in heating water or for application of motivating power for traveling on rails. (It does not
heat to generate steam or other vapor to be used include locomotive cranes, tractors, or other self-
externally to itself. propelled apparatus). Locomotive boilers however, if
dismantled from locomotive and reinstalled for
Coal-Fired Boiler used stokered water temperature
—
stationary use, are not included in this definition.
coal or pulverized coal for water-tube.
Low Pressure Heating Boiler a boiler operated at a
—

Condemned Boiler Unfired Pressure Vessel a —

2 gage steam
pressure not exceeding 1.055 kg/cm
boiler or unfired pressure vessel that has been water temperature not exceeding 121°C.
inspected and declared unsafe to operate or
disqualified, stamped and marked indicating its Medium Pressure Heating Boiler a boiler operated
—

rejection by qualified inspecting authority. at pressure not exceeding 103.5 MPa gage steam, or
water temperature not exceeding 130°C.
Existing Installations any boiler or unfired pressure
—

vessel constructed, installed, placed in operation but Miniature Boiler as used in this Code herein mean
—

subject to periodic inspection. any boiler which does not exceed any of the following
limits: 405 mm inside diameter, 1065 mm overall
External Inspection an inspection made on the
—
2 of water
length of outside of heads at center, 1 .85m
external parts, accessories and/or component even 2 maximum allowable
heating surface, 7.03 kg/cm
when a boiler or unfired pressure vessel is in working pressure.
operation.
New Boiler or Unfired Pressure Vessel Installation
Fire Tube Boiler — a boiler where heat is applied — include all boilers and unfired pressure vessels
inside the tube. constructed, installed, placed in operation or
constructed for.
Fusion Welding — a process of welding metals in a
molten and vaporous state, without the application of Oil-Fired Boiler uses Bunker C as fuel for heating
—

mechanical pressure or blows. Such welding may be boiler and power boiler.
accomplished by the oxy-acetylene or hydrogen flame
or by electric arc. Thermal welding is also classified Portable Boiler an internally fired boiler which is
—

as fusion welding. self-contained and primarily intended for temporary

location and the construction and usage is obviously
Gas-Fired Boiler uses natural gas or liquefied
—
portable.
petroleum gas (LPG) for heating boiler, fire tube or
water-tube type. Power Boiler — a closed vessel in which steam or
other vapor (to be used externally to itself) is
Heat-Recovery Steam Generator — unfired pressure generated at a pressure of more than 1.055 kg/cm
2
vessel that uses flue gas heat. gage by the direct application of heat.

Internal Inspection an inspection made when a

—
ASME Boiler Construction Code The term, ASME
—

boiler or unfired pressure vessel is shut down and Boiler Construction Code, shall mean the Boiler
handholes, manholes, or other inspection openings Construction Code of the American Society of
Mechanical Engineers with amendments and
are opened or removed for inspection of the interior.
interpretations thereto made and approved by the
Council of the Society.

130
 CHAPTER 7— BOILERS AND PRESSURE VESSELS
Reinstalled Boiler or Unfired Pressure Vessel a —
boiler or unfired pressure vessel removed from its
original setting and re-erected at the same location or
erected at a location without change of ownership.
Second Hand Boiler or Unfired Pressure Vessel
as used herein shall mean a boiler or unfired pressure
vessel of which both the location and ownership have
been changed after primary use.
Steam System — comprises steam generation,
distribution, and utilization. It includes fuel, combustion
air, feedwater, combustion system, steam quality and
efficiency.
Unfired Pressure Vessel a vessel in which
— branches from headers, preferably from the
pressure is obtained from an external source, or from
an indirect application of heat.
Waste-Heat Boiler unfired pressure vessel that
— d.
uses flue gas heat from waste incinerator.
Water Tube Boiler — a boiler where heat is applied
outside the tube.
Section 1.0 General Requirements for
Boilers and Pressure Vessel Installation
1.1 Installation and Operating Permits
Application for permits to install and operate
steam generators for power or heat, unfired
pressure vessels for steam, air or gases shall be
secured from the place or locality of installation.
For municipalities, permits shall be secured from
the office of the Municipal/City Engineer or
Building Official, if available, or from the
Regional Office of the Department of Labor and
Employment. A similar permit to install and
operate pollution sources equipment shall also
be secured from the regional offices of the
Department of Environment and Natural
Resources. For sample application forms, see
back pages. Application forms shall be
accompanied by plans and specifications in
quadruplicate showing:
a. General Layout giving a plan view,
longitudinal view and at least a front view
showing location of boiler with respect to
building, location, size and height of smoke
stack, location of steam generator auxiliaries
and location and size of fuel supply.
Building permit and location plan of the
same, Electrical permit, Fire Department
permit and other permits necessary should
also be stipulated on the plan.
b. Detailed assembly plan of boiler should
show all appendages indicating instruments,
— panels if any for controls and all safety
devices. Details should show actual joints,
riveting, welding, thickness of plates, tubes,
fusible plugs etc. Steam conditions like
temperature, pressure, degrees superheat
should be indicated.
c. Piping drawing, preferably in isometric
drawing showing elevations headers, leads
to headers preferably from the bottom,
top, expansion joints, pipes covering sizes,
fittings and valves and method support.
All plans and specification should be
prepared under supervision of a
Professional Mechanical Engineer and
should have his signature and seal on every
page, regardless of boiler horsepower.
1.2 Locations
Steam boilers should preferably be located.
a. In detached buildings of fire resistant
construction used for no other purpose and
situated not less than 3 m distance from
buildings not forming part of factory, or in
structures of fire resisting materials,
preferably stone or concrete walls
connected to or in close proximity to other
factory buildings.
b. No part of the steam boiler should be closer
than one meter from any wall.
c. In case of firetube boilers, sufficient room for
tube removal either thru the front or rear
should be provided.
1.3 Steam Boiler Rooms
a. Although not to be used for passage, boiler
rooms should be provided with two doors
preferably on opposite ends or sides which if
locked may be opened without key from the
inside.
b. As the room air is usually the source of
combustion air, sufficient ventilation from
outside should be provided.
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 CHAPTER 7— BOILERS AND PRESSURE VESSELS

c. Steam boilers should be mounted over a supporting or guyed to withstand a wind

suitable foundation or concrete pad of not
less than 305 mm thick and with sufficient
area at base to be supported by the bearing
capacity of the soil with a safety factor of not
less than four (4).
1.4 Where brickwork is necessary, the surface
facing the hot gases should be fired brick and
the outside may be red brick or other suitable
material.
load 160 kph and rise at least 5,000 mm
above the eaves of any building within a
radius of 50 meters. However, in lieu of the
said height requirement, a system should be
so designed and constructed to eliminate
smoke nuisance to the neighboring
structures.
c. No smokestack should be closer than 305
mm from any exposed woodwork or framing.

a. Brickwork should be provided with sufficient d. Where two or more steam boilers will be
expansion joints both vertically and connected in parallel, each steam outlet
horizontally to take care of expansion at should be provided with a non-return valve
operating temperature. and a shut off valve.

b. Insulating castables is used for medium e. Only steam pressure sufficient for
pressure boiler. requirements should be allowed. No high
pressure will be generated just to be
1.5 No structural stress other than its own weight reduced on the line to suit requirements.
should be imposed on any brickwork and in no
case should the full weight or part weight of f. All construction features of boiler should be
steam boiler or its appurtenances be supported in conformity with the ASME Boiler
on brickwork. Construction Code when available or its
equivalent. (JIS, ASTM, ISO Standards).
1.6 No steam boiler should be enclosed or walled-in
without authorization and inspection by g. All boiler installations, including reinstalled
authorized government representative and who boilers, shall be installed in accordance with
will conduct a hydrostatic test of 130% of the requirements of the latest revision of the
stipulated working pressure. A.S.M.E. Boiler Construction Code and/or
Rules and Regulations provided herein.
1.7 Ceiling Clearance
h. Ladders and Catwalks. A steel catwalk or
a. When boilers are replaced or new boilers platform at least 455 mm wide and provided
are installed in either existing or new with standard handrails and toe-board on
buildings, a minimum height of at lest 2,130 either side shall be installed across the tops
mm shall be provided between the top of the of adjacent boilers or at some other
boiler proper and the ceiling except in single convenient level for the purpose of affording
installation of self-contained boilers where a safe access to the boilers. All catwalks shall
minimum height of at least 915 mm shall be have at least two means of exit, each exit to
provided between the highest point of any be remotely located from the other, and
valve stem or fitting and the ceiling. connected to a permanent stairway or
inclined ladder leading to the floor level.
1.8 Other Requirements
Section 2.0 Specific Requirements for
a. All boilers and unfired pressure vessels shall Fired Tube Boilers
be so located that adequate space will be
provided for the proper operation of the 2.1 Maximum Allowable Working Pressure. The
boiler and its appurtenances, for the maximum allowable working pressure on the
inspection of all surfaces, tubes, water walls, shell of a boiler or drum shall be determined by
economizers, piping, valves and other the strength of the weakest SECTION OF THE
equipment and for their necessary STRUCTURE, computed from the thickness of
maintenance and repair. the plate, the tensile strength of the plate, the
efficiency of the longitudinal joint, OR TUBE
b. Smokestacks should be of sufficient LIGAMENTS, the inside diameter of the outside
capacity to handle flue gases, self- course and the factor of safety by these rules.

132
 CHAPTER 7- BOILERS AND PRESSURE VESSELS

TS x t x E removed from its existing setting, it shall not

= Maximum allowable working be reinstalled for pressure in excess of 1.05
R x ES pressure in MPa 2 gage.
kg/cm

where: c. Reinstalled or second-hand boilers shall

TS = ultimate tensile strength of shell plate,
2
N/mm
t = minimum thickness of shell plate, in
weakest course in mm.
Minimum thickness for Boilerplate
shall be 6.35 mm.
E = efficiency of longitudinal joint
For fusion welding, E shall be taken as equal to
90% or E shall be determined by the following
Philippine Mechanical Engineering Code. For
seamless construction, Eshall be 100%.
have a minimum factor of safety of 6 when
the longitudinal seams are of lap riveted
construction and a minimum factor of safety
of 5 when the longitudinal seams are of butt
and double strap construction.
2.4 Age Limit of Fire Tube Boilers
The age limit of a horizontal return tubular, flue
or cylinder boiler having a longitudinal lap joint
and operating at a pressure in excess of 0.345
MPa or 3.45 Bar gage shall be thirty years (30
years). A reasonable time for replacement shall
be given at the discretion of the Inspector not to
exceed one (1) year.

R = one-half the inside diameter of the a. Welded Boilers

weakest course of shell or drum in
mm. Boilers having either longitudinal or
circumferential seams or fusion welded
FS = Allowable factor of safety; the ratio of construction shall be constructed and
ultimate strength to allowed stress. stamped in accordance with the rules and
For new construction, FS = 5. regulations of the ASME Boiler Construction
Code.
2.2 Allowable Stresses
b. Pressure on Old Boilers
a. Tensile Strength
In no case shall the maximum allowable
When the tensile strength of steel or working pressure of an old boiler be
wrought iron shell plates is not known, it increased to a greater pressure than would
shall be taken as 379.31 N/mm
2 for steel be allowed for a new boiler of same
and 310.04 N/mm
2 for wrought iron. construction.

b. Crushing Strength of Mild Steel c. Safety Valves

The resistance to crushing of mild steel shall 1. The use of weighted-lever safety
be taken at 655.17 N/mm of cross sectional valves shall be prohibited and direct
area. spring-loaded pop type valves shall
replace these valves.
2.3 Factor of Safety
2. Safety valves having either the seat
a. The Professional Mechanical Engineer shall or disc of cast iron shall not be
increase the following factors of safety shall used.
be increased if the condition and safety of
the boilers demand it. 3. Each boiler shall have at least one
safety valve and if it has more than
b. The lowest factor of safety permissible on 2 of water heating surface or
46.5 m
existing installations shall be 4.5 except for the generating capacity exceeds
horizontal return tubular boilers having 910 kg/hr, it shall have two (2) or
continuous lap seams more than 3,650 mm more safety valves.
in length where the factor of safety shall be
9, and when this latter type of boiler is

133
 CHAPTER 7— BOILERS AND PRESSURE VESSELS
4. The valve or valves shall be
connected direct to the boiler,
independent of any other steam
connection, and attached as close
as possible to the boiler, without
necessary intervening pipe or
fittings. When alternation is required
to conform to this rule and
regulation, owners or users shall be
allowed one (1) year in which to
complete the work.
5. No valve of any description shall be
placed between the safety valve
and the boiler nor on the vent-out
pipe (if used) between the safety
valve and the atmosphere. When a
vent-out pipe is used, it shall be
sufficiently sized and fitted with an
open drain to prevent water lodging
in the upper part of the safety valve
or escape pipe. When an elbow is
placed on a safety valve outlet or
vent-out pipe shall be securely
anchored and supported. All safety
valve discharges shall be so located
or piped as to be carried clear from
walkways or platform used to
control the main stop valves of
bilers or steam headers.
6. The safety valve capacity of each
boiler shall be such that the safety
valve or valves will discharge all the
steam that can be generated by the
boiler without allowing the pressure
to rise more than 6% above the
highest pressure to which any valve
is set, and in no case to more than
6% above maximum allowable
working pressure.
7. One or more safety valves on every
boiler shall be set at or below the
maximum allowable working
pressure. The remaining valves
may be set within 3 to 5 percent
above the maximum allowable
working pressure, but the highest
setting shall not exceed 10% of the
highest pressure to which any valve
is set.
8. When two or more boilers operating
at different pressures and safety
valve settings are interconnected,
the lower pressure boilers or
interconnected piping shall be
134
equipped with safety valves of
sufficient capacity to prevent over
pressure considering the generating
capacity of other boilers.
9. The relieving capacity of the safety
valves on any boiler shall be
checked by any one of the three
following methods and if found to be
insufficient, additional valves shall
be provided.
9.1 By making the accumulation
test, which consists of
shutting off all other steam-
discharge outlets from the
boiler and forcing the fires
to the maximum. The
safety valve capacity shall
be sufficient to prevent a
pressure in excess of 6
percent above the
maximum allowable working
pressure.
9.2 By measuring the maximum
amount of fuel that can be
burned and computing the
corresponding evaporative
capacity (steam generating
capacity) upon the basis of
the heating value of this
fuel. These computations
shall be made as outlined in
the appendix of the ASME
Boiler Construction Code.
9.3 By determining the
maximum evaporative
capacity by measuring the
feed water. When either of
the methods outlined in (b)
is employed, the sum of the
safety valve capacities shall
be equal to or greater than
the maximum evaporative
capacity (maximum steam
generating capacity) of the
boiler.
2.5 Feedwater System
a. All boilers shall have a feedwater supply
system which will permit feeding of the
boilers at any time while under pressure.
 CHAPTER 7— BOILERS AND PRESSURE VESSELS
b. A boiler having more than 46.5 m 2 of water
heating surface shall have at least two
means of feeding, one of which shall be an
approved feed pump or injector. Where a
source of feed directly from pressure mains
is available at sufficient pressure to feed the
boiler against a pressure 6 percent greater
than the release pressure of the safety valve
with the highest release setting, this may be
considered one of the means.
c. The feed piping to the boiler shall be
provided with two check valves near the
boiler and a valve near the pump. When
two or more boilers are fed from a common
source, there shall also be a valve on the
branch to each boiler between the check
vale and the boiler. When two or more
boilers are fed from a common source, there
shall also be a valve on the branch to each
boiler between the check valve and source
supply. Whenever a globe valve is used on
feed piping, the inlet shall be under the disc
of the valve.
d. Where deaerating heaters are not
employed, it is recommended that the
temperature of the feedwater be not less
than 102°C to avoid the possibility of setting
up localized stress. Where deaerating
heaters are employed, it is recommended
that the minimum feedwater temperature be
not less than 197°C so that dissolved gases
may be thoroughly released.
2.6 Gages and Gage Connections — Fire Tube
Boilers
a. Each boiler shall have three or more gage
cocks, located within the range of the visible
length of the water glass, except when such
boiler has two water glasses with
independent connections to the boiler,
located on the same horizontal line and not
less than 610 mm apart.
b. For all installations where the water gage
glass or glasses are more than 9,000 mm
from the boiler operating floor, it is
recommended that water level indicating or
recording gages be installed at eye height
from the operating floor.
c. Each steam boiler shall have steam gage,
with dial range not less than one and one-
half (11/2) times and not more than twice the
maximum allowable working pressure,
connected to the steam space or to the
135
steam connection to the water column. The
steam gage shall be connected to a siphon
or equivalent device of sufficient capacity to
keep the gage tube filled with water and so
arranged that the gage cannot be shut off
from the boiler except by a cock placed near
the gage and provided with a tee or level
handle arranged to be parallel to the pipe in
which it is located when the cock is open.
d. When a steam gage connection longer than
2,440 mm becomes necessary, a shut off
valve may be used provided the boiler is of
the outside screw and yoke type and is
locked open. The line shall be ample size
with provision for free blowing.
e. Each boiler shall be provided with a 6.35
mm nipple and globe valve connected to the
steam space for the exclusive purpose of
attaching a test gage when the boiler is in
service so that the accuracy of the boiler
steam gage may be ascertained.
f. Each stem outlet from a boiler (except
safety valve connections) shall be fitted with
a stop valve located as close as practicable
to the boiler.
g. When a stop valve is so located that water
can accumulate, ample drains shall be
provided. The drainage shall be piped to a
safe location and shall not be discharged on
the top of the boiler or its setting.
h. When boilers provided with manholes are
connected to a common steam line, the
steam connection from each boiler shall be
fitted with two stop valves having an ample
free flow drain between them. The
discharge of this drain shall be visible to the
operator while manipulating the valves and
shall be piped clear of the boiler setting.
The stop valves shall consist preferably of
one automatic non-return valve and a
second valve of the outside-screw and yoke
type.
2.7 Blow Off Connections — Fire Tube Boiler
a. The construction of the setting around each
blow-off pipe shall permit of free expansion
and contraction. Careful attention shall be
given to the problem of sealing these setting
openings without restricting the movement
of the blow-off piping.
 CHAPTER 7— BOILERS AND PRESSURE VESSELS
b. Fire brick or other resisting materials, so
constructed, shall protect all blow-off piping,
when exposed to furnace heat, that the
piping may be readily inspected.
c. Each boiler shall have a blow-off pipe, fitted
with a valve or cock, in direct connection
with the lowest water space. Cocks shall be
of the gland or guard type and suitable for
the pressure allowed. The use of globe
valves shall not be permitted. When the
maximum allowable working pressure
2 gage, each blow-off
exceeds 7.00 kg/cm
pipe shall be provided with two valves or a
valve and cock, such valves and cocks to be
of the extra heavy type.
d. All fittings between the boiler and blow-off
valve shall be steel or extra heavy fittings or
malleable iron. In case of renewal of blow-
off pipe or fittings, they shall be installed in
accordance with the rules and regulations
for new installations.
e. When the maximum allowable working
2 gage, blow
pressure exceeds 7.00 kg/cm
off piping shall be extra heavy from the
boiler to the valve or valves, and shall be
run full size without the use of reducers or
bushings. The piping shall be extra heavy
wrought iron or steel and shall not be
galvanized.
f. Whenever repairs are made to fittings or
appurtenances or it becomes necessary to
replace them, the work shall comply with the
code for new installations.
g. All cases not specifically covered by these
rules and regulations shall be treated as
New Installations or may be referred to the
government agency for instructions
concerning the requirements .
Section 3.0 Specific Requirements for
Miniature Boilers
3.1 New Boiler Installations
a. No Miniature Boiler, except reinstalled
boilers and those exempted by these Rules
and Regulations, shall hereafter be installed
unless it has been constructed! inspected
and stamped in conformity with ASME Boiler
Construction Code and is approved,
registered and inspected in accordance with
these Rules and Regulations.
136
3.2 Existing Installations
a. Rules and Regulations, as adopted for
Power Boilers applying to strength of
materials and calculations to determine
maximum allowable working pressure, shall
be used for Miniature Boilers unless a
special rule is stated herein.
3.3 General Requirements
a. Maximum Allowable Working Pressure.
The maximum allowable working pressure
on the shell of a boiler or drum shall be
determined by this Code.
b. Construction. The construction of miniature
boilers including Factor of Safety, except
where otherwise specified, shall conform to
that required for power boilers.
c. Safety Valves
1. Each miniature boiler shall be
equipped with a sealed, spring-
loaded pop type safety valve not
less than 12.7 mm pipe size,
connected directly to the boiler.
The safety valve relieving capacity
of each boiler shall be such that it
will discharge all the steam that can
be generated by the boiler without
allowing the pressure to rise more
than six (6) percent above the
maximum allowable working
pressure.
2. In those cases where the boiler is
supplied with feedwater directly
from a pressure main or system
without the use of a mechanical
feeding device, the safety valve
shall be set to release at a pressure
not in excess of ninety-four (94)
percent of the lowest pressure
obtained in the supply main or
system feeding the boiler. Return
traps shall not be considered
mechanical feeding devices.
d. Water Gage Glass
1. Each miniature boiler shall be
equipped with water gage glass for
the determination of water level.
 CHAPTER 7— BOILERS AND PRESSURE VESSELS
2. The lowest permissible water level
shall be at a point one-third (1/3) of
the height of the shell, except where
the boiler is equipped with internal
furnace, in which case it shall be not
less than one-third of the tube
length above the top of the furnace.
3. For small boilers where there is
insufficient space for the usual type
of gage glass, water level indicators
of the glass bull’s eye type may be
used.
e. Feedwater Connection
1. Every miniature boiler shall be
provided with at least one feed
pump or other mechanical feeding
device except where the following
conditions exist:
a) Where the boiler is connected to
a water main or system having
sufficient pressure to feed the
boiler at any time while under
pressure.
b) Where the fuel burned is such
that all heat input can be
discontinued instantaneously by
the operation of a valve, cock,
or switch, thereby permitting the
boiler pressure to be quickly
lowered to a point where water
can be introduced from the
connection to the water main.
c) Where the boiler is operated
without extraction of steam
(closed system) in which case
the boiler is filled, when cold,
through the connections or
opening provided in accordance
with the following rule.
2. Each miniature boiler shall be fitted
with a feedwater connection which
shall not be less than 12.7 mm iron
pipe size. The feed piping shall be
provided with a check valve near
the boiler and a valve or check
between the check valve boiler.
3. Feedwater may be introduced
through the blow-off connection
137
where the boiler is operated without
extraction of steam (closed system).
4. Feedwater shall not be introduced
through the water column or gage
glass connections while the boiler is
under pressure.
f. Blow-Off Connection
1. Each miniature boiler shall be
provided with a blow-off connection,
not less than 12.7 mm iron size, in
direct connection with the lowest
water space.
2. Blow-off piping shall not be
galvanized and shall be provided
with a valve or cock.
g. Steam Gage
Each miniature boiler shall be equipped with
a steam gage having a dial range not less
than one and one-half (11/2) times and not
more than twice the maximum allowable
working pressure. The gage shall be
connected to the steam space or to the
steam connection to the gage glass by a
brass or bronze composition siphon tube, or
equivalent device that will keep the gage
tube filled with water.
h. The steam piping from a miniature shall be
provided with a stop valve located as close
to the boiler shell or drum as is practicable,
except in those cases where the boiler and
steam receiver are operated as closed
system.
For installations which are gas-fired, the
burners used shall conform to the
requirements of the American Gas
Association, as stated in the ASME Boiler
Construction Code.
j. Each gas-fired boiler shall be equipped with
a 100 mm vent pipe or flue extended to an
approved location outside the building or
connected to a chimney flue. Where the
horizontal run is more than 3,050 mm the
vent shall be increased to 152 mm. A draft
hood approved design shall be provided on
each boiler.
 CHAPTER 7— BOILERS AND PRESSURE VESSELS
Section 4.0 Specific Requirements for
Low-Pressure Heating Boilers
4.1 New Installation
a. No Heating Boiler, except re-installed boilers
and those exempted by these Rules and
Regulations, shall hereafter be installed
unless it has been constructed, inspected
and stamped in conformity with ASME Boiler
Construction Code or its equivalent and is
approved, registered and inspected in
accordance with the requirements of these
Rules and Regulations.
b. All new installation boilers, including re
installed boilers, must be installed in
accordance with the requirements of the
latest revision of the ASME Boiler
Construction Code or its equivalent and
these Rules and Regulations.
42 General Requirements
If in the judgment of the Engineer based on the
following and other requirements, a steam
heating boiler is unsafe for operation at the
pressure previously approved, the pressure
shall be reduced, proper repair made or the
boiler retired from service.
a. Safety Valves
Each steam heating boiler shall be provided
with one or more safety valves with a total
2 for each 0.465
area of not less than 25.4m
2
m of grate area, or equivalent, if grates are
not used. It is further provided that the
steam relieving capacity of the safety valve
or valves on any boiler shall be sufficient to
prevent a boiler pressure greater than 1.4
. If there is any doubt as to the
2
kg/cm
capacity of the safety valve,
accumulation test shall be run.
No stop valve of any description shall be
located between a boiler and its safety
valve; nor in the safety valve discharge pipe.
The safety valve may be located on a main
steam pipe connection at the boiler.
b. Water Relief Valves
Each Hot Water Heating or Hot Water
Supply boiler shall have one or more relief
valves of the spring-loaded type without disc
guides on the pressure side of the valve.
The valves shall be set to relieve at or below
the maximum allowable working pressure of
the boiler and so arranged that they cannot
be reset to relieve at a higher pressure of
the boiler.
Each relief valve shall have a substantial
device which will positively lift the disc from
its seat at least 1.5 mm when there is no
pressure on the boiler.
c. Steam Gage
Each steam boiler shall have a steam
pressure gage connected to the steam
space near the boiler itself. The ranges of
the steam gage shall not be less than 1.0
bar nor more than 2.0 bars.
d. Water Gage Glass and Gage Cocks
Each steam boiler shall have at least one
water gage glass with the lowest visible part
above the heating surfaces in primary
combustion chamber. When, in the
judgment of an Engineer, the heating
surfaces above the low water line may be
injured by contact with gases of high
temperature, the water gage shall be raised
until the lowest visible part of the gage glass
is above such heating surface.
Each steam boiler shall have two or more
gage cocks located within the visible length
of the water gage glass; except when such
boiler is provided with two water gage
glasses.
e. Stop Valves and Check Valves
If a boiler may be closed off from the heating
system by closing a steam stop valve, there
shall be a check valve in the condensate
an return line between the boiler and the
system.
If any part of heating system may be closed
off from the remainder of the system by
closing a steam stop valve, there shall be
a check valve in the condensate return pipe
from that part of the system.
f. Feedwater Connection
Feedwater connections shall be
independent of any water gage connection
138
 CHAPTER 7 BOILERS AND PRESSURE VESSELS

and be made to the condensate return pipe Rupture discs or safety heads may be used
or reservoir of the condensate return pump. for additional protection of pressure vessels.
There should be a stop valve and a check
valve in the feedwater line at the boiler. 5.2 Existing Installations

g. Return Pump a. Maximum Allowable Working Pressure

Each condensate return pump where 1. For Internal Pressure — The

practicable shall be provided with an maximum allowable working
automatic water level control set to maintain pressure on the shell of a pressure
the water level within the limits of two gage vessel shall be determined by the
cocks. strength of the weakest course
computed from the thickness of the
h. Repairs and Renewal of Fittings and plate, the tensile strength of the
Appurtenances plate, the efficiency of the
longitudinal joint, the inside radius of
Whenever repairs are made to fittings or the course and the factor of safety
appurtenances or it becomes necessary to by those rules.
replace them, the work must comply with the
Code for New Installations. TS x t x E
= Maximum allowable working
Section 5.0 Unfired Pressure Vessels R x FS pressure in MPa
Test and Inspection
5.1 New Installations TS = Ultimate tensile strength of shell
plate, 2
N/mm . When the
a. Requirements tensile strength is not known it
shall be taken as 310.34 N/mm
2
No Unfired Pressure Vessel except for temperatures not exceeding
reinstalled vessels and those exempt by the 371°C.
Rules and Regulations, shall hereafter be
installed unless it has been constructed, t Minimum thickness of shell plate
inspected and stamped in conformity with of weakest course, mm.
ASME Unfired Pressure Vessel Boiler
Construction Code and is approved, E = Efficiency of longitudinal joint
registered and inspected in accordance with depending upon construction.
the requirements of these Rules and
Regulations. Use values as follows:

b. All new installations unfired pressure For fusion welded joints

vessels, including reinstalled unfired
pressure vessels shall be installed in Single lap weld 40%
accordance with the requirements of the Double lap weld 60%
latest revision of the ASME Unfired Single butt weld 50%
Pressure Vessel Boiler Construction Code, Double butt weld 70%
and these Rules and Regulations. Forge weld 70%
Brazed steel 80%
c. Inspections Brazed copper 90%

Upon completion of the installation, all R = Inside radius of weakest course

unfired pressure vessels shall be inspected of shell, mm, provided the
by the representative authorized by the thickness does not exceed ten
government agency concerned. (10) percent of the radius. If the
thickness is over ten (10)
d. Rupture Discs percent of the radius, the outer
radius shall be used.

139
 CHAPTER 7— BOILERS AND PRESSURE VESSELS
FS = Factor of safety allowed by
those rules.
2. For external pressure
The maximum allowable working
pressure for cylindrical vessels
subjected to external or collapsing
pressure shall be determined by the
rules of the ASME Unfired Boiler
Construction Code.
Section 6.0 Boiler Inspection
6.1 Scope
All boilers and unfired pressure vessels, whether
locally manufactured or manufactured outside
the country, shall undergo hydrostatic tests
before installation. All others unless otherwise
exempted by these Rules and Regulations, and
which are subject to annual inspections as
provided for in this code shall be prepared for
such inspections, or hydrostatic tests whenever
necessary, by the owner or user when notified
by the authorized representative of the
government agency. It is important that
inspection be thorough, complete, and
accomplished as outlined in this section by both
the Authorized Inspector and plant inspector as
defined in (a) and (b) below.
a. All reference to Authorized Inspector
throughout this section mean the Authorized
Inspector, who is an Inspector employed by
a city or municipality in the Philippines.
These Inspectors shall be licensed
Mechanical Engineers for boilers below 350
hp and Licensed Professional Mechanical
Engineers for boilers 350 hp and above.
b. The plant inspector should be an individual
who is a Licensed Mechanical Engineer
knowledgeable and experienced either with
the construction, operation, inspection, and
maintenance procedures for power boilers.
He should be designated by the plant
manager.
6.2 Inspection Frequency
Similar inspections should be made by the
person responsible for the boiler plant as a
whole or by his duly authorized representative
who is hereafter termed Quality Assurance
Engineer or Plant Inspector. Such inspections
should be supplementary to those made by the
140
Authorized Inspector and should not be
considered as supplanting or superseding the
mandatory inspections made by the Authorized
Inspector.
If required by the jurisdiction before a boiler is
put into operation for the first time, it should be
inspected by the Authorized Inspector. If such
an inspection is not required, the boiler should
be inspected by the plant inspector. In addition
to determining that all equipment is furnished
and installed in accordance with the jurisdiction,
the Code, and the plant specification, all controls
should be tested by a person familiar with the
control system. As opposed to inspection during
manufacture, which pertains to conforming to
Code requirements, this inspection will be
concerned with ensuring that the boiler
supports, piping arrangements, safety devices,
water columns, gage cocks, thermometers,
controls, and other apparatus on the boiler meet
jurisdictional requirements and are adequate for
operation in the system or process in which the
steam is to be used.
Boilers that have been on cold standby or out of
service for a prolonged period should be
carefully inspected internally and externally for
corrosion and for operability of accessories,
safety devices, and controls prior to placing the
boiler in service.
6.3 Preparation for Inspection
6.3.1 General
Where soot blowers are installed, they should
be operated before reducing the boiler load to
50% of normal rating to clean external
surlaces for inspection. It is not advisable to
operate soot blowers after extinguishing fires
due to explosion hazard.
All fires should be extinguished. The fuel
supply lines should be shut-off and locked
where feasible. Where oil is used, atomizers
should be removed from oil burners. Where
gas is used and the supply line does not have
a double block and bleed (two shut-off valves
with a vent to atmosphere between them), the
supply line should be blanked off and a
section of the pipe removed between the gas
shut-off valve and burner.
The boiler and furnace must be cooled
sufficiently before draining to prevent damage
to the boiler and to prevent the baking of
 CHAPTER 7— BOILERS AND PRESSURE VESSELS
internal deposits that may be present on the
heating surface. It is recommended that the
boiler be drained while there is sufficient heat
present t dry out interior of the boiler when
ventilated by opening manhole and handhole
covers.
Before opening all manhole and selected
handhole covers, wash out plugs and water
connections, the non-return and steam stop
valves should be closed, tagged, and
preferably padlocked, and the drain valves or
cocks between the two valves should be
opened. The feed and check valves should be
closed, tagged, and preferably padlocked shut
with any drain valves or cocks located
between these two valves opened. After
draining the boiler, the blowoff valves should
be closed and padlocked. Blowoff lines, where
practical, should be disconnected between
pressure parts and valves.
The plant inspector should enter the boiler to
make a personal examination of conditions,
but before entering he should first make sure
that it has been properly ventilated and
isolated from active systems. Where possible
portable lamps of 12V or less with current
supplied from transformers or batteries should
be used. Only approved, properly guarded
extension cords with waterproof fittings should
be used, and all connections should be made
external to the boiler. Light fixtures should be
equipped with explosion-proof guards.
Sockets, light guards and fittings should be
properly grounded. Where it is necessary to
use higher voltage supplies, all sockets,
guards, and fittings should be properly
grounded and the circuit provided with
appropriate ground fault service interrupters.
Equipment should be suitable for use in the
boiler or furnace to prevent explosion and
ignition of combustible materials (coal dust,
soot, oil, etc.) and electrical shock.
6.3.2 Water Side
The water surfaces of drums and tubes should
be preferably not be cleaned, unless
otherwise agreed, until after the plant
inspector has a chance to observe the
conditions.
The plant inspector should enter the drum of
the boiler to make a personal examination of
conditions, but before entering he should first
141
make sure that the drum has been properly
ventilated.
6.3.3 Fire Side
The walls, baffles, tubes, tubesheets, shells,
and drums should be cleaned of ash and soot
to give the plant inspector an opportunity to
examine all parts thoroughly. Brickwork should
be removed as required by the plant inspector
in order to determine the condition of the
furnace, supports, or other parts. It is not
necessary to remove insulation material,
masonry, or fixed parts of the boiler unless
defects or deterioration are suspected. Where
there is moisture or vapor showing through the
covering, the covering should be removed and
a complete investigation made.
6.3.4 External Surfaces and Parts
The external inspection will not require any
particular preparation other than giving the
plant inspector convenient access to the
generating unit and its connections.
All external inspections by the plant inspector
should include the examination of the boiler,
its appurtenances, and connections while the
boiler is in service. This inspection is made
primarily to observe operation and
maintenance of safety devices and operating
procedures.
6.3.5 Inspection of Internal Surfaces and Parts
6.3.6 All Boilers
The internal inspection of the boiler by the
plant inspector should include the examination
of the physical structure with a view to
determining its adequacy for service. The
inspection should cover the condition of the
entire boiler, which may include drum,
waterwalls, superheater, reheater, and
economizer with their fittings, as well as steam
and water connections with their fittings and
valves. The inspection should particularly
include a reexamination of defects and
previous repairs recorded on past inspection
reports.
After the drums, tubes, and other pressure
parts have been inspected for deposits and
scale, all these surfaces should be cleaned
internally either by washing, by mechanical
means, or by chemical methods as necessary
 CHAPTER 7— BOILERS AND PRESSURE VESSELS
to provide a clean metal surface for
inspection by the plant inspector. After
cleaning, all loose scale and accumulated
deposits should be removed from the boiler
and other pressure parts. Brickwork and
refractory materials should be dried out
carefully when firing up.
The plant inspector should examine all internal
surfaces of the exposed metal to observe any
detrimental action caused by water treatment,
scale solvents, oil, or other substances that
may have entered the boiler. The upper half of
the drums in the steam space should be
inspected, particularly for signs of grease, oil,
or similar deposits. Any evidence of oil should
be taken to prevent the entrance of any
additional oil into the boiler. Oil or scale
deposits subject to furnace heat in any boiler
may cause tubes or other heating surfaces to
overheat, bulge, or rupture.
6.3.7 Corrosion and Grooving
Corrosion along or immediately adjacent to a
joint or seam is more serious than a similar
amount of corrosion in the solid plate.
Grooving or cracking along longitudinal seams
is especially significant as it is likely to occur
when the material is highly stressed. Severe
corrosion is likely to occur at points where the
circulation of water is poor, such places
should be inspected carefully.
Careful inspection of the interior of the boiler
should be made for cracks, broken stays,
pitting, corrosions, erosion, scale, and thin
place in the drums.
The interior face of riveted joints should be
examined for conditions of riveting, thinness of
metal, corrosion, cracks, and other defects or
faults.
Particular attention should also be given to the
tube ends, tubesheets, and drums. The plant
inspector should note any corrosion or
cracking of the tubesheets, tube ends,
furnaces, or drums, signs of leaking tubes,
excessive thinning of the tubes from repeated
rolling, and the condition of any ferrules and
nipples within the drums.
The plant inspector should note any evidence
of corrosion or cracking due to leakage at
manholes and handholes.
142
6.3.8 Stays
The plant inspector should note any erosion,
corrosion, or cracking of stays and braces.
Particular inspection should be made of any
welded stays or braces. All stays, whether
diagonal or through, should be examined to
see if they are in even tension. All fastened
ends should be inspected to note if cracks
exist where the plate is punched or drilled. If
stays are not found in proper tension,
corrective action is recommended. The plant
inspector should test staybolts by tapping one
end of each bolt with a hammer, and when
practical, a hammer or other heavy tool should
be held at the opposite end by an assistant to
make the test more effective.
6.3.9 Fusible Plugs
Some older boilers of both firetube and
watertube-type have fusible plugs. If fusible
plugs are used, determine whether they are
kept in good condition and that they are not
used for more than 1 year, as provided for in
ASME Code. When the boiler is opened,
scrape clean and brighten the exposed
surface of the fusible material as well as the
surface of the boiler near the plugs. If the
fusible metal does not appear sound, renew
the plug. Never refill a plug with anything but
new metal.
6.3.10 Localization of Heat
Localization of heat caused by an improperly
adjusted or defective burner or by poor stoker
installation or operation, creating a blowtorch
effect upon the furnace and tubes, should be
corrected and the affected area should be
inspected while the boiler is shut down.
6.3.11 Freedom of Expansion
When boiler or boiler parts are suspended, the
supports and settings should be examined
carefully, especially at point when the boiler
structure comes near the setting walls or floor
to make sure that the ash and soot will not
restrict the boiler and produce excessive
strains due to thermal expansion under
operating conditions.
6.3.12 Lap Joints
Boilers with riveted lap joints are apt to crack
where the plates lap in the longitudinal or
 CHAPTER 7- BOILERS AND PRESSURE VESSELS
straight seam. If there is any sign of leakage
or other distress at this joint, it should be
investigated thoroughly to determine if cracks
exist in the seam. Any cracks noted in the
shell plate are usually dangerous.
6.3.13 Fire Surfaces
Particular attention should be given to plate or
tube surfaces exposed to fire. The plant
inspector should observe whether any part of
the boiler has become deformed during
operation by bulging or blistering. If bulges or
blisters are large enough to seriously weaken
the plate or tube, or if water is leaking such a
defect, the boiler should remain out of service
until the defective part or parts have received
proper repairs. Careful observation should be
made to detect leakage from any part of the
boiler structure, particularly in the vicinity of
seams and tube ends.
The plant inspector should inspect the setting
for cracks and settlement. Where brickwork is
used as insulation of steel supporting
members, it should be examined to see that it
is in good condition and that the air space, if
any, is maintained. The furnace refractory
should be examined for spalling, and
settlement.
6.3.14 Watertube Boilers
The interior of the tubes should be examined
for scale and deposits. Tube ends should be
examined for wastage of metal, brittleness,
and short tubes.
Where waterwalls are used, selected
handholes should be opened in the headers.
These headers should be thoroughly
inspected for corrosion or deposits and
cleaned out, if necessary, to prevent failures
of waterwall tubes when starting up.
The condition of the internal pipes in the
steam drum should be inspected to see that
their opening and perforations are free form
deposits. All interior fittings should be
inspected for loose connections and damaged
or missing gaskets.
Furnace wall headers that are partially
exposed to radiant should be inspected
carefully for any evidence of cracking. Drums,
tubes, and headers of boilers fired by coal or
other fuels containing or producing abrasive
143
solid particles should be inspected carefully
for erosion. The inspector should inspect
baffles and walls, particularly for holes, which
may permit short circuiting of gases. The plant
inspector should inspect soot blowers, where
used, and also the boiler tubes for cutting or
erosion due to discharge from the blower
nozzles. The plant inspector should enter the
furnace for the inspection of the exterior of
tubes, drums, brickwork, and baffles.
In watertube boiler, it should be noted whether
the proper flue gas baffling is in place. The
deterioration of baffling often causes high
temperature on portions of the boiler structure,
which are not intended for such temperatures
and may result in a dangerous condition. The
location of combustion arches with respect to
tube surfaces should be noted to make sure
they do not cause the flame to impinge on a
particular part of the boiler and produce
overheating.
In vertical watertube boilers, the bridgewalls
should be inspected to see that the mud drum
is properly protected. In sectional and non-
sectional header-type watertube boilers, the
front and rear walls should be examined to
make sure that the bottoms of the headers are
properly protected. Tile or refractory for
protection of drums should be examined
carefully to make sure that drum plates are not
exposed directly to furnace flames or gases. A
defective condition of refractory and/or
insulation can be detected during operation by
location of hot spots on the casing or other
outer covering of the furnace and boiler.
6.3.15 Firetube Boilers
6.3.15.1 Tube Defects
Tubes in horizontal firetube boilers
deteriorate more rapidly at the ends toward
the fire. They should be carefully tapped
with a light hammer on their outer surface to
determine if there has been a serious
reduction in thickness. They should be
inspected as far as possible either through
the handholes, if any, or inspected at the
ends.
The surface of tubes should be carefully
inspected to detect bulges, cracks, or any
evidence or defective welds. Where there is
a high gas velocity, the tubes may become
eroded by the impingement by particles of
 CHAPTER 7— BOILERS AND PRESSURE VESSELS
fuel and ash. A leak from a tube frequently
causes serious erosion action on a number
of tubes in its immediate vicinity. The
exterior of the tubes should be inspected for
scale and deposits. The space between the
tubes should be made visible by lowering a
small light between them for the purpose of
making sure that there is no restriction of
circulation.
6.4.10.2 Ligaments Between Tube Holes
The ligaments between tube holes in the
heads of all fire tube boilers should be
inspected. If leakage is noted, broken
ligaments could be the reason.
6.4.10.3 Manholes and Other Openings
The manholes and other reinforcing plates,
as well as nozzles and other flanged or
screwed connections on the boiler, should
be inspected internally and externally to see
that they are not cracked or deformed.
Manhole ring surfaces should be examined
for erosion and corrosion. Particular
attention should be given to areas of the
shell where feedwater piping terminates.
Whenever possible, observation should be
made from inside the boiler to check
soundness of pipe connections to the boiler.
All opening to external attachments, such as
connections to the low water cutoff and
opening to safety relief devices, should be
inspected to see that they are from
obstruction.
6.4.10.4 Fire Surfaces
Firetubes sometimes blister but rarely
collapse. The plant inspector should
examine the tubes for such defects; if any
are found to have sufficient distortion to
warrant it, they should be replaced.
Inspection of firetube boilers include a check
for any impingment of flame on dry sheets,
particularly at the back arch of return tubular
boiler. The arch should be entirely clear of
the rear tube sheets with sheet metal or
asbestos rope closing the gap.
6.5 Inspection of External Surfaces and Part
6.5.1 General
144
The plant inspector should inspect the boiler
for alignment, setting, loss of plumb, or
abnormal movement such as displacement of
drums or other pressure parts. He should
ensure that provisions are made for expansion
and contraction of the boiler and setting, that
external clearances for boiler expansion are
unobstructed, and that all supports are in
proper condition to carry loads imposed on
them. Permanent reference marks or
indicators on drums and headers are
recommende d to enable rechecking their
position (both hot and cold). The plant
inspector should verify that proper expansion
movement occurs as the boiler is returned to
service after an outage. Water sealed
expansion joints between the furnace and ash
pit should be examined for leaks in the baffle
and for accumulation of sludge.
Inspection should be made for evidence of
corrosion of the exterior of drums or tubes and
a check made for leaks from root, stacks,
valves, or pipes. Riveted joints, butt straps,
and riveted heads should be examined for
leaks or wastage. If tell tale holes are provided
on stays, they should be kept clean. If there is
evidence of leakage, the stay should be
replaced. Where butt straps are covered by
masonry or insulation, periodic testing and
inspection for expansion is recommended.
Supporting steel, buck stays, and tie rods
should be inspected for condition and possible
shifting from place.
6.5.2 Piping
The condition of the main steam header, its
connections to the boiler, and its support units
should be inspected to determine that it is
properly supported, that allowance is made for
expansion and contraction without exerting
excessive stress or strain on the pressure
parts of the boiler, and that the non return and
stop valves in good working condition.
All piping should be inspected for leaks; if any
are found, it should be determined whether
they are the result of excessive strains due to
expansion or contraction or other causes. The
general arrangement of the piping in regard to
the provisions for expansion and drainage, as
well as adequate support at the proper points
should be carefully noted. There should be no
pockets in the connecting piping that can hold
water unless they can be drained or equipped
with stream traps.
 CHAPTER 7— BOILERS AND PRESSURE VESSELS
The connections between individual boilers
and the supply and return headers should be
especially noted to see that any change of
position of the boiler due to settling or other
causes has not placed an undue strain on the
piping.
The plant inspector should also determine that
no parts, including all water pipes, are subject
to undue vibration. Special attention should be
given to blowoff pipes, connections, and
fittings because expansion and contraction
due to rapid changes in temperature and
water hammer action cause strain upon the
entire blowoff and drain connection on each
boiler should be tested by opening the valve
for a few seconds to determine whether there
is excessive vibration.
The blowoff connections should be inspected
carefully for corrosion and weakness where
they connect with the boiler. The protective
cover of brick or tile should be intact and not
interfere in any way with the expansion of the
boiler or pipe. Blowoff lines, if embedded in
masonry, should be periodically exposed for
inspection. Blowoff piping should be supported
externally, if necessary, in such a manner that
will drain properly and will not impose
excessive stress on the drum connection while
either cold or hot and during blowdown.
6.5.3 Safety Valves
As the safety valve is the most important
safety device on the power boiler, it should be
inspected with the utmost care. Safety valves
should be inspected and tested as prescribed
in ASME Code.
6.5.4 Boiler Appurtenances
Boiler appurtenances such as gage glasses,
gage cocks, water columns, water level
controls, high and low water alarms or cutoffs,
blowoff valves, feed valves, and non-return
valves should be inspected and tested at
regular intervals and during external
inspections or as required by the Authorized
inspector. Boiler pressure gages and master
gages should be checked with other reliable
gages in the same system or be compared
with a properly calibrated test gage.
6.6 Care and Maintenance
145
Safety is very important and should be
foremost in the minds of those who are
assigned to inspect, operate and maintain
power boilers. Only properly trained qualified
personnel should inspect, operate and repair
power boilers.
6.6.1 Housekeeping
Generally, a neat boiler room indicates a well-
run plant. The boiler room should be kept free
of all material and equipment not necessary to
operate the power boiler. Good housekeeping
should be encouraged, and procedures should
include routine inspection to maintain a
desired level of cleanliness.
The plant inspector should report improper
housekeeping to his immediate supervisor.
Materials for repair or maintenance should not
be stored in a manner that will obstruct proper
access to the boiler, furnace, or firing
equipment. Any steam or water leaks should
be reported to his supervisor. If the leak is
from the shell, drum, or other than from a tube
or pipe joint, it may be cause for immediate
shutdown for investigation.
6.6.2 Certificates and/or Licenses
The Philippines requires licensed and certified
personnel to operate and maintain power
boilers. All inspection certificates and licenses
or certificates of personnel shall be posted in
an appropriate place. Owner or operators of
the power boiler should ensure that all
jurisdictional requirements are met and, that
permits and certificates are posted.
6.6.3 Record Keeping and Logs
6.6.3.1 General
All drawings, wiring diagrams, schematic
arrangements, Manufacturer’s descriptive
literature, spare parts list, written operating
instruction, Manufacturer’s suggested care
and maintenance, and other pertinent data
should be kept permanently in the boiler
room or other suitable locations so it will be
kept permanently in the boiler room or other
suitable locations so it will be readily
available to those who operate and maintain
the power boiler. When changes or
additions are made, the data and drawings
should be revised accordingly.
 CHAPTER 7— BOILERS AND PRESSURE VESSELS
The plant inspector should have available
for the benefit of the Inspector all pertinent
data on the boiler unit as to design,
dimensions, age, particulars about previous
defects, modifications, or repairs.
A record of each inspection should be kept
in a uniform manner so that any change of
condition can be definitely noted and
compared, especially with reference to the
thickness of scale, corrosion, erosion,
cracks, and other unusual conditions.
Between periodic inspections by the
authorized Inspector, the plant inspector
should closely observe the operation and
condition of the boiler and should report
immediately to the plant engineer or plant
management any serious defects, doubtful
conditions, or unusual occurrences.
6.6.3.2 Permanent Log Book
A permanent log book should be provided
for each power boiler in the plant to record
maintenance work, inspections, tests,
repairs, and other pertinent data. Brief
details of repairs and other work performed
on the boiler should be recorded.
Performance of tests and inspections
required by jurisdictions or insurance
companies should also be recorded.
6.6.3.3 Daily Log
A daily log for scheduling and recording
work performed and maintenance, testing,
and inspection is recommended. The routine
work normally performed on power boilers is
listed. As each portion of the work is
completed, the person performing the work
should enter the date and his initials in the
appropriate spaces.
The plant inspector should note particularly
any evidence or carelessness in the
maintenance and operation of the boiler and
related equipment.
The plant inspector should recommend
immediate correction of any unsafe
conditions or undesirable practices that may
be discovered and should report promptly
and fully on the results of his inspection to
his immediate superiors.
The plant inspector should be furnished a
copy of all reports of inspections made by
146
an Authorized Inspector and should see that
all recommendations in such reports are
promptly and carefully considered.
6.7 Repairs
When repairs have been made, especially tube
replacement, the plant inspector should observe
whether the work has been done properly.
Excessive rolling of tubes, where they are
accessible, is a common fault of inexperienced
workmen. However, when it is difficult to reach
the tube end and observe the extent of the
rolling, they are frequently under-rolled. This
inadvertently results in separation of the parts
and leakage.
When damage to pressure parts is encountered,
requiring repairs by processes such as welding,
the review and acceptance of an Authorized
Inspector should be obtained on the manner in
which the repair is to be made. It may also be
necessary to contract the Authorized Inspector
prior to retubing and rerolling of tubes. A
hydrostatic test may be required if repairs are
made, as required by the Authorized Inspector.
6.8 Hydrostatic Test.
When there is a question or doubt in the extent
of a defect found in a boiler, the Authorized
Inspector, in order to more fully decide upon its
seriousness, may request the application of a
hydrostatic test.
Hydrostatic test pressure should not exceed 1-
1/2 times the maximum allowable working
pressure. During the test, the safety valves
should be gagged or removed from the boiler as
should all controls and appurtenances unable to
withstand the test pressure without damage. It
is suggested that the minimum temperature of
the water be 70°Fand a maimum of 12OF.
For new generation Boilers, (Boilers used for
utility power generation) wher hydrostatic testing
at 1.5 times Maximum Allowable Pressure
entails costly downtimes and requires
modification of section, thereby causing major
disruptions in plant operations tht adversely
affect economic activities, the following testing
procedures is hereby adopted:
a. In new installations, before operation,
hydrostatic test at 1.5 times design
pressure.
 CHAPTER 7— BOILERS AND PRESSURE VESSELS

b. Hydrostatic testing shall be conducted at k. evidence of corrosion or erosion;

least every 5 years thereafter at a test
pressure not exceeding 1.5 times but not I. blow-off piping and valves;
lower than 1.2 times the Maximum
Allowable Working Pressure. m. pressure gage, gage cocks! water glass.

c. Hydrostatic testing may be conducted during 6.9.2 Internal Inspection

shutdown for maintenance purposes at a
text pressure not greater than the set Examine the following:
pressure of the safety valve having the
lowest setting. a. internal surfaces for scale deposits, oil
deposit, other deposits, active / inactive
d. While hydrostatic test may not be conducted corrosion, erosion, grooving, bulging,
in boiler used for utility power generation warping, cracking, defective rivets,
during annual safety inspection, the bowed, loose or broken stays, water feed
inspection fee as prescribed shall still be line obstructed; and
paid to the government agency concerned
during the annual internal inspection b. low water fuel supply cut-out dismantled,
conducted. float condition, bellows, electrical
connections, mercury switches, and
6.9 Boiler General
- probe-type porcelains.

6.9.1 All Inspections 6.10 Authorized Inspector

The following features of all boilers should be Authorized inspector is defined in 6.1 a.
checked during each inspection: When certification and/or licensing are
required by the jurisdictional authorities, the
a. safety / relief valve nameplate capacity, Authorized Inspector is normally the individual
set pressure, connection to boiler, who will make the required inspections for the
discharge line, testing; issuance of the certificate and/or license to
operate.
b. low water fuel supply cut-out, level control
or regulator, water feeder controls When required by the jurisdictional authority
combined / separate, stop valves in the Authorized Inspector should make an
connection lines, testing; internal and external inspection of all power
boilers at least once each year and any
c. controls operative, control maintenance additional inspections that the Authorized
Inspector may deem necessary. In some
d. flue and damper arrangement, combustion jurisdictions, the annual internal inspection
safeguards; may be extended, if certain conditions are
met.
e. burner refractory, flame impingement,
baffles, lining, supports; When required by the jurisdictional authority,
the Authorized Inspector should make an
f. source of feedwater, condition of inspection prior to placing boilers in service for
feedpump, feedwater treatment; the first time. This inspection should be as
outlined in 6.2.
g. condensate return system, amount
returned; The Authorized Inspector should review, for
acceptance, the manner in which repairs or
h. review of boiler maintenance and alterations are to be made to ensure that
operating logs; Code integrity of the power boiler is
maintained.
i. buried line, line leakage;
The Authorized Inspector may require and
j. steam pipe supports, piping free to witness a hydrostatic test whenever repairs
expand and contract; have been made, or when there is a question

147
 CHAPTER 7— BOILERS AND PRESSURE VESSELS
or doubt about the extent of a defect found
during inspection of a power boiler.
The plant inspector should accompany the
Authorized Inspector during his inspection.
6.11 Low Water Fuel Cut-Offs
All automatically-fired system or vapor boilers,
excepting boilers a constant attendant who
has no other duties while the boilers is in
operation, shall be equipped with an automatic
low-water fuel cut-off and/or water feeding
device so constructed that the water inlet
valve cannot feed water into the boiler through
the float chamber, and so located as to
automatically cut off the fuel supply and/or
supply requisite feedwater when the surface of
the wall falls to the lowest safe water line.
This point should be not lower than the bottom
of the water glass.
Such a fuel of feedwater control device may
be attached direct to a boiler or to the tapped
openings provided for attaching a water glass
direct to the boiler, provided that such
connections from the boiler are non-ferrous
tees or Y’s not less than 12.7 mm diameter
pipe size between the boiler and the water
glass so that the water glass is attached direct
and as close as possible to the boiler; the
straightway tapping of the Y or tee to take the
water glass fittings, the side outlet of the Y or
the tee to take the fuel cut-off or water feeding
device. The ends of all nipples shall be
reamed to full size diameter. Designs
embodying a float bowl shall have a vertical
straight-a-way valve drain pipe at the lowest
point in the water equalizing pipe connections
by which the bowl and equalizing pipe can be
flushed and device tested.
6.12 Safety Gadgets I Cut-Outs
No person shall remove or tamper with any
safety gadgets or components prescribed by
these rules except for the purpose of making
repairs. The resetting of safety gadgets or
components shall be done in the presence of
an authorized representative of the
government agency concerned.
Section 7.0 BIow-Offs, Pressure
Reduction, Fire Explosion Devices
7.1 Blow-Off Tanks
148
a. Blow-off piping from a power boiler or
miniature shall not discharge directly into
a sewer. A blow-off tank shall be used
where conditions do not provide an
adequate and safe open discharge.
b. Blow-off tanks hereafter installed, if made
of metal shall have a plate thickness of not
less than 8 mm diameter and shall be
designed for a minimum working pressure
of 0.345 MPa or 3.45 bars.
c. The outlet from the blow-off tank shall be
twice the area of the inlet pipe and made
to extend internally within 203 mm from
the bottom of the tank.
d. A vent pipe at least four (4) times the area
of the inlet pipe shall lead to the outer
atmosphere.
e. Vents shall be as direct as possible to the
outer air and discharge at a safe location.
There shall be no valve or other possible
obstructions such as water pockets,
between the tank and the discharge end
of vent pipe.
f. All pipe connections between the tank and
the boiler shall be as direct as possible
and shall conform to ASME Boiler
Construction Code or its equivalent.
g. For convenience in cleaning the tank, a
manhole or an access opening shall be
provided.
h. Where a blow-off tank is not vented as
specified above, it shall be constructed for
a pressure equal to that allowed on the
boiler to which it is attached or shall be
equipped with a safety valve or valves of
sufficient capacity to prevent the pressure
from exceeding the safe working pressure
of the tank.
7.2 Location of Blow-Offs. The discharge of
safety valves, blow-off pipes and other outlets
shall be located so as to prevent injury to
personnel or avoid making a nuisance to the
surrounding vicinity.
a. Underground Installations. Where
necessary to install a vessel underground ,
it shall be enclosed in a concrete or brick
pit with a removable cover so that
 CHAPTER 7— BOILERS AND PRESSURE VESSELS
inspeclion of the entire shell and heads of
the vessel can be made.
b. Supports. Each unfired pressure vessel
shall be supported by masonry or
structural supports of sufficient strength
and rigidity to safely support the vessel
and its contents. There shall be no
vibration in either the vessel or its
connecting piping.
7.3 Pressure Reducing Valves.
a. Where pressure reducing valves are used,
one or more relief safety valves shall be
provided on the low pressure side of the
reducing valve in case the piping or
equipment on the low pressure side does
not meet the requirements for the full
initial pressure. The relief or safety valves
shall be located adjoining to or as close as
possible to the reducing valve. Proper
protection shall be provided to prevent
injury or damage caused by the escaping
steam form the discharge of relief or
safety valves if vented to the atmosphere.
b. The combined discharge capacity of the
relief valves shall be such that the
pressure rating of the lower pressure
piping or equipment shall not exceed in
case the reducing valve sticks open.
c. The use of hand-controlled bypasses
around reducing valves is permissible.
The by-pass if used around a reducing
valve shall not be greater in capacity than
the reducing valve unless the piping or
equipment is adequately protected by
relief valves or meets the requirements of
the high pressure system.
d. It is mandatory that a pressure gage be
installed on the low-pressure side of a
reducing valve.
7.4 Electric Steam Generators. All appliances
required for electric steam generators shall be
attached in accordance with the following:
a. A cable at least as large as one of the
incoming power lines to the generators
shall be provided for grounding the
generator shell. This cable shall be
permanently fastened on some part of the
generator and shall be grounded in an
improved manner.
149
b. A suitable screen or guard shall be
provided around high-tension bushing and
a sign posted warning of high voltage.
This screen or guard shall be located that
it will be impossible for anyone working
around the generator to accidentally come
in contact with the tension circuits. When
adjusting safety valves, the power circuit
to the generator shall be open. The
generator may be under steam pressure
but the power line shall be open while the
operator is making the necessary
adjustments.
c. Each kW electrical energy consumed by
an electric steam generator operating at
maximum rating shall be considered the
equivalent of 0.093 m 2 of heating surface
of a fire tube boiler when determining the
required amount of safety valve capacity.
Section 8.0 Other Testing Methods
For existing boilers within the five (5) year interval of
hydrostatic testing, any one of the following methods
may be undertaken. This, however, is not mandatory.
8.1 Vacuum Testing
The test is carried out by drawing vacuum of
approximately 60 mbar-abs, through the system
using vacuum pumps at the condenser side or
at any other convenient location to the boiler.
Using an ultrasonic monitor for noise detection,
reading of more than 30 dB emanating from
each different location within the boiler will give
an indication of possible leaks or abnormal
conditions that must be thoroughly investigated
and corrected.
8.2 Ultrasonic Thickness Gauging
The test is based on the amount of time it takes
generated sound waves to pass through a
material and back to the source after being
reflected. The difference in time is translated
into thickness measurement of the material
being tested. The test shall be performed on all
tubes with any indication of erosion. Tube
below recommended nominal wall thickness
shall be repaired using weld overlaid or replaced
as per currently practiced repair procedures.
8.3 Radiographic Testing
X-rays shall be used to penetrate and record on
film the imperfection or defects in the boiler tube
 CHAPTER 7— BOILERS AND PRESSURE VESSELS

materials and to determine integrity of welds. 8.5 Tube Sampling

All welds performed on pressure parts during
outages shall be evaluated using this method. Periodically, samples of boiler tubing shall be
removed from each water wall above the burner
8.4 Metallurgical Replication elevations, platen pendant superheater,
reheater, and economizer sections and
This method shall be used to verify the examined in a metallurgical laboratory. Tube
microstructure of the boiler tubes. The metal microstructure analysis, tube hardness and
surfaces to be examined shall be polished using thickness tests shall be performed, the results of
fine abrasives until a mirror-like surface is which are to be used in predicting the remaining
obtained. The resulting surface shall be etched life of the boiler.
using an appropriate acid and applying softened
acetate film to obtain a reproducible image of
the microstructure of the material. The
replicated images of the sample or component
shall be examined in a metallurgical laboratory
using optical microscopes.

150
 CHAPTER 8— HEATING, VENTILATING, REFRIGERATION AND AIRCONDITIONING

Chapter 8

HEATING, VENTILATING, REFRIGERATION

AND AIRCONDITIOMNG

Section 1.0 Definitions

Approved - acceptable to the authorities having
Refrigeration the process of absorbing heat from a
-
jurisdiction.
place where is not needed and transferring it to a
place where it is unobjectionable. Brazed Joint for the purpose of this Code, a brazed
-

joint is a gas joint, obtained by the joining of metal

Refrigeration System an assembly of our (4) major
-
components, namely the Compressor, Condenser,
Expansion Valve, the Evaporator, through which a
very low boiling point substance (Refrigerant) flow in
cycle, and absorbs heat from the immediate
parts with alloys which melt at temperature higher than
538°C, but less than the melting temperature of the
joined parts.
Brine any liquid cooled by the refrigerant and used
-

surroundings, thereby producing the cooling effect for the transmission of heat without a change in its
(also known as the Refrigerating effect). state, having no flash point or a flash point above
65.6°C as determined by the American Society of
Air Conditioning the process of treating air so as to
—
Testing Materials method D93.
control simultaneously its temperature, humidity,
cleanliness and distribution to meet the requirements Compressor a mechanical device used in
-

of the conditioned space. refrigeration system for the purpose of increasing the
pressure upon the refrigerant.
Ventilation the process of supplying or removing air
by natural or mechanical means to or from any space. Condenser a vessel or arrangement of pipe or
-

Such air may or may not have been conditioned. tubing in which vaporized refrigerant is liquefied by the
removal of heat.
Humidity — unless otherwise stated will mean the
relative humidity in per cent. This is the ratio of the Condensing Unit a specific refrigeration machine
-

actual (measured) partial pressure of the water vapor
in the air mixture to its saturation pressure at the same
dry bulb temperature. This is also the ratio of the
actual weight of moisture per cubic meter of mixture to
the saturated water vapor per cubic meter of mixture
at the same dry bulb temperature.
combination for a given refrigerant, consisting of one
or more power-driven compressors, condensers, liquid
receivers (when required) and the regularly-furnished
accessories.
Design Working Pressure the maximum allowable -

working pressure for which a vessel is designed.

Effective Temperature an empirically determined
-

index, which combines into a single value the effect of Evaporator that part of the system in which liquid
-

temperature, humidity and air movement on the refrigerant is vaporized to produce refrigeration.
sensation of warmth or cold felt by the human body.
The numerical value is that of the temperature of still Expansion Coil - an evaporator constructed of pipe or
saturated air which could induce an identical tubing.
sensation. The wide range of effective temperature is
indicated on graphical representation of comfort zone. Fusible Plug a device having a predetermined
-

temperature fusible member for the relief of pressure.

Ton of Refrigeration - the useful refrigerating effect
equal to (211 KJ/min.) Generator any device equipped with heating
-

element used in the Refrigerating System to increase

Note: = 288000 Btu/24 hrs 12000 Btu/hr the pressure of the refrigerant, in its gas or vapor state
= 12000x 1.55 = 12660 kJ/hr for the purpose of liquefying the refrigerant.

151
 CHAPTER 8— HEATING, VENTILATING, REFRIGERATION AND AIRCONDITIONING

Liquid Receiver a vessel permanently connected to

- evaporators (each separate section of which does not
a system by inlet and outlet pipes for storage of a exceed 340 liters of refrigerant containing volume),
liquid refrigerant. expansion coils, compressors, controls headers, pipes
and pipe fittings.
Machinery - equipment including ay or all of the
following compressor, condenser, generator, absorber, Refrigerant — a substance which absorbs heat at a
receiver, connecting pipe, evaporator, air handling low pressure and temperature and rejects heat at a
units, dehumidifier, humidifier, heat exchanger, high pressure and temperature.
complete unit system.
a. Refrigerating System, Absorption a—

Machinery Room - a specific room in which is refrigerating system in which the refrigerant
permanently instalied and operated Refrigerating and gas evolved in the evaporator is taken up in
Air Conditioning machinery. Closets solely contained an absorber and released in a generator upon
within and opening only into a room shall be the application of heat.
considered a part of such room.
b. Refrigerating System, Brine an indirect
—

Machine Room, Class I a room having machinery

—
refrigerating system employing brine as the
other than flame producing apparatus permanently circulating liquid.
installed and operated and also having:
c. Refrigerating System, Brine Spray a—

a. Doors which are tight-fitting, fire-resisting, and refrigerating scheme for cooling by a mist or
self-closing. spray of brine.

b. Walls which are vapor-tight and of approved fire
resistive construction.
c. An exit door which opens directly to the outer air
or through a vestibule-type exit equipped with
self-closing, tight-fitting doors.
d. Refrigeration System, Cascade —one
having two or more refrigerant circuits, each
with a pressure-imposing element, condenser
and evaporator, where the evaporator of one
circuit cools the condenser of another (lower
temperature).

d. Exterior openings which, if present, are not e. Refrigerating System, Central Point a
—

under any fire escape or any open stairway. system with two or more low sides connected
to a single, central high side; multiple system.
e. All pipes piercing the interior walls or floor of

f.
such room, tightly sealed to the walls or floor
through which they pass.

Emergency remote controls located immediately

f. Refrigerating System, Chilled Water an
indirect refrigerating system employing water
as the circulating liquid.
-

I
outside to stop the action of the refrigerator g. Refrigerating System, Compression a -

compressor. refrigerating system in which the pressure-

imposing element is mechanically operated.
g. Emergency remote controls for the mechanical
means of ventilation located outside. h. Refrigerating System, Direct Expansion a -

refrigerating system in which the evaporator is

Mechanical Joint for the purpose of this Code, a
— in direct contact with the refrigerated material
mechanical joint, obtained by the joining of metal parts or space or is located in air circulating
through a positive holding mechanical construction. passages communicating with such spaces.

Piping — pipe or tube mains for interconnecting the i. Refrigeration System, Flooded a
-

various parts of a Refrigerating System. refrigerating system in which only part of the
refrigerant passing over the heat transfer
Pressure Limiting Device a valve held closed by a
—
separated from the vapor and recirculated.
spring of other means and designed to automatically
relieve pressure in excess of its setting. j. Refrigerating System, Indirect - a
refrigerating system in which a liquid, such as
Pressure Vessel any refrigerant containing
—
brine or water cooled by the refrigerant, is
receptacle of a refrigerating system, other than the

152
 CHAPTER 8— HEATING, VENTILATING, REFRIGERATION AND AIRCONDITIONING

circulated to the material or space refrigerated Tenant as herein used a tenant shall be construed
-

or is used to cool air so circulated. as a person, firm, or corporation possessed with the
legal right to occupy premises.
k. Refrigerating System, Mechanical a -

refrigerating system employing a mechanical Welded Joint for the purpose of this Code, a welded
-

compression device to remove the low joint is a gas-tight, obtained by the joining of metal
pressure refrigerant enclosed in the low parts in the plastic or molten state.
pressure side and delivers it to the high
pressure side of the system. Section 2.0 Air Conditioning and
Ventilation Standards
I. Refrigerating System, Multiple - a
refrigerating system using the direct method in 2.1 The temperature and humidity of the air to be
which refrigerant is delivered to two or more
used for comfort cooling shall be maintained at
evaporators in separate rooms or 20°-23.3°C effective temperature at an air
refrigerators. movement of from 4,570 to 7,620 mm/mm within
the living zone and 55 to 60% relative humidity.
m. Refrigerating System, Single-Package a -

complete factory made and factory-tested Table 8.2

refrigerating system in a suitable frame or Desirable Indoor Conditions for
enclosure which is fabricated and shipped in Different Outdoor Temperature
one or more sections and in which no Outdoor Temperature Indoor Temperature °C
refrigerant-containing parts are connected in Dry Bulb °C Effective Dry Bulb
the field. 39 24 28
35 23 27
n. Refrigerating System, Steam-Jet Vacuum a 32 23 27
water vapor refrigerating system in which high 29 22 26
pressure steam, supplied through a nozzle 27 22 25
and acting to eject water vapor from the
evaporator, and produces the requisite 2.2 The indoor air quality in such occupy shall all
pressure on the high side by virtue of times be free from toxic, unhealthful, of
compression in a following diffusion passage. disagreeable gases and fumes and shall be
relatively free from odors and dust; and shall
o. Refrigerating System, Vapor a refrigerating
conform with internationally accepted
system employing a condensable vapor as the standards, e.g., American Society of Heating
refrigerant. Refrigerating and Conditioning
Air
Engmneers(ASHRAE)
Heat Pump -uses the same equipment as a
refrigeration system but it operates for the purpose of 2.3 The air in such occupied spaces shall at all
delivery heat at a high level of temperature. Even times be in constant motion sufficient to
though the equipment used in a refrigeration cycle and maintain a reasonable uniformity of temperature
in a heat pump maybe identical, the objectives are and humidity but shall not cause objectionable
different. The purpose of a refrigeration cycle is to drafts in any occupied portion. The air motion in
absorb heat at a low temperature; that of a heat pump such occupied spaces, and in which the only
is to reject heat a t a high temperature. source of contamination is the occupant, shall
have a velocity of not more than 0.254 meter per
Rupture Member a device that will automatically
-
minute as the air enters the living zone or 1,830
rupture at a predetermined pressure. mm above the floor.
Soldered Joint for the purpose of this Code, a
-
2.4 Air in all rooms and enclosed spaces shall be
soldered joint is a gas-tight joint, obtained by the
distributed with reasonable uniformity, and the
joining of metal parts with the metallic mixtures or variation in carbon dioxide content of the air
alloys, which melt at temperatures below 538°C and shall be taken as a measure of such distribution.
above 177°C.
The carbon dioxide concentration when
measured 910 mm above the floor shall not
Stop Valve a shut-off valve other than a valve for
-
exceed 100 ppm (parts per million).
controlling the flow of refrigerant.

153
 _____________________

CHAPTER 8- HEATING, VENTILATING, REFRIGERATION AND AIRCOND1TIONING

2.5 The quality of air used to ventilate the space 2.8 Refrigerant Classifications:
during the occupancy shall always be sufficient
to maintain the standards of air temperature, air Group 1:
quality, air motion and air distribution. Carbon Dioxide 2
CO
Ventilation requirements shall conform to the Dichlorodifluoromethane R-12 F
2
CCI
following Table 8.2. Dichloromonofluoromethane R-22 CHCL
F
2
Dichlorotetra fluoroethane R114 2 CL
C
4
F
Table 82 Dichloromethane CL
Carrene 2
Ch
Outdoor Air Reauirement No. I
Liters per Trichloromonofluoromethane R-1 I F
3
CCL
Application second/person
Recommended Group 2:
Apartment, average 12 Ammonia 3
NH
Banking Space 9.5 Dicholoroethylene CI
H
2
C
Barber Shop 11.8 Ethyl chloride CI
3
CH
Beauty Parlor 12 Methyl Formate 3
HCOOCH
Board Room 11.8 Sulfur dioxide 2
SO
Cocktail Bar 14
Department Store 7.5 Group 3:
Director’s Room 11.8 Butane C
1
H
4 0
Drug Store 7.5 Ethane 68
H
2
C
Factory 7.5 lsobutane )
3
(CH CH
5 & 10 Stores 7.5 Propane 8
H
3
C
Funeral Parlor 11.8
Hospital, Private Room 11.8 2.9 Locations in which Refrigeration Systems may
Hospital, Ward 9.5 be placed are grouped by occupancy as follows:
Hotel Room 17
Laboratories 9.5 a. Institutional occupancy like hospitals,
Meeting Room 11.8 asylums, sanitariums, police stations, jails,
Offices, General 9.5 court houses with cells, etc.
Restaurant, Cafeteria 9.5
Dining Room 9.5 b. Public assembly like auditorium, assembly
Shop, Retain 7.5 rooms, ball rooms, broadcasting studios,
Theater 7.5 churches, department stores, fraternity,
halls, libraries, theaters, etc.
2.6 The desirable temperature in air conditioned
spaces increases as the outdoor temperature c. Residential occupancy apply to portions of
increases as shown in Table 8.1. buildings in which sleeping accommodations
are provided.
2.7 The quantity of outdoor air required to control
body odors satisfactorily decreases as the d. Commercial occupancy applies to portions
volume space per occupant increases. of buildings used for transactions of
Recommended rates of outdoor air supply for business, for rendering professional
different volumes of spaces per occupants are services or for supply of food and drinks.
as follows:
e. Industrial occupancy applies to entire
Table 8.3 building occupied by single tenant, for
Minimum Outdoor Requirements to Remove manufacturing, processing or storage of
Objectionable Body Odors for Sedentary Adult Workers materials or products including chemical,
food, candy, ice cream factories, ice-making
Air Space per Person Outdoor Air Supply per plants, meat packing plants, refineries,
3
M Occupant Ips perishable food warehouses and similar
3 14 occupancies.
6 10
9 8 f. Mixed occupancies applying to a building
14 4 occupied or used for different purposes in
different parts.

154
 CHAPTER 8 HEATING, VENTILATING, REFRIGERATION AND AIRCONDITIONING
2.10 Institutional Occupancies:
a. Group I Refrigerants:
1. No refrigerating system shall be
installed in any room except Unit
Systems each containing not more
than 4.55 kg of Group I refrigerant,
and then only when a window or
other ventilation is provided.
2. Systems each containing not more
than 9 kg of a Group 1 refrigerant
may be installed in kitchens,
laboratories and mortuaries.
3. Systems each containing more than
9.10 kg of Group 1 refrigerant shall
be of the indirect type with all
refrigerant containing parts
excepting parts installed outside the
building, installed in a machinery
room used for no other purpose and
in which Group I refrigerants
excepting carbon dioxide, no flame
is present or apparatus to produce a
flame is installed.
4. When a Group 1 refrigerant, other
than carbon dioxide, is used in a
system, any portion of which is in a
room where there is an open flame,
then such refrigerant shall be
classed in Group 2 unless the flame
producing apparatus is provided
with a hood and flue capable of
removing the products of
combustion to the open air. Flames
by matches, cigarette lighters, small
alcohol lamps and similar devices
shall not be considered as open
flames.
b. Group 2 Refrigerants:
1. Group 2 refrigerants shall not be
used except in Unit Systems
containing not more than 2.72 kg of
refrigerant when installed in
kitchens, laboratories or mortuaries,
or except in systems containing not
more than 227.30 kg or refrigerant
containing parts installed in a “Class
1” machinery room.
2. Group 2 refrigerants shall not be
used in a system for air conditioning
155
for human comfort, except in an
indirect ventured closed surface
system or in a Double Indirect
Vented Open Spray system or in an
indirect Absorptive Brine System.
2.11 Public Assembly Occupancies:
a. Group I Refrigerants:
1. The maximum quantity of a Group 1
refrigerant in a Direct system used
for air conditioning for human
comfort shall be limited by the
volume of space to air conditioned
as follows:
Carbon Dioxide 2
CO .19 kg/m
3
Dichlorodifluoromethane R-12 .48 kg/rn
3
Dichloromethane Carrene I .10 kg/rn
3
Dichioromonofluoromethane R-21 2.10 kg/rn
3
Dichlorotetrafluoromethane R-1 14 6.43 kg/rn
3
Trichloromonofluoromethane R-1 1 5.64 kg/rn
3
2. A system containing more than
22.73 kg of Group I Refrigerant
other than carbon dioxide and which
includes air ducts shall be of the
Indirect Type unless it conforms to
the requirements as follows:
(a) Positive automatic fire damper
or dampers shall be provided to
cut off the refrigerant containing
apparatus from the duct system.
(b) Automatic means shall be
provided to close the dampers
and to stop the fan when the
temperature of the air in the
duct at the damper location
reaches 51.70°C.
3. A system containing more than
454.60 kg of a Group 1 refrigerant
shall be of the Indirect Type with all
the refrigerant containing parts
mounted outside the building,
installed in a machinery room used
for no other purpose and in which
for Group I refrigerants, excepting
carbon dioxide, no flame is present
or apparatus to produce a flame is
installed.
4. When a Group 1 refrigerant, other
than carbon dioxide is used in a
 CHAPTER 8- HEATING, VENTILATING, REFRIGERATION AND AIRCONDITIONING
system, many portions of which is in
a room where there is an apparatus
for producing an open flame, then
such refrigerant shall be classed in
Group 2 unless the flame producing
apparatus is provided with a hood
and flue pipe capable of removing
the products of combustion to the
open air, flames by matches,
cigarette lighters, small alcohol
lamps and similar devices shall not
be considered as open flames.
b. Group 2 Refrigerants:
1. Group 2 refrigerants shall not be
used except in Unit Systems
containing not more than 5.45 kg of
refrigerant or except in systems
containing not more than 454.80 kg
of refrigerant and having all
refrigerant containing parts installed
in a Class I machinery room.
2. Group 2 refrigerants shall not be
used in a system for air conditioning
for human comfort, except in an
indirect, Vented Surface Systems,
or in a Double Indirect Vented Open
Spray System or in an indirect
Absorptive Brine System.
c. Group 3 Refrigerants:
Group 3 refrigerants shall not be
used in public assembly
occupancies.
2.12 Residential Occupancies
a. Group I Refrigerants:
1. Same rules as those for Public
Assembly Occupancies apply.
b. Group 2 Refrigerants:
1. No system containing more than
2.73 kg of a Group 2 Refrigerant
shall be located in sleeping rooms
for spaces directly connected to
sleeping room.
2. No system containing a Group 2
Refrigerant shall be used for air
conditioning for human comfort
unless it is of the Indirect Vented
156
Closed Surface, Double Indirect
Vented Open Spray, Indirect
Absorption Brine or in primary circuit
of a double Refrigerant containing
parts, excepting parts mounted
outside the building installed in a
machinery room used for no other
purpose.
3. Any system containing more than
136.36 kg of Group 2 Refrigerant
shall have all refrigerant containing
parts installed in Class 1 Machinery
Room.
c. Group 3 Refrigerants:
Group 3 refrigerants shall not be used
except in a Unit System containing not more
than 2.73 kg of Refrigerant.
213 Commercial Occupancies:
a. Group I Refrigerants:
1. Same rules as those for Public
Assembly Occupancies apply.
b. Group 2 Refrigerants:
1. A system containing more than 9.10
kgs of a Group 2 Refrigerant shall
not be used for air conditioning for
human comfort unless it is of the
Indirect Vented Closed Surface,
Double Indirect Vented Open
Surface, Indirect Absorptive Brine,
or primary circuit of a double
refrigerant type with all the
refrigerant containing parts,
excepting parts, mounted outside
the building, installed machinery
room used for no other purposes.
2. Any system containing more than
272.73 kg of a Group 2 Refrigerant
shall have all refrigerant containing
parts installed in a Class 1
Machinery Room.
c. Group 3 Refrigerants. Group 3
Refrigerants shall not be used except in a
unit system containing not more than 2.73
kg of refrigerant.
 CHAPTER 8— HEATING, VENTILATING, REFRIGERATION AND AIRCONDITIONING

2.14 Industrial Occupancies. There shall be no Table 8.4

restriction on the quantity or kind of refrigerant
used in an Industrial Occupancy. Weight of Liters Area of
refrigerant perlsecond Duct Area open
2.15 Water discharged from evaporators, condensers in system, exhaust (m2)
Window
and other machinery shall not be directly Kgpto fan )
2
(m
connected to the waste or sewer system in such 4.25 0.023 0.372
a manner as to permit siphoning of the waste 22.73 7.08 0.31 0.558
water into the water supply lines. The waste 45.45 11.34 0.046 0.929
discharge from such equipment shall be over 68.18 15.59 0.062 1.162
and above the rim of a properly trapped and 90.90 19.27 0.062 1.301
vented plumbing fixture or suitable storm drain. 113.64 22.67 0.093 1.394
136.36 25.50 0.093 1.580
2.16 Machinery Rooms: 181.82 31.17 0.116 1.859
227.27 36.13 0.116 2.045
a. Each refrigerating machinery room shall be 272.73 41.09 0.139 2.231
provided with adequate door or openings 318.18 46.19 0.139 2.417
that will permit the passage of the 363.64 51.01 0.186 2.603
machinery into the machinery room. 409.09 55.26 0.186 2.788
454.55 58.09 0.186 2.881
b. Each refrigerating machinery room shall be 568.18 63.76 0.209 3.067
provided with means for ventilation to the 681.82 70.85 0.209 3.439
outside. The ventilation shall consist of 759.45 76.51 0.209 3.532
windows or door opening to the outside of 909.09 82.18 0.209 3.718
the size given below or where power driven 1136.36 93.52 0.232 3.997
exhaust fans are used continuously they 1363.64 104.85 0.279 4.462
shall have sufficient capacity as shown in 1818.18 130.35 0.349 5.112
Table 8.4 2272.73 155.86 0.418 5.763
2727.27 178.53 0.465 6.321
2.17 Field erected air conditioning systems shall have 3181.82 204.04 0.511 6.878
the following minimum control instruments: 3630.36 266.71 0.534 7.436
4090.91 246.55 0.581 7.901
a. Direct Expansions

1. Room Thermostat;
Section 3.0 Duct System and Accessories
2. Solenoid Valve (Liquid Line);
3. Compressor High & Low Pressure
3.1 Design
Cut Off;
4. Compressor Low Oil Pressure Cut
a. Ducts system shall be designed and
Off (for compressors with positive
installed in accordance with a recognized
lubrication).
and acceptable method such as contained
in ASHRAE guide or applicable manuals of
b. Chilled Water
the SMACNA and shall comply with National
1. Room Thermostats;
Fire Protection Pamphlet No. 90-B, except
2. Face & Bypass Damper with
as other wise provided herein.
modular motor or motorized chilled
water mixing valve;
3.2 Fabrication I Construction
3. Chiller Flow Switch;
4. Chiller Low Water Temperature Cut
a. Ducts shall be constructed entirely of non-
Off;
combustible materials such as steel, iron,
5. Compressor Low Oil Pressure Cut
aluminum or other approved materials.
Off (for compressors with positive
lubrication).
6. Compressor high and low pressure
cut-off

157
 CHAPTER 8- HEATING, VENTILATING, REFRIGERATION AND AIRCONDITIONING

Tab’e 8.5 DUCT JOINTS DETAIL

Schedule of Duct Gage and Hangers
=
DRIVE SLIP

Dimension G.l. Size of Distance Mm.

Longest Sheet Angle Between Size of
Side Support Hangers Steel
Rod
Hanger
(MM) GA No. (MM) (MM) (MM 0) INSIDE GROOVE SEAN

Up to 300 26 25x25x3 1200 10

325 to 750 24 38x38x5 1200 12
785 to 750 22 38x38x5 2000 12
• 1550 to 2285 20 38x38x5 2000 12
2310 Up 18 38x38x5 2000 12 — SLIDING SEAN

b. Duct work shall be fabricated and erected in FIG. 8.3.1

a workmanlike manner so that it shall be
straight, true to dimensions, and smooth on
the inside with neatly finished and air-tight
f. Where sheet-metal connections are made of
joints. Ducts shall be cross-broken and
felts, air handling unit of where ducts or
installed completely free from vibration
dissimilar metal are connected, a non-
under all conditions of operation. They shall
combustible flexible connection of 425
be properly supported by hangers and
grams woven asbestos or other approved
brackets and by other approved means at
non-combustible material approximately 152
intervals not more than 2,130 stiffners shall Flexible
mm in width be installed.
be provided as specified, secured rigidly shall be securely fastened by
connections
with rivets or other approved fasteners.
zinc-coated iron clinch-type draw bands.
Wall openings through which ducts pass
shall be air-tight sealed with plastic cement. BRANCH TAKE-OFF DETAIL
c. Exposed duct sleeves and flanges shall be
fabricated from .8 mm thick galvanized
sheet steel. Flanges not less than 102 mm
wide shall be installed tight against the wall
on each side and fastened to the sleeve.
Duct insulation and vapor barrier shall
extend through the duct sleeve. Sleeve
shall be 51 mm larger than the duct unless
otherwise required by the thickness of
insulation. FIG. 8.3.2

d. Access doors shall be provided at all BRANCH TAKE OFF DETAIL

automatic dampers, fire dampers,
thermostats, and other apparatus requiring
service and inspection in the duct system. BRANCH TAKE-OFF DETAIL
Doors shall be 305 mm x 457 mm unless LUBRICATED BEARINGS

indicated otherwise. Where size of duct will SPLIT DAMPER

not accommodate this size, the door shall AIRFLOW

be made as large as practicable. FLOW?

SPLITTER
ROD

e. Ducts may be of independent construction THROAT RADIUS

MEEt RADIUS
or a part of the building structure provided
they are constructed in accordance with the
requirements of these standards. HUT
AIRFLOW
0’
Constructions consisting of not less than 19
mm cement or gypsum plaster or metal lath Fig.8.3.3
applied either to combustible or non-
combustible supports may be used as duct
wall.

158

CHAPTER 8— HEATING, VENTILATING, REFRIGERATION AND AIRCONDITIONING
g. Only fire retarding materials conforming to
the standards set by the Underwriters’
Laboratories (UL), National Fire Protection
Association and the Fire Code of the
Philippines, shall be used for duct insulation
and duct liners.
h. Insulation materials for air ducts, pipes,
conduits, etc., shall be of sufficient thickness
so that the surface temperature of the duct,
pipe, etc., shall not be lower than the dew
point of the surrounding air.
Ducts shall be made reasonably tight
throughout and shall have no openings
other than those required for the proper
operation and maintenance of the system.
j. Return ducts, other than vertical, shall be
provided with access doors or openings to
facilitate the cleaning of possible
accumulation of dust and combustible
materials in them when occupancy is not
productive of combustible material.
3. 3 Installation and Insulation of Ducts
a. In no case shall clearance from metal ducts
to adjacent combustible materials be less
than 150 mm and to combustible
construction, including plaster of wood lath,
it shall not be less than 13 mm.
b. Where ducts pass thru walls, floors or
partitions, the space around the duct shall
be sealed with a material fire resistant
property equivalent to that of the wall, floor
or partition, to prevent the passage of flame
or smoke.
c. Ducts which pass thru floors or fire proof
constructions, semi-fire proof construction,
or heavy timber construction, in which
vertical openings are generally protected,
shall be encased in 100 mm hollow clay tile,
gypsum block or their equivalent. Such
construction, however, shall not be required
for branches, which are cut off from the
main portion of the duct by approved fire
dampers.
d. No attic, basement or concealed space in a
building shall be used as an integral part of
a duct system unless it conforms to all the
requirements for ducts.
159
_________
Plenum chamber which conform to all the
requirements for ducts may be located in
any such portion of the building. Such
chambers shall not be used for storage or
occupational purposes. Public exit halls and
corridors in hotels, hospitals, institutions,
office building and similar occupancies and
in multi-family houses used for passage of
return air shall provide an air velocity not to
exceed 0.5 meter per second within the
living zone.
e. Only fire retardant materials shall be used
inside of ducts.
f. Insulation materials for air ducts, pipes,
conduits, etc. shall be with sufficient
thickness so that the surface temperature of
the duct, pipe, etc. shall not be lower than
the dew point of the surrounding air.
25mm STRAPPING BAND
CONTINUOUS_ CORNER
BEADS Gj GA. 2E
—
26MM THIK FIBER
GLASS INSULATION
NON. FLAMMABLE
ADHESIVE MASTIC
FIG. 8.3.4
DUCT INSULATION DETAILS
g. Ducts shall not be built into a building in
such a way as to impair the effectiveness of
the fire proofing around steel or iron
structural members, such as placing the
ducts between the fire proofing and the
members protected.
h. Ducts shall not be located where they will be
subject to damage rupture. Where so
located, they shall be suitably protected.
Ducts shall be substantially supported.
Hangers and brackets for supporting ducts
shall be metal. Ducts exposed to the
weather shall be wrapped with weather
proofing materials.
j. Approved fire dampers shall be provided
where the air ducts penetrate or terminate at
the openings in the walls or partitions these
CHAPTER 8— HEATING, VENTILATING, REFRIGERATION AND AIRCONDITIONING
to have a fire resistance rating of 2 hours or
more. Approved fire dampers shall be
provided in all air transfer openings in
partitions that are required to have fire
resistance rating in which other openings
are required to be protected.
k. The passing of supply and return ducts thru
fire walls should be avoided wherever
possible. When ducts or the outlets or inlets
to them pass through fire walls, they shall be
provided with automatic fire dampers on
both sides of the fire wall through which they
pass. On small openings not exceeding 457
mm in diameter, 9.5 mm steel plates may be
used instead of fire dampers.
See page 170 of 2003
Fig. 8.3.5
Duct Hangar Detail
INSULATION
-
ANGLE BAR
32
F,IB,3.7 — exhaust of air to the outside shall be
DUCT HANGER DETAILS
Fire dampers, installed in the system as
required at other than fire wall openings
shall be 1.6 mm thick on diameter up to 914
mm or greater width and 4.55 mm on ducts
above 914 mm in diameter or greater width.
Louvered type automatic dampers may be
constructed of 1.25 mm thick steel, provided
the individual louvers are not over 152 mm
in width and are stiffened by formed edges.
m. Fire doors and fire dampers shall be
arranged to close automatically and remain
tightly closed, upon the operation of a
fusible link or other approved heat actuated
device located where readily affected by an
abnormal rise of temperature in the duct.
Fusible link should have a temperature
rating approximately 10 degrees centigrade
160
(10°C) above the maximum temperature that
would normally be encountered with the
system in operation or shut down. Hinged
dampers shall be equipped with spring
catches and pins of hinges shall be of
corrosion resistant materials.
n. An approved fire damper shall be provided
an opening through a required fire partition.
o. Where duct system serve two or more
floors, approved fire dampers shall be
required at each direct outlet and in each
branch duct at its junction with the main
vertical duct. Dampers are not required in
branch duct having a cross sectional area of
less than 129 cm 2 which supply only air
conditioning units discharging air or not over
1,220 mm above the floor.
p. In systems of over 425 m 3 per minute
capacity serving areas where large numbers
of people congregate or areas having
valuable contents particularly subject to
smoke damage, except when system is
located on the same floor that it serves, it is
recommended that approved smoke
dampers be installed in the main supply duct
and main return duct. Such dampers should
be arranged to close automatically when the
system is not in operation and also by
manual emergency motor stop or by
application of a smoke detecting apparatus.
q. Dampers provided in ducts used solely for
installed in such a way that they will interfere
with the flow of air in the main duct. No
dampers are required in a system serving
only one floor and used only for exhaust of
air outside. Dampers should be designed to
close in the direction of air flow. Where
direction of exhaust air flow is upward, sub-
ducts at least 560 mm in length may be
carried up inside the main duct from each
inlet of dampers.
r. Fresh air intakes shall be protected with
approved automatic fire doors or dampers
except where permission to omit them,
because of light exposure is granted by the
inspection department having jurisdiction.
When deemed necessary by inspection
department approved heat actuated devices
shall be installed at intake opening to shut
fans down in case of exposure fires.
 CHAPTER 8— HEATING, VENTILATING, REFRIGERATION AND AIRCONDITIONING
Section 4.0 Heat Gain Calculations
4.1 Calculations shall be made in accordance with
the American Society of Heating Refrigerating
Air Conditioning Engineering (ASHRAE) Guide,
Air Conditioning and Refrigerating Institute
Standards, the applicable manuals of the
National Warm Air Heating and Air Conditioner
Association, or other recognized and acceptable
methods.
Section 5.0 Refrigeration System
5.1 Where condenser cooling water causes
excessive corrosion, scaling, or obstruction
within the piping or equipment, suitable water-
treatment means may be required and piping
used for conveying condenser cooling water
shall be zinc coated. (galvanized copper, or
other corrosion-resistant material acceptable to
the FHA field office of the Chief Underwriter).
5.2 All exposed refrigeration piping located less than
1830 mm above any floor or outside grade shall
be suitably protected to prevent damage to
piping and injury to persons.
5.3 Clearance shall be provided for all construction
to permit proper operation, adjustments,
replacement and repair of equipment.
5.4 Suitable means shall be provided for the
collection and disposal of condensate from the
equipment. The condensate drain shall be at
least 19 mm nominal pipe size and shall be
copper, galvanized, steel, or other corrosion-
resistant materials.
5.5 Where the cooling coil or air conditioning unit is
located above a living space, or where structural
damage may result from condensate overflow,
an additional waterlight pan of corrosion-
resistant metal shall be installed beneath the
cooling coil or unit to catch overflow and
separate drain, or one pan with standing
overflow and separate drain maybe provided
with a drain pipe, minimum of 19mm nominal
pipe size, discharging at a point which can be
readily observed. Condensate drains shall not
be directly connected to a plumbing drainage
system.
5.6 Refrigerating piping, with or without insulating
covering shall be exposed to view, excepting for
mechanical protection.
161
Section 6.0 Air Intake and Outlets
6.1 Re-circulating air intakes shall be located at
above the floor, except that protected floor inlets
may be permitted under seats in theaters.
When located less than 2,130 mm above the
floor, inlet and outlet openings shall be protected
by a substantial grill or screen, thru the opening
of which 13 mm sphere will not pass.
Fresh air intakes shall be protected by screens
of corrosion resistant material not larger than 13
mm mesh. Air shall not be re-circulated from
any spaces in which objectionable quantities of
anesthetic gases, toxic gases, flammable
vapors, flying, dust or bacteria laden air are
given off.
Care should be exercised in choosing the
location of fresh air intakes to avoid drawing in
combustible materials to minimize the hazard
from fire in other structures and air conditioning
those listed under Section 8.5.1.
Section 7.0 Air Filters
7.1 Air filters shall be of approved types that will not
burn freely or emit large volumes of smoke or
other objectionable products.
Liquid adhesive tanks into which removable
filters are dipped should preferably be located
outside the building or in a separate fire resistive
room.
Liquid adhesive coatings used on air filters shall
have a flash point not lower than 177°C. Air
filters shall have a minimum rating of 60%
filtering efficiency and higher efficiency for
special applications.
Filters shall be sized to provide not less than
0.093 m2 of total face area per 142 lps of air and
shall be readily accessible for cleaning or
replacement.
Section 8.0 Noise Abatement
8.1 As a partial index and guide, the sound level
due to operation of the equipment, as measured
on the 40 decibel weighted network in the center
of conditioned space 914 mm above the floor
shall not be higher than 45 decibels for a
normally furnished room of 50 decibels for an
unfurnished room.
 CHAPTER 8— HEATING, VENTILATING, REFRIGERATION AND AIRCONDITIONING
Section 9.0 Cold Storage and
Refrigeration
9.1 Cold storage shall mean the storage or keeping
of all articles of food at a temperature, not to
exceed —6°C, above 00 in a cold storage
warehouse; cold storage warehouse shall mean
any place artificially cooled at a temperature not
to exceed —6°C in which all articles of food may
be stored or placed for an indefinite period of
time.
9.2 Refrigerated Storage shall mean the storage or
keeping of articles of food at a temperature not
to exceed above zero in refrigeration, ice boxes,
and 4°C other similar devices artificially cooled
at a temperature not to exceed 4°C in which
preserved meat, pork, fowl, butter, shrimps,
lobsters, crabs, etc., may be stored or kept.
9.3 An ice plant is closely associated to Cold
Storage and Refrigerated Storage but should be
treated as a Process Plant rather than in an
accessory to a building or buildings.
Section 10.0 Refrigerant Piping, Valves,
Fittings and Related Parts
10.1 Materials
All materials used in the construction and
installation of Refrigerating System shall be
suitable for the refrigerant used, and no
materials shall be used that will deteriorate due
to the chemical action of the refrigerant or the
oil, or the combination of both.
10.2 Standard weight steel or wrought iron pipe may
be used for Design Working Pressures not
exceeding 1,724.0 kPa, provided lap welded or
seamless pipe is used for sizes larger than 500
mm (iron pipe size) and extra heavy pipe is used
for liquid lines for sizes 38 mm (iron pipe size)
and smaller.
10.3 Pipe joints may be screwed, flanged or welded.
Screw joints shall conform to U.S. or R.P.
Standard. Exposed threads shall be tinned or
otherwise coated to inhibit corrosion.
10.4 d.Valves, flanges and fittings may be made of
cast iron, malleable iron, bronze or brass, and
shall be of the design and material listed by the
manufacturer for the particular refrigerant
service.
162
10.5 Cast iron shall conform to American Society for
Testing Materials, designation A-i 36-30 Class B
higher strength gray iron with not less than 206
2 tensile strength.
700 N/rn
10.6 Bushing may be used in fittings when the
reduction is two or more pipe sizes. For single
pipe size reduction, reducing fittings must be
used.
10.7 Pipe bends shall be substantially circular in
section and free from injurious wrinkles, kinds
and creases. They shall not be constructed as
barring corrugated pipe bends made of suitable
material.
10.8 Standard pipe size copper or red brass not less
than eighty (80) percent may be used.
10.9 Copper tubing used for refrigerant piping
erected on the premises shall conform to
Materials
American Society for Testing
designation B-88-33, grades K or L for
dimensions, and shall be absolutely free from
scale and dirt.
10.10 Copper tubing used for refrigerant piping
erected on and 16 mm nominal sizes in the
same standard series as grades K or L of
American Society for testing and Materials
designation B-88-33, shall be considered as
meeting the requirement of Section 8.10.8.
10.11 Soft annealed copper tubing used for refrigerant
piping erected on the premises shall not be used
in sizes larger than 18 mm nominal size. It shall
conform to grades K or L of American Society
for Testing Materials designation B-88-33.
10.12 Rigid metal enclosures shall be provided for soft
annealed copper tubing used for refrigerant
piping erected on the premises, except that
flexible metal enclosures may be used at bends
or terminals if not exceeding 1,830 mm in
length.
10.13 Threaded joints on copper or brass pipe of
standard pipe size shall be made with extra
heavy brass fittings.
10.14 Joints on annealed copper tubing not exceeding
19 mm in outside diameter may be made with
flared compression fittings or approved type,
provided that all such fitting shall be exposed for
visual inspection.
 CHAPTER 8— HEATING, VENTILATING, REFRIGERATION AND AIRCONDITIONING
10.l5Joints on hard drawn copper tubing, if of the
sweated capillary type, may be made with an
alloy having a melting point greater than 538°C
or with solder melting at a point below 240°C but
above 177°C.
10.16 Fittings used in sweated capillary joints shall be
cast red bras or die pressed brass of copper or
wrought brass or copper, or extruded brass or
copper.
10.17 Soldered joints in pipe or tubing erected on the
premises shall remain mechanically intact when
subjected to a pull apart test equivalent to
pressure of not less than 2,067 kPa gage with a
temperature of not less than 149°C, except that
this requirement shall not apply to soldered
joints in pipe or tubing of 13 mm nominal size or
smaller when used in systems containing not
more than 9.09 kg of refrigerant.
10.l8Any evaporator located in an air duct of an air
conditioning system for human comfort shall be
constructed to withstand without leakage a
temperature of 538°C.
10.19 Stop Valves
a. Stop valves shall be installed on all systems
containing more than 9.09 kg but less than
45.45 kg of refrigerant at locations follows:
1. Each inlet and each outlet pipe of
each compressor.
2. Each outlet of each liquid receiver.
b. Stop valves shall be installed on all systems
containing 45.45 kg or more of refrigerant at
location as follows:
1. Each inlet and each outlet pipe of
each compressor.
2. Each inlet and each outlet pipe of
each liquid receiver.
3. Each liquid and each suction branch
header.
c. Stop valves with soft annealed copper
tubing or hard drawn copper tubing 19 mm
nominal size or smaller shall be securely
mounted independent of tubing fastenings
or supports.
163
d. Stop valves placed where it is not obvious
what they control shall be suitably labeled.
Numbers may be used to label the valves
provided a key to the numbers is located
near the valves.
10.20 Pipe and Tube Supports
a. All refrigerant piping shall be securely
supported by means of metal hangers,
brackets, straps, clamps or pedestals, in
such manner as to relieve joints of harmful
strains and vibration. The supports shall be
used for no other purpose. Hangers for
refrigerant piping above 22 mm outside
diameter shall not be less than 0.806- cm2
cross section.
10.21 Location of Refrigerant Piping
a. Refrigerant piping crossing an open space
which affords passageway in any building
shall not be less than 2,290 mm above the
floor unless against the ceiling of such
space.
b. Refrigerant piping shall not be placed in
public hallway, lobbies, stairways, elevators
or dumbwaiter shafts, excepting that such
refrigerant piping may pass across a public
hallway, and provided non-ferrous tubing of
25.4 mm nominal outside diameter and less
be contained in a rigid metal pipe.
c. Refrigerant piping, with or without insulation
covering, shall be exposed to view,
excepting for mechanical protection herein
specified, or when located in the cabinet of a
Unit System. This does not apply to
refrigerant piping installed outside the
building or in a flue vented to the outer air.
10.22 Design and Construction
a. Every part of a Refrigerating System, except
pressure gauges and control mechanism,
shall be designed, constructed, and
assembled to withstand the test pressures
specified in Table 8.7, without being
stressed beyond one-third (1/3) of its
ultimate strength.
b. Equipment listed by a recognized
engineering testing laboratory having a
follow-up inspection service, shall be
considered as conforming with the
requirements of Section 8.9.21.3.
 CHAPTER 8— HEATING, VENTILATING, REFRIGERATION AND AIRCONDITIONING
c. Refrigerant containing vessels which are not
a part of equipment listed by a recognized
engineering testing laboratory having a
follow-up inspection service shall be
constructed in accordance with the rules of
Chapter 7 (Unified Pressure Vessel).
d. Every systems, except as provided in
Sections 10,V.d., 11.A and 11.B, shall be
protected by a pressure relief device unless
so constructed that pressure due to fire
conditions will be relieved safely by soldered
joints, lead gaskets, fusible plugs, or their
parts of the system.
Section 11.0 Pressure Relief Devices
11.1 Each pressure vessel containing liquid
refrigerant and which may be shut off by valves
from all other parts of a refrigerating system,
shall be protected by an approved pressure
relief valve in parallel with a rupture member or
a second approved pressure relief valves if its
gross volume exceeds 0.142 m 3 unless its
diameter does not exceed 152 mm.
11.2 Each pressure vessel having a gross volume of
0.142 m3 or less, containing liquid refrigerant
and which may be shut off by valves from all
other parts of a refrigerating system, shall be
protected by an approved pressure relief device
or an approved fusible plug.
11.3 The requirements of Section 10.V.d and 1.1
shall not apply to flooded evaporators located in
a refrigerator cabinet.
11.4 Each pressure vessel shall have the Design
Working Pressure stamped thereon if its gross
volume exceeds 0.142 m
.
3 refrigerant containing vessels shall be tested
11.5 Compressors operating above 103.35 kPa
gauge and having a displacement exceeding
2.83 m3 per minute shall be equipped by the
manufacturer with a pressure relief device of
adequate size to prevent rupture of the
compressor, located between the compressor
and stop valve on the discharge side. The
discharge from such relief device may be vented
to the atmosphere or into the low pressure side
of the systems.
11.6 Capacity Rating
a. The rated discharge capacity of a pressure
relief valve, expressed in points of air per
minute shall be one-fifth (1/5) of its
164
discharge capacity determined by test with
the outlet open to the atmosphere and with
a differential pressure across the restraining
member equal to twice the marked pressure
setting of the pressure relief valve.
b. The rated discharge capacity of rupture
members and discharge piping shall be as
given in Table 8.6.
11.7 Required Capacity
a. The minimum required rated discharge
capacity of pressure relief device for a
refrigerant containing vessels shall be
determined by the following formula:
C fDL
Where C = Minimum required rated
discharge capacity of the relief device in kg of
air per minute.
D = Outside diameter of the vessel
in mm.
L = Length of the vessel in mm.
f = Factor dependent upon kind of
refrigerant as follows:
Kind of Refrigerant Value of “f’
Ammonia(NH3) 0.041
Dichlorodifluoromethane,(R-1 2, R-22) 0.163
R-134a, R500
11.8 Pressure Setting Test
a. The pressure setting of relief devices for
with the outlet open to the atmosphere and
the relief device shall function at a pressure
not more than ten (10) percent above the
pressure marked thereon, if such marking is
689 kPa or more, or at not more than 6839
kPa above the pressure marked thereon, if
such marking is less than 689 kPa.
11.9 Marking
a. All pressure relief valves for refrigerant
containing vessels shall be set and sealed
by the manufacturer. The name or trade of
the manufacturer, the pressure setting
expressed in kPa, the rated discharge
capacity expressed in kilogram of air per
minute, and the minimum equivalent length
 CHAPTER 8— HEATING, VENTILATING, REFRIGERATION AND AIRCONDITIONING
of discharge piping that can be attached to
the pressure relief valve without loss of
discharge capacity, shall be cast or stamped
on the device, or on the metal plate
permanently thereto.
b. Each rupture member for refrigerant
containing pressure vessels shall have cast
or stamped on the device or on a metal
plate of the manufacturer and the bursting
pressure of the rupture member expressed
in Pascal or Kilopascal.
11.10 Installation Requirements
a. A rupture member may be located between
a pressure relief valve and a pressure
vessel.
b. No stop valve shall be located between any
automatic pressure relief device and the part
or parts of the system protected thereby,
except when the parallel relief devices
mentioned in Section 10.V.d are so
arranged that only one can be rendered
inoperative at a time for testing or repair
purposes.
c. All pressure relief devices shall be
connected as nearly as practicable directly
to the pressure vessels or other parts of the
system protected thereby, and shall be
placed above the liquid refrigeration level.
d. The seats and discs of pressure relief
device for refrigerant containing vessels
shall be constructed of suitable material to
resist refrigerant corrosion.
Section 12.0 Discharge from Pressure
Relief Devices
12.1 Pressure relief devices and fusible plus on all
systems containing more than 13.64 kg of
refrigerant, except those used to protect
compressors, shall discharge to the outside of
the building in an approved manner.
12.2 The size of the discharge opening and pipe from
the pressure relief device shall not be less than
the size of the relief device inlet. The discharge
from more than one relief device may be run into
a common header, the area of which shall be
not less than the sum of the areas of the pipes
connected thereto.
12.3 Ammonia Discharge
165
a. Where ammonia is used, the discharge may
be into a tank of water which shall be used
for no purpose except ammonia absorption.
At least 3.78 liters of fresh water shall be
provided for every 0.45 kg of ammonia in
the system. The water used shall be
prevented from freezing. The tank shall be
substantially constructed shall be greater
than one-half (1/2) the height. The tank
shall have a hinged cover, or, if of the
enclosed type, shall have vent hole at the
top. All pipe connections shall be through
the top of the tank only, the discharge pipe
from the pressure relief valves shall
discharge the ammonia in the center of the
tank near the bottom.
12.4 Sulfur Dioxide Discharge
a. When sulfur dioxide is used, the discharge
may be into tank of absorptive brine which
shall be used for no purpose except sulfur
dioxide absorption. There shall be 3.378
liters of standard dichromate brine 1.14 kg
sodium dichromate per 3.78 liters for every
0.46 kg of sulfur dioxide in the system.
Brines made with caustic soda or soda ash
may be used in pace of sodium dichromate
provided the quantity and strength give the
equivalent sulfur dioxide absorbing power.
The tank shall be substantially constructed
of not less than 3.15 mm iron or steel. The
tank shall have a hinged cover, or if of the
enclosed type, shall have a vent hole at the
top. All pipe connections shall be through
the top or the tank only. The discharge pipe
from the pressure relief valve shall
discharge the sulfur dioxide in the center of
the tank near the bottom.
Section 13.0 Pressure Limiting Devices
13.1 Pressure limiting devices are required on all
systems containing more than 9.09 kg of
refrigerant and operating above atmospheric
pressure, and on all Water Cooled Systems so
constructed that the compressor or generator is
capable of producing a pressure in excess of the
test pressure.
13.2 Pressure limiting devices shall stop the action of
the compressor at a pressure less than ninety
(90) percent of the pressure relief devices
setting but more than ninety (90) percent of the
test pressure given in Table 8.6.
 CHAPTER 8— HEATING, VENTILATING, REFRIGERATION AND AIRCONDITIONING

13.3 Pressure limiting devices shall be connected of the refrigerant at 46.11°C. In no case
between the compressor and the top valve on shall the test pressure be less than 206.7
the discharge side. kPa by gauge.

Section 14.0 Test of Refrigerant 14.7 Posting of Tests

Containing Vessels
a. A dated declaration of test, signed by the
installer, shall be mounted in a frame,
14.1 Refrigerant containing vessels, the shells of
protected by glass, and posted in the
which have been previously tested under
machinery room. If an inspector is present
hydrostatic pressure of not less than one and
at the tests he shall also sign the
one-half times the Design Working Pressure
declaration.
may be finally tested with pneumatic pressure at
one and one-half times the Design Working
Pressure, instead of hydrostatic pressure. Section 15.0 Instructions

14.2 Gauges 15.1 All Refrigerating System shall be maintained in a

a. Liquid level gauge glasses, except those of
the bull’s eye type, shall have automatic
closing shut-off valves, and such glasses
shall be adequately protected against injury.
14.3 Motor Protection
a. Motors of Refrigerating System shall be
adequately protected against hazardous
overheating under normal or abnormal
operating conditions.
cleanly manner, free from accumulation of oily
dirt, waste, and other debris and shall be kept
readily accessible at all times.
15.2 It shall be the duty of the person in charge of the
premises on which a refrigerating system
containing more than 9.09 kg of refrigerant is
installed, to place a card conspicuously as near
as practicable to the refrigerant condensing unit
giving directions for the operation of the system,
including precautions to be observed in case of
breakdown or leak as follows:

14.4 Tests a. Instructions for shutting down the system in

case of emergency.
a. Refrigerant containing part of every system
shall be tested and proved tight by the b. The name, address and day and night
manufacturer at not less than the minim test telephone numbers for obtaining service.
pressure shown in Table 8.7.
c. The name, address and telephone number
b. Every refrigerant containing part of every of the municipal inspection department
system that is erected on the premises, having jurisdiction and instruction to notify
except compressors, safety devices, said department immediately incase of
pressure gauges, and control mechanism, emergency.
that are factory tested, shall be tested and
proved tight after complete installation and Table 8.7
before operation at not less than the Test Pressures
minimum pressures shown in Table 8.7.
Minimum Test
14.5 Test Medium. No oxygen or any combustible Refrigerant Pressure
gas or combustible mixture of gases shall be Kilopascal
fused for testing. Low
ChemicaiHigh Pres.
Name Pres.
Formula Side
14.6 Refrigerant not Listed Side

a. For refrigerants not listed in Table 8.7, the Ammonia 3

NH 2 067 1 003.5
Test Pressure for the high pressure side Butane 1
H
4
C 620.1 344.5
shall be not less than the saturated vapor Carbon dioxide 2
CO 10 355 6 890
pressure of the refrigerant at 57°C. The test Dichlorodifluoromethane
pressure for the low pressure side shall be (Freon-i 2) F
2
CCCI 1 619.15 999.05
not less than the saturated vapor pressure Dichloromethane 2CI
(CarreneC
4
F 551.2 344.5

166
 CHAPTER 8— HEATING, VENTILATING, REFRIGERATION AND AIRCONDITIONING

No.1) each refrigerant condensing unit, and each

(Freon-i 14) refrigerant compressor shall carry a name
(1 Methylene chloride) CI
2
CH 206.7 206.7 plate marked with the manufacturer’s name
Ammonia 3
NI-I 206.7 1 033.5 and address, identification number, and
Butane 1
H
4
C 620.1 344.5 name of refrigerant used.
Carbon dioxide 2
CO 10 355 6 890
Dichlorodifluoromethane Section 16.0 Helmets
(Freon-i 2) F2
2
CCI 1 619.15 999.05
Dichlorotetrafluoromethan
16.1 One mask or helmet shall be required where
(Freon-114) CI
C
4
F
2 551.12 344.5 amount of Group 2 refrigerants between 45.45
Dichioromethane (Carrene kg and 454.55 kg inclusive, are employed. If
No. 1) more than 454.55 kg of Group 2 refrigerants are
(Methylene chloride) 2 CI
CH 206.7 206.7 employed, at least two masks or helmets shall
Dichlorotetrafluoroethane be required.
(Freon-21) F
2
CHCI 482.3 344.5
Dichloroethylene H2CI
C
2 206.7 206.7 16.2 Only complete helmets or masks marked as
Ethane 6
H
2
C 7 579 4 134 approved by the Government Authorized
Ethyl chloride 1
C
5
C2H 413.4 344.5 Agency and suitable for the refrigerant
Isobutane (Ch2)3C 895.7 516.75 employed shall be used and they shall be kept
H in a suitable cabinet immediately outside the
Methyl chloride CI
3
CH 1 481.35 861.25 machinery room or other approved accessible
Methyl formate HCOOCH 344.5 344.5 location.
3
Propane H8
3
C 2 239.25 1 446.9 16.3 Canisters or cartridges of helmets or masks
Sulphur dioxide 2
SO 1171.3 654.55 shall be removed immediately after having been
Trichloromonofluorometha used or the seal broken and in unused, must be
renewed at least once every two (2) years. The
(Freon-i 1) F
3
CCI 344.5 206.7 date of filing shall be marked thereon.

15.3 Signs Section 17.0 Refrigerant Storage

a. Each Refrigerating System shall be provided
with an easily legible metal sign
permanently attached and easily accessible,
indicating thereon the name and address of
the manufacturer or installer, the kind and
total number of kilograms of refrigerant
contained in the system, and field test
pressure applied.
b. Systems containing more than 45.45 kg of
refrigerant should be provided with metal
signs having letters of not less than 13 mm
in height designating the main shut-off
valves to each vessel, main steam or
electrical control, remote control switch, and
pressure lifting device. On all exposed high
pressure and low pressure piping in each
room where installed outside the machinery
room, shall be signs as above the name of
the refrigerant and the letters HP or LP.
15.4 Marking
a. Each separately sold refrigerant containing
vessel larger than 0.14 m
3 in gross volume,
17.1 Note more than 136 kg. Of refrigerant in
approved containers shall be stored in a
machinery room.
17.2 No refrigerant shall be stored in a room in which
less than 9.09 kg are used in the system.
17.3 Refrigerants on the user’s premises in excess of
that permitted in the machinery room shall be
stored in a fireproof shed or room used for no
other purpose.
17.4 Charging and Discharging Refrigerants
a. When refrigerant is added to a system,
except a unit system containing not more
than 2.73 kg of refrigerant it shall be
charged into the low pressure side of the
system. No container shall be left
connected to a system while charging or
withdrawing refrigerant.
b. Refrigerants withdrawn from Refrigerating
System shall only be transferred to

167
 CHAPTER 8— HEATING, VENTILATING, REFRIGERATION AND AIRCONDITIONING
approved containers. No refrigerant shall be
discharged to a sewer.
c. The containers from which refrigerants are
discharged into or withdrawn from a
refrigerating system must be carefully
weighed each time they are used for this
purpose, and the containers must not be
filled in excess of the permissible filling
weight for such containers, and such
refrigerants.
Section 18.0 The Fundamentals of Vapor
Compression Refrigeration
18.1 Basic Concepts
If a liquid is introduced into a vessel which is
initially vacuumed, and whose walls are left at a
constant temperature it will at once evaporate.
The latent heat of vaporization will be abstracted
from the series of the vessels, the resulting
cooling effect is the starting point of the
refrigeration cycle.
18.3 Temperature,
The pressure inside will rise as the liquid
evaporates, until it reaches a certain maximum
value for the temperature. This is the saturation
vapor pressure, no more liquid will evaporate
and of course the cooling effect will cease. Any
further liquid introduced will remain in liquid
state in the bottom of the vessel. If we remove
some of the vapor from the container, by
connecting it to the suction of a pump, the
pressure will tend to fall, and this will cause
more liquid to evaporate. In this way, we can
make the cooling process continuous. We need
a suitable liquid, the refrigerant; a container
where vaporization and cooling can take place,
called the evaporator; and a pump to remove
the vapor, called the compressor. To avoid
continuous consumption of the refrigerant, the
system has to be closed cycle, where the vapor
has to be returned back, in liquid form. So we
use a condenser where liquification can take
place.
18.2 Vapor Compression Cycle
Referring to the vapor compression cycle and
the pressure enthalpy diagram, point 1
represent the condition of the refrigerant coming
out of the evaporator at saturated vapor
condition. In Fig. 8.18.2a process 1 to 2 is the
work of the compressor, whereby the saturated
vapor refrigerant is isentropically compressed
until the pressure reaches the condenser
168
operating pressure. Here the refrigerant is at
super-heated vapor state (point 2). Process 2 to
3 is the work of the condenser, whereby heat
contained by the refrigerant is released into the
atmosphere or the cooling medium (Heat Sink)
at constant pressure, thus changing the phase
of the refrigerant from superheated vapor to
saturated liquid, still at the condenser pressure
(pt. 3). Process 3 to 4 is the work of the
expansion valve, whereby liquid refrigerant at
condenser pressure is expanded thus reducing
the pressure to that of the evaporator pressure
(point 4). Liquid and partial amount of vapor
(mixture) refrigerant is admitted into the
evaporator. Process 4 to 1 is the work of the
evaporator, whereby heat from the immediate
surroundings is being absorbed by the
refrigerant, thus changing its phase for liquid
mixture to saturated vapor state (pt. 1). These
complete the ideal refrigeration cycle. In actual
practice however, refrigerant condition at point 1
is usually at superheat condition, and the
condition at point 3 is sub-cooled condition.
Pressures, Heat Quantities,
Flow Rates
Referring to the pressure-enthalpy diagram, the
ordinate represents the pressure of the
2 absolute and the abscissa
refrigerant in KN/m
its enthalpy in KJ/kg.
The cooling of liquid refrigerant from the
condensing temperature to the temperature of
evaporation is accomplished by the vaporization
of a small amount of liquid downstream of the
expansion valve. Vapor produced in this way is
known as “flash gas”.
The state of mixture of liquid refrigerant and
vapor entering the evaporator is represented on
the diagram by the point 4. Since no heat is
transferred at the expansion valve and no work
is done there, if the mass of liquid that vaporizes
is f kilogram per kilogram of refrigerant
circulated, the following relationship holds:
 CHAPTER 8— HEATING, VENTILATING, REFRIGERATION AND AIRCONDITIONING

REFRIGERATION CYCLE Thus: = enthalpy of saturated

vapor at condensing pressure, kJ/kg.
HP VAPOR

(2)
(3)
hve = enthalpy of saturated
HP LIQUID vapor at evaporating pressure, kJ/kg.
EXPANSION
VALUC (A
1
h = enthalpy of saturated
(1
(t
liquid at condensing pressure, kJ/kg.
MOTOR
COMPRESSOR LP GAS
Thus hie = enthalpy of saturated
Fig. 81R 2u
liquid at evaporating pressure, kJ/kg.
Figure 8182a
f = sometimes called
“dryness friction” mass in kg of
refrigerant which vaporizes during
Refrigeration Cycle p. 179 throttling per kg circulated.
3)
D
3)
ci) Example:
Ui

ci)33 An air conditioning plant uses Refrigerant 12

and has evaporating and condensing
P temperatures of 0 C respectively. What will
be the mass of flash gas per kg of refrigerant
circulated?

p Solution:

Referring to Table 8.18.3a, the enthalpies of

saturated Refrigerant 12 are as follows:

ENTHALPY Saturated vapour at 0°C hve

Figure 818.2b 187.53 kJ/kg

Saturated liquid at 35°C h

10
69.55 kJ/kg.
enthalpy enthalpy enthalpy f
of mixture of flash liquid at
Saturated liquid at 0°C hie
entering gas f + evaporating (1 — f) 36.05 kJ/kg.
evaporator pressure
Therefore f = 69.55 36.05
—

enthalpy 187.53—36.05
of liquid at
Condens
ng pres
= 0.2211
sure
18.4 Refrigerant Effect

= hvef + hie (1 — t) = 10
h The refrigerant effect per kilogram of refrigerant
in circulation is given by the formula —

Or
Refrigerating Effect (RE) = (hec— h
)
1
f = _2)Ei2jfi_.
hve hie— eq. 1 where:

Note: The subscripts I and v denotes liquid and vapor, RE = Refrigerating effect per kilogram of
respectively. circulating refrigerant
hec = enthalpy of refrigerant entering the
cooling coil

169
 CHAPTER 8— HEATING, VENTILATING, REFRIGERATION AND AIRCONDITIONING

1
h = enthalpy of refrigerant leaving cooling Section 20.0 Energy Conservation for
coil Ventilating, Refrigeration & Air
Conditioning
18.5 Refrigeration CapacityITon of Refrigeration
20.1 To conserve on energy consumption, energy
All Refrigerating Capacities shall be expressed
recovery and saving devices, as recommended
in kilowatts (kw). For 1 Ton of Refrigeration Society of Heating,
by the American
(TR), this would be equal to 3.517 kilowatts
Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers
The work of (ASHRAE), Air Conditioning and Refrigeration
18.6 Work of compression —

Institute (ARI) and/or any internationally

compression, shall be given by the formula:
recognized organization in the field of Heating,
Ventilating, Air Conditioning and Refrigeration,
= m (hvd hve)
shall be used.
—

where: Table 8.8

Some Properties of Refrigerant 12
W, = work of compressor
m = mass of refrigerant, kg/s Tempe- Absolute Gas Liquid Gas Gas
rature Pressure Volume Enthalpy Enthalpy Entropy
hvd = enthalpy entering compressor c 2
KNIm lkg
3
m kj!kg kjlkg kjlkg K
hve enthalphy leaving compressor 187.53 0.6966
0 308.6 0.0554 36.05
5 362.6 0.0475 40.69 18966 0.6043
18.7 Coefficient of Performance the ratio of the
—
-

35 847.7 0.0206 69.55 201.45 0.6839

energy removed at the evaporator (refrigerating C’)

effect) to the energy supplied to the compressor. 40 960.7 0.0182 74.59 203.20 0.6825

Hence, 5 308.6 0.0564 - 190.77 0.7081 .

a)
40 8477 0.0212 - 205.21 0.6950
COP = h—hk=RE 45 847.7 0.0218 - 208.96 0.7078
h d hve
—
50 847.7 0.0224 212.72 0.7196 C’

Re’rigeration Cycle p.179

-

wc =_i_ KW/KW of refrigeration Section 21.0 Montreal Protocol

COP

The ratio of energy 21.1 Considering that the Philippines is one of the
18.8 Energy Efficiency Ratio
signatories in the Montreal Protocol, all
—

removed at the evaporator (refrigerating effect)

refrigerants banned by the said protocol shall
to the electrical energy consumed. This shall
not be used effective the date set forth by the
conform with the standards set by the
same.
Department of Energy.
21.2 Alternatives suggested by the Air Conditioning
EER = Refrigeratinq Effect (kW)
and Refrigeration Institute shall be used in lieu
Electricity Consumption (kW)
of the banned refrigerants which destroys the
ozone layer of the earth. It is further encouraged
Section 19.0 Anti-Pollution forHeating, that extensive researched be made in the field
Ventilating, Refrigeration & Air of Air Conditioning and Refrigeration in order to
Conditioning save the environment.

19.1 Ventilation systems of dusty industrial buildings

should be provided with appropriate dust
collectors so as not to cause suspended
particulate matter in the ambient air higher than
the quality standards set by the government
agency concerned, and shall conform to Clean
Air Act.

170
CHAPTER 8— HEATING, VENTILATING, REFRIGERATION AND AIRCONDITIONING

Table 8.9
Comparative Performance of Refrigerants at 5°C Condensing at 40°C

F 0) 1 -
0
= OW — >
0
Q oa 0 >0) E •
e 0 1)

. E Name of Refrigerant 0 a -
— .

•5 a
-D 0.
z coE CUJ 0>
c W
I- W 0 0 0.0 o°) w
0

718 Water 5° 0.009 0074 846 2370.0 147.0 62.0 0.1355 92.9

11 Trichloromonofluorommethane 5° 0.496 1.747 3.52 157.0 0.332 2.12 0.1395 90.2

717 Ammonia 5° 5.160 15.55 3.01 1088.0 0.243 0.214 0.1456 86.4

114 Dichlorotetrafluoroethane 12.7° 1.062 3.373 3.18 106.2 0.122 1.14 0.1484 84.8

12 Dichlorodifluoromethane 5° 3.626 9.607 2.65 115.0 0.047 0.409 0.1502 83.8

113 Trichlorotrifluoromethane 10.4° 0.188 0.783 4.16 129.5 0.654 5.03 0.1511 83.3

22 Monochlorodifluoromethane 5° 5.838 15.34 2.63 157.8 0.040 0.255 0.1518 82.9

502 An azeotopic mixture 50

6.678 16.77 2.51 101.0 0.026 0.259 0.1631 77.1

171
 CHAPTER 9— FIRE PROTECTION & PREVENTION

Chapter 9

FIRE PROTECTION & PREVENTION

Section 1.0 General Requirements ordinary combustibles. This standard also

applies to storage of commodities which with
their packaging and storage aids would classify
1.1 Scope The provision of the Fire Protection
as non-combustibles regardless of storage
—

and Prevention to and govern the following:

height. This standard does not cover unpacked
bulk storage such as grain, coal or similar
a. All private or public buildings, facilities,
commodities.
structures and their premises, constructed,
existing and proposed.
Fire protection system related to certain
commodities introduce hazard different than
b. Storage, handling or use of combustible,
contemplated with the above-mentioned General
flammable, toxic, explosives and other
Storage standard. We have other standards for
hazardous materials.
the following storage occupancies:
c. Applications of Fire safety construction,
a. Rack storage of Materials over 12 ft. (3.66
automatic fire suppressions and fire
m) in height in racks, and storage up to and
protective equipment or systems.
including 25 feet (7.62 m) in height and
storage over 25 feet (7.62 m) in height.
1.2 General Safety Requirements. Structure or
Facility the owner of any building, structure, Water density for fire protection for these
facility shall install, provide, incorporate, adopt particular hazards varies from 0.24
and maintain under operable and usable
gpm/sq.ft. 9.779 (Llmin/m sq.) to 0.68
conditions the automatic fire protection devices,
gpmlsq.ft. (27.7 L/min/m sq.) Water density
equipment, fire safety construction, and warning
requirement for fire protection also depends
system.
on the four classes of commodities, namely
Class I, II, lIlly.
1.3 Purpose. The purpose of this standard is to
provide a reasonable degree of protection for life Commodity Classification.
and property from fire through the installation of
the appropriate type of fire protection for the
Class I Commodity is defined as essentially
different buildings, structures or facilities. Hence non-combustible product on wood pallets, or in
in relation to these standards, all of the owner ordinary corrugated cartons with or without
and all occupants of the buildings, structures or single thickness dividers, or in ordinary paper
facilities shall organize themselves and develop,
wrappings, all on wood pallets. Such product
implement fire safety programs to include fire
may have a negligible amount of plastic trims,
preventions in the buildings, premises,
such as knobs or handles. Examples of Class
notification of the Fire Department Personnel to
I products are:
the existence of a fire. Fire brigade training and
evaluation of persons and initial fire fighting Metal products. Metal desk with plastic tops
utilizing the available fire protection equipment
and trim, electrical coil, electrical devices in
within their establishment.
their metal enclosures, dry cell batteries,
stoves, metal cabinets, washers, dryers.
Section 2.0 Indoor General Storage
Foods. Foods in non-combustible containers,
2.1 Application and Scope. frozen, foods, meat, fresh fruits, and
vegetables in non-plastic trays.
The standard applies to storage, 6.40 m or less
in height, of commodities which with their Class II Commodity is defined as Class I
packaging and storage aids would classify as products in slatted wooden crates, solid

172
 CHAPTER 9— FIRE PROTECTION & PREVENTION

wooden boxes, or equivalent combustible Class IV Commodity is defined as Class I, II,

packaging materials on wood pallets. Ill products containing an appreciable amount
Examples of Class I products are: of plastics in paper board cartons on wood
pallets. Examples of Class IV products are:
Thinly coated fine wire such as radio coil wire
on reels or in cartons, incandescent lamps or Small appliances, typewriters, and cameras
fluorescent bulbs; beer or wine up to 20 with plastic parts; plastic-backed tapes and
percent alcohol, in wood containers; and Class synthetic fabrics or clothing. An example of
I product, if small cartons or small packages packing material is a metal product in a
placed in ordinary corrugated cartons. foamed plastic cocoon in corrugated cartons.

Class Ill Commodity is defined as wood, “Sprinkler System Design Curves for Solid
paper, natural fiber cloth, plastic products on Pile, Palletized and Bin Box Storage over 12
wood pallets, products may be contain a ft. (3.7 m), and Shelf Storage 12 ft. (3.7 m) to
limited amount of plastics. Wood dressers 15 ft. (4.6 m) high, shall be in accordance with
with plastic drawer glides, handles, and trim Figure 9-1.1” (6-1.2)
are examples of a commodity with a limited
amount of plastic.

Table 9.1.2 Double row Racks without Solid Shelves, Storage

Higher than 25 ft, Aisles Wider than 4 ft

In-rack sprinklers approximate

— Ceiling Sprinkler Density
Commodity vertical spacing at tier nearest ceiling gpm I sq ft (6)
Class the vertical distance and maximum Maximum
Fig. Sprinkler Clearance (5)
horizontal spacing (1)(2) Storage Stagger
No. Operating Upto lOft (7)
Height
Longitudinal Area
Face (4) and (8) 165 286
Flue (3)
Vertical Oft
Horizontal loft None 7— 10.1 a 30 ft No 0.25 0.35
Under honzontal 2000 sq ft
Barriers
Vertical Oft Vertical 0 ft Higher
7— 10.1 b Yes 0.25 0.35
Horizontal 10 ft Horizontal 10 ft than
Vertical lOft
orat 15ff. and 5ff None 7— 10.1 c 30ff Yes 0.30 035
Horizontal 10 ft
Vertical lOft Vertical 3Oft
7— 10.1 d Yes 0.30 0.40
Horizontal 10 ft Horizontal 10 ft
Vertical 0 ft Vertical ‘10 ft
I, II & III 7— 10.1 e Yes 2000 sq ft 0.30 0.40
Horizontal 10 ft Horizontal 5ff
Vertical 5ff Vertical Higher than
7— 10.1 f 25 ft No 0.30 0.40
Horizontal 5 ft Horizontal 5ff
Horizontal barriers at 20 ft. Vertical
lntervals—2 lines of sprinklers
under barriers maximum 7—101 g Yes 0.30 0.40
—

horizontal spacing 10 ft. staqece

Vertical 115 ft Vertical ‘1Oft
7— 10.1 h
Horizontal ho ft Horizontal 10
Yes 0.35 0.45
Vertical jF2Oft Vertical lOft
I, II, Ill, 7_ 10.1 i Higherthan No 0.35 0.45
Horizontal 5ff Horizontal 2000 sq ft
& IV 25ff
Horizontal barriers at 15 ft Vertical
Intervals —2 lines of sprinklers
under barriers maximum 7 10 1 Yes 035 0.45
—

horizontal spacing 10 ft. staggered

For SI Units: 1 ft 0.3048 m

173
 CHAPTER 9— FIRE PROTECTION & PREVENTION
Table 9.1.3
Sprinkler Discharge Density Areas of Application
Piling Height gpml ft
2 2 (see Note 1)
ft
Piling Method ft
(See Notes 1 and 2) Ord. Temp. Heads High Temp. Head
1.On Floor
a. Pyramid
b. Other arrangements such that Up to 5 See NFPA 13, Standard for Installation of Sprinkler Systems
no horizontal channels are 5 + to 7 0.24 2,000 2,000
formed 7 + to 8 0.26 2,000 2,000
c. Tires piled on floor on tread 8 + to 10 0.28 2.000 2,000
(See Note 3) 10 + to 12 0.32 2,000 2,000

2. Palletized
On side or tread 9 to 20 See Figure 4—1.2
20 to + 30 0.3 plus high 3,000 3,000
Expansion foam

3. Open Portable Rack Storage Upto 12 0.6 5,000 3,000

On side or tread 0.6 (See Note 4) 5,000
12 to 30 0.9 (See Note 4) 3,000
or 0. plus high 3,000 3,000
expansion foam

4. Double & Multi-row Fixed 9 to 20 See Figure 4— 1.2

Rack Storage of Pallets 20 0.4 plus 1 line in-rack 3,000 3,000
On side or tread sprinklers or 0.3 plus high 3.000 3,000
expansion foam

0.3 pIus high Not

20 + to 30 expansion foam Recommended 3,000

5. Double & Multi-row Fixed Upto 12 0.6 5,000 3,000

Rack Storage Without 12 to 20 0.6 (See Note 4) 5,000
Pallets or Shelves 0.9 (See Note 4) 3,000
On side or tread or 0.3 plush high expansion 3,000 3,000
foam or 0.4 plus 1 line 3,000 3,000
in-rack sprinklers

20 + to 30 0.3 plus high Not

expansion foam Recommended 3,000

Notes:

1. Sprinkler discharge densities and areas of application are based on a maximum clearance of 10 ft (3.1 m) between sprinkler defectors and the
maximum available height of storage.

2. The densities and areas provided in the table are based on fire tests using standard response; standard orifice (1/2 in.) and large orifice (1 7/32 in.)
sprinklers. In buildings where “old style” sprinkler heads exist, discharge densities shall be increased by 25%. For use of other types of sprinklers,
consult the authority having jurisdiction.

3. Files not to exceed 25 ft (7.6 m) in direction of wheel holes.

4. Water supply shall fulfill both requirements.

b. Fire Protection Standard for Storage of Heavy Weight Class. Includes paper board
Rubber Tires. This provision contained in and paper stock having a basis weight [weight
this standard apply to new facilities for tire per 1,000 sq.ft. (93 m.sq.)j of 20 lb. (9.1 kg.) or
storage and when converting existing greater.
facilities to tire storage occupancy.
Medium Weight Class. Includes the broad
c. Fire Protection Standard for the Storage range of papers having basis weight [weight
of Roll Paper. The purpose of this standard per 1,000 sq.ft. (93 m.sq.)] from 10 lb. (4.5 kg.)
is to provide a reasonable degree of to 20 lb (9.1 kg.)
protection for the storage of roll paper when
stored in buildings or structures through Light Weight Class. Includes all papers
installation requirements based upon sound having basis weight [weight per 1,000 sq.ft.
engineer principles and test data. (93 m.sq.)] less than 10 lb (4.5 kg) and
tissues.
Classification of Roll Paper:

174
 CHAPTER 9— FIRE PROTECTION & PREVENTION

Notes: produce fires that may normally be extinguished

by the quenching and cooling effect of water.
1. Sprinkle discharge densities and areas
of application are based on a Exposure The exterior presence of
—

maximum clearance of 10 ft. (3.1 m) combustibles which, if ignited, could cause

between sprinkler deflectors and the damage to the storage building or its contents.
maximum available height of storage.
Fire Wall A wall designed to prevent the
—

2. The densities and areas provided in spread of fire having a fire resistance rating of
the table are based on fire tests using not less than four hours and having sufficient
response; standard office (1/2 in.) and structural stability under fire conditions to allow
large orifice (17/32 in.) sprinklers. In collapse of construction on either side without
buildings were “oldstyle” sprinkler collapse of wall.
exist, discharge densities shall be
increased by 25%. For used of other Horizontal Channel Any uninterrupted space
—

types of sprinklers consult the in excess of 1524 m in length between

authority having jurisdiction. horizontal layers of stored commodities. Such
channels may be formed by pallets, shelving,
3. Files no to exceed 25 ft. (7.6 m) in racks or other storage commodities. Such
direction of wheel holes. channels may be formed by pallets, shelving,
racks or other storage arrangements.
4. Water supply shall fulfill both
requirements. Non-combustibles This term designates
—

commodities, packaging or storage aids which

will not ignite, bum or liberate flammable gases
Table 9.1.4 Design Densitvl Area of Arnlication Chart
Heavy Weight Medium Height
Stora e Clearance Open Array
hei ht’W Closed Array Standard Array Open Array Closed Array Standard Array Banded or
Banded or Banded or Unbanded
Unbanded Banded Unbanded Unbanded Unbanded Banded
Banded Unbanded

10 <5 .3/2000 .3/2000 .3/2000 .3/2000 .3/2000 V .3/2000 .3/2000 .3/2000

10 >5 .3/2000 .3/2000 .3/2000 .3/2000 .3/2000 .3/2000 .3/2000 .3)2000 .3)2000
15 <5 .3/2000 .3/2000 .3/2000 .3/2000 .3/2000 .3/2000 .3/2000 .45/2500 .45/2500
15 >5 .3/2000 .3/2000 .3/2000 .3/3000 .3/3500 .3/2000 .3/2500 .45/3000 .45/3000

20 < 5 .3/2000 3/2000 .3/2500 .45/3000 .45/3500 .3/2000 .45(2500 .6/2500 .6/2500

20 >5 .3/2000 .3/2500 .3/3000 .45/3500 .45/4000 .3/2500 .45/3000 .6/3000 .6/3000

25 < 5 .45/2500 .45/3000 .45/3500 .6/2500 .6/3000 .45/3000 .6/3000 .75/2500 .75/2500

NOTE: Densities and/or areas may be interpolated between any 5 ft storage height increment.
SI Units: 1 ft = 0.3048m; 1 gpm/ft
2 = 40.746 (L/min)/m
2

2.2 Definitions when heated to a temperature of 7490

for five
minutes.
Available Height for Storage The maximum —

height at which commodities, packaging or Packaging This term designates any

—

storage can be stored above the floor and still commodity wrapping, cushioning or container.
maintain adequate clearance from structural
members and the required clearance below Storage Aids This term designates
—

sprinklers. commodity storage devices such as shelves,

pallets, dunnage, decks, platforms, trays, bins,
Ordinary Combustibles This term designates
—
separators and skids.
commodities, packages or storage aids which
have hats of combustion kilojoules per kilogram Warehouse Any building or area within a
—

similar to wood, cloth or paper and which building used principally for the storage of
commodities.

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 CHAPTER 9— FIRE PROTECTION & PREVENTION

Extra Combustible Materials, which, either by

— Occupant Load — The maximum number of
themselves or in combination with their persons that may be allowed to occupy a
packaging, are highly susceptible to ignition and particular building, structure, or facility or portion
will contribute to the intensity and rapid spread thereof.
of fire.
Shall — Indicate a mandatory requirement.
Moderate Combustible Materials or their
—

packaging, either of which will contribute fuel to Should Indicates a recommendation or that
—

fire. which is advised but not required.

Non-Combustibles Materials and their

—
Sprinkler System A sprinkler system, for fire
—

packaging which will neither ignite nor support protection purpose, is an integrated system of
combustion. one or more water supplies for fire use,
underground and overhead piping designed in
The word SHALL is intended to indicate accordance with fire protection engineering
requirements. standards. The portion of the sprinkler system
above ground is a network of specially sized or
The words IT IS RECOMMENDED indicate hydraulically designed piping installed in building
advisory provisions. APPROVED refers to structure or area, generally overhead, and to
approval by the authority having jurisdiction. which sprinklers are attached in a systematic
pattern. The valve controlling each system riser
Approved. Acceptable to the “Authority having is located in the system riser or its supply piping.
jurisdiction”. Each sprinkler system includes a device for
actuating alarm when the system is in operation.
Authority Having Jurisdiction. The “authority The system is usually activated by heat from a
having jurisdiction” is the organization, office or fire and discharges water over the fire area.
individual responsible for approving equipment,
an installation or procedure. Warehouse Any building or area within a
—

building used principally for the storage of

Class A Fire Fire involving ordinary
—
commodities.
combustible materials such as wood, cloth,
paper, rubber and plastics 2.3 Classification of Storage

Class B Fire — Fire in flammable liquids and a. Type I Storage. Type I storage is that in
gases. which combustible commodities or non-
combustible commodities involving
Class C Fire Fire— involving energized combustible package or storage aids are
electrical equipment. stored over 4,550 mm but not more than
6,400 mm high in solid piles or over 3,650
Class D Fire Fire involving combustible
—
mm but not more than 6,400 mm high in
metals, such as magnesium, sodium, potassium, piles that contain horizontal channels. Minor
titanium and other similar metals. quantities of commodities of hazard greater
than ordinary combustibles may be included
Dry Stand Pipe a type of stand pipe system in
—
without affecting this general classification.
which the pipes are not normally filled with
water. Water is introduced into the system thru b. Type II Storage. Type II storage is that in
Fire Service connections when needed. which combustible commodities or non-
combustible commodities involving
Fire Service An organization or a component
—
combustible packaging or storage aids are
of the Philippine National Police Fire Department stored not over 4,500 mm high in solid piles
personnel in-charge with the mission of fire or not over 3,650 mm high in piles that
prevention, fire protection. contain horizontal channels.

Means of Egress A continuous and

— Minor quantities of commodities of hazard
unobstructed route of exit from any point in a greater than ordinary combustibles may be
building, structure or facility to a safe public way. included without affecting this general
classification.

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 CHAPTER 9- FIRE PROTECTION & PREVENTION
c. Type Ill Storage. Type II storage is that in
which the stored commodities packaging
and storage aids are non-combustible or
contain only a small concentration of
combustibles which are incapable of
producing a fire that would cause
appreciable damage to the commodities
stored or to non-combustible wall, floor or
roof construction. Ordinary combustible
commodities in completely sealed non-
combustible containers may qualify in this
classification subject to the authority having
jurisdiction. General commodity storage that
is subject to frequent changing and storage
of combustible packaging and storage aids
is excluded from this category.
2.4 Building Arrangement
a. Construction. One-storey buildings without
basement storage areas are preferable for
warehouses because of greater efficiency
for fire fighting and salvage operations.
Long narrow buildings provide greater ease
in protection and fire fighting than large
square buildings. Multi-storey buildings may
be subject to the spread of fire from lower to
upper floors and water used on upper floors
may cause damage on lower floors.
Newly-constructed warehouses over one
storey in height should be of not less than
three-hour fire-resistive construction.
Fire wall construction shall be parapet at
least 910 mm above the building roof,
except the parapet may be omitted where
the wall fits tightly to the underside of a fire-
resistive roof deck. In buildings having
combustible exterior walls, intersecting fire
walls shall extend at least 1,850 mm in total
length. Fire walls should preferably be
without openings, but if openings are
necessary they shall be provided with self-
closing or automatic fire doors on each side
of the wall. Such doors shall be suitable for
openings in the particular fire wall.
A wall or partition separating the warehouse
from other occupancy shall have fire
resistance rating sufficient to protect the
warehouse from the fire exposure of the
other occupancy. Door openings shall be
equipped with automatic closing fire doors
appropriate for the fire resistance rating of
the wall or partition.
177
Section of the warehouse occupied as boiler
room, engine room, or garage shall be cut
off from other sections of the warehouse by
construction having a fire resistance of at
least two hours.
Adequate access shall be provided to all
portions of the premises for fire fighting
purposes. Frangible wall sections for fire
department or other emergency access or
exit should be considered where doors are
not practical.
b. Areas. Fire areas of warehouses should be
limited to maintain the total value of the
commodity within reasonable limits yet not
be too restrictive for low value commodities.
Conversely, high value and vital
commodities. Should be restricted to smaller
areas than for average value commodities
such as found in the usual general
warehouse. The combustibility of the
commodity and its packaging or storage aids
should be taken into account. Other
considerations are the difficulty encountered
in fire fighting and salvage operations in
large undivided areas.
Type I and Type II Storage. When
protected in accordance with this standard,
4,645 m 2 is considered the maximum area
for average value commodities enclosed by
exterior walls or combination of exterior
walls and fire walls. A multi-storey building
having three-hour fire-resistive construction
shall be considered as having each floor a
separate fire area. A multi-storey building of
less than three-hour fire resistance at each
floor shall be considered to be one fire area
with the floor area per level being
cumulative.
Type Ill Storage. Warehouses constructed
and protected in accordance with this
standard may be of any reasonable area.
c. Ventilation. Consideration should be given
to the provision of roof vents and curtain
boards, particularly in large one-storey
warehouses where distance to exterior wall
openings makes it difficult to place hose
streams in service.
d. Protection of Stairways and Shafts.
Stairways and other vertical shafts shall be
enclosed with fire-resistive construction or
sealed at each floor level with construction
 CHAPTER 9- FIRE PROTECTION & PREVENTION
having the same fire resistance rating as the
floor.
Where stairways are required for the exit of
occupants, such stairways and doors in
interior partitions enclosing stairways shall
be adequately protected.
e. Stairways and Shaft of High Rise
Buildings Shall Be Smoke Proof
Enclosures. Smoke proof enclosures shall
be a stair enclosure so designed that the
movement into the smoke proof enclosure of
the product of combustion produced by a fire
occurring in any part of the building shall be
limited and/or eliminated.
The smoke proof enclosure may be
accomplished by using natural ventilation,
by using mechanical ventilation
incorporating a vestibule or by pressurizing
the stair enclosure.
A smoke enclosure shall consist of a
continuous stair enclosed from the highest
point to the lowest point by barriers having a
2-hour fire resistance rating. Where a
vestibule is used it shall be within the 2-hour
enclosure and is a part of the smoke proof
enclosure.
Every smoke enclosure shall discharge into
a public way, into a yard or court having
direct access to a public way or into an exit
passageway. Such exit passageways shall
be without other openings and shall be
separated from the remainder resistance
rating.
f. Natural Ventilation. Smoke proof
enclosures by natural ventilation shall
comply with all the following:
1. Where a vestibule is provided, the
doorway into the vestibule shall be
protected with an approved fire door
assembly having a 1-1/2-hour fire
protection rating and the fire door
assembly from the vestibule to the
stair shall have not less than a 20-
minute fire protection rating. Doors
shall be designed to minimize air
leakage and shall be self-closing or
shall be automatic-closing by
actuation of a smoke detector within
10 ft (3 m) of the vestibule door.
Where access to the stair is by
178
means of an exterior balcony, the
door assembly to the stair shall
have a 1-1/2-hour fire protection
rating and shall be self-closing or
shall be automatic-closing by
actuation of a smoke detector.
Openings adjacent to such exterior
balconies shall be protected as
required and as follows:
2. Every vestibule shall have a
minimum net area of 16 sq. ft. (1.5
sq.m.) of opening in an exterior
court, yard or public space at least
20 ft. (6.1 m) in width.
3. Every vestibule shall have a
minimum dimension not less than
the required width of the corridor
leading to it and a minimum
dimension of 72 in. (183 cm) in the
direction of travel.
g. Mechanical Ventilation. Smoke proof
enclosures by mechanical ventilation shall
comply with all of the following:
1. The door assembly from the building
into the vestibule shall be 1-1/2-hour
fire protection rating and the door
assembly from the vestibule to the
stairway shall have not less than 20-
minute fire protection rating. The
door to the stairway shall be
designed and installed to minimize
air leakage. The doors shall be self-
closing or shall be automatic-closing
by actuation of a smoke detector
located within 10 ft. (3 m) of the
vestibule door.
2. Vestibules shall have a minimum
dimension of 44 in. (112 cm) in
width and 72 in. (183 cm) in
direction of exit travel.
3. The vestibules shall be provided
with not less than one air change
per minute, and the exhaust shall be
150 percent of the supply. Supply
air shall enter and exhaust air shall
discharge from the vestibule through
separate tightly constructed ducts
used only for that purpose. Supply
air shall enter the vestibule within 6
in. (15.2 cm) of the floor level. The
top of the exhaust register shall be
 CHAPTER 9— FIRE PROTECTION & PREVENTION

located not more than 6 in. (15.2
cm) down from the top of the trap
and shall be entirely within the
smoke trap area floors, when in the
open position, shall not obstruct
duct opening. Duct opening may be
provided with controlling dampers if
needed to meet the design
requirements but are not otherwise
required.
4. The vestibule ceiling shall be at
least 20 in. (50.8cm) higher than the
door opening into the vestibule to
serve as a smoke and heat trap and
to provide an upward moving air
column. The height may be
decreased when justified by
engineering design and field testing.
5. The stair shall be provided with a
damper relief opening at the top and
supplied mechanically with sufficient
air to discharge a minimum of 2500
cu. Ft/mm. (70.8 cu rn/mm) through
the relief opening column in the stair
relative to atmosphere with all doors
closed and a minimum of 0.10 inch
water column (25 Pa) difference
between the stair and the vestibule.
h. Stair Pressurization. Smoke proof
enclosures by stair pressurization shall
comply with all of the following:
1. The building shall be protected
throughout by an approved
supervised automatic sprinkler
system.
2. There shall be an engineered
system to pressurize the air
enclosure capable of developing
0.05 in. (12.5 Pa) in addition to the
maximum anticipated stack
pressure relative to other parts of
the building measured with all the
enclosure doors closed.
Activation of Mechanical Ventilation
System.
For both mechanical and pressurized stair
enclosure systems, the activation of the
systems shall be initiated by smoke
detectors and by manual controls accessible
to the fire department. The required system
shall also be initiated by the following, if
provided.
1. Water flow signal from a complete
automatic sprinkler system.
2. General evacuation alarm system.
j. Standby Power. An approved self-
contained generator set to operator
whenever there is a loss of power in a
normal house current shall provide standby
Power for mechanical ventilation. The
generator shall be in separate room having
a minimum- 1 hour fire resistive occupancy
separation and shall have minimum fuel
supply adequate to operate the equipment
for 2 hours.
k. Testing. Before the mechanical equipment
is accepted by the authority having
jurisdiction, it shall be tested to confirm that
the mechanical equipment is operating in
compliance with these requirements.
Emergency Lighting. The stair shaft and
vestibule shall be provided with emergency
lighting.
m. Exposure Protection. Adequate protection
against exposure shall be provided where
the warehouse or its contents are subject to
damage from external fire. Depending upon
the severity of the exposure, such protection
should consist of parapet masonry walls
without openings, wire glass in metal framed
windows and/or open sprinklers.
n. Drainage of Floors. Upper floors of multi-
storied buildings should be made water tight
and provided with floor drainage facilities.
o. Piles Containing Horizontal Channels
p. Type I and Type II Storage. Horizontal
channels formed by rack arrangement
should be suitably fire-stopped by means of
barrier at intervals of 7,620 mm unless
additional automatic sprinklers are provided
at intermediate levels to protect the storage.
Horizontal channels of palletized storage
should be perpendicular to the aisle. No
part of such horizontal channels shall be
more than 7,620 mm from an aisle
measured along the length of the channel. It

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 CHAPTER 9— FIRE PROTECTION & PREVENTION
is desirable to eliminate such channels by
fire stopping pallets or by other means.
Section 3.0 Fire Protection Systems
3.1 Standard for the Design and Installation of
Sprinkler System
a. General Information
1. Sprinkler System. A sprinkler
system, for fire protection purposes,
is an integrated system of
underground and overhead piping
engineering standards. The
installation includes a water supply
such as a gravity tank, fire pump,
reservoir or pressure tank and/or
connection by underground piping to
a city main. The portion of the
sprinkler system above ground is a
network of specially sized or
hydraulically designed piping
installation in a building, structure or
area to which sprinklers are
connected. The system includes a
controlling valve and alarm devices
when the system is in operation.
The sprinkler head of the system is
usually activated by heat from a fire
and discharges water over the fire
area.
2. Scope and Purpose. This standard
is the minimum for the installation of
the sprinkler system for buildings,
the character and adequacy of
water supplies to sprinkler systems.
The purpose of this standard is to
provide protection for life and
property from fire through
installation requirements for
sprinkler systems based upon
engineering principles, test data,
and field experience.
3. Classification of Sprinkler
Systems. Sprinkler Systems are
classified into different types listed
below:
(a) Wet Pipe Systems. A system
employing automatic sprinklers
attached to a piping system
containing water and connected
to a water supply so that water
discharges immediately from
180
sprinklers opened by a fire.
This is the type of sprinkler
system commonly used and
adaptable to the climate in our
country.
(b) Deluge System. A system
employing open sprinklers
attached to a piping system
connected to a water supply
through which is opened by the
operation of a fire detection
system installed in the same
areas as the sprinklers; when
this valve opens, water flows
into the piping system and
discharges from all sprinklers
attached thereto. This is the
system used in extra hazard
areas like an aircraft hangar,
storage tanks of combustible
liquids, gases and oils, high
voltage substations
transformers. Foam chemicals
may be incorporated to the
system to be more effective in
fighting class B fires.
4. Classification of Occupancies
(a) Light Hazard Occupancies.
Occupancies where the quantity
and/or combustibility of contents
are low and fire with relatively
low rate of heat release are
expected. Light hazard
occupancies include
occupancies having conditions
similar to: Churches, clubs,
educational, hospitals, libraries,
except large stock rooms,
Museums, Nursing or
Convalescent Homes, Office,
including Data Processing,
Residential, Restaurant seating
areas, Theaters and
Auditoriums excluding stages
and prosceniums and Unused
attics.
(b) Ordinary Hazard
Occupancies. There are three
groups of ordinary hazard
occupancies and these are as
follows:
 CHAPTER 9— FIRE PROTECTION & PREVENTION

1) Ordinary Hazard (Group and wharves, Repair

1). Occupancies where garages, Tire
combustibility is low, manufacturing, Ware
quantity of combustible is houses (having moderate to
moderate, stockpiles of higher combustibility of
combustibles do not exceed contents such as paper,
2,400 mm and fire with household furniture, paint
moderate rate of heat general storage, whiskey,
release are expected. etc.), and Wood machining.
Included in this group are
the following having (c) Extra Hazard Occupancies.
conditions similar to: Occupancies where quantity
Automobile parking and combustibility of contents is
garages, Bakeries, very high, and flammable and
Beverages manufacturing, combustible liquid, dust, lint or
Canneries, Dairy products other materials are present
manufacturing and introducing the probability of
processing, Electronic rapidly developing fire with high
plants, Glass and glass rate of heat release. Extra
products manufacturing, hazard occupancies are
Laundries and Restaurant classified into two groups,
service areas. Group 1 and 2.

2) Ordinary Hazard (Group 1) Extra Hazard (Group 1).

2). Occupancies where Include occupancies as
quantity and combustibility described above with little
of content is moderate. or no flammable or
Stockpiles do not exceed combustible liquids:
3,700 mm and fire with combustible hydraulic fluid
moderate heat release is used areas, Die casting,
expected. Under this group Metal extruding, Plywood
are the following: Cereal and particle board
mills, Chemical plant —
manufacturing, Printing
ordinary, Machine shops, (using inks, with below
Metal working, Cold storage 37.8°C flash points, Rubber
warehouses, Distilleries reclaiming, compounding,
Leather goods drying, milling, vulcanizing,
manufacturing, Libraries, Saw mills, Textile picking,
large stock room areas, opening, blending,
Mercantile, Printing and garneting, carding,
publishing, Textile combining of cotton
manufacturing, Tobacco synthetics, wool, shoddy, or
pro-ducts manufacturing burlap, and Upholstering
and Wood products with plastic foams.
assembly.
2) Extra Hazard (Group 2).
3) Ordinary Hazard (Group Include occupancies with
3). Occupancies where moderate to substantial
quantity and/or amount of flammable or
combustibility of contents is combustible liquids or
high, and fire of high rate of where shielding of
release are expected. combustibles is extensive:
Included in this group are Asphalt saturating,
the following having Flammable liquids spraying,
conditions similar to: Feed Flow coating, Mobile home
mills, Pulp and paper mills, or modular building,
Paper process plants, Piers assemblies (where finished

181
 CHAPTER 9— FIRE PROTECTION & PREVENTION

enclosure is present and r. Make, type, model and size of

has combustible interiors,
Open oil quenching, Solvent
cleaning, Varnish and paint
dipping.
5. Working Plans. Working plans
shall be submitted to the authority
having jurisdiction and the office of
the Mechanical Department Building
Official before any equipment is
installed or remodeled. Deviations
from approved plans will require
permission of the authority having
jurisdiction. Working plans shall be
drawn to an indicated scale, on
sheets of uniform size, with plan of
each floor, made so that they can be
easily duplicated and shall show the
following data:
a. Name of owner and occupant
b. Location, including street
address
c. Point of compass
d. Ceiling construction, indicating
ceiling materials, lighting layout,
air duct layout and other
possible obstructions
interference with sprinkler heads
distribution layout.
e. Full height cross section
f. Location of fire walls
g. Location of partitions
h. Occupancy of each area or
room
i. Location and size of blind
spaces and closets
j. Any questionable small
enclosures in which
sprinklers are to be installed.
k. Size of city main in street, city
main test result.
I. Other sources of water supply,
with pressure or elevation.
m. Make, type and nominal orifice
size of sprinkler head.
n. Temperature rating and location
of high temperature sprinkler
head
o. Total area protected by each
system on each floor
p. Number of sprinkler heads on
each riser per floor
q. Make, type, model and size of
alarm valve
deluge valve
s. Kind and location of alarm bells
t. Total number of sprinklers on
each alarm valve system
u. Approximate capacity in liters of
each alarm valve system
v. Pipe type and schedule of wall
thickness
w. Nominal pipe size and cutting
length of pipe (or center to
center dimensions) where
typical branch lines prevail, it
will be necessary to size only
one line.
x. Location and size of riser
nipples.
y. Type of fittings and joints and
location of all welds and bends.
z. Type and location of hangers
and sleeves
aa. All control valves (OS&Y,
outside screw and yoke)
indicating valve, check valves,
drain pipes and test pipes.
bb. Size and location of hand hose,
hose outlets and related
equipment.
or cc. Underground pipe size, length,
location, weight, material, point
of connections to city main, the
type of valves, meters and valve
pits, and the depth that top of
the pipe is laid below grade.
dd. Provisions of flushing.
ee. When the equipment is to be
installed as an addition to an
existing system, enough of the
existing system shall be
no indicated on the plans to make
all conditions clear.
if. Location of fire department
connections.
gg. Location and detail plan of fire
pumping units and type of pump
drive, concrete foundation,
pump suction and discharge
piping, type of controllers, in the
case of electric motor driven
pumps, the electrical power
supply to electric motor must be
connected o an automatic
started emergency generator of
approved capacity to handle fire
pump motor loads in case of
power failure of the local power
supply facilities.

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 CHAPTER 9— FIRE PROTECTION & PREVENTION

hh. Hydraulic calculation for the a. General Provisions. Every automatic

system must be submitted sprinkler systems shall have at least one
which must indicate the automatic water supply.
following: Density liter per
min/sq.m. Area of application, b. Water Supply Requirement for Sprinklers
sq.m.; Coverage per sprinkler; System.
Number of sprinkler calculated;
Total water required, liter per 1. The following tables of water supply
mm; Total water required for requirements shall be used in
hose stream, liter/mm; Name of determining the minimum water
contractor; Name of designer. supply requirement for light,
ii. Dry standpipe layout must be ordinary and extra hazard
shown in the plans as required occupancies.
by the Building Code and
Philippine Fire Code P.D. No. Table 9.2.2.2(a)
1185. Guide to Water Supply Requirements for
Pipe Schedule Sprinkler System
jj. In case of high rise buildings full
building height must be shown, Occupancy Residual Acceptable Flow atOuration in
fire walls, fire doors, large classification Pressure Base of Riser Minutes
unprotected window openings, Required at
the Elevation
and blind spaces, distance to, of the Highest
construction and occupancy of Sprinkler
exposing buildings which may Light Hazard 1.03 bar 1893 — 2839 Lpm 30—60 minutes
affect the effectivity of the Ordinary Hazard
Group 1 1.03 bar or 2650— 3785 Lpm 60— 90 minutes
proposed fire protection. higher
kk. Specification of the sprinkler Ordinary Hazard
system. Group2 1.03 baror 3217—5678 Lpm 60—90 minutes
higher
6. Approval and Acceptance Test of Ordinary Hazard Pressure and flow requirements for sprinklers and
Sprinkler Systems. Before hose streams to be determined by authority having
installation is started, all aspects of jurisdiction.
design, installation and equipment Warehouses Pressure and flow requirements for sprinklers and
shall conform in all respects to the hose streams to be determined by authority having
rules, regulations and requirements jurisdiction.
of the government agency High Rise Pressure and flow requirements for sprinkler and
concerned, the Fire Code of the Building hose streams to be determined by authority having
Philippines under RD. 1185, the jurisdiction.
Local Building Officials who are Extra Hazard Pressure and flow requirements for sprinklers and
concerned with public safety. For hose streams to be determined by authority having
insurance purposes, the PIRA jurisdiction.
(Philippine Insurance Rating
Associations). Sprinkler discharged density and
corresponding are a of sprinkler
All test required by this standard operation and water supply
shall be performed by the installer requirement for hydraulically
for the owner in the presence of the designed sprinkler systems. A
authority having jurisdiction. hydraulically designed sprinkler
system is one in which pipe sizes
Contractor’s materials and test are selected on a pressure loss
certificate standard forms shall be basis to provide a density LPM
completed and forwarded to the distributed with a reasonable degree
authority. of uniformity over a specified area,
thus permits the selection of pipe
3.3 Water Supplies size in accordance with the
characteristics of the water supply
available. The design density and

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 CHAPTER 9— FIRE PROTECTION & PREVENTION

area of application will vary with accordance with Table 9.2.2.2(a)

occupancy hazard. and 9.2.2.2(b) supplied under
positive head from a water tank
Table 9.2.2.2(b) shall be an acceptable water
Table and Design Curves for Determining Density, Area of supply source. Fire pump must be
Sprinkler Operation and Water Supply Requirements for Underwriters Laboratory (UL) listed
Hydraulically Designed Sprinkler System
or Factory Mutual approved.

Minimum Water Supply 3. Pressure Tanks

Hazard Sprinkler Combined Duration
Classification (LPM) Inside & Outside in
Hose LPM- Minutes 4. Fire Department Connections

Light See Note 1 378.5 30 d. Valves. Types of valves to be used.

Ordinary Group 1 See Note 1 946.5 60-90
Ordinary Group 2 See Note 1 946.5 60-90
Ordinary Group 3 See Note 1 1,893 60-120 1. All valves on connections to water
supplies and in supply pipes to
Note 1: The water supply requirement for sprinkler only shall be sprinklers shall be listed indicating
calculated from density cuives in Table 9.2.2.2(b). valves, and shall be 12.05 Bar cold
water or 8.6 Bar saturated steam
c. Sprinkler System may be connected to pressure rating.
the following water supply provided the
capacity and reliability is acceptable. e. Spacing, Location and Positions of
Sprinklers
1. Gravity Tanks. The capacity and
elevation of the tank fire protection 1. Area Limitations. The maximum
use and the arrangement of the floor area to be protected by
supply piping shall provide the sprinklers supplied on each system
volume and pressure require as riser on any one floor shall be as
design. follows:

2. Pumps. A single automatically Liaht Hazard 4.830 m

2

Density (Llmin) / m
- 2
4.1 6.1 8.1 10.2 12.2 14.3 16.3
2.0
645
DC

a 372
4000
a
0
C
oS 0
5)
0.
0 5)
a
00) 0
279 5)
C 3000 I
a C

I
(0)
a
0 232 C,)
CU
5) 2500 0
‘5
5)

00
186

00 I 139
0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40
0.05
Density gpmlsq ft
-

For SI Units: 1 sq ft = : I gpm/sq ft

0.0929 m
2 = 40746 (Llmin)/m
2

184
 CHAPTER 9— FIRE PROTECTION & PREVENTION

Solid piled storage in excess of 25mm 2 sprinklers

6,400 mm in height or palletized on 30mm 4 sprinklers
rack storage in excess of 3,700 mm 38mm 7 sprinklers
in height 3,716 m
— 2 50mm 15 sprinklers
65mm 50 sprinklers
Extra Hazard 2,323 m
2
The total number of sprinklers
f. Size of Riser. Each system risers shall be above and below the ceiling
sized to supply all sprinklers on the riser on exceeds 50 sprinklers shaH be to
any floor as determined by the standard 150 mm and size thereafter
schedules of pipe sizes listed below the according to schedule.
number of sprinklers on a given pipe size on
one floor shall not exceed the number given 2. Schedule for Ordinary Hazard
for a given occupancy.
25 mm 2 sprinklers
1. Schedule of Light Hazard 30 mm 3 sprinklers
Occupancies 40 mm 5 sprinklers
50 mm 10 sprinklers
25mm 2 sprinklers 65 mm 20 sprinklers
30 mm 3 sprinklers 75 mm 40 sprinklers
38 mm 5 sprinklers 100 mm 100 sprinklers
50 mm 10 sprinklers 125 mm 160 sprinklers
65mm 30 sprinklers 150 mm 275 sprinklers
75mm 60 sprinklers 205 mm Area limitation govern
90mm 100 sprinklers on ordinary hazard
100mm Area limitation given
Exception No. 1: For slid pipe
Branch lines shall not exceed 8 storage in excess of 4,600 mm in
sprinklers on either side of a cross- height or palletized or rack storage
main. in excess of 3,658 mm. The area
served by any one 205 mm pipe
Exception: When more than 8 shall not exceed 3,716 m . Where
2
sprinklers are necessary, lines single systems serve both storage
maybe increased to 9 sprinklers by and ordinary hazard areas, the
making the 2 end lengths 25 mm storage area coverage shall not
and 30 mm respectively, and the exceed 3,716 m 2 and total area
sizes thereafter standard, 10 coverage shall not exceed 4,831 m.
2
sprinklers maybe placed in branch
lines making the 2 end lengths 25 Exception No. 2: When the distance
mm and 30 mm, respectively and between sprinklers on the branch
feeding the tenth sprinkler by a 65 lines exceeds 3,700 mm or the
mm pipe. distance between the branch lines
exceed 3,700 mm, the number of
Each area requiring more than 100 sprinklers for a given pipe shall be
sprinklers and without subdividing as follows:
partitions (nor necessarily fire walls)
shall be supplied by feed main or 65mm 15 sprinklers
rises sized for ordinary hazard 75mm 30 sprinklers
occupancies.
Branch lines shall not exceed 8
When sprinklers are installed above sprinklers on either side of a
and below ceiling, such branch lines crossm am.
shall not exceed 8 sprinklers above
and 8 sprinklers below the ceiling on When sprinklers are installed above
either side of the crossmain. Pipe and below a ceiling, the pipe sizing
sizing shall be as follows up to 65 up to 75 mm shall be as follows:
mm.

185
 CHAPTER 9— FIRE PROTECTION & PREVENTION

25mm 2 sprinklers building construction, except

30 mm 4 sprinklers protection area shall not exceed 9.3
38mm 7 sprinklers 2 where the system is hydraulically
m
50mm 15 sprinklers designed.
65mm 30 sprinklers
75mm 60 sprinklers h. System Components

3. Schedule for Extra Hazard 1. Internal Fire Hose in Cabinets or

Occupancies in Hose Reels. 38 mm hose used
for fire purposes maybe connected
25mm 1 sprinkler to wet sprinkler system only subject
30mm 2 sprinklers to the following restrictions:
38mm 5 sprinklers
50mm 8 sprinklers (a) Hose stations supply shall not
65mm 15 sprinklers be connected to any pipe
75mm 27 sprinklers smaller than 65 mm except for
100mm 55 sprinklers hydraulically designed loops
150mm 150 sprinklers and grids. Hose stations supply
205 mm Area limitation applies pipes maybe connected to a 50
mm source.
Branch lines shall not exceed 6
sprinklers on either side of the (b) Piping shall be at least 25 mm
crossmain. for vertical runs.

g. Protection Area Limitation (c) Piping shall be 25 mm for

horizontal runs up to 6,096 mm,
1. Light Hazard Occupancy. Under 30 mm for runs between 6,096
smooth construction and under mm and 24.4 meters and 38
beam and girder construction, the mm for runs greater than 24.4
protection area per sprinkler shall meters.
not exceed 18.6 .
2
m For
hydraulically designed sprinkler (d) When the pressure at any hose
systems, the protected area limit per station exceeds 6.89 Bars
sprinkler maybe increased to 20.9 pressure reducing valves shall
.
2
m be installed at the outlet to
reduce the pressure to 6.89
Under open wood joist construction Bars.
and for other types of construction,
the protection area per sprinkler 2. Hose Connection for Fire
shall not exceed 15.6 m
.
2 Department Use. In building of
light department use maybe
2. Ordinary Hazard Occupancy. For attached to wet-pipe sprinkler
all types of construction, the systems subject to the following
protection area per sprinkler shall restrictions:
not exceed 12.1 m , except for
2
buildings used for high-piled (a) Sprinklers shall be under
storage, the protection area per separate control valves.
sprinkler shall not exceed 9.3 m
.
2
(b) The minimum size of the riser
The maximum spacing between shall be 102 mm unless
lines and sprinklers: Light and hydraulic calculations indicate
ordinary hazard 4,572 mm except
— smaller size satisfy sprinkler and
3,658 mm for high-piled storage. hose streams demand.

3. Extra Hazard Occupancies. The (c) Each combined sprinkler

protection area per sprinkler shall standpipe riser shall be
. For any type of
not exceed 8.4 m
2 equipped with a riser control

186
 CHAPTER 9- FIRE PROTECTION & PREVENTION

valve to permit isolating a riser (c) Stairways.

without interrupting the supply to
other risers from the same (d) Vertical opening in buildings.
source of supply.
(e) Service chutes and dumb
3. Fire Department Connections. waiter.
Fire Department connection shall be
provided to sprinkler system in all (f) Under roofs or canopies over
cases. Pipe size shall not be less outside loading platforms, ducts
than 102 mm for fire engine or other areas where
connections and to less than 152 combustible are stored or
mm for fire boat connection. The handled.
fire department connection shall be
on the system side of a check valve (g) Under ducts and galleries which
in the water supply piping, or on are over 1,200 mm wide.
wet-pipe system on the system side
of check and alarm valves to the (h) Library stock room.
riser.
(i) Beneath ducts over 1,200 mm
4. Sprinkler System Standard wide.
Devices. The Sprinkler System
shall be provided with the following: (j) Commercial type cooing
equipment and ventilation
(a) System main drain. systems.

(b) Auxiliary drain on trapped sections (k) Electrical components when

—

of pipe. sprinkler protection is provided

in generator and transformer
(c) Inspector test connections not room, hoods or shields installed
less than 25 mm shall be provided to protect important electrical
for each system, or for each floor equipment from water shall be
level. non-combustibles.

(d) Pipe sleeves of proper size. (I) Outside sprinkler protection

against exposure fires.
(e) Pipe sway bracing the pipe
hangers conforming to fire code. Sprinkler
Max. Ceiling Temperature Temperature
(f) Water motor alarm gong. Temperature Color Code
Rating Classification
°C
(g) Water flow switches for multi- 38 57 to 77 Ordinary Uncolored
storey building to supervise 66 79to 107 Intermediate White
system flow on each floor areas. 107 121 to 149 High Blue
149 163to 191 Extra High Red
(h) Valve signs, spare sprinklers and 191 204 to 249 Very Extra HighGreen
wrenches in cabinets. 246 260 to 302 Ultra High Orange

5. Sprinklers shall also be required to 3.4 Installation of Fire Pumps

the following areas:
a.
(a) Concealed spaces, enclosed
wholly or partially by exposed
combustible construction, as in
walls, floors and ceilings.
(b) At the opening of the elevator
shaft at each floor level.
Standard for the Installation of Fire
Pumps. Only listed fire pumps shall be used
for fire protection service. The adequacy
and dependability of the water source are of
primary importance. Fire pumps shall have
the following rated capacities in LPM or
larger, and are rated at net pressure of 2.75

187
 CHAPTER 9- FIRE PROTECTION & PREVENTION

Table 9.2.5 (a)

Summary of Fire Pump Data
Relief Meter No. & Size Hose, Header
Relief Valve
Pump Rating Suction Discharge Valve Device of Hose Valve Supply
(LPM) (mm) (mm) Discharge (mm) (mm) (mm)
(mm) (mm)

378 51 51 38 51 64 1 —38 51
946 89 76 51 64 89 1 —65 76
1,892 127 127 76 127 127 2—65 102
2,839 152 152 102 150 152 3—65 150
3,785 203 152 102 203 203 4—65 150
5,677 203 203 152 203 203 6—65 203
7,570 254 254 152 254 203 6—65 303
9,462 254 254 152 254 203 8—65 254
11,355 305 305 203 305 203 12—65 254
13,247 305 305 203 305 254 12—65 305
15,140 356 305 203 356 254 15—65 305

Bars or more and shall have the following
features standard equipment.
b. There are two types of standard fire pump
used for the protection service, the
centrifugal and the vertical turbine type,
either horizontal or vertical mounted are
permitted to obtain water on positive suction
head only. The vertical turbine type is
practically suitable for fire pump service
when the water is located below ground
where it would be difficult to install any other
type of pump below the minimum water
level.
Diesel engine drive when used to drive
either centrifugal or vertical turbine fire pump
shall be specifically listed for fire pump
service by the testing laboratories. Engines
shall be acceptable for horse power rating
with listed controllers and standard
accessories, such as angle gear drive,
governor, over speed shutdown devices,
tachometer, oil pressure gage, temperature
gage, instrument panel, factory wiring,
electrical starter, two (2)sets of batteries with
battery charger, engine cooling exchanger
system, fuel tank, exhaust muffler and
others.
c. Pressure Maintenance (jockey or make
up) Pumps. Jockey pumps shall have rated
capacities not less than any normal leakage
rate they shall have discharge pressure
sufficient to maintain the desired fire
protection system pressure.
3.5 Outside Protection
every part of the exterior of each building not
covered by standpipe protection for every
part of each building by the use of lengths of
hose normally attached to the hydrants.
There shall be sufficient hydrants to
concentrate the required fire flow above any
important building protected. An adequate
hose houses shall be placed nearby the
hydrants with standards accessories as
follows:
2 — Approved adjustable spray-solid
stream nozzles equipped with
shut-off for each size of hose 65
mm.
1 — Fire Axe with brackets
1 — Hydrants Wrench
4 — Coupling spanners for each sized
hose provided, 65 mm
2 — Hose Coupling gaskets for each
size of hose, 65 mm
3.6 Dry Stand Pipe and Hose Systems
a. Standpipe systems are none of the best
internal means for extinguishing fires in
buildings and structures. Even in buildings
equipped with automatic sprinkler systems,
standpipe is necessary. Standpipes are
required in places such as the upper storey
of high buildings or large areas, low height
buildings, and in other structures where
construction, size of other features limit the
use of hose streams from the exterior.

a. Hydrants. A sufficient number of hydrants 1. Class Service

shall e installed to provide hose streams for

188
 CHAPTER 9- FIRE PROTECTION & PREVENTION
Class I For use by fire department
—
and those trained in handling heavy
fire streams 65 mm hose.
Class II — For use primarily by the
buildings occupants until the arrival
of the fire department 38 mm hose.
Class Ill For use either by fire
— 3.7
department and those trained in
handling heavy hose streams 65
mm or by the building occupants 38
mm hose.
Standpipe system may be wet-type
or dry standpipe.
Standpipe systems for Class I and
Ill services shall be sized for a
minimum flow of 1,893 liter/mm
where more than one standpipe is
required, all common 1,893 liter/mm
for each additional standpipe, the
first standpipe plus 946.5 liter/mm.
for each additional standpipe, the
total not to exceed 9,462 Lpm.
Standpipe not exceeding 23 m in
height shall be at least 100 mm in
size. Standpipe in excess of 23 mm
in height shall be at least 150 mm in
size. Standpipe shall be limited to
84 meters in height and buildings in
excess of 84 meters shall be zoned
accordingly.
Standpipe systems for Class Ill
service. Each standpipe shall be
sized for a minimum flow of 380
Lpm.
Standpipe and supply piping shall
be either hydraulically designed to
provide the required water supplies
at a minimum residual pressure of
4.5 Bars at the topmost outlet.
(a) Number of Standpipe. The
number of hose stations for
Class I, II and Class Ill services
in each building divided by the
walls shall be such that all
portions of each storey of the
building are within 9 meters of a
nozzle attached to not more
than 30.5 meter of hose.
189
Minimum water supply for Class
I and Class Ill service shall be
1,893 Lpm for 30 minutes.
Minimum water supply for Class
II service shall be 380 Lpm at 30
minutes.
Local Fire Code Requirements
a. Fire Code of the Philippines, which is the
Presidential Decree No. 1185, requires that
the following establishments be protected
with automatic water sprinkler system.
1. High Rise Buildings. Structures
or facilities, fifteen (15) meters or
more, measure from the grade level
to the floor of the topmost storey, for
every new or old building.
2. Places of Assembly. Stage
equipped with fly galleries gridirons
and rigging for movable theater-
type scenery and every enclosed
platform larger than 46.5 square
meters in area.
3. Educational Building.
(a) Below the floor of exit discharge.
4. General Storage, Boiler, oil furnace
rooms, fuel storage, janitor closets,
maintenance shop including wood
working and painting areas,
laundries, and kitchen, (if these
areas are not separated from the
other parts of building with one hour
fire resistance material rating and all
openings, are not protected with
self-closing door).
(a) Any flexible plan or open
building in which the travel
distance to exits exceeding forty
six (46) meters.
(b) Underground and windowless
buildings.
5. Institutional Occupancies and
Residential Areas. Throughout all
hospitals, nursing homes, and
residential custodial care facilities
including hazardous areas.
 CHAPTER 9— FIRE PROTECTION & PREVENTION

6. Mercantile Occupancies. surface area shall be protected with

Automatic sprinkler protection an approved automatic fire
system shall be installed in all extinguishing system.
mercantile occupancies as follows:
3.8 Portable Fire Extinguishers
(a) In all one (1) storey building
over one thousand three a. Portable Fire Extinguishers. Portable
hundred ninety four (1,394 extinguishers are appliances to be used by
sq.m.) in area. the occupants of a building or area, primarily
for immediate use on small fires. Even in
(b) In all buildings over one (1) buildings equipped with automatic sprinkler
storey in height and exceeding system, portable fire extinguishers are
two thousand seven hundred necessary.
eighty-seven (2,787 sq.m.) in
gross area. b. The basic types of fire are as follows:

(c) Throughout floors below the 1. Class A Fires. Are fires in ordinary
street floor having 232.5 sq. m combustible materials such as
when used for the space, wood, cloth, paper, rubber and
storage or handling of many plastics.
combustible goods and
Merchandise. Extinguishers for protection of Class
A hazards shall be selected from the
7. Business Occupancies. All following: water types, foam, loaded
business occupancy buildings over stream, and multi-purpose dry
15 meters high shall be provided chemicals. The maximum travel
throughout with automatic sprinkler distance to such extinguishers shall
protection. not exceed 22.8 m.

8. Industrial Occupancies. Every 2. Class B Fires. Are fires in

high hazard occupancy shall have flammable liquids, gases and
automatic protection or such other greases.
protection as maybe appropriate to
the particular hazard. Extinguishers for protection of Class
B hazards shall be selected from the
9. Pier and Water Surrounded following halon 1301, halon 1211,
Structure. Pier aeck must be carbon dioxide, dry chemical types,
provided with automatic fire foam and loaded stream. The
suppression system protection for maximum travel distance to such
combustible structure and for super extinguishers shall not exceed 15.25
structure, if any. meters.

10. Cellulose Nitrate Plastics 3. Class C Fires. Are fires which

(Pyroxylin). All new and existing involve energized electrical
building used for the manufacture or equipment where electrical non-
storage of articles of cellulose conductivity of the extinguishing
nitrate plastic (pyroxylin) in media is of importance.
quantities exceeding 45 kg.
Extinguishers for protection of Class
11. High Piled Combustible Stock. C hazards shall be selected from
Required in each building used for the following halon 1301, halon
high piled combustible stock when 1211, carbon dioxide and dry
the area exceeds 2/3 of the sum of chemical types. The maximum
the basic floor area. travel distance to such extinguishers
shall not exceed 15.25 meters.
12. Dip Tanks. Dip tanks of over 570
liters capacity of 0.93 sq.m. liquid

190
 CHAPTER 9— FIRE PROTECTION & PREVENTION

4. Class 0 Fires. Are fires in Non-combustible —Materials and their

combustible metals, such as packaging which will neither ignite nor support
magnesium, titanium, zirconium, combustion.
sodium and potassium.
The word shall is intended to indicate
Extinguishers and extinguishing requirements.
agent for the protection of Class D
hazards shall be of types approved The words it is recommended indicate advisory
for use on the specific combustible provisions.
metal hazard. The maximum travel
distance to such extinguisher shall Approved refers to approval by the authority
not exceed 23 meters from Class D having jurisdiction.
hazards.
4.3 Outdoor Storage. Outdoor storage is
5. Extinguisher Location and recognized as standard practice for certain
Mounting. Fire extinguisher should commodities which, by reason of their bulk,
be installed in plain view, in an cannot be ordinarily placed in storage buildings.
accessible spot, near room exits,
which provide an escape route. Outdoor storage may be preferable to storage in
Extinguishers must be located away combustible buildings lacking fire protection, in
from fire hazards, must be installed the case of materials not subject to undue
so that the top is not more than damage or deterioration from exposure to the
1,500 mm above the floor. They weather and not particularly susceptible to
must be easy to reach and remove, ignition by sparks or flying brands.
and placed where they will not be
damaged. Where materials, which normally would be
stored in buildings are stored outdoors in
Section 4.0 Outdoor General Storage temporary emergencies, it is required special
precaution be taken for their safeguard and that
4.1 Purpose they be moved to a storage warehouse as soon
as possible.
Requirements contained herein are for the
proper handling and safeguarding of storage of 4.4 Site
types of commodities of moderate combustible
hazard. Standards for the storage of non- a. In selecting a site for outdoor storage,
combustible commodities and those of extra preference shall be given to location having:
combustible hazard are excluded, as well as
storage covered by specific standards. 1. Adequate municipal fire and police
protection.
a. Because of the diversity of the materials
handled, no fixed requirements can be 2. Adequate public water systems with
provided to cover all conditions. However, hydrants suitably located for
principles set forth herein will provide a protection of the storage.
basis for proper protection of commodities in
storage in the open. 3. Adequate all-weather roads for fire
department apparatus response.
4.2 Definitions
4. Sufficient clear space for buildings
Extra Combustible Materials which, either by
—
of combustible construction or from
themselves or in combination with their other combustible storage which
packaging, are highly susceptible to ignition and might constitute an exposure
will contribute to the intensity and rapid spread hazard.
of fire.
5. Absence of flood hazard.
Moderate Combustible — Materials or their
packaging, either of which will contribute fuel to
fire.

191
 CHAPTER 9— FIRE PROTECTION & PREVENTION
6. Adequate clearance space between
storage piles and any highways and
railroads.
4.5 Material Piling. Materials shall be stored in unit
piles as low in height and small area as in
consistent with good practice for the material
stored. The maximum height will be determined
by the base of pile and type of packaging,
stability of the material and limit of the effective
reach of hose streams.
Aisles shall be maintained between individual
piles, between piles and buildings and the
boundary line of the storage site. Sufficient
driveways, having a width of at least 4,500 mm
shall be provided to permit the travel of fire
equipment to all portions of the storage area.
Aisles shall be not less than 3,000 mm wide to
reduce danger of spread of fire from pile to pile
and to permit ready access for fire fighting,
emergency removal of materials or for salvage
purposes. Extra combustible materials will
require wide aisles and roads dependent upon
the height of the pile and the degree of
combustibility. For extra combustible materials,
the width of aisles should be equal to the height
of the pile but not less than 3,000 mm.
4.6 Fences. The entire property shall be
surrounded in the fence or other suitable means
to prevent access of any unauthorized persons.
4.7 Buildings. Buildings in outside yards shall be
located with as much clear space to open yard
storage as is practicable but shall be not less
than 4,500 mm from open yard piling unless
buildings have blank exterior masonry walls.
Buildings of wood frame construction or
containing hazardous operations shall be at
least 15.2 m from the nearest storage pile; and
explosion vents, blower outlets, etc., not be
directed toward the yard storage.
4.8 Yard Maintenance and Operations. The entire
storage site shall be kept free from accumulation
of unnecessary combustible materials. Woods
and grass shall be kept down and regular
procedure provided for the periodic clean-up of
the entire area.
Adequate lighting shall be provided to allow
supervision of all parts of the storage area at
night.
192
All electrical equipment and installation shall
conform to the provisions of the Philippine
Electrical Code.
All heating equipment shall conform with
established fire prevention standards.
Salamanders, braziers, portable heaters or other
open fires shall not be used.
Smoking shall be strictly prohibited in any
location where the practice might cause fire.
“No Smoking” signs shall be posted throughout
the storage area except in specific locations
designated as safe for smoking purposes.
4.9 Storage and Use of Motor Vehicles Using
Gasoline or Liquefied Petroleum Gas as Fuel.
Vehicles should be garaged in a separate
detached building. Storage and handling of fuel
shall conform to approved standards of
Flammable and Combustible liquids and
approved standards for the storage and
Handling of Liquefied Petroleum Gases. Repair
operations shall be conducted outside the yard
unless separate masonry walled building is
provided. If vehicles are to be greased,
repaired, painted or otherwise serviced, such
work shall be conducted in conformance with
standards as approved by the authority having
jurisdiction.
Tarpaulins, used for protection of storage
against the weather, shall be of approved flame
proof fabric.
Coal-fired steam locomotives shall not be
allowed to enter the yard where combustible
material is stored unless the smokestack is
protected by a spark arrester and the ash pan is
protected by screens to prevent hot coals from
escaping.
Oil-fired steam locomotives and Diesel
locomotives from which glowing particles or
carbon are emitted from the exhaust stacks shall
not be permitted in the yard.
4.10 Fire Protection. Provisions shall be made by
some suitable means for promptly notifying the
public fire department or private fire brigade in
case of fire or other emergency.
Provisions shall be made to permit direction of
an adequate number of hose streams on any
pile or portion of the storage area that may be
involved in fire. Unless adequate protection is
provided by a Municipal fire department,
 CHAPTER 9— FIRE PROTECTION & PREVENTION

sufficient hose and other equipment shall be a. Regular fire safety audit in every workplace.
kept on hand at the storage property, suitably
housed and provision be made for trained b. Seasonal fire hazard review, like fire
personnel constantly available to put it into prevention month assessment.
operation. Monitor nozzles shall be provided at
strategic points where large quantities of highly c. Fire prevention awareness shall be
combustible materials are stored. promoted through pamphlets and posters.

Hydrants and all fire fighting equipment shall be
accessible for use at all times. No temporary
storage shall be allowed to obstruct access to
fire fighting equipment.
4.11 Watch Service. Standard watch service shall
be provided and continuously throughout the
yard and storage area at all times while the yard
is otherwise unoccupied. It is required that there
be some suitable means of supervising the
watchman’s activities to be sure that he makes
his required rounds at regular intervals.
Attention is directed to the value of strategically
placed watch towers in large yards where a
watchman, stationed at a point of vantage, can
keep the entire property under observation.
Such towers shall be connected to the fire alarm
system so that prompt notification of fire may be
given.
d. Employers shall teach workers to operates
machines properly and to report any
problems that could cause fire.
e. Workers shall be empowered to do fire
hazard inspection near machines in their
workplace to supplement supervisor, safety
audit.
f. A clean workplace program following 5s
standard and emphases (sorting, sweeping,
standardizing, and systemizing) and self-
discipline.
7.2 Fire prevention is a term for the many safety
measures used to keep harmful fires from
starting this is being carried out by several
programs in fire safety, like
a. Laws and specifications.

Section 5.0 Anti-Pollution for Standards b. Inspection of buildings and others company
for Indoor and Outdoor General Storage properties.

5.1 Odor-producing material should be stored in c. Education about fire safety

closed storage rooms/warehouses and the
ventilation system of the same should be
provided with appropriate odor control facilities
to preclude odor nuisance in the immediate
vicinity.
5.2 Open yard storage of materials that result in
wind-borne dust problems should be provided
with or water sprinkler systems.
7.3 Education is a vital part of fire prevention
programs because people cause and could
prevent almost all fines. Fire fighters is the most
competent teacher who could reach out to the
level of understanding of children and adult in
communities, schools, homes, industries, ether
indoor and outdoor.

Section 6.0 Standard on Halon 1301 Fire

Extinguished Systems
This section shall not be applicable pursuant to the
Montreal Protocol.

Section 7.0 Fire Prevention Doctrine

7.1 Workers educational programs in fire safety
have become important supplements to well-
developed fire prevention and inspection
programs, and these include:

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 CHAPTER 10- PUMPS

Chapter 10

PUMPS

Section 1.0 General Requirements.

air gains entrance due to negative pressure
1.1 Scope. This standard deals with the selection created by pumping.
and installation of pumps supplying water for
domestic, industrials, for private and/or public 1.6 A shut off valve followed by a check valve shall
fire protection. Items include water supplies, be place between the suction of pump and water
suction, discharge and auxiliary equipment, mains to prevent any return of water to mains
power supplies, electric drive control: internal when pump is stopped.
combustion engine drive and control,
acceptance test, operations and maintenance . 1.7.1 Overhead Tank Supply. A water tank may be
This chapter does not contain system water installed above the roof of the building or by
supply capacity and pressure requirements. separate tower for the purpose. Water from the
water mains is pumped to the tank and the
1.2 Purpose. The purpose of this standard is to building draws its supply from overhead tank.
provide a reasonable degree technical know
how, and safety, through installation a. Suitable float switch or other devices should
requirements for pumps based on sound be installed with the tank to stop or start
engineering principles, test data and field operation of pump depending on water level
experience. Guidelines are established for the in the tank.
design, installation and maintenance for pumps,
drivers and associated equipment. This b. A check valve should be installed between
standard endeavors to continue the excellent the pump and tank.
record that has been established by pumps
installation and to meet the needs of changing c. Water tank should be provided with an
technology. overflow pipe, leading to storm drain and a
vent properly protected from insects.
1.3 Other Pumps. Pumps other than those
specified in this standards and having different d. Water tank should be fully covered to keep
design features may be installed when such out flying debris and to prevent growth of
pumps are listed by a testing laboratory. Pumps moss.
shall be selected based on the conditions under
which they are to be installed and used. The e. For multi-storey buildings, suitable pressure
pump manufacturer shall be given complete reducing valves should be supplied to
information concerning the water, or liquid and regulate water pressure for each floor.
power supply characteristics.
Pneumatic Tank. The tank is an unfired
1.4 Unit Performance. The unit consisting of pressure vessel, initially full of air, into which
pumps, driver and controller, shall perform is water from mains is pumped.
compliance with this standard as an entire unit
when installed. Certified shop test curves, a. A suitable pressure switch should stop
showing head-capacity and brake horsepower of pump when pressure required is attained.
the pump shall be furnished by the manufacturer
to the purchaser Engineer. b. An air volume control device should be
installed to replenish air absorbed by water
1.5 Installation of pumping equipment to supply under pressure to maintain correct air
buildings, from existing water supply should only volume in tank.
be allowed if there is always water in the mains
to prevent contamination of water system when

194
 CHAPTER 10
c. Suitable air valve to take out or
replenish air in tank should be installed
on top of tank.
d. A tank should be designed for maximum
total dynamic pressure required
multiplied by two to provide for water
hammer. Factor of safety should not be
less than five.
e. For tanks of 3785 liters or more a
separate air compressor should be
installed to replenish air absorbed by the
water.
f. For figuring equipment, pipes fittings
and valves, the right pressure ratings
should correspond to total dynamic
head multiplied by two to cover water
hammer effect.
Section 2.0 Definitions
One of man’s oldest aids, the pump today ranks
second to the electric motor as the most widely used
industrial machine. Today the U.S. alone draws more
than 200 billion gallons each day from its resources
and pumps move almost every drop. Of this total, an
impressive 80 billions gallons is said to be industry’s
share.
To meet these demands we find as almost confusingly
large variety of available pumps. They range from tiny
adjustable displacement units to giants handling well
over 100,000 gallons per minute. It is neither possible
nor desirable to cover every variation in a concise
practical code such as this: So we’ve made a highly
selective choice of widely used industrial pumps of all
classes and types the pumps you’re likely to run into
—
your work.
2.1 Hydraulic. Hydraulics, or hydromechanics, is
the mechanics of water or other liquid whether
at rest or in motion.
2.2 Hydrostatics is the science of water at rest. A
good example is a gravity tank filled with water
and supplying water to closed valve. Until the
valve is opens, the water is at rest, but its weight
has potential energy and exerts a definite force,
or static rressure against the closed valve.
2.3 Hydrokinetics is a science of water in motion.
When the valve in the preceding example
opens, the potential energy of static pressure
becomes kinetic energy. The weight of water
195
— PUMPS
caused it to move up thru the piping and out of
the nozzles or opening.
2.4 Hydrodynamics is a general term, and is
generally associated with the science of the
force exerted by water in motion, such as driving
a turbine connected to an electric generator.
2.5 Atmospheric Pressure is due to the weight of
the atmosphere on the earth. At sea level the
atmospheric pressure is 14.7 PSI, or 29.9
inches of Mercury column (Hg), which is
commonly designated as one atmosphere.
Atmospheric pressure diminishes with elevator
above sea level. It is atmospheric pressure on
an open body of water that forces the water up
in pump suction pipe in those cases when a
pump takes suction under lift. (A pump should
always take a suction under water pressure at
atmospheric pressure).
2.6 Vacuum. A perfect vacuum is a space entirely
devoid of gas, liquids or solids. No one has ever
succeeded in exhausting all the air from a
closed vessel (such as suction pipe of a pump).
The word “vacuum” therefore means “partial
vacuum” and is measured by the amount of its
pressure below the prevailing atmospheric
pressure.
2.7 Gauge Pressure (PSIG) is just the term implies
the pressure on a gauge on open air, the gauge
being connected to a closed pipe.
2.8 Absolute Pressure (PSIA) is the sum of the
atmospheric pressure (14.7 PSI or less) and the
gauge pressure (PSIG).
2.9 Pressure Measurements. Unless otherwise
stated hereafter in this chapter “pressure”
means pressure: pressure in pounds per
square inch (PSI); head is in feet of water
column (FT); vacuum is in inches of Mercury
(Hg).
No matter how many square inches are covered
by a column of water one foot high, the pressure
is still 0.433 pounds per square inch or 0.433
PSI. 2.31 is the reciprocal of 0.433.
Pressure is force applied to liquids, or force
developed by the weight of the liquids. Pressure
is also called “head”. Pressure is measured in
two ways:
a. The number of feet the pressure will
force a column of liquid up to rest. This
 ____

CHAPTER 10— PUMPS

is called head in feet, and designated as (or in meters) of mercury (Hg). Differential
h in feet. (closed) manometers, may be used for
measuring differences in pressure, such as the
b. The number of pounds of force exerted difference between two points in a pipe or
on one square inch. This is called between the total and normal pressure at the
pounds per square inch and designed same point in pipe.
as p (PSI) and/or kilogram per square
).
meter (kg/rn
2 2.12 Pilot Tube. (named for its inventor Pilot) is
used to measure the pressure of water
discharging from a nozzle or flowing in a pipe by
having its open end in the water and the other
Bourdon tube -Zero position end connected to a gauge or manometer. The
tube is generally about one-sixteenth inch in
diameter, bent at right angles, and mounted with
a gauge or manometer connected to the long
end. The short end is held by hand in a hose
stream, nozzle or flowing water. (See figure
10.2.1; 10.2.2; 10.2.3; and 10.2.4).

2.13 Piezometer is a device set in a pipe to enable a

Bourdon gauge or a manometer attached to the
Piezometer to show the net or normal pressure.
The Piezometer gives a lower pressure by
Mechanism Dial Face
calming the water entering the gauge or
Bourdon Gauge-Compound manometer, thus reducing the fluctuations.
Fig. 10-1 (See figure 10.2.2 and 10.2.3).

The two pressure measurements for water 2.14 Capacity is the rate of flow of liquid measure
are related in this way: per unit of time, usually gallons per minute
(GPM) or liters er minute (LPM).
P (in PSI) = 0.433 h (in feet)

h (in feet) = 2.31 p (in PSI)

Friction Loss
UTUb& graduated in tenths
2.10 Bourdon Gauge (named for its inventor of PSI or in tenths of inch.
Bourdon) consists essentially of a curved tube,
Flow Mercury
fixed at the open end, with the other (closed)
end free and attached to a lever which is geared P1 P2
Piezameters
to the indicator needle. When pressure enters
the Bourdon tube, the tube straightens in
proportion to the amount of pressure applied
and this the needle is moved to the pressure Fig. 10.2
marked on the dial corresponding to the Differential Manometer (U-Tube) for Measuring the fiction,
Loss between two points on a level pipe
pressure in the tube. By far most of the gauges
in use are of the bourdon type. (See figure 10-
2.15 Suction Lifts (Hs) exist when the total suction is
1).
below atmospheric pressure. Suction lift, as
determined on test, is the reading of a liquid
2.11 Manometer (open type) is a gauge in the form
manometer at the suction of the pump,
of a glass U-tube one leg of which is open to the
converted to the feet of liquid, and referred to
atmosphere, or a straight tube one end of which
datum, minus the velocity head at the point of
is open to the atmosphere. The height to which
gage attachment.
a column of water would rise in the open tube is
a measure of the feet of head or pressure in the
2.16 Suction Head (Hs) exists when the total suction
pipe to which the manometer is connected. To
head is above atmospheric pressure. Suction
eliminate unwisely tube heights and freezing at
head, as determined on test, is a reading of a
ordinary water freezing temperatures, mercury is
gage at the suction flange of the pump
generally used, the graduations being in inches
converted to feet or meter of liquid and referred

196
 CHAPTER 10— PUMPS

to datum, plus the velocity head at the point of Where: g is the acceleration due
gage attachment. to gravity = 32.17 feet
per second square.
2.17 Velocity Head (Hv) is figured from the average
velocity (v) obtained by dividing the discharge in
cubic feet per second (cfs) or cubic meter hv = V
2
second (cms) by the actual area of the pipe 2g
cross section in square feet or square meter and
determined at the point of the gage connection. and V is average velocity in the
It is expressed by the formula: pipe in feet per second.

2.18 Total Discharge Head (Hd) is the reading of a

pressure gage at the discharge of the pump,
Velocity Prese
converted to feet of liquid and referred to datum,
plus velocity head at the point of gage
Tube attachment.
Piezometer

0 .j:0t
2.19 Total Head is the measure of the energy
Fig. 10-3
Differential Manometer (U-Tube) for Measuring velocity
pressure by means of the difference between total pressure
(from Pitot Tube) normal pressure (from Piezometer)
increase per pound imparted to the liquid by the
pump and is therefore the algebraic difference
between the total discharge head and the total
suction lift exists, is the sum of the total
discharge head and total suction lift; and when
suction head exists, the total head is the total
discharge head minus the total suction head.

2.20 Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) is the total

suction head in feet or in meter of liquid absolute
determined at the suction flange and referred to
Normal or Net Pressure datum, less the vapor pressure of the liquid in
feet or meter absolute.
Piezometer “EQ GL— Total Pressure
“>itji, Pilot Tube
2.21 Centrifugal Pump. A pump in which the
pressure is developed principally by the action
Total Pressure Normal or Net Pressure Velocity Pressure of centrifugal force.

2.22 End Suction Pump. A single suction pump

having its suction nozzle on the opposite side of
Fig. 10-4 the casing from the stuffing box and having the
Total Pressure Normal or Net Pressure = Velocity Pressure face of the suction nozzle perpendicular to the
longitudinal axis of the shaft.

2.23 In Line Pump. A centrifugal pump whose drive

PITOT TUBE HELD BY HAND
-
unit is supported by the pump having its suction
PLAYPIPE and discharge flanges on approximately the
same center.

2.24 Horizontal Pump. A pump with the shaft

FIRE HYDRANT normally in a horizontal position.

2.25 Horizontal Split-Case Pump. A centrifugal

pump characterized by a housing which is split
PITOT TUBE parallel to the shaft.
HELD BY HAND

2.26 Vertical Shaft Turbine Pump. A centrifugal

Fig. 10-5 pump with one or more impellers discharging
into one or more bowls and a vertical eductor or

197
 __________________

CHAPTER 10— PUMPS

column pipe used to connect the bowls to the They are available as horizontal o
discharge head on which the pump driver is vertical pumps, single or multi-stage
mounted. for wide flow ranges.

Diffuser-type centrifugals find many

2.27 A Booster Pump is a pump that takes suction Diffuser uses as multi-stage high-pressure
from a public service main or private-use water units. Originally more efficient than
system for the purpose of increasing the volute-type pumps, today efficiency
effective water pressure. of both types is about equal.

2.28 Submersible Pump. A vertical turbine pump Mixed-flow centrifugals pumps are
with the pump and motor closed coupled and Mixed-Flow ideal for low head large-capacity
designed to be installed underground, as in the ] applications. Usually vertical, they
have a single-inlet impeller. Some
case of the deepwell pump.
horizontal units are built.
2.29 Aquifer. An underground formation that Axial-flow units, often called
contains sufficient saturated permeable material Axial-Flow propeller pumps, develop most of
to yield significant quantities of water. their head by lifting action of vanes,
are usually vertical, and best suited
2.30 Aquifer Performance Analysis. A test for low heads, large capacities.
designed to determine the amount of
underground water available in a given field and For clear liquids, turbine pumps,
Turbine or either horizontal or vertical, fill a
proper well spacing to avoid interference in that Regenerative need between other centrifugal and
field. Basically, test results provide information usual rotary designs. They are low-
concerning transmissibility and storage to-medium-capacity high head.
coefficient (available volume of water) of the
aquifer. Gear pumps consist of two or more
Gear Vane gears (spur, single-or double-helical
2.31 Wet Pit. A timber, concrete, or masonry teeth) while vane pumps have a
enclosure having a screened inlet kept partially series of vanes, blades or buckets
filled with water by an open body of water such turned by a single rotor. This rotary
class also includes lobe or shuttle-
as pond, lake, or streams.
block designs.
2.32 Ground Water. That water which is available Cam and piston rotaries, like most
from a well, driven into water-bearing Cam and types in this class, are positive-
subsurface strata (aquifer). Piston displacement units, giving steady
discharge flow along with screw-
2.33 Static Water Level. The level with respect to type pumps, and related designs,
the pump, of the body of water from which it they handle a wide range of non-
takes suction when the pump is not in operation. abrasive viscous liquids.

2.34 Pumping Water Level. The level, with respect Old standbys for years, direct
Direct-Acting acting pumps now are available in
to the pump, of the body of water from which it many designs for handling cold or
takes suction, when the pump is in operation. ] hot water, oil, and a wide range of
industrial liquids of many types.
2.35 Draw-Down. The vertical difference between
the pumping water level and the static water Power pumps are driven from
level. Power outside through a crankshaft or
other device. Capacities range
from very low to medium flows, at
Section 3.0 Pumps pressure up to 15,000 psi, (1033.5
bars), or higher.

THESE QUICK GUIDES TO THE WORLD OF PUMPS Crank-and-flywheel pumps are one
SHOW THE MAJOR CLASSES AND TYPES IN USE Crank- form of reciprocating power pump,
TODAY: Flywheel so designated to distinguish them
from power pumps using, for
example, an eccentric as drive
Volute The majority of centrifugal pumps mechanism.
built today are the volute type.

198
 CHAPTER 10— PUMPS

A. CENTRIFUGAL:

1. AXIAL FLOW

Mixed Flow Semi-open impeller

2.
Radial Flow

Self-printing

3. Perpheral — — — —

Non-printing

Jet (eductor)

Gas lift
B. SPECIAL EFFECTS
Hydraulic Ram

Electromagnetic
simplex

C. RECIPROCATING: 1. Piston

Plunger

tiiplex

multiplex

2 Diaphragm

D. ROTARY

199
 CHAPTER 10— PUMPS
3.1 Pump Classification
3.2 Centrifugal Pumps. A centrifugal is a machine
which the pumping action is accomplished by
imparting kinetic energy to the fluid by a high
speed revolving impeller with vanes and
subsequently converting this kinetic energy into
pressure energy either by passing the fluid thru
a volute casing or thru diffuser vanes.
After the conversion is accomplished, the fluid is
discharged from the machine.
When the kinetic energy is converted to
pressure energy by means of the volute shape
of the casing, the pumps are called volute
centrifugal pumps. When the conversion of
kinetic energy to pressure energy occurs in the
passage of the fluid thru stationary diffusers
vanes, the pumps are called diffuser centrifugal
pumps.
The radial type of impeller is characterized by
rather long narrow passages for the water. The
ratio of outside impeller diameter D2 to impeller
eye diameter Dl is approximately 2.
The Francis type of impeller is characterized by
wider passages for the water and the ratio of D2
toDi is about 1.5.
The mixed flow type of impeller is characterized
by a mixed flow velocity vector, which naturally
has a horizontal component along the shaft as
well as a vertical component perpendicular to
the shaft. The ratio of D2 to Dl is slightly over
unity.
The axial or propeller type of impeller has a ratio
of D2 to Dl equal to unity. The pumping action
is accomplished by lifting of the water by the
pitch of the blades of propeller as it revolves. As
this type of impeller has no guidance for the flow
of water, it cannot operate with suction lift. The
impeller or propeller is generally immersed in the
liquid.
a. Classification of Centrifugal Pumps
Centrifugal pumps can be classified, as follows;
By Geometry - the common form of
classification of turbo machines, and
centrifugal pumps in particular, from the
shape of the casing.
200
By Inlet Geometry Commonly applied to
—
turbo machines and rotary pumps , to a
lesser extent; which describes the basic
geometry of the section entry of the pump.
By Layout - Refers to the design (or
possible) position of the pump, shaft access,
such as horizontal, vertical or inclined This.
indicates the mounting requirements (most
likely floor space). A further classification is
applicable for turbo machines, particularly
where the casing halves divide for
disassembly.
By Mounting Generally describes the
—
design method of mounting the pump and
applies but not necessarily always specified
for all pump types.
By Operation -Basically is the description
of the design duty of the stand by pump
like for the example, air pump, source pump,
stand by pump, auxiliary pump, etc. But this
does not necessarily follow that the use of
such a pump is restricted to the specified
operation.
By Liquid Handled This specific
—
description indicates that the pump can
handle a particular type or types of fluid or
product like chemicals and other corrosive
liquids.
By Material This indicate the type of the
—
pump whose material of construction
particularly the wetted parts is suitable for
handling chemically active or corrosive
fluids.
By Drive — This specifies the method of
drive intended or applicable for the pump as
spiced in the design mounting area
limitations or other requirements to use, for
example, electric motor, engine (gas or
diesel), integral (electric) motor, magnet
drive, manual drive, turbo driven, shaft-
driven, etc.
Submersible Pumps Pumps of this type
—
are of sufficient importance to warrant a
classification of their own, representing the
type of pump with integral electric motor,
which can be immersed in the product being
handled. They can be subdivided into
various categories according to intended
duty, for example deepwell, borehole, etc.
and by the form of canned motor.
b. Basic Parts of a Centrifugal Pump.
Impeller — Imparts velocity to the liquid,
resulting from centrifugal force as the
impeller is rotated.
 CHAPTER 10— PUMPS

Casing Gives direction to the flow from

—
defined as the speed in rpm at which a
the impeller and converts this velocity given impeller would operate if reduced
energy into pressure energy which is usually proportionately in size, as to deliver a rated
measured in feet of head. capacity of 1 GPM against a total dynamic
head of one foot. The visualization of this
Shaft Transmit power from the driver to
— definition, however has no practical value for
the impeller. specific speed if used to classify impellers
as to their type or proportions and as a
Stuffing Box This is a means of throttling
— means of predicting other important pump
the leakage which would otherwise occur at characteristics, such as the suction limitation
the point of entry of the shaft into the casing. of the pump.
Usually not a separate part, but rather made
up of a group of small details. The effect of suction lift on a centrifugal
pump is related to its head, capacity and
1. Packing This is the most common
— speed. Impellers for high head usually have
means of throttling the leakage low specific speeds. Impellers for low heads
between the inside and outside of usually have high specific speeds. The
the casing. specific speed is found to be very valuable
criterion in determining the permissible
2. Gland To position and adjust the
— maximum suction lift, or minimum suction
packing pressure. head. Abnormally high suction lifts beyond
the suction rating of the pump, usually
3. Seal Gage (also called water-seal causes serious reductions in capacity and
of lantern ring) Provides passage
— efficiency, which often leads to serious
to distribute the sealing medium trouble from vibration and cavitation. For a
uniformly around the portion of the head and capacity, a pump of low specific
shaft that passes through the speed will operate safely with greater
stuffing box. This is very essential suction lift than one of the higher specific
when suction lift conditions prevail speed. Pumps at the higher speeds without
to seal against in leakage of air. proper suction conditions often cause
serious trouble from vibration, noise and
4. Mechanical Seal. Provides a pitting.
mechanical sealing arrangement
that takes the place of the packing. The equation for specific speed of a centrifugal
Basically, it has one surface rotating pump is expressed as follows:
with the shaft and one stationary
face. The minute close clearance Specific Speed,
between these two faces prevents
leakage of liquid out or air in. Ns= NQ
(H)
314
Shaft Sleeve Protects the shaft where it
—

passes through the stuffing box. Usually where:

used in pumps with packing but often
eliminated if mechanical seals are Ns =specific speed of pump in
employed. RPM
Ns = rated speed of pump,
Wearing Rings —Keeps internal RPM
recirculation down to a minimum. Having Q = pump capacity in GPM
these rings as replaceable wearing surfaces (Note: 1 gallon = 3.785 liters)
permits renewal of clearances to keep pump H = pump head per stage, feet
efficiencies high. On small types only one Stage (Note: 3.28 ft = 1 meter)
ring is used in the casing and on larger
sizes, companion rings are used in the For double suction pumps the Q value is
casing and on the impeller. determined by dividing the given capacity by 2,
which is then substituted in the formula.
c. Specific Speed. Specific speed is a type
characteristic of centrifugal pumps and is For multi-stage pumps the H value is determined
by dividing the total head by the number of

201
 CHAPTER 10— PUMPS

stages available from the pump. This is so Qi = P

1
because each impeller contributes a definite 2
Q 2
D
value of head of the total developed by the
Pump. Law b2

Affinity Laws for Centrifugal Pumps: ±ii = _Q.i

2
H 2
D
The mathematical relationship between these several
variables, that is; capacity, head power at constant Law b3
impeller diameter and speed.
1
_w =
These relationships are expressed as follows; 2
KW 2
D

a. at constant impeller diameter Where:

Law al Qi = Capacity
Hi = head at Ni RPM or with impeller
= Ni Diameter
2
Q N Dl
Q2 = Capacity
Law a2 H2 = head at N2 RPM or with impeller
Diameter
= __Ni D2
H
2 2
N
Law a3 Law al applies to the Centrifugal, Angle Flow,
Propeller, Peripheral, Rotary and Reciprocating
_Yi = __Ni pumps.
2
KW 2
N
Law a2 and a3 apply to Centrifugal, Angle Flow, Mixed
b. At constant impeller speed Flow, Propeller and Peripheral pumps.

Law bi Law bi, b2 and b3 apply to Centrifugal Pumps only.

202
 CHAPTER 10— PUMPS
Parallel and Series Operation of Centrifugal Pumps
Pumps are installed in parallel to satisfy variable
pumping requirements to maintain pump operation at
peak efficiency and optimum power consumption. With
this installation program plant shutdown are easily
scheduled without disrupting critical operations.
Similarly, multiple pumps in series may be used when
liquid must be delivered at high heads.
3.3 Rotary Pumps. A rotary pump is a positive
displacement pump consisting of a fixed casing
containing gears, cams, screws, vanes,
plungers or similar elements actuated by
rotation of the drive shaft.
a. Types
1. Cam and Piston Pumps. This type
consists of an eccentrically bored
cam, rotated by a shaft concentric in
a cylindrically bored casing, with an
abutment or follower so arranged
that with each rotation of the drive
shaft a positive quantity of liquid is
displaced from the space between
the cam and follow and the pump
casing.
2. Gear Pumps. This type consists of
two or more gears, operating in
closely fitted casing so arranged
that when the gear teeth unmeet on
one side liquids fills the space
between the gear teeth and is
carried around in the tooth space to
the opposite side and displaced as
the teeth mesh again. There are
two types of gear pumps:
(a) External gear pumps have all
the gear rotors cut externally.
The gears maybe spur, single
helical or double helical.
(b) Internal gear pumps have one
rotor with internally cut gear
teeth meshing with an externally
cut gear idler. Pumps of this
type are made with or without a
crescent shaped partition.
(c) Screw Pumps. This type
consists of one, two or three
screw rotors so arranged that as
the rotors turn liquid fills the
203
shape between the screw
threads and is displaced axially
as the rotor threads mesh.
(d) Vane Pumps. This type consists
of one rotor in a casing machined
eccentrically to the drive shaft. The
rotor is fitted with a series of vanes,
blades or buckets which follow the
bore of the casing thereby
displacing liquid with each
revolution of the drive shaft. Vane
pumps may have swinging vanes or
sliding vanes.
The rotary pump combines the constant
discharge characteristic of the centrifugal type
with the positive discharge characteristic of the
reciprocating pump. The flow from a
reciprocating pump is pulsating whereas the
flow from many rotary types of pump is constant.
The positive discharge characteristic including
reciprocating pump prevents the operation of
these pumps against a closed discharge unless
an automatic unloader is provided to bypass the
discharge with the suction well. Rotary pumps
are capable of handling only a clean solution
essentially free of solids and particularly
adopted to handling liquids of high viscosities,
such as heavy fuel oil, paint, etc.
3.4 Reciprocating Pumps. A reciprocating pump is
a positive displacement unit wherein the
pumping action is accomplished by the forward
and backward movement of a piston or plunger
inside a cylinder usually provided with valves.
Piston types are used for low pressure light duty
or intermittent service. Less expensive than the
plunger design, but cannot handle gritty liquids.
Plunger types are used for high pressure heavy
duty or continuous service.
Suitable for gritty and foreign material service,
and more expensive than the piston design.
a. Types of Reciprocating Pumps
1. Direct Acting Steam Pumps. This
type has a steam cylinder with no
lap on valves, a water cylinder and
a common piston rod. As there is
no lap, the steam is admitted
throughout the length of the stroke,
hence the pressure volume diagram
of the steam end is rectangle.
Consequently, the water end flow
diagram will also be a rectangle with
 CHAPTER 10— PUMPS

besides the piston and cylinder and various

forms of valves used.

40
1. Air Chamber. Its function is to
1301 smoothen the flow due to the nature
of flow of the liquid from such type
hr of pump. The size of air chamber
required depends on the type of
90
pump, and generally on the
80
pressure and length of pipe line. Air
70
chamber can be placed either on
the suction side or discharge side of
60
the piping installation.
50

2. Pressure Relief Valve. This should

be installed on the discharge side
between pump and any other valve.

RATED SPEED
3. Foot Valve and Strainer. These
should also be installed at the end
Fig. 10.9 Chart showing effect of speed change on of the suction pipe. The foot-valve
centrifugal pump performance. should be of a size at least equal to
the size of the suction pipe. The
the discharge flow constant clear area of the strainer should be
throughout the length of the stroke at least three times the area of the
and going down to zero value at the suction pipe in order to minimize
instant or reversal of the piston at head loss at this point.
the end of each stroke.
c. Head, Capacity, Efficiency. The total head
2. Crank and Flywheel as defined for centrifugal pumps also
Reciprocating Pump. This type is applies to reciprocating pumps. It is general
driven by compound, cross- practice of manufacturers of reciprocating
compound, or triple-expans ion pumps to state capacities in terms of piston
steam engines. In large sizes such or plunger displacement without deduction
units are known as pumping for the piston rod area or slippage.
engines. Volumetric efficiency is defined as:

3. Power Driven Pumps. This type where:

receives its forward and backward
motion of the piston and plunger Q = actual volume of liquid discharged
from the rotary motion of a revolving
crankshaft by means of a crank and Q + = true piston or plunger displacement
connecting rod.
Q includes all losses of capacity due to leakage
Reciprocating pumps can be single past piston packing, stuffing boxes, and valves
acting or double acting. They and also that loss due to delayed closing of
can be simplex, duplex, triplex, etc., valves. All losses of capacity given in
depending on the number of water percentage of the displacement are referred to
cylinders on the machine. Due to as slip (1 eq). In new pumps the slip is of the
—

the manner of operation of direct- order of 2%.

acting steam pumps, practically
almost all direct-acting steam 3.5 Deep Well Pumps
pumps are built double acting.
a. Deep well may be divided into plunger or
b. Accessories of Reciprocating Pumps. reciprocating, turbine, ejector-centrifugal
The reciprocating pumps need some types and air lifts.
accessories for better and safe operation

204
 CHAPTER 10— PUMPS
1. Plunger Pumps. Modern plunger
pumps are refinement of the old
hand pumps that have played such
an important role in country-home
and small town water supply from
wells. A ball valve, plunger, and
check valves are used in this pump.
In operation, only the plunger
moves. When the plunger is raised
a vacuum is created below it, and
water flows in through the check
valve to fill the void. When the
plunger is lowered, the check valve
close and traps the fluid in the
pump, and it is forced up through
the valve in the plunger, to be lifted
on the next upward stroke of the
plunger.
2. Turbine Pumps. These pumps
represent the application of vertical
centrifugal pumps to deep well
service and are built for heads up to
305 meters and for capacities up to
26 495 liters per minute. The
turbine pump includes two principal
parts; the head, comprising a
vertical driving motor, discharge
connection, and step bearing, and
the pumping unit. The pump unit is
that part installed under the pump
head below the surface of the
ground. It comprises the pump
column, shafting, and pump stages,
the latter consisting of the bowls
and impellers. A type of turbine
pump wherein the motor is below
the turbine bowls is called the
submersible motor pumps. In this
set-up the propelling shaft is very
short and the usually long, small-
diameter motor operates
submerged at all times in the well
water. However, the liquid pumped
does not come in contact with the
electrical parts on motor bearings,
as these are enclosed in an oil-filled
case with a mercury seal where the
shaft passes through at the top.
The turbine and the submersible
motor form a compact unit that is
attached to an supported by the
discharge pipe.
3. Ejector-Centrifugal Pump. A type
of deep well pump that has come
into wide use for small capacities
205
combines a single-stage centrifugal
pump at the top of the well and an
ejector or jet located down in the
water. This is best suited where the
lift is 7.6 meters or over the
capacities up to 190 liters per
minute net discharge. The amount
of water required to flow down the
pressure pipe for jet operation
increases as the lift from well-water
level to the pump increases.
4. Air Lifts. Another method of
pumping wells is by air lifts with
compressed air being admitted to
the well to lift water to the surface.
For successful operation of the
system, the discharge pipe must
have its lower end submerged in the
well water. The amount of
submergence before air is admitted
will vary from 70 per cent for 6.1
meter lifts to 40 per cent for a 214
meter lift. When air is admitted to a
well, the water recedes from the
level of static head to the bottom of
the discharge pipes. This displaced
column of liquid rises up the
discharge pipe and as the air flow
continues, it enters the pipe,
aerating the water and lowering the
specific gravity of the mixture.
Pressure in the well is momentarily
decreased and then increased as
the bottom end of the pipe is
uncovered and covered. The cycle
repeats rapidly, producing a nearly
constant flow from the top of the
discharge pipe.
b. Water Horsepower and Brake
Horsepower. The theoretical amount of
energy necessary to raise a given volume of
fluid (Q) from a lower to a higher elevation
is:
E = QWH = foot - pounds
where:
Q = volume of fluid in gallons
W = weight of fluid in lb. per gallon
H = vertical distance between elevations in
feet
 CHAPTER 10— PUMPS

The water horsepower is: There are several metric methods of specifying
pressure. The most basic is the newton per
WHP = QWH When Q is expressed in ). However, it is convenient
square meter (N1m
2
33 000 gpm to use the term pascal (Pa) which represent one
Newton per square meter; by doing this pascal
or is associated with pressure and not with stress.
Segments of the fluid power industry prefer the
WHP QH for water at standard term bar, which is equal to 100 000 pascals.
3960 temperature i.e., one gallon The following relationship can be used for
of water weighs 8.334 lbs. converting to metric:

For liquids other than water or for water at other 1 bar 100 000 Pa
=
temperatures than the standard: 100 000 N1m
= 2
= 14.5 psi
WHP = Q x H x Sp. Gr. 1 inch mercury (at 60°F) = 0.034 bars
3 960
Other manufacturers of fluids power equipment
Where specific gravity of the liquid considered at prefer to express gauge pressure in units of
the corresponding temperature. kg!cm2. For basis of comparison
When pressure, expressed in psi, is considered
instead of head, H, in feet, for water H 2.31 P 1 psi = 0.07045 kgcm
2
for standard conditions.
Customarily, fluid flow has been expressed as
WHP = Q x 2.31 P = QP gallons per minute for liquids and cubic feet per
3 960 1 714 minute for gases. For liquid in metric units,
cubic meter per minute or liters per minute are
When pumping any liquid having a specific usable quantities. The following relationships
gravity against a pressure (P) in psi, the WHP represent relative magnitudes.
equation becomes:
1 gpm = 3.785 liters/mm. = 0.003785 m
/min.
3

2.31 P Section 5.0 Metric Pump Formula

WHP = QxSp.qr. x Sp.Gr.
3 960 5.1 Theoretical Power in Kilowatts

= Qx2.31f = QP Power, KW = Qx WxH

3960 1 714 6 130.25

Due to the various losses in the flow of water where:

thru pump, the friction in piping both suction and
discharge, and due to turbulence of the water Q = pump capacity in liters/mm.
and the energy, to create the velocity of flow, the W = weight of fluid in kgs/liter
brake horsepower required by the pump is much H = total head in meters
greater than the water horsepower. The relation
is:
For cold water, W = 1 kg per liter
BHP = WHP
efficiency hence eq (1) becomes

Section 4.0 Fluid Power Metrication KW = QxH

6 130.25
4.1 If the hydraulic or pneumatic circuitry is
designed within metric parameters, equipment and for other fluids, the equation has to be
and other components such as valves, cylinders multiplied by their corresponding specific
or gages must have mounting that are gravities.
compatible with metric fasteners, such as bolts
and clevis pins.

206
 CHAPTER 10— PUMPS

thus, KW = QxHxsp. gravity = 22217.14x380 = 380ft

6 130.25 3960

5.2 Actual Power Required, KWa 2 132 hp

c. By the metric pump formula —

Exam pie 1 - KWa = KWT

efficiency Power = QxH
6 130.25
Water from a reservoir is pumped over a hill
through a pipe 3 ft. in diameter, and a Q = 22 217.14 gpm x 3.785
pressure of 30 psi is maintained at the = 84 091.9 liters/mm.
summit, where the pipe is 300 ft above the H = 380 ft ÷ 3.28 ft/meter
reservoir. The quantity pumped is 49.5 cfs, = 115.9 meter
and by reason of friction in the pump pipe
there is 10 ft of head loss between the KWt = 84091.9 x 115.9
reservoir and the summit. What amount of 6 130.25
energy must be furnished the water each
second by the pump? = 1 589.86 KW
Check: 1 589.89 KW÷ 0.746
Solution: = 2 131.2 hp
a. By the energy equation (English): When pressure, expressed in kg/cm, is considered
instead of Head in meters H P in kg/cm x 10
Q = 49.5 cfs = V x area m/kg/cm for water at normal (standard) condition.
V = 49.5 (0.7854 x 9)
—
7 fps
Hence, Power (theoretical) = Q x (P x 10) kw
*VeiHead_ V
2 6130.25
2g
When pumping any liquid having a specific gravity,
49 (sp. gr.) against a pressure in kg/cm, eq. (5) will
64.4 remain the same since

= 0.7ft PxlO
Pressure head = 30 psi x 2.31 Power = Qx sp. Gr. x sp. Gr.
= 69.3 ft. 6130.25
Elevation = 300 ft = Q x P x 10
Head Loss = lOft 6130.25
*Total head of the pump = pressure head + velocity Example 2:
head + elevation + head loss (if any)
If the pump in example 1 is working against a pressure
= 69.3 + 0.7 + 300 + 10 of 11.6 kg/cm indicated by a gage installed at the
= 380 ft discharge side approximately 1 meter from the pump,
how much power is required?
Energy of pump = 380 ft x 49.5 cfs x 62.4 lbs/cu.ft
550 fps Solution:

= 2130hp(2134hp) Power = Qx(PxlO)

6130.25
b. By the English Unit pump formula —

= 84 091.90x(11.6x 10)
Whp = QxH Q = 49.5 cfsx448.83 6130.25
3960 = 22 217.14 gpm
= 1591.2kw

207
 CHAPTER 10- PUMPS

5.3 Summary of Pump Data. The following table rechecked periodically. To facilitate accurate
10.5.3(a) indicates the minimum recommended field alignment, most manufacturers either do
pipe sizes for the following pump with rated not dowel the pumps or drivers on the base
capacities: plate before shipment, or at most dowel the
pump only.
TabJe 10.5.3(a) Summary of Pump Data
After the pump and driver unit has been placed
Minimum Pipe Sizes (Nominal) on the foundation the coupling halves should be
Relief Water The coupling should not be
disconnected.
Pump
Rating
Suction Discharge Relief Valve Valve Meter reconnected until the alignment operations have
gpmL/min in.* (mm) in. (mm) in. (mm) Discharge Device been completed.
in. (mm) in.
34
25
(95) 1 (25) 1 (25) 3/4 (19) 1 (25) A flexible coupling should not be used to
50(189) 1 1/2 (38) 1 1/4(32) 1 1/4(32) 1 1/2(38) 2(50) compensate for misalignment of the pump and
100 (379) 2 (50) 2 (50) 1 1/2 (38) 2 (50) driver shafts. The purpose of the coupling is to
(65)
150 (568) 2 1/2 (65) 2 1/2 (65) 2 (50) 2 1/2 (65) 3 (75) compensate for temperature changes and to
200 (757) 3 (75) 3 (75) 2 (50) 2 1/2 (65) 3 (75) permit end movement of the shafts without
interference with each other while transmitting
250 (946) 3 1/2 (89) 3 (75) 2 (50) 2 1/2 (65)
(89) power from the driver to the pump.
300(1136) 4(100) 4(100) 21/2(65) 31/2(89) 82
There are two forms of misalignment between
400 (1514) 4 (100) 4 (100) 3 (75) 5 (127) 4 (100)
450 (1703) 5 (127) 5 (127) 3 (75) 5 (127) 4 (100) the pump shaft and the driver shaft, as follows:
500 (1892) 5 (127) 5 (127) 3 (75) 5 (127) 5 (127)
a. Angular misalignment — shafts with axes
750 (2839) 6 (150) 6 (150) 4 (100) 6 (150) 5 (127)
1000 (3785) 6 (150) 6 (150) 4 (100) 6 (150) 5 (127) concentric but not parallel.
1250 (4731) 8 (200) 8 (200) 6 (150) 8 (200) 6 (150)
1500 (5677) 8 (200) 8 (200) 6 (150) 8 (200) 8 (200) b. Parallel misalignment — shafts with axes
2000 (7570) 10 (250) 10 (250) 6 (150) 10 (250) 8 (200)
parallel but not concentric.
2500 (9462) 10 (250) 10 (250) 6 (150) 10 (250) 8 (200)
3000 (11355) 12 (300) 12 (300) 8 (200) 12 (300) 8 (200) The faces of the coupling halves should be
3500 (13247) 12 (300) 12 (300) 8 (200) 12 (300) 10 (250)
4000 (15140) 14 (355) 12 (300) 8 (200) 14 (355) 10 (250) spaced far enough apart so that they cannot
4500 (17032) 16 (400) 14 (355) 8 (200) 14 (355) 10 (250) strike each other when the driver rotor is moved
5000 (18925) 16 (400) 14 (355) 8 (200) 14 (355) 10 (250) hard over toward the pump. Due allowance
should be made for wear of the thrust bearings.
*
Actual pump flange may be less than pump size. The necessary tools for an approximate check
of the alignment of a flexible coupling are a
straight edge and a taper gage or a set of feeler
5.4 Pump Foundation and Alignment. Pumps gases.
should be installed properly. It is very important
that the pump and driver be provided with rigid A check for angular alignment is made by
foundation, and the pump and driver are inserting the taper gage or feelers at four points
aligned. between the coupling faces and comparing the
distance between the faces at four points
5.5 A substantial foundation is important in spaced at 90-degree intervals around the
maintaining alignment. The foundation should coupling. The unit will be in angular alignment
preferably be made of reinforced concrete. when the measurements show that the coupling
faces are the same distance apart at all points.
5.6 If pumps and drivers were shipped from the
factory with both machines mounted on a A check for parallel alignment is made by
common base plate, they were accurately placing a straight edge across both coupling
aligned before shipment. All base plates are rims at the top, bottom, and at both sides. The
flexible to some extent and, therefore, must not unit will be in parallel alignment when the
be relied upon to maintain the factory alignment. straight edge rests evenly on the coupling rim at
Realignment is necessary after the complete all positions. Allowance may be necessary for
unit has been leveled on the foundation and temperature changes and for coupling halves
again after the grout has set and foundation that are not of the same outside diameter. Care
bolts have been tightened. The alignment
should be checked after the unit is piped and

208
 CHAPTER 10— PUMPS

must be taken to have the straight edge parallel the piping of the unit has been connected, the
to the axis of the shafts. alignment should be checked again.

Angular and parallel misalignment are corrected

by means of shims under the motor mounting
feet. After each change, it is necessary to
recheck the alignment of the coupling halves.
Adjustment in one direction may disturb
adjustments already made in another direction.
It should not be necessary to adjust the shims
under the pump.

The permissible amount of misalignment will

vary with the type of pump and driver.

The best method for putting the coupling halves

in final accurate alignment is by the use of a dial
indicator.

The direction of driver rotation should be

checked to make certain that it matches that of
the pump. The corresponding direction of
rotation of the pump is indicated by a direction
arrow on the pump casing.

The coupling halves can then be reconnected.

With the pump properly primed, the unit then
should be operated under normal operating
conditions until temperatures have stabilized. It
then should be shut down and immediately
checked again for alignment of the coupling. All
alignment checks must be made with coupling
halves disconnected and again after they are
reconnected.

Checking Angular Alignment
When the alignment is correct, the foundation
bolts should be tightened evenly but not too
firmly. The unit can then be grouted to the
foundation. The base plate should be
completely filled with grout, and it is desirable to
grout the leveling pieces, shims, or wedges in
place. Foundation bolts should not be fully
tightened until the grout is hardened, usually
about 48 hours after pouring.
After the units have been in operation for about
10 hours or three months, the coupling halves
should be given a final check for misalignment
caused by pipe or temperature strains. If the
alignment is correct, both pump and driver
should be dowelled to the base plate. Dowel
location is very important and the
manufacturer’s instructions should be obtained,
especially if the unit is subjected to temperature.

After the grout has set and the foundation bolts

have been properly tightened, the unit should be
checked for parallel and angular alignment and,
if necessary, corrective measures taken. After

209
 CHAPTER 10— PUMPS

Water Lubricated Oil Lubricated

Right Wrong Open Une nheii pump Enclosed bee shOP pump
Su,face dwcharge Underground discharge
Th,eaded column and bowls Flanged Column and bonds

Fig. 10.4.7(b) Right and Wrong Pump Suctions

The unit should be checked periodically for

alignment. If the unit does not stay in line after
being properly installed the following are
possible causes:

(a) Settling, seasoning, or springing of the

foundation, Pipe strains distorting or shifting
the machine.

(b) Wear of the bearings.

(c) Springing of the base plate by heat from an

adjacent steam pipe or from a steam
turbine. Fig. 10.4.7(a) Ilustration of Water-Lubricated
and Oil-Lubricated Shaft Pumps
(d) Shifting of the building structure due to
variable loading or other causes.
Water Lubricated Oil Lubricated
It may be necessary to slightly readjust the
alignment, from time to time, whi!e the unit and Open Line shaft pump Enclosed line shaft pump
foundation are new. Surface discharge Underground discharge
Threaded column and Flanged columns and
5.7 Supervision of Installation. Satisfactory bowl bowl
operation of vertical turbine-type pumps is
dependent to a large extent upon careful and
correct installation of the unit; therefore, it is
recommended that this work be done under the
direction of a representative of the pump
manufacturer.

5.8 Pump Maintenance and Servicing. Pumps

like any other machines requires regular
preventive main-tenance and servicing. The
following tables are the list of the possible
causes of the troubles, may be experienced
during and after the installation of the pumping
system.

210
 CHAPTER 11 -PIPING
Chapter 11
PIPING
Section 1.0 Scope
This chapter provides general and specific
requirements not only for plant or building piping but
also for general piping installations. It includes Power
Piping System Design and pipe color coding for safety
and proper fluid identification in the system.
Section 2.0 Definitions
Pipe and Tube The fundamental difference between
—
pipe and tube is the dimensional standard to which
each is manufactured. A pipe is a tube with a round
cross section conforming to the dimensional
requirements for nominal pipe size as tabulated in
table for Pipe Schedules.
A tube is a hollow product of round or any other cross
section having a continuous periphery. Round tube
size maybe specified with respect to any two, but not
all three of the following: outside diameter or bell at
one end into which the plain or spigot end of another
piece is inserted when laying. The joint is then made
tight by cement, oakum, lead, or rubber caulked into
the bell around the spigot.
Black Pipe — Steel pipe that has not been galvanized.
Bell and Spigot Joint The commonly used joint in
—
cast-iron pipe. Each piece is made with an enlarged
diameter or bell at one end into which the plain or
spigot end of another piece is inserted when laying.
The joint is then made tight by cement, oakum, lead,
or rubber caulked into the bell around the spigot.
Bull Head Tee — A tee the branch of which is larger
than the run.
Butt Weld Joint A welded pipe joint made with the
—
ends of the two pipes butting each other, the weld
being around the periphery. (Refer to Chapter 14
Section 14.3.3.27 no. 6)
Carbon Steel Pipe Steel pipe which owes its
—
properties chiefly to the carbon which it contains.
Check Valve A valve designed to allow a fluid to
—
pass through in one direction only. A common type
211
has a plate so suspended that the reverse flow aids
gravity in forcing the plate against a seat, shutting off
reverse flow.
Compression Joint A multi-piece joint with cu
—
shaped threaded nuts which, when tightened
compress tapered sleeves so that they form joint 0:
the periphery of the tubing they connect.
Cross-Over A small fitting with a double offset, ol
—
shaped like the letter U with the ends turned out. It is
only made in small sizes and used to pass the flow of
one pipe past another when the pipes are in the same
plane.
Expansion Loop A large radius bend in a pipe line
—
to absorb longitudinal expansion in the pipe line due to
heat.
Galvanized Pipe — Steel pipe coated with zinc to
resist corrosion.
Gate Valve A valve employing a gate, often wedge-
—
shaped, allowing fluid to flow when the gate is lifted
from the seat. Such valves have less resistance to
flow than globe valves.
Globe Valve One with a somewhat globe shaped
-
body with a manually raised or lowered disc which
when closed rests on a seat so as to prevent passage
of a fluid.
Header A large pipe or drum into which each of a
—
group of boilers is connected. Also used for a large
pipe from which a number of smaller ones are
connected in line and from the side of the large pipe.
Malleable Iron Cast iron heat-treated to reduce its
—
brittleness. The process enables the materials to
stretch to some extent and to stand greater shock.
Manifold A fitting with a number of branches in line
—
connecting to smaller pipes. Used largely as an
interchangeable term with header.
Medium Pressure When applied to valves and
—
fittings, implies they are suitable for a working
pressure of from 862 to 1207 kPa. (125 to 175 psi).
 CHAPTER 11 - PIPING

Mill Length Also known as random length. Run-of-

— 3.3 All piping to headers shall come from below
mill pipe is 4 880 mm to 6 000 mm in length. Some rack.
pipe are made in double lengths of 9 150 to 10 675
mm. 3.4 All piping from headers shall go up above rack.

Relief Valve One designed to open automatically to

— 3.5 All piping above or below racks shall be
relieve excess pressure. supported on separate racks.

Run A length of pipe made of more than one piece

—
3.6 All piping should run with slight inclination for
of pipe; a portion of a fitting having its ends in line or drainage of main headers.
nearly so, in contradistinction to the branch or side
opening, as of a tee. 3.7 All piping on racks shall have a sufficient
spacing for pipe or chain wrenches so that any
Saddle Flange A flange curved to fit a boiler or tank
—
single line can be altered without disturbing the
and to be attached to a threaded pipe. The flange is rest of the piping on rack.
riveted or welded to the boiler or tank.
3.8 All piping 63.5 mm and above shall be flanged
Screwed Flange A flange screwed on the pipe
—
while smaller sizes can be screwed.
which it connecting to an adjoining pipe.
is
3.9 On long headers a pair of flanges shall be
Socket Weld A joint made by use of a socket weld
—
provided for every three lengths of 6 000 mm of
fitting which has a prepared female end or socket for pipes 63.5 mm and above.
insertion of the pipe to which it is welded.
3.10 On long headers a pair of unions shall be
Standard Pressure Formerly used to designate
—
provided for every three lengths of 6 000 mm of
cast-iron flanges, fittings, valves, etc., suitable for a pipes smaller than 63.5 mm.
maximum working steam pressure of 862 kPa.
3.11 All piping subject to varying temperature shall be
Street Elbow An elbow with male thread on one
—
provided with expansion joints or expansion
end, and female thread on the other end. loops to take care of expansion.

Stress-Relieving Uniform heating of a structure or

— 3.12 No galvanized piping shall be used for steam.
portion thereof to a sufficient temperature to relieve
the major portion of the residual stresses, followed by 3.13 No piping material shall be used that is easily
uniform cooling. corroded by material passing thru.

Wrought Iron Iron refined to a plastic state in a

—
3.14 All piping shall be clamped by “U” bolts or
puddling furnace. It is characterized by the presence clamps to supporting racks except steam piping.
of about 3 percent of slag irregularly mixed with pure
iron and about 0.5 percent carbon. 3.15 Piping supports shall be placed on a 3 000 mm
intervals or less.
Wrought Pipe This term refers to both wrought steel
—

and wrought iron. Wrought in this sense means
worked, as in the process of forming furnace-welded
pipe from skelp, or seamless pipe from plates or
billets. The expression wrought pipe is thus used as a
distinction from cast pipe. When wrought-iron pipe is
referred to, it should be designated by its complete
name.
3.16 All steam piping shall be supported on rollers or
sliding support for expansion.
3.17 All piping carrying pressure shall be of sufficient
bursting strength for the pressure applied. A
minimum factor of safety of 4 for working
pressure applied shall be used.

Section 3.0 General Requirements
3.1 All piping shall be run parallel to building walls.
3.2 Grouped piping shall be supported on racks
either on horizontal or vertical planes.
3.18 A minimum factor of safety of 4 for working
pressure applied shall be used.
3.19 For conveying liquids subject to water hammer,
additional safety factor of a minimum of 100% of
working pressure shall be used.

212
 CHAPTER 11 - PIPING

3.20 Piping supports shall be placed on a 3 000 mm

intervals or less. Water

3.21 All piping carrying steam, hot water or hot liquids

Green
shall be insulated to prevent accidental contact Steam
and loss of heat.

3.22 Drains for steam piping shall be provided with Sifeer-Gray

steam traps. Oil-mineral vegetable or

3.23 On all screwed joints the threaded portion shall

enter fittings with three threads by hand before a
animal, Flammable or
Combustible
Gases in either gaseous or liquified form,
I Brown
I
pipe wrench is applied.

3.24 Pipe threads shall be lubricated by white lead,

vapour and pneumatically conveyed fumes
and materials I Yellow Ochre
I
red lead graphite and oil or other approved Acid and alkalis
thread lubricants before tightening.

3.25 No rubber or rubberized gaskets shall be used Air

I I
for steam or hot liquids.

3.26 A shut off valve shall be installed to every

branch from headers. Other fluids, including drainage
pipes unless the drain is to a
particular service
3.27 All piping shall be reasonably cleaned before
installation. Fire fighting materials, including
detection and suppression
3.28 All piping shall be free from burrs or protruding system
metals inside. Safety Red
Hazardous services (generally
3.29 No piping carrying steam or hot liquids shall be
imbedded in concrete walls or floors.
with other identification of contents)

Electricity
Safety Yellow
1
3.30 Where piping has to be located in trenches the
pipes shall be supported on steel benches on
floor of trench. Light Orange
Communications
3.31 Where piping has to be located in trenches a
suitable drainage or sump for removal of liquid ‘Mite
accumulations shall be provided for trench.
In addition to color coding, the specific contents of
3.32 Where piping carrying steam or hot liquids have piping must be identified by sticker, stencil, tag, etc.
to pass walls of concrete suitable sleeves made
of pipes one size bigger shall be imbedded in 4.2 Color bands and pipe flow identifications shall be
concrete before piping is laid. as specified and installed as shown in page 192.
3.33 Piping to all equipments shall not impose any
stress on equipment being connected.
Section 5.0 Fluid Flow Velocities

3.34 Pipe carrying liquids with solids shall use long 5.1 In practice, the average fluid flow velocities may
radius elbows or tees with plugs in the direction be as follows:
of flow.
a. Water 1.5—3.0 meters/sec.
Section 4.0 Identification Colors for Pipes b. High Pressure Saturated
Steam 25— 50 meters/sec.
4.1 Identification of piping by color, or color bands at
convenient locations shall be as follows:

213
 CHAPTER 11 - PIPING

c. High Pressure Superheated Table 11.6.2 List of Material

Steam 50 77 meters/sec.
— Specifications for Bolting, Fittings, Valves and
Flange, Pipe and Tubing
d. Atmospheric Exhaust
Steam 40 60 meters/sec.
—
Material Specification
Bolting
e. Low Pressure Exhaust Staybolt wrought-iron, solid ASTM A-84
Steam 100— 120 meters/sec. Hot-rolled carbon-steel bars ASTM A-i 07
Alloy-steelbolting materials for ASTM A-i 93
Note: See appendices for Steel Pipes, uPVC high temperature
Pipes and uPVC Electrical Conduits. Carbon and Alloy steel nuts for ASTM A-i94
bolts for high-pressure and high
temperature service
Section 6.0 Power Piping Systems and
Design Heat-treated carbon-steel bolting ASTM A-261
material
6.1 Scope. Power piping systems include all steam, Steel machine bolts, nuts and tap ASTM A-307
water and oil piping and the component parts bolts
such as the pipe, flanges, bolting, gaskets, (Grade B)
valves, and fittings for steam generating plants,
Fi ttings, Valves and Flanges
central heating plants and industrial plants. ‘Composition brass or ounce metal ASTM B-62
casting
6.2 Materials. Materials used shall conform to Table Steam or Valve bronze castins ASTM B-61
11 .6.2.any materials other than those specified Gray iron casting for valves,
1 ASTM A-126
should meet the physical & chemical flanaes and oioe fittins
requirements & test of the latest revision of the Cast iron for bell and spigot fittings
1 AWWA C 100
respective specifications in Table 11.6.2. and valves
Cast iron fittings, short body, 3 in,
1 ASA A21 .10
6.3 Valves. It is mandatory that valves be (a) of the (80mm) to 12 in. (300mm) for 250
design or equal to the design which the psi (i724 kPa) water pressure plus
water hammer
manufacturer thereof recommends for the
service, and (b) of materials allowed by the code ASTM A-i97
Cuoola malleable iron
for the pressure & temperature. Carbon steel castings for valves, ASTM A-95
flanges and fittings for high-
All valves in nominal sizes: temperature service

80mm and smaller for pressures above 1724 Carbon Steel casting suitable for ASTM A-216
kPa but not above 2758 kPa. fusion weldingfor high
temoerature service
50mm smaller for pressures above 2578 kPa Alloy-steel casting suitable for ASTM A-217
not above 4137 kPa. fusion welding for high
temperature service
40mm and smaller for pressures above 4137 Forged or rolled steel pipe ASTM A-i 05
kPa may have screwed, flanged, or welding flanges, forged fittings, and
ends. valves and parts for high
temperature service
For all valves, larger than sizes specified in the Forged or rolled steel pipe ASTM A-i81
preceding paragraph, flanged or welding ends flanges for general service
shall be used. Forged or rolled alloy-steel pipe ASTM A-i82
flanges, forged fittings and
Insert Pipe Flow Identification p.192 (PSME) valves and parts for high
temperature service
Factory-made wrought carbon- ASTM A-234
steel and carbon molybdenum-
steel welding fittings

214
 CHAPTER 11 - PIPING

Ferritic and austentic steel ASTM A-351 annealed

casting for high temperature Seamless copper tubes ASTM B-75
service Copper and copper-alloy- ASTM B -111
seamless (Condenser tubes)
Pipe Steel
Non-Ferrous Seamless steel boiler tubes ASTM A-83
Copper pipe, standard sizes
2 ASTM B-42 Electric-resistance-welded steel ASTM A -178
Red Brass pipe, standard sizes
2 ASTM B-43 and open-heart iron boiler tube
Cast-Iron Seamless steel boiler tubes for ASTM A-i 92
Pipe, water, cast-iron (Bell and FSB WW P-421 high-pressure service
spigot) Cast-iron, pit-cast pipe Medium-carbon seamless steel ASTM A-2i0
for water or other liquids boiler and superheater tubes
Cast-iron, centrifugally cast in
1 ASA A21 .2 Seamless alloy-steel boiler and ASTM A-2i3
metal molds for water or other superheater tubes
liquids Seamless cold-drawn low- ASTM A-179
Cast-iron, centrifugally cast in ASA A21 .6 carbon steel heat-exchanger
sand-lined molds for water or and condenser tubes
other liquids Electric-resistance-welded steel ASTM A-214
Steel and Wrought Iron heat exchanger and condenser
Welded wrought iron-pipe ASA A21 .6 tubes
Welded and seamless steel ASTM A—53 Electric-resistance-welded steel ASTM A-226
pipe boiler and superheater tubes for
Forged or rolled steel pipe ASTM A-72 high-pressure
flanges, forged fittings, and Welded alloy-steel boiler and ASTM A-249
valves and parts for high superheater tubes
temperature service Copper brazed steel tubing ASTM A-254
Seamless carbon-steel pipe for ASTM A-53
high temperature service Cast iron shall not be used over 232.2°C (450°F)
1
Black and hot-dipped zinc ASTM A-105 and not for oil over 145°C (293°F).
coated (galvanized) welded and Copper or brass shall not be used over 207.7°C
2
seamless steel pipe for ordinary 406° F).
uses Mallelable iron or bronze shall not be used over
Electric-fusion-welded steel pipe ASTM A -106 260°C (500°F).
(750 mm and over)
Electric-resistance-welded steel ASTM A-i 20 6.4 Wall Thickness. The following formula shall be
pipe used to determine pipe wall thickness:
Electric-fusion-welded steel pipe ASTM A-134
(100 mm to 750 mm) tm PD ÷C
Electric-fusion-welded steel pipe ASTM A -135 2S + ‘(P
for high-temperature and high
pressure service Where:
Seamless ferritic alloy-steel pipe ASTM A-i39 tm = minimum pipe wall thickness in mm
for high temperature service P maximum internal service pressure in kPa
Seamless and welded austenitic ASTM A-155 t = nominal pipe wall thickness in mm
stainless steel pipe D = outside diameter of pipe in mm
Ferritic alloy steel forged and ASTM A-335 S = allowable stress in materials in kPa
bared pipe for high-temperature C = allowance for threading, mechanical
Seamless austenitic steel pipe ASTM A -312 strength or corrosion in mm, see Table
for high-temperature central ii.6.4a
station service Y co-efficient for values, see Table 11 .6.4b
Spiral-welded steel or iron pipe ASTM A-369
*Since all pipe furnished by the mill is subject
jLine pipe ASTM A-376 to 12 1/2 % variation in wall thickness, the
Tubing thickness tm should be multiplied by 8/7 to
Non-Ferrous obtain the nominal wall thickness.
Seamless copper tubing, bright ASTM B-68

215
 CHAPTER 11 - PIPING

FLOW INDICATING ARROW

SAME COLOR AS BANDS

TYPYCAL PIPE-COLOR BANDING-INSULATED

NOTE: BANDSMAY BE PAINTED AS PER COLORCODE OR 38mm PLASTIC
PRESSURE-SENSETIVE TAPE USED (LAPPLASTIC AT LEAST 50 mm
AT JOINT)

4 300mm

38mmL

FLOW DIAGRAM ARROW FOR

FLOW DIAGRAM ARROW FOR
PIPES UNDER 150mm & INCLUDING
PIPES 150MM & OVER INCLUDING
INSOLATION IS FUSED
INSOLATION IF FUSED.

NOTES 1. ARROWS SHALL BE STENCIL TYPE

2. ARROWS SHALL BE SAME COLOR AS PIPE BANDING
3. ARROWS SHALL BE READABLE FROM FLOOR
4. ARROWS SHALL BE INSTALLED EVERY 456

PIPE FLOW IDENTIFICATION

NOTES ALL ARROWS SHALL BE PAINTED ON PIPES
STICK-ON OR GLUED-ON ARROWS WILL NOT BE ACCEPT TABLE

216

Table 11.6.4a
Type of Pipe
Cast-iron Pipe, Centrifugally
cast
Cast-iron Pipe, Pit-Cast
Threaded Steel, Wrought-
iron or Non-Ferrous Pipe
(10mm ) 3/8 in. add smaller
(15 mm) 1/2 in. and larger
Grooved Steel, Wrought-iron
or Non-ferrous Pipe
Plain-end Steel or Wrought
iron
Pipe or tube for 1 in (25 mm)
Size and smaller
Pipe or tube for sizes above
(25.4 mm) 1 in.
Plain-end Non-ferrous pipe
or tube
Table 11.6.4 (b)
“Y” Values
Type of Steel 900°F and 950
below
CHAPTER 11
Value of C in inches
(mm)
0.14 (3,556 mm)
0.18 (4.527 mm)
0.05 (1.27 mm)
Depth of Thread in mm
Depth of Groove in mm
0.05 (1.27 mm)
0.065 (1.651 mm)
6.7
0.000
1000 1050 1110 1150& above
- PIPING
equipment on the low pressure side does
not meet the requirements for the full initial
pressure. The relief or safety valve shall be
located adjoining or as close as possible to
the reducing valve. Proper protection shall
be provided to prevent injury or damage
caused by escaping fluid from relief or
safety valves if vented to the atmosphere.
The vents shall be of ample size and as
short and direct as possible. The combined
discharge capacity of the relief valves shall
be such that the pressure rating of the lower
pressure piping and equipment will not be
exceeded if the reducing valves sticks open.
b. It is mandatory that a pressure gage be
installed on the low pressure side of a
reducing valve.
Pipe
a. For pressure above 4 137 kPa, the pipe
shall be:
1. Seamless steel meeting ASTM
specifica-tions A-106, A-312, A-335
or A-376; or

Ferritic
2. Forged and bored steel meeting A-
0.4 0.5 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7
Austentic 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.7
369 or

3. Automatic welded steel meeting A-

NOTE: °C °F — 32 312 or
1.8
4. Electric-fusion welded steel pipe
6.5 Variations in Pressure and Temperature. meeting with ASTM specifications
Either pressure or temperature, or both, may A-155.
exceed the nominal design values if the
computed stress in the pipe wall calculated for b. For pressure above 1 724 kPa, but not
the pressure does not exceed the allowable S above 4 137 kPa, pipe shall be:
value in Table 11.6.5 and 11.6.5a for the
expected temperature by more than the 1. Electric-fusion welded steel of
following allowances for the period of duration ASTM specification A-134 or A-139
indicated:
2. Electric-resistance welded steel
a. Up to 15 percent increase above the S value pipe of ASTM specification A-i 35
during 10 percent of the operating period.
3. Forged or bored steel meeting A-
b. Up to 20 percent increase above the S value 380; or
during one percent of the operating period.
4. Automatic welded steel meeting
6.6 Pressure Reducing and Relief Valves A-312.

a. Where pressure reducing valves are used, 5. Electric-Fusion welded steel pipe
one or more relief or safety valves shall be meeting with ASTM specifications
provided on the low pressure side or the A-155.
reducing valve in case the piping or

217
 ______I_

CHAPTER 11 - PIPING

Table 11.6.5
Allowable Stresses for Pipe in Power Piping Systems

Minimum Values S psi for Temperatures in Deg Not to Exceed

ASTM Ultimate
Material Specifi- Grade Tensile -20 to 400* 450 500 600 650
200 300
cation Strength 100

Welded Material:
Furnace Welded
Carbon Steel
A 120 8,800 8,600 8,200 7,800 7,600
Lap Welded
A 120 6,500 6,350 6,100 5,850 5,700
Butt Welded

Automatically Welded
Sustenitic Stainless
Steel

18% chromium,
8% Ni—Ti A312 TP321
75,000 15,950 15,950 14,450 13,450 12,9000 12,650 12,600
18%chromium,
8%Ni.—Cb A312 TP347

Seamless Material
Carbon steel A 120
A 335 10,800 10,600 10,200 9,800 9,600
5%chromium, -

%Mo.
2
/
1 A335 P5
A 369 P5b 60,000 15,000 15,000 15,000 15,000
14,500 14,000 13,700
FP5
18% chromium, - A 312
8% Ni. Ti A 376 TP321
-

18,750 18,750 17,000 15,800 15,200 14,900 14,850

A213 75,000
18% chromium, - A 312 TP347
8% Ni. Cb. -
A 376
A 213

Seamless
Red brass B 43 8,000 8,000 7,000 3,000
Copper —

2 in.& smaller B 42 6,000 5,500 4,750 3,000

Copper —

over 2 in. B 42 6,000 5,500 4,750 3,000

Copper tubing B 75 6,000 5,500 4,750 3.000

Annealed B 88 30,000 6,000 5,500 4,750 3,000
Bright annealed B 68 30,000 6,000 5,500 4,750 3,000

Copper Brazed Steel A 254 Class I 42,000 6,000 5,500 4,750 3,000
Class II 42,000 3,600 3,300 2,850 1,800
Cast iron3
Centrifugally
FSB Types 6,000 6,000 6,000 6,000 6,000
Cast
Metal Molds WWP-421 I & II
ASA A 21.6 6,000 6,000 6,000 6,000 6,000
Sand-lined Molds
Pit cast ASA B 21.8
ASAA21.2 4,000 4,000 4,000 4,000 4,000

1
P ipe in accordance with API Specification.

in excess of the maximum temperatures for

2
T he several types and grades of pipe tabulated above shall not be used at temperature
service conditions contemplated .) Allowable S values for
which the S values are indicated. (See also specific requirements for
intermediate temperatures may be obtained by interpolation .

for oil having a temperature above 300 F.

3
Cast-iron pipe shall not be used for lubricating oil lines for machinery and in any case not

*For steam at 250 psi (405 F) the values given may be used.

Note: Multiply S in psi by 6.895 to get S in kPa or Divide S in psi by 0.145 to get S in kPa.

*0 = *F —32
1.8

218
 CHAPTER 11 - PIPING

Table 11.6.5
Allowable Stresses for Pipe in Power Piping Systems

Note: Where welded construction is used, consideration should be given to the possibility of graphite formation in the
following
steels: Carbon steel above 775 F; Carbon-mdybdenum steel above 875 F; Chrome molybdenum steel (with chromium
under 060)
above 975 F.

ASTM Identi Minimum Values S psi for Temperatures in Dog Not to Exceed
Material Specifi- Grade Ultimate
Fication
cation Symbol Tensile 70 750
11650 800 850 900 950 1,000 1050 1,100 1,150 1,200
Strength
Welded Material:
Furnace Welded
Lap Welded
carbon Steel A 53 45,000 9,000
Wrought Iron A 72 40,000 8,000
Butt Welded
Carbon Steel A 53 45,000 6,70
Wrought Iron 40,000 6,000
Electricfusion welded:
Carbon Steel A 134 A 245 A 48,000 8,800
A 245 B 52,000 9,600
A 245 C 55,000 10,100
A 283 A 45,000 8,300
A 283 B 50,000 9,200
A 283 C 55,000 10,100
A 2830 60,000 10,100
A 139 A4 48,000 9,600 9,250 8,300
B4 60,000 12,000 11,350 9,950
A 155 C45 45,000 10,100 9,800 8,700 7,500 5,950
c50 50,000 11,250 10,900 9,900 8,450 6,550
C55 55,000 12,400 11,900 10,850 9,200 7,000
Killed Carbon Steel KC55 55,000 12,400 11,900 10,850 9,200 7,000
KC6O 60,000 13,500 12,900 11,650 9,700 7,000
KC65 65,000 14,600 13,950 12,450 10,250 7,000
KC7O 70,000 15,750 14,950 13,250 10,800 7,000
Csrbon Molybdemun Steel CM65 65,000 14,600 14,600 14,600 14,100 12,950 11,250
CM7O 70,000 15,750 15,750 15,750 15,200 13,500 11,450
CM75 75,000 16,850 16,850 16,850 16,200 14,300 11,700
1/2% chrom., 1/2% moly steel 1/2CR 65,000 14,600 14,600 14,600 14,100 12,950 11,250 9,000 5.600
1% chrom., 14% moly steel 1CR 60,000 13,500 13,500 13,500 13,250 12,750 11.800 9,000 6.750 4.500 2.500
1 14% chrom., 14% rnoly steel 11/4CR 60,000 13,500 13,500 13,500 13,500 12,950 11,800 9,000 7,000 4,950 3,600
2 14% chrom., 1% moly steel 2 1/4CR 60,000 13,500 13,500 13,500 13,500 12,950 11,800 9,000 7,000 5,200 3,750 2,700
Electric Resistance
Welded:
Carbon Steel A 53 A
3 48,000 10.200 10,200 9.100
3
B 60,000 12,750 12,750 11,000
A 135 A° 48,000 10,200 10,200 9,100
3
B 60,000 12,750 12,750 11,000
Automatically Welded
Stainless Steel:
18% Cr-8% Ni-Ti A 312 TP321 75.000 Note6 12,550 12,550 12,350 12,150 12,000 11,750 11,500 11,150
18% Cr-8% Ni-Cb 750 6,450 4,250
TP347

Seamless Msterial
Carbon Steel A 53 A 48,000 12,000 11,650 10,700 9,000 7,100 5,000
A 53 B 60,000 15,000 14,350 12,950 10,800 7,800 5,000
A 106 A 48,000 12,000 11,650 10700 9,000 7,100 5,000
A106 B 60,000 15,000 14,350 12950 10,800 7,800 5,000
A 83 Type A 47,000
A 179 Low carb. 11,750 11,450 10550 9,000 7,100 5,000
A 192 47,000
A 210 60,000 15,000 14,350 12950 10,800 7,800 5,000

219
 Table 11.6.5a
Allowable Stresses for Pipe in Power Piping System (Continued)
formation in the following steels:
Note: Where welded construction is used, consideration should be given to the possibility of graphite
under 0.60) above 975 F.
Carbon steel above 775 F; carbon-molybdenum steel above 875 °F; Chrome-molybdenum steel (with chromium

Minimum Values of s Psi for Temperatures in Dea Not to Exceed

ASTM Identi-
Material Specifi- Grade 850 900 950 1,000 1,050 1,100 1,150 1,200
Tensile 20 to 1650 700 750 800
Strength
Carbon molybrium
P1 55,000 13,750 13,750 13,750 13,450 13,150 12,250
A 335
A369 FPI

Chronr. Molybnum 10,000 6,250

P2 55,000 13,750 13,750 13,750 13,450 13,150 12,500
‘,4% Cr-1/2% Mo A 335
A 369 FP2 C)
15,000 15,000 14,750 14,200 13,100 11,000 7,500 5,000 2,800 I
1% Cr-1/2% Mo A 335 P12 60,000 15,000
A369 FP12

15,000 - 15,000 14,400 13,100 11,000 7,800 5,500 4,000 -1

1 %% Cr-112% Mo A 335 P11 60,000 15,000 15,000
A369 FPII m
‘fl/4%Cr-1%Mo A213 T22 4,200 3,000
15,000 15,000 15,000 15,000 14,400 13,100 11,000 7800 5,800
A 335 P22 60000
0 A369 FP22
-
3%Cr-%%Mo A213 T21 4,000 2,700
14,800 14,500 13,900 13,200 12,000 9,000 7.000 5,500
A 335 P21 60,000 15,000
A369 FP21 z
11,500 10,000 7,300 5,200 3,300 2,200 1,500
P5 60,000 Note 6 13,400 13,100 12,800 12,400
-
5% Cr 1/2% Mo A 335
A369 FP5 2,500 1,800
13,400 13,100 12,800 12,400 10,900 9,000 5500 3,500
A 335 P5b 60000 Note 6
-

Stainless steel A 213 13,100 10,300 7.600 5,000

75,000 Note 6 14,800 14700 14,550 14,300 14,100 13,850 13,500
18% Cr— 8% Ni-Ti A 312 TP321
A_376

18%Cr—8%Ni-Cb A213 13,100 10,300 7,600 5,000

Note 6 14,800 14,700 14,550 14,300 14,100 13,850 13,500
A 312 TP347 75,000

Pipe in accordance with API Specification.

1 be
temperatures for which the S values indicated. Allowable S values for intermediate temperatures may
2
T he several types and grades of pipe tabulated above shall not be used at temperatures in excess of the maximum
obtained by interpolation.
may be increased by the ratio of 095 divided by 090
The values tabulated are for class 2 pipe. For Class 1 pipe which is heat treated and radiographed, thee stresses
3 times the
manufacture of ordinary electric fusion welded steel pipe, the allowable Stress shall be taken as 0.20
1f plate material having physical properties other than stated in the SATM Specification A 139 is used in the
4
tensile strength for temperature of 450F and below. the
under this classification is subjected of supplemental test and/or heat treatments as agreed to by
For electroresistance-welded pipe for applications where the temperature is below 650F and where pipe furnished
5 pipe the S values equal to
the strength characteristics of the weld to be equal to the minimum tensile strength specified for the
supplier and the purchaser, whereby such supplemental test and/or heat treatments demonstrate
the corresponding seamless grades may be used.

—32
1.8
 CHAPTER 11 - PIPING

Table 11.6.5c Properties of Pipe (Continued)

NOM. SCHEDULE OUTSIDE INSIDE WALL WEIGHT WTOF OUTSIDE INSIDE TRANS
PIPE NO. + DIAM DIAM THICK- OF PIPE WATER SURFACE SURFACE VERSE
SIZE (in) (in) NESS (Ib/ft) IN PIPE* (sq ft/if) (sq ft/if) AREA
(in) (in) (lb/fl) (sq in)
1/8 40 (S) .405 .269 .068 .244 .0246 .106 .0705 .0568
80(X) .405 .215 .095 .314 .0157 .106 .0563 .0364
1/4 40(S) 540 364 .088 .424 .0451 .141 .0955 .1041
80(X) 540 302 .119 .535 .0310 .141 .0794 .0716
3/8 40(5) .675 .493 .091 .567 .0827 .177 .1295 .1910
80(X) .675 .423 .126 .738 .0609 .177 .1106 .1405
1/2 40(S) .840 .622 .109 .850 .1316 .220 .1637 .3040
80 (X) .840 .546 .147 1.087 .1013 .220 .1433 .2340
3/4 40(5) 1.050 .824 .113 1.130 .2301 .275 .2168 .5330
80(X) 1.050 .742 .154 1.473 .1875 .275 .1948 .4330
1 40(5) 1.315 1.049 .133 1.678 .3740 .344 .2740 .8640
80(X) 1.315 .857 .179 2.171 .3112 .344 .2520 .7190
1 1/4 40 (5) 1.660 1.380 .140 2.272 .6471 .434 .3620 1.495
80 (X) 1.660 1.278 .191 2.996 .5553 .434 .3356 1.283
1 1/2 40(S) 1.900 1.610 .145 2.717 .8820 .497 .4213 2.036
80 (X) 1.900 1.500 .200 3.631 .7648 .497 .3927 1.767
2 40 (5) 2.375 2.067 .154 3.652 1.452 .622 .5401 3.355
80 (X) 2.375 1.939 .218 5.022 1.279 .622 .5074 2.953
2 1/2 40 (S) 2.875 2.469 .203 5.79 2.072 .753 .6462 4.788
80 (X) 2.875 2.323 .276 7.66 1.834 .753 .6095 4.238
3 40 (5) 3.500 3.068 .216 7.57 3.20 .916 .802 7.393
80 (X) 3.500 2.900 .300 10.25 2.86 .916 .761 6.605
3 1/3 40(5) 4.000 3.548 .226 9.11 4.28 1.047 .926 9.89
80 (X) 4.00 3.364 .318 12.51 3.85 1.047 .880 8.89
4 40 (5) 4.500 4.026 .237 10.79 5.51 1.178 1.055 12.73
80 (X) 4.500 3.826 .337 14.98 4.98 1.178 1.002 11.50
5 40 (5) 5.563 5.047 .258 14.62 8.66 1.456 1.321 20.01
80 (X) 5.563 4.813 .375 20.78 7.87 1.456 1.260 18.19
6 40 (S) 6.625 6.065 .280 18.97 12.51 1.735 1.587 28.99
80 (X) 6.625 5.761 .432 28.57 11.29 1.735 1.510 26.07
8 40 (S) 8.625 7.981 .322 28.55 21.6 2.26 2.090 50.0
80 (X) 8.625 7.625 .500 43.39 19.8 2.26 2.006 45.6
10 40 (S) 10.750 10.020 .365 40.46 34.1 2.81 2.62 78.9
60 (X) 10.750 9.750 .500 54.70 32.4 2.81 2.55 74.7
80 10.750 9.564 .593 64.33 31.1 2.81 2.50 71.8
12 30 (S) 12.750 12.090 .330 43.80 49.6 3.34 3.17 115.0
40 12.750 11.938 .406 53.53 48.5 3.34 3.13 111.9
(X) 12.750 11.750 .500 65.40 46.9 3.34 3.08 108.0
80 12.750 11.376 .687 88.51 44.0 3.34 2.98 101.6
14 30 (5) 14.000 13.250 .375 54.60 59.8 3.67 3.46 138.0
40 14.000 13.125 .438 63.37 58.5 3.67 3.44 135.3
(X) 14.000 13.000 .500 72.10 55.8 3.67 3.40 133.0
80 14.000 12.500 .750 106.31 51.2 3.67 3.27 122.7
30 (5) 14.000 15.250 .375 62.40 79.1 4.18 3.99 183.0
16 40 (X) 16.000 15.000 .500 82.77 76.5 4.18 3.93 176.7
80 16.000 14.314 .843 136.46 69.7 4.18 3.75 160.9
(S) 16.000 17.250 .375 70.60 100.8 4.71 3.52 234.0
(X) 16.000 17.000 .500 93.50 98.3 4.71 3.45 227.0
18 40 18.000 16.874 .562 104.75 97.2 4.71 4.42 224.0
80 18.000 16.126 .937 170.75 88.5 4.71 4.22 204.2
20 (S) 20.000 19.250 .375 78.60 126.7 5.24 5.04 291.0
20 (5) 20.000 19.000 .500 104.20 122.5 5.24 4.97 284.0
20 40 20.000 18.814 .593 122.91 120.4 5.24 4.93 278.0
80 20.000 17.938 1.031 208.87 109.4 5.24 4.70 252.7
20 (S) 24.000 23.250 .375 94.60 184.6 6.28 6.08 426.0
(X) 24.000 23.000 .500 125.50 179.0 6.28 6.03 415.0
24 40 24.000 22.626 .687 171.17 174.2 6.28 5.92 402.1
80 24.000 21.584 1218.00 293.36 158.2 6.28 5.65 365.2
*To change Wt of Water in Pipe (lb/fl) to kg/meter of water,
multi. by 1.488
*To change sq ft/ft to sq m/meter, multiply by 0.305
t S is designation of standard wall pipe
X is designation of extra strong wall pipe

221
 CHAPTER 11 - PIPING

For pressure above 1724 kPa, but not specifications A-193. For
b.
above 4137 kPa, pipe shall be: temperature exceeding 400°C, only
bolts studes are recommended.
1. Seamless steel in accordance with When cast iron flanges are used,
ASTM specification A-106. bolting material shall be of carbon
steel conforming to ASTM
2. Electric-fusion welded steel pipe of specification A-307, Grade B, or A-
ASTM specification A-i 55. 107, Grade 1120.

3. Electric-resistance welded steel b. Flange bolts or bolt-studs shall be of the

pipe of ASTM specification A-135 or dimensions and material specified for the
purpose in the corresponding American
4. Seamless or electric-resistance flange standards. Bolts or bolt-studs shall
welded steel pipe of ASTM extend completely through the nuts and if
specification of A-53 desired, may have reduced shank of a
diameter not less than the diameter at root
c. For service up to 400°C and pressure of not of threads.
over 1724 kPa, any of the following classes
of pipe may be used: c. Nuts shall conform to ASTM specification A-
194.
1. Electric-fusion welded steel of
ASTM specification A-i 34 or A-i 39. 6.9 Flanges

2. Electric-resistance welded steel a. Flanges shall conform to the American

pipe of ASTM specification A-i 35 or
3. Wrought-iron pipe of ASTM
specification A-72.
d. Grade A seamless steel pipe of ASTM
specification A-106, wrought-iron pipe of
ASTM A-72, Grade A seamless steel pipe of
ASTM A-53, or grade A electric welded pipe
of ASTM A-53, A-135 or A-139 shall be
used for close coiling, cold bending or other
uses.
e. Pipe permissible for the service specified in
Sec. 11.6.7.3 may be used for temperature
higher than 400°C unless otherwise
prohibited, if the S value in accordance with
Sec. 11.6.4 is used when calculating the
pipe wall thickness.
f. Pipe meeting API Specification 5L may also
be used.
Standard B 16.5 for respective pressures
and temperature or to the specifications set
by the manufacturer.
b. 172 kPa and class 862 kPa cast-iron
integral or screwed companion flanges may
be used with a full face gasket or with a ring
gasket extending to the inner edge of the
bolt holes. When using a full face gasket,
the bolting maybe of heat-treated carbon
steel (ASTM-A26i), or alloy steel (ASTM A-
193). When using a ring gasket, the bolting
shall be of carbon steel equivalent to ASTM
A-307, Grade B, without heat-treatment
other than stress relief.
c. When bolting together two Class 1724 kPa
integral or screwed companions cast-iron
flanges, having 1 .6 mm raised faces, the
bolting shall be of carbon steel equivalent to
ASTM A-307, Grade B. Without heat-
treatment other than the stress relief.

6.8 Boltings d. 1034 kPa steel flanges may be bolted to

cast-iron valves, fittings or other parts,
a. The following standards shall apply to having either integral Class 862 kPa cast-
bolting: iron flanges or screwed Class 862 kPa
companion flanges. When such construction
1. For steam service pressure in is used, the 1.6 mm raised face on the steel
excess of 1724 kPa or for steam or flange shall be removed. When bolting such
water service temperature flanges together using a ring gasket
exceeding 232°C, the bolting extending to the inner edge of the bolt holes,
material shall conform to ASTM the bolting shall be of carbon steel

222
 CHAPTER 11
equivalent to ASTM A-307 Grade B, without
heat-treatment othen than stress relief.
When bolting such flanges together using
full face gasket, the bolting may be heat
treated carbon steel (ASTM A-261) or alloy
steel (ASTM A-193).
e. 2069 kPa steel flanges may be bolted to
cast-iron valves, fittings, or other parts
having either integral Class 1724 kPa cast-
iron flanges or screwed Class 1724 kPa
Cast-iron companion flanges without any
changes in the raised faces on either flange.
Where such construction is used, the bolting
shall be of carbon steel equivalent to ASTM
A-307 Grade B, without heat treatment other
than stress relief.
6.10 Fittings
a. The minimum meal thickness of all flange or
screwed fittings and the strength of factory-
made welding fittings shall not be less than
that specified for the pressure and
temperatures in the respective American
Standards.
b. All fittings in nominal sizes above; 80 mm for
pressures above 1724 kPa but not above
2758 kPa; 50 mm for pressures above 2758
kPa but not above 4137 kPa, and 40 mm for
pressures above 4137 kPa but not above
17238 kPa shall have flanged ends or
welding ends.
6.11 Gaskets
a. Gaskets where required, shall be of material
that resists attack by the fluid carried in the
pipe line, shall be strong enough to hold the
pressure, and perform the purpose intended
throughout the temperature range
encountered. Gaskets shall be as thin as the
finish of the surface that will permit to
reduce possibility of blowing out.
b. Paper, vegetable fiber, rubber or rubber
inserted gaskets shall not be used for
temperatures in excess of 121°C.
c. Asbestos composition gaskets may be used
as permitted in the American Standard for
steel pipe flanges and flange fittings. This
type of gaskets shall not be used on lines
carrying oil or other
6.12 Hangers, Supports, Anchors
223
- PIPING
a. Piping and equipment shall be supported in
a thoroughly substantial and workman like
manner, rigid enough to prevent excessive
vibration and anchored sufficiently to
prevent undue strains on boilers and the
equipment served. Hangers, supports, and
anchors shall be made of durable materials.
In tunnels and buildings of permanent fire
proof construction, piping may be supported
on or hung from wood structures if all piping
used for conveying fluid at temperatures
above 121°C us spaced or insulated from
such wooden members to prevent
dangerous heating.
-
b. Hangers and supports shall permit free
expansion and contraction of the piping
between anchors. All piping shall be carried
on adjustable hangers properly leveled
supports, and suitable springs, sway
bracing, vibration dampeners, etc. shall be
provided where necessary.
6.13 Pipe Sleeves
a. Where steam pipe pass through walls,
partitions, floors, beams, etc., constructed of
combustible material, protecting metal
sleeves or thimbles shall be provided to give
a clearance of not less than 6.35 mm under
hot and cold conditions all around the pipe,
or pipe and covering. When steam pipes
pass through metal partitions, etc., a
clearance of at least 6.35 mm under hot and
cold conditions shall be left all around the
pipe, or pipe covering. In any cases, if the
fluid temperature exceeds 121°C, the pipe
shall be insulated inside the sleeve with a
covering of at least standard thickness.
Walls, floors, partitions, beams, etc., shall
not be cast solidly to or built up around and
in contact with a steam, hot water, or hot oil
pipe. Where such pipe must be installed in a
concrete floor or other building member, it
shall be protected for the entire buried
length with a suitable protecting pipes
sleeve of steel, cast iron, wrought iron, or
tile; exception maybe taken to the preceding
rules where pipes pass through walls, floors,
partitions, etc., that must be kept water tight.
6.14 Drains, Drips, and Steam Traps
a. Suitable drains or drips shall be provided
wherever necessary to drain the condensate
from all sections of the piping and
 CHAPTER 11
equipment whenever it may collect. Suitable
drains shall also be provided to empty water
lines, water storage tanks, equipment
containing water, etc., when such piping and
equipment is out of service. At least one
valve shall be placed in each drip or drain
line.
Drip lines from steam headers, mains,
b.
separators, and other equipment shall be
properly drained by traps installed in
accessible locations and below the level of
the apparatus drained. Drip pumps, drip
(preferably with orifice control) maybe used
in lieu of traps, if they are safely installed,
protected and operated under regular
supervision. All drain lines shall have drip
valves for free blow to the atmosphere.
c. Drip lines from steam headers, mains,
separators, and other equipment operating
at different pressures shall not be connected
to discharge through the same trap. Where
several traps discharge into one header
which is or maybe under pressure, a stop
valve and a check valve shall be placed in
the discharge line from each trap.
d. Trap discharge piping shall have the same
thickness as the inlet piping unless it is
vented to atmosphere or operated under low
pressure and has no stop valves. The trap
discharge piping shall have at least the
pressure rating of the maximum discharge
pressure to which it maybe subjected
against freezing where necessary. Drainage
from steam traps, if open to atmosphere,
shall be safeguarded to prevent accidents
from hot discharge.
6.15 Hydrostatic Tests
a. Before Erection. All valves, fittings, etc.,
shall be capable of withstanding a
hydrostatic shell test made before erection
equal to twice the primary steam service
pressure, except that steel fittings and
valves shall be capable of withstanding the
test pressure as given in the American
Standard for Steel Pipe Flanges and
Flanged Fittings for the specific material,
pressure standard and facing involved (ring
joint facing for welding ends.) Pipe shall be
capable of meeting the hydrostatic test
requirements contained in the respective
specifications in Table 11.6.2, under which it
is purchased.
224
- PIPING
If a hydrostatic mill test pressure for pipe is
not stated in any of the specifications
enumerated in Table 11.6.2, the pipe shall
be capable of meeting a minimum internal
hydrostatic test pressure determined from
the formula.
P 2St
D
Where:
P = test pressure in kPa
t nominal pipe wall thickness in
mm.
D pipe outside diameter in mm,
and
S allowable stress in material in
Kilopascal and which shall be
taken as not less than 50
percent of the specified yield
pint of the material except that
hydrostatic tests shall not
exceed 17 238 kPa for sizes
80 mm and below, or 19 306
kPa for size over 80 mm nor
shall the stress produced
exceed 80 percent of the
specified yield point.
b. After Erection. All piping systems shall be
capable of withstanding a hydrostatic test
pressure of one and one-half times the
design pressure, except that the test
pressure shall in no case exceed the
adusted pressure-tern perature rating for
38 C as given in the American Standard for
Steel Pipe Flanges and Flange Fittings for
the material and pressure standard involved.
For systems joined wholly with welded joints
the adjusted pressure rating shall be that for
ring joint facing for systems joined wholly or
partly with flanged joints the adjusted
pressure rating shall be that for ring joint
facing. for systems joined wholly or partly
with flanged joints the adjusted pressure
rating shall be that for the type of facing
used.
6.16 Expansion and Flexibility
a. Piping systems are subject to a diversity of
loadings creating stresses of different types
and patterns, of which only the following
 CHAPTER 11
more significant ones need generally be
considered in piping stress analysis:
1. Pressure, internal or external 6.17 General
2. Weight of pipe, fittings and valves,
containing fluid and insulation, and
other external loadings such as
wind.
3. Thermal expansion of the line.
The first two loadings produce
sustained stresses which are
evaluated by conventional methods.
The stresses due to thermal
expansion on the other hand, if of
sufficient initial magnitude will be
relaxed as a result of local flow in
the form of yielding or in the form of
creep. The stress reduction which
has taken place will appear as a
stress or reversed sign in the cold
condition.
b. Materials. The thermal expansion range
shall be determined from the Table
11.6.16.2 as the difference between the unit
expansion shown for the maximum normal-
operating metal temperature and that for the
minimum normal-operating metal
temperature (for hot lines this may usually
be taken as the erection temperature). For
materials not included in this table,
reference shall be made to authority source
data, such as publication of the National
Bureau of Standards. The cold and hot
moduli of elasticity, Ec and Eh, and the
moduli of torsional rigidity, Gc and Gh,
respectively, may be taken as the values
shown for the minimum and maximum
normal operating metal temperatures in
Table 11.6.16.2a for ferrous and Table
11.6.1 6.2b for non-ferrous materials.
c. For flexibility calculations, Poisson’s ratio
may be taken as 0.3 at all temperatures for
all ferrous materials.
d. The S values, Sc and Sh at the minimum
and maximum operating metal
temperatures, respectively, to be used for
determining the allowable expansion stress
range SA shall be taken for the type of
piping system involved from the applicable
tables in the respective sections of the code.
In the case of welded pipe, the long itudinal
225
- PIPING
joint efficiency maybe disregarded in
calculating expansion stresses.
a. Piping systems shall be designed to have
sufficient flexibility to prevent thermal
expansion from causing:
1. Failure from over-stress of the
piping material or anchors
2. Leakage at joints
3. Detrimental distortion of connected
equipment resulting from excessive
thrusts and moments.
b. Flexibility shall be provided by
changes of direction in the piping
through the use of bends, loops,
and off-sets; or provision shall be
made to absorb thermal strains by
expansion joints of the slip joints or
bellows type. If desirable, flexibility
may be provided by increasing or
corrugating portions or all of the
pipe. In this case, anchors or ties of
sufficient strength and rigidity shall
be installed to provide for end forces
due to fluid pressure and other
causes.
c. Basic Assumptions and Requirements
1. Formal calculations or model tests
shall be required when reasonable
doubt exists as to the adequate
flexibility of a system. Each
problem shall be analyzed by a
method appropriate to the
conditions.
No hard and fast rule can be given
as to when as analysis should be
made. However, in the absence of
better information the need for a
formal stress analysis for a two-
anchor system of uniform pipe size
is indicated when the following
approximate criterion is not
satisfied:
DY 0.03
(L-U)
2 —
 Table 11.6.1 6.2
Thermal Expansion Data

A = Mean Coefficient of Thermal Expansion x lOb (In/In/F] in Going from 70 F to Indicated Temperature
B = Linear Thermal Expansion (In./lOOFt)
. .
.
Temperature Range_— 70 F to
Material Coefficient 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400
70
Carbon Steel;Carbon-moly steel A 6.38 6.60 6.82 7.02 7.23 7.44 7.65 7.84 7.97 8.12 8.19 8.28 8.36
low-chrome steels (thru 3% Cr) B 0 0.99 1.82 2.70 3.62 4.60 5.63 6.70 7.81 8.89 10.04 11.10 12.22 13.34

A 6.04 6.19 6.34 6.50 6.66 6.80 6.96 7.10 7.22 7.32 7.41 7.49 7.55
Intermediate alloy steels;
B 0 0.94 1.71 2.50 3.35 4.24 5.14 6.10 7.07 8.06 9.05 10.00 11.06 12.05
5 Cr. Mo. thru 9 Cr. Mo.

Austenitic stainless steels A 9.34 9.47 9.59 9.70 9.82 9.92 10.5 10.6 10.2 10.39 10.48 10.54 10.60
B 0 1.46 2.61 3.80 5.01 6.24 7.50 8.80 10.2 11.4 12.84 14.20 15.56 16.92

6.72 6.78 6.85 6.90 C,

Straight chromium stainless steels; A 5.50 5.66 5.81 5.96 6.13 6.26 6.39 6.52 6.63
B 0 0.86 1.56 2.30 3.08 3.90 4.73 5.60 6.49 7.40 8.31 920 10.11 11.01
12 Cr, 17Cr. and 27Cr.

A 7.76 7.92 8.08 8.22 8.38 8.52 8.68 8.81 8.92 9.00 9.08 9.12 9.18 —I
25 Cr. —20 Ni. m
B 0 7.21 2.18 3.20 4.24 5.33 6.44 7.60 8.78 9.95 11.12 12.31 13.46 14.65

8.58 8.78 8.96 9.16 9.34 9.52 9.70 9.88 10.04 -.

a) Monel A 7.84 8.02 8.20 8.40
67 Ni.- 30 Cu B 0 1.22 2.21 3.25 4.33 5.46 6.64 7.85 9.12 10.4 11.77 13.15 14.58 16.02

A 7.48 7.68 7.90 8.09 8.30 8.50 8.70 8.90 9.10 9.30 9.50 9.70 9.89 -U
Monel
-
B 0 1.17 2.12 3.13 4.17 5.28 6.43 7.62 8.86 10.1 11.50 13.00 14.32 15.78 z
66 Ni. 29 Cu.
C,
Al u mm urn A 12.95 13.28 13.60 13.90 14.20
B 0 2.00 3.66 5.39 7.17 9.03

Gray Cast iron A 5.75 5.93 6.10 6.28 6.47 6.65 6.83 7.00 7.19
B 0 0.90 1.64 2.42 3.24 4.11 5.03 5.98 6.97 8.02

A 10.03 10.12 10.23 10.32 10.44 10.52 10.6 10.7 10.8 10.90 11.00
Bronze
B 0 1.56 2.79 4.05 5.33 6.64 7.95 9.30 10.8 12.0 13.47 14.92

A 9.76 10.00 10.23 10.47 10.69 10.92 11.6 11.4 11.6 11.85 12.09
Brass
B 0 1.52 2.76 4.05 5.40 6.80 8.26 9.78 11.3 12.9 14.65 16.39

A 7.32 7.48 7.61 7.73 7.88 8.01 8.13 8.29 8.39

Wrought iron
B 0 1.14 2.06 3.01 3.99 5.01 6.06 7.12 8.26 9.36

Copper-Nickel A 8.54 8.71 8.90

(70—30) B 0 1.33 2.40 3.52
 Table 11.6.16.2a
Moduli of Elasticity and Torsional Rigidty for Ferrous Material

—
E = Modulus of Elasticity Multiply Values by 10°
G = —
Modulus of Torsional Ridigity Mulfiply Values by 106
.

Material Modulus Temperature, Deg. F

70 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400
Carbon steels with carbon content E 27.9 27.7 27.4 27.0 26.4 25.7 24.8 23.4 18.5 15.4 13.0
0.30% or less G 10.8 10.7 10.6 10.4 10.2 9.9 9.6 9.0 7.1 5.9 5.0
Carbon steels with carbon content E 29.9 29.5 29.0 28.3 27.4 26.7 25.4 23.8 21.5 18.8 15.0 11.2
above 0.30% G 11.6 11.4 11.2 10.9 10.7 10.3 9.8 9.2 8.3 7.2 5.7
Carbon-Moly steels low cr-moly E 29.9 29.5 29.0 28.6 28.0 27.4 26.6 25.7 24.5 23.0 20.4 15.6 C)
steels through 3% Cr. G 11.6 11.4 11.2 11.0 10.8 10.6 10.2 9.9 I
9.4 8.8 7.8 5.9
lntermmediatecr-molysteels(5%- E 27.4 27.1 26.8 26.4
-o
26.0 25.4 24.9 24.2 23.5 22.8 21.9 20.8 19.5 18.1 -l
9% Cr), austenitic stainless steel G 10.6 10.4 10.3 10.1 9.9 9.7 9.5 9.2 m
8.9 8.6 8.3 7.8 7.3 6.7
-4
Straight chromium stainless steel E 29.2 28.7 28.3 27.7 27.0 26.0 24.8 23.1 21.1 18.6 15.6 12.2
(12cr, 17cr, 27 cr) G 11.4 11.2 11.0 10.8 10.5 10.1 9.6 9.0 8.2 7.2 6.0 4.7 0
Wrought iron E 29.5 28.6 28.2 27.7 27.0 -U
26.5 25.8 23.0
G 11.8 11.6 11.5 11.4 11.2 10.9 10.6 9.9
z
C,
Graycastiron E 13.4 13.2 12.9 12.6 12.2 11.7 11.0 10.2
G*

*No data available.

Note: Multiply by 6.895 to get values in kPa.

Notes: °C = °F—32
1.82
 Table 11.6.16.2b
Moduli of Elasticity and Torsional Rigidity for Non Ferrous Material

—
E Modulus of Elasticity Multiply Values by 106
—
G = Modulus of Torsional Rigidity Multiply Values by 106

.
Temperature, Deg. F
Material Modulus 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200
70 100 200

E 26.0 26.0 26.0 25.8 25.6 25.4 24.7 23.1 21.0 18.6 16.0 14.3 13.0
Monel67Ni—300u
66 Ni —29 Cu, Al G 9.5 9.5 9.3 9.1 8.9 8.7 8.5 8.2 7.9
C-)
I
Copper—Nickel E 18.9 18.8 18.4 18.0 17.6 17.2 16.7 16.2 15.3
80—20,70—30 G* -I
m
Aluminum E 10.6 10.6 10.4 10.2 9.5 8.5
F..)
G 3.9 3.9 3.8 3.7 3.5 3.1 -
00

Copper E 16.0 15.8 15.6 15.4 15.1 14.7 14.2 13.7

-

99.98% Cu. G 6.03 6.00 5.90 5.65 5.45 5.30

z
13.0 12.7 12.2 11.8 G)
Commercial brass E 14.0 13.9 13.7 13.5
66 cu, 34 m G 5.27 5.25 5.10 4.90 4.72 4.58

Leaded tin bronze E 13.0 12.9 12.7 12.4 12.0 11.7 11.3 10.9
88 cu, 6 an, 1.5 pb, 4.5 zn G 4.89 4.82 4.65 4.52 4.40 4.72

*No data available.

Note: Multiply by 6.895 to get values in KPa.

Notes: °C °F—32
1.82
 CHAPTER 11 - PIPING

Where: 6.18 Stresses and Reactions

D = nominal pipe size, 1mm
a. Using the foregoing assumptions, the
stresses, and reactions due to the
Y = resultant of movements to be
expansion shall be investigated at all
absorbed by pipe line, mm
significant points.
U = anchor distance (length of straight
The expansion stresses shall be combined
line joining anchors), metre.
in accordance with the following formula.
L = developed length of line axis,
SE = S + 45t2
metre.
Where:
1. In calculating the flexibility of a
piping system between anchor
Sb = iMb IZ = resultant bending stress kPa
points, the system shall be treated
as a whole. The significance of all
S = M 12Z = torsional stress
parts of the line and of all restraints
such as solid hangers or guides,
Mb = resultant bending moment, newton-
including intermediate restraints
metre.
introduced for the purpose of
reducing moments and forces on
M = torsional moment, newton-metre
equipment or small branch lines
shall be recognized.
Z = section modulus of pipe (m
)
3
2. Calculations shall take into account
stress intensification factor
stress-intensification factors found
to exist in components other than
b. The maximum computed expansion stress,
plain straight pipe. Credit may be
SE based on 100 per cent of the expansion
taken for the extra flexibility of such
and Ec for the cold condition shall not
components. In the absence of
exceed the allowable stress range, SA:
more directly applicable data, the
flexibility factors shown in Fig.
Where:
11.6.17.3(c) may be used.
= f (1.25 Sc + 0.25 Sh)
3. Dimensional properties of pipe and
fittings as used in flexibility In the above formula.
calculations, shall be based on
nominal dimensions. The pressure
S = allowable stress (S value) in the
stresses for services subject to
hot condition
severe corrosion shall be based on
the reduced thickness of the pipe.
S h = allowable stress (S value) in the
hot condition
4. The total expansion range from the
minimum of the maximum normal-
Sc and h
5 are to be taken from the table
operating temperature shall be used
in the applicable sections of the
in all calculations, whether piping is
code.
cold sprung or not. Not only the
expansion of the line itself, but also
f = stress-range reduction factor for
linear and angular movements of
cyclic conditions. In the absence
the equipment to which it is
of more applicable date, the
attached, shall be considered.
values of f shall be taken from
the following table:
5. Calculations for the expansions
stresses SE shall be based on the
Attach Fig. 11.6.1.7.3(c) and Fig.
modulus of elasticity Ec at room
For graph for k and i.
temperature.

229
 CHAPTER 11 - PIPING

Total No. of Full Temp. Stress Reduction modulus of elasticity at room

Cycles Over Expected life Factor f temperature E.

7 000 and less 1.0 Rh=

14 000 and less 0.9
22 000 and less 0.8
45 000 and less 0.7
100 000 and less 0.6 R = CR, or
205 000 and less 0.5

By expected life is meant total number of Rc (1-sh •

years during which system is expected to be \. Se EhJ

in active operation.
Whichever is greater, and with the
The sum of the longitudinal stresses due to further condition that:
pressure, weight and other sustained
external loadings shall not exceed Sh. Where:

C = cold spring factor varying

Where the sum of these stresses is less
from zero for no cold
than Sh the difference between Sh and this
spring to one for 100 per
sum may be added to the term 0.25 Sh in
cent cold spring
the above formula. The longitudinal
SE = maximum computed
pressure stress Sep shall be determined by
expansion stress
dividing the end force due to internal
pressure:
Ec = modulus of elasticity in the
F= p 2
rid cold condition
4

Eh = modulus of elasticity in hot

By the cross-sectional area of the pipe wall
condition
A=u —d
2
(D
)
4 R = range of reactions
or corresponding to the full
expansion range based on
pd2 EC.
SepL
A D—d
2
Rc and Rh represent the maximum
In which reactions estimated to occur in the
cold and hot conditions,
longitudinal pressure stress, kPa respectively.
Sep =

P = internal pressure, kPa c. The design and spacing of support shall be

checked to assure that the sum of the
d = nominal outside diameter of the pipe longitudinal stress due to the weight,
minus two times the normal wall pressure, and other sustained external
thickness in mm. loading does not exceed Sh.

D = nominal outside diameter of pipe, mm
1. The reactions (forces and moments)
Rh and R in the hot and cold
conditions, respectively, shall be
obtained as follows from the
reactions R derived from the
flexibility calculations based on the
Section 7.0 Industrial Gas and Air Piping
Systems
7.1 This industrial air and gas in mines, power
plants, industrial and gas manufacturing plants.
a. Piping with metal temperature above 232°C
or below —2.9 °C.

230
 CHAPTER 11 - PIPING

Fig. 11.6.1.7.3(c) Flexibility Factor k and Stress Intensification Factor i

Description
. Flexibility Stress Lot. Flexibility
Factor k Factor i
. . .

Characteristic h Sketch

Welding elbow 1, 2,3 1.65 0.9 r

or pipe bend h 213
h

Closely spaced mitre bend 1, 2, 4 1.52 .

s < r (1 + tan a) 2h
13 . . ,
2

Widely spaced mitre bend 1, 2, 4 1.52 0.9

s> r (1 + tan a) h 213
h .‘ .

Weldingteel.2
perASAB16.9 2h
13

Reinforced fabricated tee 1, 2 0.9

with pad or saddle 1
213
h .

P4D

Unreinforced 0.9 r
fabricated tee 1 .2 3
h

Butt welded joint, reducer,

or welding neck flange 1 1.0

Double-welded joint, reducer,

or socket weld flange 1 1.2

Fillet welded joint, or single-

welded socket weld flange .3

Lap joint flange (with

ASA B16.9 lap joint stub) 1 1 .6

Screwed pipe joint

or screwed flange 1 2.3

Corrugated straight pipe, or

corrugated or creased bend 1 2.5
5

231
 CHAPTER 11 - PIPING

b. Air piping systems operating at pressures of Type of Pipe Value of C in Inches

207 kPa or less. (mm)

c. Piping lines with firebrick or other refractory Threaded steel, wrought-iron Depth of thread or
material used for conveying hot gases. 0.05 (1.7mm)
whichever is larger
7.2 Wall thickness of Pipe
Grooved steel, wrought-iron Depth of groove
The minimum thickness of pipe wall required
shall be determined by the following formula for Plain end steel or wrought-iron 0.05 (1.7mm)
the designated pressure and for temperature not
exceeding 232 C. D = outside diameter of pipe in inches (mm)

tm PD 7.3 Effective Yield Strength (K)

2S + 0.8P
The effective yield strength K of steel or
where: P = maximum allowable, wrought-iron pipe maybe determined by taking
operating pressure in kPa. the product of Y, the stipulated minimum yield
The value obtained maybe strength, and E, efficiency of the longitudinal
rounded to the next higher joint. The value of E shall be taken from the
unit of 10. The maximum following:
allowable operating pressure
computed with S values Specification
permitted under this
paragraph, shall not exceed Number Pipe Type Factor
two-thirds of the mill test
pressure for a service ASTM A -53 Seamless 1.00
temperature of 38°C or less Electric Resistance Welded 1.00
and five-ninths of the mill test Furnace Lap Welded 0.80
pressure for a service Furnace Butt Welded 0.60
temperature of 232°C. ASTM A -106 Seamless 1.00
ASTM A -134 Electric Fusion Welded 0.80
S = maximum allowable hoop ASTM A -135 Electric Resistance Welded 1.00
stress in kPa, see Table ASTM A -139 Electric Fusion Welded 0.80
11.7.2 ASTM A -155 Electric Fusion Welded 1.00
API 5L Seamless 1.00
For steel or wrought-iron pipe (except butt Electric Resistance Welded 1.00
Electric Flash Welded 1.00
welded-manufactured under a specification not
Furnace Lap Welded 0.80
listed in Table 11.7.2) the value of S shall be 0.6
Furnace Butt Welded 0.60
K for a service temperature of 38°C or less or
0.52K for a service temperature of 232°C where Seamless 1.00
Electric Resistance Welded 1.00
K is the stipulated minimum effective yield
Electric Flash Welded 1.00
strength calculated in the manner described in
Submerged Arc Welded 1.00
Section 11.7.3.

tm = minimum pipe wall thickness in mm, i.e., Alternatively, the effective yield strength maybe
nominal wall thickness less the determined by internal hydrostatic pressure
manufacturing tolerance for the tests on finished lengths of pipe or on cylindrical
thickness. Where available from on samples cut from the results of such tests in
hand or in stock, the actual measured accordance with the following formula:
wall thickness maybe used to calculate
the maximum allowable operating K =Q
pressure. 2t

C = corrosion in millimetre obtained from the Where: K =effective yield strength in kPa
following:

232
 CHAPTER 11 - PIPING

Py = pressure at the yield strength Electric furnace or

open hearth (Class
of the pipe in kPa. 1) API 5L 9,000 7,800

Bessemer ASTM A-53 10,800 9,350

ASTM A-120 9,000 7,800
This maybe taken as the pressure required to
cause a volumetric offset of 0.2 per cent of as Lap-welded wrought-
iron ASTM A-72 11,500 10,000
the pressure required to cause a permanent
increase in circumference of 0.1 per cent at any Butt-welded wrought-
iron
point, but other suitable methods of determining Red brass pipe ASTM A-72 8,650 7,500
that the stress in the steel has reached the yield API 5L 8,650 7,500
strength maybe used, provided such methods
Copper Pipe
conform in all respects to recognized
engineering practices. t = stipulated nominal Copper Tubing 1 50°F:250°F:350°F:400°F
B -43 (66°C): 121°C: 1 77°C:240°C
pipe wall thickness in mm D = stipulated outside B -42 10,000:10000:7.500:3,750
diameter of pipe in mm. B -68, B -75, 7,500:6,250:5,625:3,750
B -88 7,500:6,250:5,625:3,750
Table 11.7.2 Maximum Allowable Stresses for Pipe
in Gas and Air Piping Systems
Section 8.0 Refrigerator Piping System
Maximum Allowable Stresses
Material Specification in Psig for Temperatures not to 8.1 Refrigeration piping shall be understood to
Exceed 2,4
38°c 232°C
comprise all refrigerant and brine piping,
Seamless Steel: whenever used and whether erected on the
GradeA ASTMA-106 18,000 15,600 premise or factory assembled.
Grade B ASTMA-106 21,000 18,200
Grade A ASTM A-53 18,000 15,600
Grade B ASTM A-53 21,000 18,200 8.2 Minimum Design Pressures for Refrigerant
ASTMA-120 15,000 13,000
Piping
Grade A API 5L 18,000 15,600
Grade B API 5L 21,000 18,200
API 5L X
5
a. Piping Systems for refrigerants shall be
0.6Y°
designed for not less than the pressures
Electric Fusion given in Table 11.8.2.1.
Welded Steel

Grade A ASTM A-155 14,400 12,500 b. For refrigerants not listed in Table 11.8.2.1
Grade B ASTM A-155 16,200 14,050
Grade C ASTM A-155 18,000 15,600
the design pressure for the high-pressure
Ordinary 14,400 side shall be not less than the saturated
Grade A ASTM A-139 16,800 12,500
Grade B ASTM A-139
vapour pressure of the refrigerant at 54 °C.
3
0.48Y 14,550
ASTM A-134 0.42Y° The design pressure for the low-pressure
side shall be not less than the saturated
Double-submerged arc API 5LX° 0.60Y°
welded vapour pressure of the refrigerant at 32 °C.
For refrigerant not listed in Table 11.8.2.1 &
Electric Resistance-
welded steel: having a critical temperature below 54°C,
Grade A ASTM A-135 18,000 15,600 the design pressure for the high pressure
GradeB ASTMA-135 21,000 18,190
Grade A ASTMA-53
side shall be not less than 1.5 times the
18,000 15,600
GradeB ASTMA-53 21,000 18,190 critical pressure and the design pressure for
GradeA API-5L 18,000 15,600 the low-pressure side shall be not less than
Grade B API-5L 21,000 18,190
API 5LX° 0.51Y° the critical pressure. In no case shall be
design pressure be less than 270 kPa.
Lap-Welded Steel:

Open hearth or electric c. Piping systems for brine shall be designed

furnace ASTM A-53 12,000 10,400 for the maximum pressure which can be
Electric furnace or imposed on the system in normal operation,
open hearth CIassl API 5L 12,000 10.400 but not less than 689.5 kPa including for
Bessemer ASTM A-53 14,400 12,500 cast-iron pipe, the water hammer allowance
API 5L 14,400 12,500 as shown in Table 11.8.2.3.
ASTMA-120 12,000 10,400
Butt-welded Steel: d. For working temperatures below 18°C, an
Open hearth or
allowance for brittleness of castings,
electric furnace ASTM A-53 9,000 7,800 forgings, bolting, and pipe shall be made as
follows:

233
 CHAPTER 11 - PIPING

CAST IRON, WROUGHT-IRON, and Plain-end, steel or wrought-

CARBON STEEL ferrous materials shall iron pipe
have the design pressure including 1 in. size and smaller 1.27mm
allowance for water hammer increased 2 Sizes larger than 1 in. 1.651 mm
percent for each degree below 18°C and
shall not be used below 73°C. —
Plain-end non-ferrous pipe
or tube Zero
COPPER, BRASS, BRONZE. No
adjustment.
*
In the case of cast-iron pipe the minimum values
of the water hammer allowance to be added to P
8.3 Thickness of Pipe are given in Table 8.6.2.3

Table 11.8.2.1
The minimum thickness of pipe wall required
Minimum Design pressure (Psi) for Refrigerant Piping
shall be determined by the following formula:
. High Low
PD Chemical Pressure
tm
.

Material Pressure
Formula Side Side
2S + O.8P

Where: Group I
Carbon dioxide 2
CO 1,500 1,000
tm = minimum pipe wall thickness in mm Dichiorodifluoromethana CCI
F
2 170 85
(Freon- 12)
P maximum internal service pressure in
kPa (plus allowance for temperatures Dichioromethane (Carrene
No.1) Methylene chloride) C1
2
CH 30 30
as provide in Sec. 11.8.2.4 and water
hammer allowance for cast-iron pipe
Dichloromonofluoromethane
as provided in Sec. 11.8.2.3). The (Freon—21) CH CI
F
2 50 30
value of P shall not be taken at less
than 689.5 kPa for any condition of Dichlorotetrafluoromethane
service or material. (Freon—114) C1
2
C
4
F 55 30

outside diameter of pipe in mm Monocholorodifluoromethane

D =
CH Cl F
2 285 150
(Freon 22) —

S = allowable stress in material due to Trichloromonoflouromethane

internal pressure, kilo Pascal Table (Freon 11) —
3
CCI 30 30
11.8.3
Trichlorotrilluoro-ethane C1
2
C
3
F 30 30

C = Allowance threading, mechanical

fr
Group 2
strength, and/or corrosion, in mm
obtained from the following list. Ammonia 3
NH 300 150
Dichloruethylene C(
H
2
C 30 30
Value of C in mm Ethyl Chloride CI
5
H
2
C 40 30
Type of Pipe 150 75
Methyl Chloride 1
C
3
CH
Methyl Formate 3
HCOOCH 30 30
Cast-iron pipe cetrifugally cast Sulphur Dioxide 2
SO 115 45
or cast horizontally in green
sand molds 3.556mm Group 3

4.572mm Butane 10
H
4
C 65 30
Cast-iron pipe, pit-cast 1,000 640
Ethane C
6
H
2
Ethylene 4
H
2
C 1,300 1,050
Threaded steel, wrought-iron Isobutane CH
)
3
(CH 90 40
or non-ferrous pipe Propane 8
H
3
C 300 150
3/8 in, and smaller 1.27mm
1/2 in. and larger Depth of thread
Note: Multiply value by 6.895 to obtain P in kPa.
Grooved steel, wrought-iron
Depth of groove mm 8.4 Piping of Pressure Relieving Devices
or non-ferrous pipe
The most important design factor about
pressure relieving devices is the underlying

234
 CHAPTER 11 - PIPING
principle of intrinsic safety. They must “fail safe” a. The inlet and outlet piping can reduce the
or not at all. Therefore, the solution to problems capacity of the device below a safe value.
in pressure relief piping must be based on
sound design practices. Because failure is b. The operation of the device maybe
intolerable, simplicity and directness of design adversely affected to the point where the
should be encouraged as a mass to reliability. opening or closing pressure is altered. In the
case of safety valves*, premature leaking or
There are at least four good reasons why the “simmering” may occur at pressures less
installation of pressure safety valves and disc
than the set pressure or chattering may
should be engineered with care: occur after the valve opens.
Table 11.8.3
Allowable S Values for Pipe and Tubing c. The reaction thrust at the same time the
in Refrigerating Systems device starts to discharge can cause
mechanical failure of the piping.
Material Specification Values of
PSI
d. Good design saves maintenance pesos.
Steel Pipe (Grade A) ASTM A —53 — Pipe
and tubing 8.5
Seamless ASTM A —83— Tube
Safety Valve Inlet Piping
ASTM A —120— Pipe
ASTMA—179—Tube In order to operate satisfactorily, a safety valve
ASTM A —192— Tube
ASTM A —106 Pipe —
must be mounted vertically. It should be directly
API 5L Pipe— 12,000 on the vessel nozzle or on a short connection
Steel Pipe (Grade B) and ASTM A —53— Pipe
Tubing fitting that provides direct and unobstructed flow
Seamless ASTM A 106— Pipe
— between the vessel and the valve. Safety valves
ASTMA—210—Tube 15,000 protecting piping systems should of course be
Steel Pipe, Lap Welded ASTM A —53 Pipe —

ASTM A— 120— Pipe mounted in a similar manner. The device may

API 5L Pipe— 9,000 never be installed on a fitting having a smaller
Steel Pipe, Butt Welded ASTM A —53— Pipe
ASTM 120—Pipe 6,800 inside diameter than the safety valve inlet
Steel Pipe, or Tube, ASTM —135— Pipe connection.
Electric-Resistance Grade A 10,200
Welded Grade B 12,750
ASTMA—178)Tube 10,200 Water Hammer
ASTMA—214—Tube 10,200 Pipe Diameter Sizes
ASTM A —226— Tube 10,200 Allowance, kPa
Steel, or Pipe Seamless
Alloy ASTMA—312—Pipe
Grades TP 321 100mm to 250mm mcI. 827 kPa
TP347 ASTMA-213—Tube 18,750 300mm to 350mm mcI. 758 kPa
Steel Tube-Electric
Resistance-Welded
400mm to 450mm mcI. 689.5 kPa
Alloy, Grades TP 321 ASTM a-249 15,900 500mm 621 kPa
TP 347 600mm
(Note: 085 joint Efficiency) 586 kPa
Steel Tube, cooper Brazed ASTM A 254 —
750mm 552 kPa
Class I 6,000 900mm 517 kPa
Class II 3,000
Wrought Iron, Lap Welded ASTM A —72
lO5Ommtol500mm 483kPa
API 5L 8,000
Wrought Iron, Butt welded ASTM A —72 6.000
Cast-Iron Pipe, PitCast* AS 21.2
8.6 Pressure Drop
4,000
Cast-iron, Centrifugally Cast
or cast horizontally
in Green Sand Molds
The pressure drop between the vessel and
FSB WW P — 421 6,000
safety valve inlet flange should not be so large
—

**Brass Pipe, Seamless

that the valve is “starved” or chattering will
Red Brass ASTM B -43 7,000
**Copper Pipe, Seamless ASTM B -42 6,000
result. The following limitations are suggested:
**Copper Tubing, Seamless ASTM B -88 6,000
ASTM 6 -68 6,000
ASTM B -208T 6,000
a. The pressure drop due to friction should not
exceed 1 percent of the accumulated
*Castiron is allowed only for non-volatile refrigerants.
relieving pressure.
**Brass pipe, copper pipe seamless copper tubing seamless,
temperature limit 250 o (121
C).
0 b. The pressure drop due to velocity head loss
should not exceed 2 percent of the
NOTE: Multiply values by 6.895 to get S in kPa. accumulated relieving pressure.

235
 CHAPTER 11 - PIPING

Some safety valve manufacturers suggested Table 11.8.7

a maximum total pressure drop of 2 percent Standard Pipe Support Spacing (unless otherwise
of set pressure. In the absence of test data, specified)
it is recommended that this more
Pipe Size Hanger Spacing Rod Size Max.
conservative limit be used. . Wt./Span

These recommendations are based on a Up to 1 in. 6 ft. on centers One 1/4 in. 15.0 lbs.
blowdown of a 4 percent. Within this limits, if 1-1/4 in to 2 in. 8 ft. on centers One 3/8 in. 50.0 lbs.
2-1/2 in to 4 in. 10 ft. on centers One 1/2 in. 200.0 lbs.
the blowdown setting is increased, the Two 5/8 in. 400.0 lbs.
5in.to6 in. loft, on centers
pressure drop maybe increased 10 ft. on centers Two 5/8 in. 800.0 lbs.
8 in. to 10 in.
proportionately. Remember however, that 12 in.to 14 in. loft, on centers Two% in. 1,500.0 lbs.
pressure lost in the inlet piping must be 16 in. to 18 in. lOft, on centers Two%in. 2,000.0 lbs
20 in. to 24 in. 10 ft. on centers Two % in. 3,500.0 lbs.
taken into consideration when sizing the
safety valve. Pressure loss in the discharge
piping should be minimized by running the NOTES: A. The maximum weight per span is based
line as directly as possible. Use long-radius on bigger steel pipe size weight full of
bends and avoid close-up fittings. In no case water fittings and insulated.
may the cross-sectioned area of the
discharge pipe be less than that of the valve 1. The copper tubing and fittings (for
instrument air lines) shall be
outlet.
supported not more than 5 feet on
8.7 Piping Supports centers or as shown on the drawings.

Safety valves, although they may not be 2 Vertical risers shall be supported from
included under heading of “delicate the building construction by means of
instruments” , nonetheless instruments. They are approved pipe clamps of U-bolts at
required to measure within three percent and to every floor. Provide slide guides for
perform a specific control function. Excessive pipes subject to thermal expansion.
strain on the valve body adversely affects its Supports shall be of adequate size
ability to measure and control. structural steel shapes or sections
where pipe clamps are too short to
Supports for discharge piping should be connect to the building.
designed to keep the load on the valve to a
minimum. In high temperature service, high B. Pipe Anchors and Restraints:
loads will cause permanent distortion of the
valve because of creep in the metal. Even at low 1. Where piping is subject to thermal
temperature, valve distortion will cause the valve expansion and where expansion
to leak at pressures lower than the set pressure loops, expansion joints and offsets are
and result in faulty operation. The discharge indicated, provide suitably designed
piping should be supported free of the valve and pipe anchors to limit pipe thermal
carefully aligned so that the forces acting on the expansion and over stressing of pipe
valve will be at minimum when the equipment is and adjacent connecting structures.
under normal operating conditions. Expansion
joints or long radius bends of proper design and a. Rigid pipe anchors shall either be
cold spring should be provided to prevent welded type construction or clamp
excessive strain. bolted type whichever is suitable
to the requirement:
The major stresses to which the discharge pipe
is subjected are usually due to thermal b. Directional type pipe anchors
expansion and discharge reaction forces. The where pipe movement is allowed
sudden release of compressible fluid into a in any one plate shall be designed
multi-directional discharge pipe produces an to prevent excessive stresses to
impact load and bourdon effect at each charge the pipe and interference with
of direction. The piping must be adequately adjacent pipes or structure.
anchored to prevent sway or vibration while the
valve is discharging. 2. Piping restraints shall be provided to
prevent unnecessary pipe movements

236
 CHAPTER 11 - PIPING

due to vibration and seismic forces negligible. However, since it is usually

and damage to pipe joints such as possible to trap air or gas in any pressure
cast iron pipe, soldered copper pipes system, it is recommended that K = 104 be
and others as required. used in the above formulas as a basis
design for liquid service.
8.8 Reaction Forces
Here are values of K which can be safely
The total stress imposed on a safety valve or its used for common fluids.
piping is caused by the sum of these forces:
Fluids K Rc
a. Internal pressure
Air and diatomic gases 1.4 0.53
b. Dead weight of piping Steam 1.3 0.55
, CC
3
NH , CH
2 , and SO
4 2 vapors 1.3 0.55
c. Thermal expansion or contraction of either Helium, Argon 1.67 0.49
the discharge line of the equipment upon
which the valve is mounted and 8.9 Compressor Piping

d. The bending moment cause by the reaction Piping in a compressor circuit should connect
thrust of the discharge. directly point to point; bends instead of elbows
give less friction loss and less vibration;
All of these stresses except the latter are angular branch connections eliminate hard
common to practically every problem in tees and give a smoother flow; double offsets
piping stress analysis. for directional change should be avoided;
closely integrated intercoolers with the
The magnitude of the reaction force machine minimizes piping; pulsation
resulting from the instantaneous release of a dampeners should be located on the cylinders
compressible fluid maybe calculated from without any interconnecting pipe; knockout
the two simple formulas given below. drums should be adjacent to the machine;
several aftercoolers or exchangers in the
For safety valve: circuit should be stacked as much as possible
for a direct gas flow; and equipment in the
1
F = (K + 0.2) AP
1 circuit should be in process flow sequence.

For safety disc: Because of the ever present vibration

problems at reciprocating compressors, pipe
1
F = 0.63 (K + 0.2) A P
1 supports have a very important role in piping
design. Supports independent of any other
Where: foundation or structure is almost mandatory.
1
F = Reaction force, Kg Pipe systems “nailed down” close to grade is a
much preferred arrangement. If badly
A = Area of valve orifice or disc., sq. designed compressor piping has to be
mm. corrected after start-up of the plant, it can
become very expensive.
1
P = inlet pressure at time of opening,
kPa (set pressure plus 14.7)

K = ratio of specific heats, CpICv.

Note: Psi x 6.895 = kPa.

If it is possible for air to be relieved from the

system under special conditions, use a
minimum valve of K = 1.4 for design.

Calculation of the reaction force for liquid

service demonstrates that this force is

237
 CHAPTER 12
Chapter 12
METRO LOGY
Section 1.0 Purpose and Scope
To familiarize all practitioners with the concepts and
techniques of measuring instruments. It covers the
application of metrology in all industries, which
concerns with the fundamental standards and
techniques of measurements, and with the scientific
principles of the instrumentation involved.
Section 2.0 Definitions
CorrectnesslAccuracy Degree of conformity of a
—
measured or calculated value to some recognized
standard or specific value. The difference between the
measured and true value is the error of the
measurement. Precision is the repeatability of the
measuring process, or how well identically performed
measurement agree, which concept applies to a set of
measurements.
Tolerance/Allowance — Tolerance is the amount of
variation permitted in the part of total variation allowed
in a given dimension while allowance is the minimum
clearance space intended between the mating parts
and represents the conditions of tightest possible fit.
Standard Something that is set up and established
—
by authority as a rule for the measure of quantity,
weight, extent, value or quality.
SensitivitylReadibility Sensitively and readibility
—
are primarily associated with the measuring process.
Sensitivity is the ability of a measuring device to detect
small differences in a quality being measured, while
readibility is the susceptibility of a measuring device to
having its indication converted to a meaningful
number.
Section 3.0 Measurement Concepts
3.1 The International System of Units (SI).
The Conference Generale des Poids et
Measures (CGPM) which is the body
responsible for all international matters
concerning the metric system, adopted in 1954,
a rationalized and coherent system of units,
based on the four MKSA units (meter-kilogram
238
- METROLOGY
second-ampere). In 1960 the CGPM, formerly
named this system the Systeme International d’
Unites, for which the abbreviation is SI in all
languages.
At the present time most of the industrially
advanced metric-using countries are changing
from their traditional metric system to SI.
The SI, like the traditional metric system, is
based on decimal arithmetic. For each physical
quantity, units of different size are formed by
multiplying or dividing a single base value by
powers of 10.
The SI is a coherent system, because the
product or quotient of any two units’ quantities in
the system is the unit of the resultant quantity.
For example in a coherent system in which the
meter is the unit of length, the square meter is
the unit of area.
A system of measurements, such as the Le
Systeme International d’ Unites (SI) satisfies
certain concepts, where units are used. The SI
system is a decimal system composed of six
base units, two supplemental units and
additionally derived units as given in Table 12.1,
SI System of Measurements in Table 12.2 for
easy reference, Table 12.3 are some conversion
factors commonly used, and Table 12.4 Multiple
and Sub-Multiple Units.
3.2 Mechanics
a. The use of the Metric SI System in
Mechanics Calculations. The SI system is a
development of the traditional metric system
based on decimal arithmetic; fractions are
avoided. For each physical quantity, units of
different size are formed by multiplying or
dividing a single base value by powers of
10. Thus, changes can be made very simple
by adding zeroes or shifting decimal points.
For example, the meter is the basic unit of
length; the kilometre is a multiple (1,000
meters); and the millimetre is a sub-multiple
(one-thousandths of a meter).
 CHAPTER 12- METROLOGY
In the older metric system, the simplicity of a
series of units linked by powers of 10 is an
advantage for plain quantities such as
length, but this simplicity is lost as soon as
more complex units are encountered. For
example, in different branches of science
and engineering, energy may appear as the
erg, the calorie, the kilogram-meter, the liter-
atmosphere, or the horse power-hour. In
contrast, the SI provides only one basic unit
for each physical quantity, and universality is
thus achieved.
There are six base-units, and in mechanics
calculations three are used, which are for
the basic quantities of length, mass, and
time, expressed as the meter (m), the
kilogram (kg), and seconds (s). The other
three base-units are the ampere (A) for
electric current, the Kelvin (K) for thermo
dynamic temperature, and the candela (Cd)
for luminous intensity.
The SI is a coherent system. A system of
units is said to be coherent if the product or
quotient of any two unit quantities in the
system is the unit of the resultant quantity.
For example, in a coherent system in which
the foot is a unit of length, the square foot is
the unit of area, whereas the acre is not.
Other physical quantities are derived from
the base-units. For example, the unit of
velocity is the meter per second (mis), which
is a combination of the base units of length
and time. The unit of acceleration is the
meter per second squared (mis ).By
2 is being used as a unit of mass, and
applying Newton’s second law motion —
force is proportional to mass multiplied by
acceleration — the unit of force is obtained
which is the kg 2 is This unit is known as
m
. leads to confusion in others.
the Newton, or N. Work, or force times
distance, is the kg 2 is which is the joule,
m
, As mentioned earlier, Newton’s
(1 joule = 1 newton-meter) and energy is
also expressed in these terms. The
abbreviation for joule is J. Power, or work
per unit time, is the kg 2 is which is the
m
, unsupported body on the earth’s
watt (1 watt = 1 joule per second = I
newton-meter per second). The abbreviation
for watt is W.
The coherence of SI units has two important
advantages. The first is that of uniqueness
and therefore universality, has been
explained. The second is that it greatly
simplifies technical calculations. Equations
representing physical principles can be
239
applied without introducing such numbers as
550 in power calculations, which, in the
English system of measurement have to be
used to convert units. Thus, conversion
factors largely disappear from calculations
carried out in SI units, with a great saving in
time and labor.
1. Mass, weight, force, load. SI is an
absolute system, and consequently
it is necessary to make a clear
distinction between mass and
weight. The mass of a body is
measure of its inertia, whereas the
weight of a body is the force exerted
on it by gravity. In a fixed
gravitational field, weight is directly
proportional to mass, and the
distinction between the two can be
easily overlooked. However, if a
body is moved to a different
gravitational field, for example, that
of the moon, its weight alters, but its
mass remain unchanged. Since the
gravitational field on earth varies
from place to place by only a small
amount, and weight is proportional
to mass, it is practical to use the
weight of unit mass as a unit of
force, and this procedure is adopted
in both the English and older metric
systems of measurement. In
common usage, they are given the
same name, and we say that a
mass of 1 pound has a weight of 1
pound. In the former case the pound
in the latter case, as a unit of force.
This procedure is convenient in
some branches of engineering, but
second law of motion states that
force is proportional to mass times
acceleration. Because an
surface falls with acceleration g (32
2 approximately), the pound
ft/s
(force) is that force which will impart
an acceleration of g Ws2 to a pound
(mass). Similarly, the kilogram
(force) is that force which will impart
an acceleration of g (9.8 meters per
2 approximately), to a mass
second
of one kilogram. In the SI, the
newton is that force which will
 CHAPTER 12 - METROLOGY

) to a
impart unit acceleration (lm/s
2 meters is RL Nm, or RL joules.
mass of one kilogram. It is therefore If this work were converted
smaller than the kilogram (force) in entirely into kinetic energy we
the ration 1 :g (about 1:9.8). This fact 2 and it is
could write RL = 1/2 MV
has important consequences in instructive to consider the units.
engineering calculations. The Remembering that the N is the
factory now disappears from a wide same as the kg m/s , we have
2
range of formulas in statics where it (kg )
2
m/s x m = kg 2 which
(m/s)
was formerly absent. It is however is obviously correct. It will noted
not quite the same g, for reasons that g does not appear
which will now be explained. anywhere in these statements.

The mass of a body is referred to as In contrast, in many branches of

M, but it is immediately replaced in engineering where the weight of
subsequent formulas by W/g, where a body is important, rather than
its mass, using SI units g does
V

V
W is the weight in pounds (force),
which leads to familiar expressions appear where formerly it was
absent. Thus, if a rope hangs
V
: V such as WV /2g for kinetic energy.
2
vertically supporting a mass of
V
V In this treatment, the M which
V

appears briefly is really expressed in M kilograms the tension in the

V

V
terms of the slug, a unit normally rope is MgN. Here g is the
V
used only in aeronautical acceleration due to gravity, and
V
engineering. In everyday engineer’s . The ordinary
its units are rn/s
2
language, weight and mass are numerical value of 9.81 will be
V

V
regarded as synonymous and sufficiently accurate for most
expressions such as WV /2g are
2 purposes on earth. The
V

used without pondering the expression is still valid

V

distinction. Nevertheless , on elsewhere, for example, on the

moon, provided the proper value
V

reflection it seems odd that g should

V

of g is used. The maximum

V

appear in a formula which has

nothing to do with gravity at all. In
fact the g used here is not the true,
local value of the acceleration due
to gravity, but an arbitrary value
which has been chosen as part of
the definition is not to indicate the
strength of the local gravitational
field, but to convert from one unit to
another.
In the SI the unit of mass is the
kilogram, and the unit of force (and
therefore weight) is the newton.
(a) The following are typical
statements in dynamics
expressed in SI units:
A force of R newtons acting on
a mass of M kilograms produces
an acceleration of R/M meters
. The kinetic energy
per second
2
of a mass of M kg moving with
velocity V m/s is 1/2 Mi/kg
2 joules. The
(rn/s)2 or 1/ MV
work done by a force or R
newtons moving a distance L
tension the rope can safely
withstand (and other similar
properties) will also be specified
in terms of the newton, so that
direct comparison may be made
with the tension predicted.
Words like load and weight have
to be used with greater care. In
everyday language we might
say “a lift carries a load of five
people of average weight 70
kg”, but in precise technical
language we say that if the
average mass is 70 kg, then the
average weight is 70 gN, and
the total load (that is force) on
the lift is 350 gN.
If the lift starts to rise with
acceleration a m/s, the load
2
becomes 350 (g + a) N’ both g
and a have units of m/s, the
2
mass is in kg, so the load is in
, which is the
terms of kg m/s
2
same as the newton.

240
 CHAPTER 12- METROLOGY

2. Pressure and Stress. These

quantities are expressed in terms of a. Level
force per unit area. In the SI the unit b. Combination Set
is based on the newton per square c. Surface Gage
meter, (N/rn
). Similarly data used in
2 d. Profilometer
strength-of-materials calculations e. Optical Flat
(Young’s modulus of elasticity, yield
strength and so on) are all 4.5 All-Purpose Special Measurement
expressed in terms of the newton. It
has been recommended by the a. Pneumatic
International Standards b. Hydraulic
Organization that the special be the c. Electric/Electronics
pascal (Pa). This recommendation d. Lasers
is subject to approval by the CGPM. e. Others

The basic unit N/rn

2 is very small, it Secttion 5.0 Graduated Manual Measuring
is only 0.15 x 10 lb/in
, hence the
2
2 ( 106 N/rn
kN/m
Tools
) are much more
2
frequently encountered. The latter is
sometimes written as N/mm . In
2
5.1 Rules the most generally used graduated
some countries the bar = i0 5 N/rn
2
—

and hectobar = measuring instrument in the industrial metrology

2 are
N/rn
field for approximately determining linear
employed. The safest rule is to
dimensions, which are made with various
convert to the basic unit before
dimensions, graduations, and accuracies. Rules
starting any calculations.
shall be manufactured or carbon steel or
stainless steel.
4.0 Classification of the Common
Measuring Instruments Used in Industry a. Shrink Rules commonly employed in the
—

pattern-making trade where the casting of

4.1 Linear Measurement metals are involved, which automatically
take into consideration the shrink
a. Direct Reading allowances of the materials being cast.

1. Rule b. Hook Rule frequently used to assure the

—

2. Combination set user that the end of the workpiece is flush

3. Depth Gage with the end of the rule.
4. Vernier caliper
5. Micrometer c. Tapered rules — used in measuring inside
6. Measuring machine of small holes, narrow slots, and grooves.

(a) Mechanical 5.2 Calipers.

(b) Optical
a. Slide Calipers consist of a stationary
—

4.2 Instruments for transferring measurements integral with graduated beam on which the
movable jaws slides, with a reference point
a. Calipers and Dividers for inside and outside reading.
b. Telescopic Gages
b. Vernier Calipers a measuring instrument
—

4.3 Angular Measurements which can be used for taking both inside and

a. Protractors c. Dial Caliper— directly reading callipers

b. Sine Bar which are accurate up to the thousandth of a
c. Combination Set centimeter.
d. Angle Gage Blocks
e. Dividing Head 5.3 Vernier Height Gages vertically-positioned
—

vernier calipers used in tool rooms, inspections

4.4 Plane Surface Measurement departments, or wherever layout and jig and

241
 CHAPTER 12 - METROLOGY

fixtures work necessitate accurately measuring
or marking off vertical distances.
a. Vernier Depth Gages provide long range
—
accuracy for determining the depths of
holes, slots, and recesses as well as
measuring from a plane surface to
toolmaker’s buttons in locating center
distances.
b. Gear Tooth Vernier Calipers used to
—
check the pitch line thickness of gear teeth
by measuring the tooth chord at a specific
distance (chordal addendum) from the top of
blade shape which are used for checking the
root diameter of circular form tools as well
as the diameter of circular form tools as well
as the diameter and depth of narrow slots,
keyways, recesses, etc.
d. Quick-adjusting micrometers — allow the
spindle to be slid quickly to any point within
their range which makes them particularly
efficient thousandths-reading micrometers
for checking work where a variety of
dimensions are involved.
e. Screw thread micrometers are designed
—

the gear tooth. The Gage consists of two to measure the pitch diameter of screw
independently actuated Vernier calipers, threads to thousandths accuracy by the use
each having its own movable slide, but the of a pointed spindle and double V-anvil
beams and the stationary jaw are made of a which are available for varying diameters of
common single piece. One of the slides has work and each size normally covers a range
the form of a plate, called the tongue of the of the threads-per-centimeter.
instrument, which contacts the top of the
gear tooth, by moving this slide, the Gage f. Inside micrometer — used for measuring
can be adjusted to operate at the desired the diameters of holes and other inside
addendum distance. The second slide, dimensions, consists of a permanent contact
integral with the movable jaw, carries out the micrometer head and a set of
actual chordal thickness measurement at interchangeable rods in various increments
the pitch line. which are seated snugly in the opposite end
of the head against a shoulder and locked
5.4 Micrometer Calipers most useful close
—
securely.
tolerance measuring devices for quick and
accurate measurements to the thousandth part 5.5 Protractor consists of a rectangular head
of a centimeter. graduated in degrees along a semicircle, with a
blade pivoted on the center pin, any angle from
a. Outside Micrometer precision-measuring
—
0 to 180° can be set.
instruments used in determining outside
measurements, and classified into (a) a. Combination protractor and depth gage
Interchangeable anvil micrometers, (b) is a combination of a movable graduated
Multiple anvil micrometers (c) High precision blade (depth gage) and a graduated
micrometers, (d) Dial indicating protractor head.
micrometers, (e) Direct reading
micrometers, (f) V-anvil micrometers, (g) b. Universal bevel protractor consists of a
Disc-type micrometers, (h) Blade type round body with a fixed blade, on which a
micrometers, (i) Quick-adjusting graduated turret rotates. The turret is slotted
micrometers, and (j) Screw thread to accommodate an 18 or 30-centimeter
micrometers. non-graduated blade. Through a locking
mechanism any desired angle and the blade
b. Direct-reading micrometers — are read length can be seen. This tool has a vernier
directly in thousandths from figures reading to 5 minutes and can be furnished
appearing in small windows on the barrel of with or without a fine adjustment feature.
the micrometer, “tenths” (of thousandths) The dial of the protractor is graduated
direct reading micrometers, however, around a complete circle and an angle up to
employ a vernier for establishing the “tenths” 360°can be laid out accurately.
figures.
5.6 Dial Indicator a dial indicator is composed of
—

c. Blade-type micrometers —are an a graduated dial, spindle, pointers and a

adaptation of standard micrometers in which satisfactory means of supporting or clamping it
the anvil and spindle ends are thinned to a firmly, which is used to measuring inaccuracies

242
 CHAPTER 12- METROLOGY
in alignment eccentricity, and deviations on
surfaces supposed to be parallel. In gaging
work, it gives a direct reading of tolerance
variations from the exact size. Dial indicators are
classified as American Gage Design standard
indicators and dial test indicators.
a. Dial Test Indicators commonly known as
—
the toolmaker’s indicators which are smaller
than the smallest A.G.D. standard indicator
and because of its small size and its thin
tapered body, it can be employed in many
places not accessible with other indicators
and also used as an accessory with many
machine tools.
5.7 Planimeter — the planimeter (planekator) is a
tool for checking the flatness of plane surfaces
to tenths-of-thousandths of a centimeter and
consists of a diabase straight edge, an
adjustable mounting for the straight edge, and a
0.00005 cm. reading indicator. The straight edge
is always in the same reference plane at every
position on the surface being checked. Readings
are taken under the straight edge and recorded
directly into the contour chart of the plane being
checked. Points of equal height are connected
to form a visual picture of the high and low
points in the plane. Extreme care shall be taken
in handling this gage to retain its accuracy and
not to damage the surface being checked.
Section 6.0 Non-Graduated Manual
Measuring Tools
6.1 Calipers Calipers follow a progression which
—
originates with standard inside and outside
calipers and are non-graduated tools for
measuring the distance between two points of
contact on the work piece. This distance then
must be transferred to an actual dimension by
use of a graduated direct measuring instrument.
a. Standard Calipers consist of two movable
—
metal legs attached together by a spring
joint at one end and with formed contacts at
the other, and so designed as to take inside
readings (contacts facing in), or readings
from one point to another and these are
called inside calipers, outside calipers, and
dividers, respectively. Accuracy obtained
with these tools depends largely on the
inherent skill of the user. Care in removing
the caliper from the work piece without
disturbing the setting shall be observed.
Finally, the measurement shall be carefully
243
transferred to a graduated measuring tool to
determine measurement required.
6.2 Bevels — consists of two three-non-graduated
slotted blades with one or two screws and
knurled nuts connecting them, by loosening the
nuts, the blades can be set to varying angles.
With this tool, one can easily transfer angles
from a master to a work piece or vice versa with
moderate accuracy.
6.3 Trammels used in sizes beyond the range of
—
dividers, consist of a long bar on which two arms
or trammels slide. Trammels are designed for
layout work and use inside, outside or divider
legs and some are furnished with ball points, to
permit working from holes. Some are also
furnished with an adjustable screw on one of the
trams, for fine adjustment of the point for easy
setting.
6.4 Gages —a gage is a device used to determine
whether the part has been made to the tolerance
required and does not usually indicate a specific
dimension.
a. Telescoping gages cover a range from 4
mm to 150 mm. Two types are commonly
used in industry. One type has a handle with
one stationary contact and one spring
plunger contact with locking device set at
right angles to the handles while the other
one has a handle with two plunger-contacts
at right angles to the handle.
b. Surface gages consist of a ground
rectangular steel base with a round upright
rod and a fine adjustment feature in the
base. A universal sleeve holds a scriber
which can be set to any position and locked
in that position. The surface gage is used in
layout work for scribing lines on vertical and
horizontal surfaces and may also be used in
inspection work as height or depth gage.
6.5 Straight edges — are flat length of tools or
stainless steel, ground to extremely fine
tolerance, particularly along the edges. They are
used for scribing accurate, straight lines and to
check surfaces for straightness.
Section 7.0 Special-Purpose Measuring
Tools
Among the many measuring tools designed for
specialized applications are:
 CHAPTER 12- METROLOGY
7.1 Tap and Drill Gages consist of a flat rectangle
— directed into the part to be tested to determine
of steel with holes accurately drilled and
identified according to their size. These cover
letter size, number size, fractional size and
National Fine and Coarse Thread Series.
7.2 Wire Gages — are round steel plates with slots
of ascending width along their edge. Each hole
is numbered according to its size in terms of
various standard gages. In the tap and drill
Gage and wire Gage, the drill, tap, or wire is
placed through the hole or in the slot and the
smallest hole or slot which will accommodate the
piece denotes the size of the measured item.
7.3 Screw Pitch Gages consist of a metal case
—
containing many separate leaves. Each leaf has
teeth corresponding to a definite pitch. By
matching the teeth with the thread on work, the
correct pitch can be read directly from the leaf.
7.4 Radius Gages are individual leaves or a set of
—
leaves in a case and are designed to check both
convex and concave radii.
7.5 ThicknesslFeeler Gage consists of a number
—
of thin blades/leaves of different thickness and
used in checking clearances, backlash in gears
and for gaging in narrow points or places.
Section 8.0 Non-Destructive Inspection
81 Hardness Measurement. In determining the
hardness of mild steel and non-ferrous alloys, a
penetration hardness tester is utilized and
mostly semi-portable.
8.2 Magnetic Particle Inspections. In this type of
inspection, cracks, voids, and material
discontinuities can be detected through the
setting up to intense magnetic field in the parts
to be inspected. This method is used to indicate
surface imperfections in any material that can be
magnetized.
8.3 Radiographic Inspection. This is
accomplished by exposing a part to either X
rays, gamma rays, or radioisotopes and viewing
the image created by the radiation on a
fluoroscope or film.
8.4 Fluorescent Penetrants. These are used to
find surface defects in almost any material.
8.5 Ultrasonic Testing. In ultrasonic testing a high
frequency vibration or supra-audible signal is
244
the metal thickness precisely.
8.6 Eddy Current Testing. This method is useful
for flaw detection, sorting by metallurgical
properties such as hardness and thickness
measurement. The changes of magnitude and
phase difference can be used to sort parts
according to alloy, temper, and other
metallurgical properties.
Section 9.0 Pressure and Vacuum
Measurements
In industrial applications pressure is normally
measured by means of indicating gages or recorders
and are classified as mechanical, electro-mechanical,
electrical or electronic types. Mechanical instruments
maybe further classified as:
9.1 Pressure measurement by balancing an
unknown pressure against a known force is the
and oldest method that will
simplest
automatically balance the static pressure being
measured against a resisting force whose
magnitude can be read directly from the
instrument or can be easily computed.
a. Liquid-Column Gages The liquid-column
—
pressure gage used mostly in industry is
some type or either U-type or well-type of
manometer. The U-type is made of glass or
some other type of transparent tubing with
an inner bore of 6 mm or larger diameter
and a wall thickness adequate to withstand
the pressure for which the manometer was
in designed. The well-type is similar to the
U-type, however, one leg of the U-type is
replaced by a well. The inclined manometer
or draft gage is a well manometer whose
vertical leg is placed in an almost horizontal
position so that a very slight difference of
change in the pressure of the gas or air in
the well causes a very large change in the
measured level of the liquid in the inclined
tube. The barometer, a special type of well
manometer is an upright measuring tube
which is vacuum and sealed on the upright
end and the open end in inserted in a well
filled with liquid mercury.
/
b. Limp-Diaphragm Gages — are used for
measuring low pressure in boiler houses
and on other implications where low
pressures must be accurately measured.
They are also designed for measuring draft
pressure of combustion gases.
 CHAPTER 12- METROLOGY
c. Bell-type Gages —designed for measuring
low pressure. This type of Gage utilizes the
large area of a liquid- sealed bell chamber to
provide the force necessary to actuate an
indicating or recording mechanism and can
be made sensitive to the smallest change of
pressure likely to be significant in an
industrial application, and yet be rugged
enough to endure considerable
mistreatment.
d. Piston Gajes suitable for pressure up to
—
350 kg/cm and higher but limited largely to
hydraulic applications where oil is the fluid
under pressure. The Bailey power-operated
dead-weight piston Gage is designed for use
as a master pressure Gage in powerhouse
service where a power-operated, sensitive
Gage with a highly suppressed scale is
desirable.
9.2 Pressure measurement by deformation of an
elastic membrane is the most universally used
for measuring high and medium-pressure
because of its simplicity, compactness and
maintenance-free property. It is also widely used
in the field of low-pressure measurement where
a large actuating force is not needed.
a. Bourdon tube gage is the most widely used
industrial pressure Gage applied to both
pressure and vacuum, either separately or in
a compound Gage. It is usually used
whenever the maximum of the required
range exceeds 1.7 kg/cm 2 for measuring
combined pressure and vacuums, for
continuous pressure measurements
exceeding 5.6 kg/cm
2 and up to 3500 kg/cm 2 to approximately 270° of arc. This
or more direct pressure measurements, and
especially where sudden pressure
fluctuations occur which could cause below
or normal diaphragm to rupture. Bourdon
tubes may be made of any type of materials
that has the proper elastic characteristics
suitable for the pressure range and the
corrosive resistance of the media to be
measured in the application. When bourdon
tube gages are used with corrosive chemical
liquids of liquids that solidity at normal room
temperature diaphragm shall be placed in
the line and the gage line filled with water or
oil and sealed. The sealed system then
senses the diaphragm movement and
indicate the pressure. When these gages
are used to measure steam pressure, a loop
shall be placed in the gage line so that the
liquid condensate is trapped and used to
245
transmit the live steam pressure to the gage,
thus preventing gage error and damage
caused by the elevated temperature of live
steam. !n applications involving rapid
fluctuations or pulsations in pressure, gage
snubbers shall be used to throttle the
pulsations without seriously obstructing the
passage to the gage. Care shall be taken so
that the throttling orifice is not too small
because, if the liquid or gas contains dirt or
foreign materials, the orifice may clog and
block the line to the gage. Pressure gages
shall not be mounted on equipment
subjected to excessive vibration. External
vibrations cause excessive wear and
inaccuracies in gage indications. Wherever
possible, use only gages least effected by
vibration. All pressure gages installed on
steam boilers shall have a dial range of less
than one and one-half (1 %) times and not
more than twice the maximum allowable
working pressure and the face of the Gage
shall not be less than 75 mm.
b. Helical Type of Pressure Gage variations
—
of the simple Bourdon type of pressure gage
wherein the element or tube is wound in the
form of a spiral having four or five turns. This
increases the travel of the tip considerably
and forms a compact unit easily constructed
and installed in a pressure gage.
c. Spiral type of element in bourdon type of
Pressure Gage — the elements is of
Bourdon type of tube wherein it is wound in
the form of a spiral having several turns
rather than restricting the length of the tube
arrangement in no way alters the theory of
the Bourdon tube but simply has the effect
of producing a tip movement equivalent to
the summation of the individual movements
that would result from each segment of the
spiral considered as a Bourdon tube.
Although this construction is more difficult
and expensive to build, it has such an
advantage for recording pressure gages that
it is almost universally used for all low-and
medium-pressure records. The helical type
and the spiral type of elements are widely
used for recording thermometers.
d. Metallic-diaphragm Pressure Gage —
consists of a metal diaphragm built into
diaphragm housing with one side of the
diaphragm exposed to the pressure to be
measured and the other under atmospheric
 CHAPTER 12- METROLOGY
pressure. The pressure transmitted to the
Gage dial by means of a linkage connected
to the center of the diaphragm.
e. Sector Gear Arrangement - has a large
sector gear mounted at right angles to a link
connecting the sector gear arm and the
bourdon tube tip movement. A small pinion
gear, to which the pointer is attached, is
then matched to the sector gear. The sector
gear and the pinion gear are commonly
made of bronze and may be machined,
broached, or stamped, depending on the
quality and accuracy required of the gage.
f. Cam and Roller Arrangement employs a
— being measured. In this circuit the zero drifts
cam sector and a Helicoid roller to which a
pointer is attached. The Helicoid stainless
steel roller is long wearing and used
especially in services on engines, turbines,
blower, hydraulic presses, pumps, and
compressors where violent pressure
pulsations or severe mechanical vibrations
occur.
9.3 Electromechanical pressure instruments usually
employ a mechanical means for detecting the
pressure, and an electrical means for indicating
or recording the detected pressure. They are
combinations of mechanical bellows, metallic
diaphragms, or bourdon tubes with electrical
sensing, indicating, recording, or transmitting
devices employing pressure transducers,
inductive transducers, and oscillating
transducers.
9.4 Electronic pressure measuring instruments
normally depend on some physical change that
can be detected and indicated or recorded
electronically.
9.5 Vacuum Gages-Mechanical, Electrical and
Electronic. The pressure gages used primarily
for measuring pressure below atmospheric
pressure, which is most often referred to as
vacuum, are McLeod gages, Pirani gages,
Knudsen gages, thermocouple gages, Phillips
gages, and ionization gages. The different types,
except for the Knudsen Gage.
a. McLeod Gage. The McLeod Gage is a
mercury Gage for the measurement of
absolute pressure. It is one of the most
basic type and has a measurement range
from 2 pm to mmHg. There are three types
of McLeod gages. The swivel McLeod gage
has an accuracy of 3% of reading or mm of
246
scale reading. The standard tilt high
precision McLeod gage has been modified
to simplify its operations, use less mercury,
be more rugged and compact, and still retain
its precision. The newer modified gage is
known as the adjustable closed and
improved McLeod gage.
b. Pirani Gage. The Pirani Gage is a hot wire
vacuum gage. This gage employs a
wheatsone bridge circuit to balance the
resistance of a tungsten filament or resistor
sealed off in a high vacuum against that or a
tungsten filament which can lose heat by
conduction to the gas whose pressure is
caused by slight deviations of the bridge
voltage are compensated for the resistor
sealed in the high vacuum. A change in the
filament temperature. This causes a change
in the filament resistance and unbalances
the bridge. The bridge unbalance is then
read across R 3 as the dry air pressure, by
means of a micrometer, calibrated in
pressure units. The useful range for the
Pirani gage is from 1mm to 100 mmHg. The
Pirani gage has the advantage of being
compact, simple to operate, and can be
opened to the atmosphere without burnout
failure. The main disadvantage is that the
calibration depends on the type of gas in
which the pressure is being measured.
These gages are useful for pressure
measurements involving acetylene, air,
argon, carbon dioxide, helium,, hydrogen,
and water vapour for the general pressure
range of 1 to 200pm (1mm = 1 x 10 meter
which is equal to 1 x mm) and is most
useful and accurate in the 20 to 200 pm
range.
c. Knudsen Type Vacuum Gage. The
Knudsen Gage operates on the principle of
heated gases rebounding from a heated
surface and bombarding a cooled movable
surface (vane) spaced less than a mean free
path length from the heated surface. The
gas particles rebound from the cool vane
with less energy than from the heated vane
which tends to rotate the cool vane away
from the heated vane within the restriction of
a suspension system designed to carry a
galvanometer mirror for producing a reading
on a fixed scale. The particular advantage of
the Knudsen Gage operating principle is that
the Gage response is relatively independent
of the composition of the gas whose
 CHAPTER 12- METROLOGY
pressure is being measured. In spite of this
very desirable feature, the Gage is not
widely used because the torsion system is
rather delicate and sudden inrushes of air
cannot be tolerated. New developments are
being investigated that may make the Gage
more acceptable for industrial applications
d. Phillips Vacuum Gage Phillips gages are
— Corporation) uses a radium source
cold cathode ionization gages which provide
direct measurement for pressure values
both above and below 1pm. These gages
cover the 0.05 to i0 mmHg pressure
range. The schematic shows the basic Gage
circuit. The pressure measurement is a
function of the current produced by a high
voltage discharge. The electrons drawn from
the cold cathode are caused to spiral as
they move across a magnetic field to the
anode. This spiral motion greatly increases
the possibility of collisions with the gas
molecules between the cathode and anode,
and produces a higher sensitivity by creating
a higher ionization current. The output is
read out on a micrometer calibrated directly
in pressure units. The range is divided into
four separate outputs with direct reading for
each portion of the total range. The
advantages of this Gage are the wide range
that it can cover, absence of filaments to
burn out, rugged metal construction, and
ease of cleaning and maintenance. The
disadvantages are that cold cathode tubes
are slower to outgas than hot filament tubes,
they are adversely affected by mercury, and
there is a higher breakdown of organic
vapors at higher voltages. These factors
limit the use of these gages, to applications
in which oil diffusion pumps are used.
The ionization tube is primary detector and
is constructed of glass. It contains an anode,
a grid, and a filament are attracted to the
grid, pass through the grid, and form ions by
collision with the molecules present between
the grid and the anode. The positive ions are
collected on the anode, and the electrons
are collected on the grid. The positive ion
current created is proportional to the amount
of gas present, if the electron current is kept
constant rate by means of a grid current
regulator. The advantage of this type of
Gage is that very low pressures can be
detected and measured in vacuum furnace
and mass spectrometer applications. The
ionization Gage can be used in the 1 micron
to 2 x 10:11 mmHg pressure range with
247
relatively good accuracy. The disadvantages
of these gages is that the filament can burn
out quickly if it is heated before the pressure
is at low enough vacuum, and to have an
automatic cut out to protect the ionization
tube in case of a system leak or break.
The Alphatron Gage (National Research
sealed in a vacuum chamber where it is
in equilibrium with its immediate decay
products. This provides a constant
source of alpha particles for ionizing the
gas particles present in the vacuum
chamber. The alpha particles collide
with the gas molecules in the same
manner as the electrons in the hot
filament tube just discussed. The
advantages of this Gage are the same
as those of the hot Gage, but it
overcomes the burnout problem, the
fragility, and the emission instability.
Some of the disadvantages are that at
very low pressure a preamplifier is
required to give an undistorted output
and the current produced are in order of
10h1 to 1013 and are directly
proportional to the numbers of ions
collected on the grid in a given time.
With proper circuitry the response of the
gas, within its range, and the indicator or
recorder can be made linear with
respect to the pressure, regardless of
the nature of the gas under
measurement.
All electrical and electronic vacuum
gages now employ the latest solid state
circuitry to maintain the constant
àurrents and voltages. This type of
circuitry had added to both the stability
and accuracy of measurements.
e. Vacuum Gage Calibration. The majority of
industrial vacuum application do not require
the ultimate in vacuum calibration
techniques. To calibrate the most industrial
vacuum gages and equipment, a
comparison gage that covers the calibration
points from the one im to i0’ mmHg range
is sufficient. A precision McLeod gage can
be used as the standard. The calibration
points plotted for the vacuum gage is being
calibrated as the manifold system is
evacuated. Care must be exercised to
ensure that a sufficient low pressure is
reached with hot filament vacuum gages to
 CHAPTER 12- METROLOGY

prevent filament burn out. Care must also be a. Thermocouple pyrometers in which the
taken to guarantee that filament gages are voltage, generated at the junction of two
properly outgassed during the calibration dissimilar metal wire indicates the degree of
procedure. temperature, the voltage at the junction
increasing proportionally with the
Where calibration are needed for very high temperature.
vacuum technique measuring gages, a
calibrated precision ionization gage should 1. Specifications in the selection of
be used as the standard. This type of Gage thermocouple materials:
has a range down to pressure of 1013 torr.
This type of calibration equipment is (a) Thermocouple wires shall be
expensive and finds applications in the chosen in such a way that they
industrial laboratory rather than in process produce a large electromotive
or manufacturing systems. There are some force that varies linearly with
exceptions such as mass spectrometer temperature,
application for isotopes, and used in special
electron welding chambers. (b) they shall be corrosion — and
oxidation-resistant in the
Section 10.0 Thermometry and Pyrometry atmosphere and temperature
range where they shall be used,
10.1 Indicating and Recording Thermometer —

(c) they shall be resistant to change

pressure-actuated instrument that uses the in characteristics that shall
energy available in the form of increased affect their calibration,
pressure or volume a substance to indicate and
record the change in temperature that liberated (d) they shall be free from parasitic
this energy. currents,
10.2 Proper location of an indicating and recording (e) required readings shall be
thermometer —

reproducible within the accuracy

limits,
a. The thermometer bulb shall be located in
such a way as to permit the recorder to be (f) they shall be physically strong
removed for repair. enough to withstand high
temperature, rapid temperature
b. The recorder shall have enough tubing to changes.
permit the bulb to reach a convenient
location for the test bath. Temperature limitations in the
2.
selection of thermocouple materials
c. The thermometer tubing shall be properly
fastened and out of the way of damage from (a) Copper-Constantan -

operators, mechanics, and pipe fitters who commonly used in the 185 to
may have occasion to work near the 300°C temperature range and
installation. superior for measurement of
relatively low temperatures,
d. The angle of the tube at the neck of the bulb especially subzero temperatures
shall be protected. and stand up well against
corrosion and are reproducible
e. The tubing shall never be in contact with hot to a high degree of precision.
steam pipes or stacks which would increase (b) Iron-Constantan — used in
the chance of ambient-temperature errors. reducing atmosphere where
there is a lack of free oxygen
f. The location of bimetallic recording
and useful in the -18 to 760°C
thermometers shall be carefully checked for
the rate of oxidation increases
dirt and dust in the air. rapidly, and so heavier wire
shall be used for 540°C
10.3 Types of Temperature-measuring protection
applications, and
Instruments:

248
 CHAPTER 12- METROLOGY

wells shall be used to cover the (e) Where is danger of a couple

thermocouple. Unprotected iron fusing from the high
constantan thermocouples shall temperature, it shall be partially
only be used up to 35°C in immersed on order to keep it
reducing atmosphere. cool.

(c) Chromel-Alumel — shall be (f) If the thermocouple is mounted

used extensively in oxidizing horizontally and the temperature
atmospheres where there is an is above the softening point of
excess of free oxygen and shall the tube, a support shall be
be used to measure provided to prevent sagging.
temperature up to 1320°C, but
are most satisfactory at (g) The couple shall be installed in
temperatures up to 1150°C for a pocket to prevent damage
constant service. Reducing from material in the furnace.
atmospheres have a tendency
to change the thermoelectric (h) If a porcelain protecting tube is
characteristics of these used, care shall be taken to
materials and reduce their bring the furnace up to
accuracy. temperature slowly in order to
prevent cracking the tube. A
(d) Platinum-Plantinum-Rhodium porcelain tube shall never be
— normally designated noble inserted in a hot furnace.
metal thermocouples, shall be
used for higher temperatures 4. Important considerations in
range (700 to 1500°C) and are wiring a thermocouple:
adversely affected by
atmospheres containing (a) Conduct shall be used and
reducing gases and shall be thermocouple head shall be
protected by an impervious tube connected directly with a flexible
when used at temperatures cable to protect the binding-post
above 540°C when such gases connections between the
are present. thermocouple and the lead
lines.
3. Proper installation of
Thermocouples (b) All wires that must be spliced
shall be soldered.
(a) The thermocouple shall not be
located in the direct path of a (c) No less than 3.31 mm2 copper
flame. wire shall be used with the
millivoitmeter pyrometer in order
(b) It shall be located where the to reduce the resistance of the
average temperature is circuit to a minimum.
measured. For a large furnace,
it shall be desirable to install (d) Wires shall never run parallel to
several couples in different parts or cross within 30 centimeter
of the furnace.
(c) It shall be located where the hot any a.c. line of 110 volts or more.
end can be seen from a door of
the furnace. (e) Surge Lightning arresters shall be
used where there is danger from the
(d) The couple shall be immersed in source.
the furnace or vessel far enough
so that the junction is entirely in (f) Rotary switches used for connecting
the temperature to be the thermocouples to the indicating
measured. instrument shall be very rugged to

249
 CHAPTER 12- METROLOGY
withstand the temperature to be
measured.
b. Resistance thermometers in which the
resistance of a calibrated wire changes with
the temperature, the resistance change
being proportional to the increase in
tern perature.
1. Resistance Thermometers and
Thermistors — A resistance
thermometer is basically an instrument
for measuring electrical resistance,
which has been calibrated to read in
degrees of temperature instead of units
of resistance. Industrial resistance
thermometers have been historically
been made of platinum, copper, or
nickel but, with advances made in the
semiconductor materials have been
found suitable for the thermistor is one
type. Thermistors which are thermally
sensitive resistors are electronic
semiconductors whose electrical
resistance varies with temperature and
are useful industrially for the automatic
detection, measurement, and control of
physical energy.
2. Characteristics of Resistance
Thermometers/Thermistors
(a) Frames where coils of wire are
wound shall be insulated by
materials capable of withstanding
the temperatures for which the
thermometer is designed.
(b) To obtain the highest sensitivity of
measurement the material shall
have the greatest resistance change
per degree for a given value of
resistance, but it shall have good
stability over a long period of time
and over a wide range of
temperatures without changing its
electrical characteristics.
(c) Metals to be used shall have a
higher degree of linearity over the
resistance-temperature range for
which the thermometer is designed.
(d) Resistance thermometers shall be
used within the 40 to 50000
—
temperature range.
250
(e) Thermistors shall be used within the
80 to 400°C temperature range
-
c Liquid-filled glass thermometers in which
there is an expansion or contraction of a
liquid corresponding to the changes in
temperature, the expansion of the liquid
being proportional to the increase in
temperature, the liquids commonly used of
which are mercury, alcohol, or pentane.
1. Requirements for Liquid-filled
Thermometer Liquids
(a) The vapor pressure shall be
negligible over the temperature
range for which it is to be used.
(b) The coefficient of cubical
expansion shall be high.
(c) The liquid shall be chemically
inactive with respect to the metal
in the thermometer system.
(d) The liquid shall have a low
specific gravity, a low specific
heat, and a high coefficient of heat
conductivity.
(e) The iquid shall be incompressible.
Industrial liqud-fiIied tnermometers are used for
measuring the temperature of molten metal in
monotype casting machines, flue gas, ovens,
kilns, air in air ducts, dough testing, cruller
frying, hard candy, cream cooking. chocolate
melting, and mixing, refrigerators and cooling
units, hot and cold water, steam, cooking
vessels, brewing vats, lubricating oils, air
compressors, and diesel engines, and for other
applications in which the temperature sensitive
bulbs can kept completely and constantly
submerged in the medium at the point of
maximum circulation.
2. Requirements to obtain the best
accuracy with industrial liquid
filled thermometers.
(a) The thermometer shall be
installed properly so that the
temperature sensitive bulb can
reach temperature equilibrium
with the surrounding medium.
 CHAPTER 12- METROLOGY
(b) The temperature sensitive bulb
shall also be properly immersed in
the medium to be measured to
eliminate the immersion error.
(c) The thermometer shall be
installed at the point of maximum
flow to provide the most rapid heat
transfer from the medium under
measurement to the bulb.
d Bourdon tube thermometers which operate by
the expansion of a fluid (liquid or gas) as
follows —
1. expansion of liquid that completely fills the
enclosed tubing and bulb of the
instrument,
2. expansions of the liquid in the bulb of
the instrument,
3. expansion of a gas that completely fills the
tubing and bulb of the instrument.
a. Classification of Bourdon Tube
Thermometers —
Bourdon Tube Thermometers are
classified according to the kind of
fluid with which they are filled. Class
I are those of the liquid-filled kind,
the liquid filling completely the bulb,
capillary tube, and the spring that
actuates the indicating mechanism
of the thermometer and liquid
expansion is the actuating medium.
Class 2 are only partly filled with
liquid, most of which is in the bulb
and the vapor of the liquid fills the
capillary tube and the spring of the
indicating device and vapor
pressure is the actuating medium.
Class 3 is filled completely with gas.
The liquid-filled kind and the gas-
filled kind depend for their operation
on the expansion of liquid and gas,
respectively. The vapor-pressure
kind is operated by the pressure
inside the spring of the indicating
mechanism; this pressure depends
entirely on the temperature of the
free surface of the liquid in the bulb.
e. Radiation pyrometers in which there is a
small body capable of absorbing radiation of
all wave lengths, the radiation absorbed
being proportional to the temperature.
251
1. When temperature must be measured
and physical contact with the medium to
be measured is impossible or
impractical, thermal radiation or optical
pyrometry methods and equipment are
used. Industrial applications requiring
thermal radiation pyrometers for
measurement and control may employ
infrated techniques, so called total
radiation methods, or the two-color
method.
2. Radiation pyrometers are used
industrially where temperatures are
above the practical operating range of
thermocouples, where thermocouples
life is short because of corrosive
atmospheres, where the object whose
temperature is to be measured is
moving. Inside vacuum or pressure
furnaces, where temperature of a large
surface when it is impractical to attach
primary temperature sensors.
f. Optical Pyrometers by which the
temperature is determined by matching the
luminosity of the hot body of which the
temperature is to be determined with the
luminosity of a calibrated source of light.
1. Instrument that measures the
temperature of a heated body not by
means of a color-temperature relation
but by means of a color-temperature
relation but by means of the light
intensity relation for a particular portion
of the visible spectrum. This is the
device officially recognized internally for
measuring temperature above 570°C.
2. Advantages of an optical pyrometer
(a) No direct contact with the object
whose temperature is to be
measured is required other than it
be in view.
(b) The instrument can be used to
measure temperature as high as
2760°C (mostly used within the
1650 to 2760°C temperature range).
(c) The temperature measurements are
practically independent of the
distance of the operator from the
heated body.
 CHAPTER 12- METROLOGY
(d) The measurements can be made
with great rapidity, and temperature
gradients easily determine along
any visible part of a heated object.
g. Pyrometer cones by which the temperature is
determined by the bending over of a graded set of
ceramic cones, each having a definite heat
resisting value.
h. Bimetallic thermometers depend on the differential
expansion of two solids, the differential expansion
being proportional to the increase in temperature.
1. Constructed of two thin strips of dissimilar
metal which are bonded together for their
entire length. In industrial thermometers, these
bonded strips are often into a helical coil,
wherein one end of the coil is welded to the
thermometer stem, and the other end to the
pointer staff. Bimetallic thermometers are not
recommended for use at temperatures above
425CC on continuous duty or above 54OC in
intermitted duty. Materials most used in
bimetallic thermometers are in bar, which is an
alloy of nickel and iron, as the low expansion
metal, and brass or nickel-chrome alloy as the
high expansion metal. Temperature wells can
be used with bimetallic thermometers as
protective devices against wear and corrosion.
These thermometers maybe used in refineries,
oil burners, tire vulcanizers, hot solder tanks,
coffee urns, hot water heaters, tempering
tanks, electric dipping tanks, diesel exhaust,
and impregnating tanks. Calibration of these
thermometers can be made by a comparison
method using heat sinks, water baths, or
calibrating furnaces where adequate
immersion space is available.
Electronic thermometers the latest breakthrough
—
in the measurements of temperature with very
high accuracies, fast speed of response and
above average linearity.
Section 110 Flow Metering
11.1 Classification on flow meters
A. Inferential type
The inferential type of meters obtains a
measurement of the flow of a fluid or gas not
by measuring the volume or weight of the
medium but by measuring some other
phenomenon that is a function of the
quantity of fluid passing through the pipe.
252
The phenomenon usually measured is either
pressure differential or velocity in the pipe.
1. The differential-pressure meters-
a. Venturi-tube type
b. Flow-nozzle type
b. Orifice-plate type
c. Pitot-tube type
2. Area meterslRotameters
A rotameter consists of a tapered glass
tube set vertically in the fluid or gaseous
piping system with its large and a top
and a metering float which is free to
move vertically in the tapered glass
tube. The floe through a rotameter is
based ona variable orifice with a
constant-pressure differential, the
indication of flow being obtained from
the measurements of the orifice
obtained by noting the position of the
float on the tapered tube.
3. Anemometers-
Anemometers are instruments for
measuring the flow of gas or air consists
of a set rotating vanes placed at an
angle of about 45 degrees to the axis
flow and free to rotate about an axis set
in jewelled bearings. The rotating shaft
in turn operates a counting mechanism
which registers the number of revolution
of the vanes. The velocity of the air flow
is obtained by timing the rotaion of the
vanes for a certain definite period and
noting the number of revolutions mde
during this time. In determining the
quantities of air flow, it is necessary to
determine not only the velocity but also
the readings of pressure, temperature,
and pipe area. The deflecting-vane type
of anemometers indicates air velocity
directky on a dial without timing and far
sensitive to low-velocity flows.
Electrical meters-
4.
1. Electrical Air Conductance
Meters. By utilizing the ability of
gas to conduct heat from a wire or
grid heated electrically it is possible
to obtain a quantitive measurement
of a gas flowing through a pipeline
or air duct. Since the ability of a gas
 CHAPTER 12- METROLOGY

to conduct heat will vary with the type, which means that a piston or
velocity, this fact can be used to plungers delivers a fixed volume on
determine the rate and quantity of each stroke used to deliver controlled
flow through the pipe. Two methods volumes at a very high pressure.
are use to determine flow by
conductance —the hot wire a. Nutating-Disc Pump - positive
anemometers which consists of a displacement flowmeter wherin the
small resistance wire inserted in the piston is the only moving part on the
steam of gas whose velocity is to be measuring chamber. The action of
measured, and the Thomas meter the piston resembles the action of
which consists of wire grid inserted the top when it has passed its peak
in the pipe line or duct and supplied speed and starts to wobble or nutate
with a current of sufficient just before it loses speed and goes
magnitude to heat the air passirig out of control. The motion of the
through the pipe. disc piston is controlled by the shaft

Table 12.5
Classification of Temperature Measuring Instrument
—

Type of Thermometer Temperature Accuracy Speed of Response Pressure Range

Liquid-in-glass -62 to 510 Medium to high Medium 1.75 kg/cm

Liquid-in-metal - 39 to 652 Medium Slow Vacuum to 350 kg/cm

Vapor actuated - 40 to 325 Medium Medium Atmospheric

Gas actuated - 87 to 540 Medium to high Fast Atmospheric

Bi-metal -40 to 540 Low to medium Medium to slow 7 kg/cm

RTD - 73 to 540 High Medium to fast Vacuum to 25 kg/cm

Thermestor 118 to 400 Medium to high Fast Vacuum to 25 kg/cm

Electronic 18 to 175 High Fast Vacuum to 25 kg/cm

2. Electromagnetic Flowmeter
Electrical primary detectors of the
rate of flow. In this type of
flowmeter, an electromotive force is
induced in the fluid by its motion
through a magnetic field provided by
the electiomagnet. The dc
magnetic field acts vertically through
the pipe that carries the fluid. The
electromagnetic flowmeter is
valuable in measuring the flow of
liquid metals, corrosive fluids,
slurries and other conductive fluids
and it is not affected by viscosity,
density, or turbulence.
B. Volumetric and Current types - compartment of the measuring chamber
1. Piston-Type Volumetric Flow Meter
used to inject an exact amount of fluid
into flow line or a collecting vessel. The
piston pump is generally a reciprocating
—
as it moves around the tapered can, this
can keeps the lower face of the piston in
contact with the bottom of the
measuring chamber on one side of the
pump; and keeps the upper face of the
piston in contact with the top of the
measur”i chamber on the opposite.
The pist3n is positioned so that the
lower side of the disc is in contact with
the bottom of the measuring chamber
on the left hand side, while the upper
side of the disc is in contact with the top
of the measuring chamber on the right
and side. This method of pumping
produces a smooth and continuous flow
with no pulsation of separate
is successively filled and emptied. The
— measuring chamber is sealed off into
separate holds with a definite volume.
Nutating piston meters are designed for
the rate of flow of the liquid to be

253
 CHAPTER 12
measured and for nominal line
pressures. Selection of a meter shall be
based on the flow rate, line pressure,
and allowable pressure drop for the
intended application.
b. Rotary Sliding-Vane Flowmeter — simultaneously with the rotation of the
volumetric meter constructed similarly to
the standard vane type of vacuum
pump, wherein the design requires that
the meter body be in the shape of a
closed drum with shaft carrying a
smaller cylinder arranged to rotate
inside the meter body. This shaft is
mounted eccentrically with respect to
the center of the meter chamber, and
the cylinder is slotted to permit the one
or more vanes to project from the
cylinder to the wall of the meter body.
The rotation of the vanes carries the
liquid across the meter and forces it out
on the opposite side because of the
reduction in volume caused by the
eccentric position of the drum with
respect to the meter body. A counter on
the rotating shaft gives a direct
indication of the total flow of liquid
through the meter. This type of meter
works successfully on the liquid that is
not abrasive or dirty. Dirty liquids are
very destructive because of the
comparatively high rotative speeds and
the large areas subject to wear.
c. Oscillating-Piston Flowmeter—consists
of the hollow piston arranged to oscillate
about the center abutment which is
encircled by a confining ring housed in a
drum-shaped meter body. Capacity of
this type of flowmeter ranges fro 8gpm
to 7,000gpm, and the error due to
density or viscosity variation is small.
As the rotating parts are close fit, the
liquid measured must be clean and free
from abrasive materials.
d. Rotating-Bucket Flowmeter — a
positive-dislpacement of a volumetric
meter consisting of a meter with a drum
type of body having the outlet and inlets
ports side by side with a dividing baffle
between them. A center cylinder is
suspended concentrically inside the
meter body with a close clearance on
the sid3es of the meter chamber and the
diameter approximatelya quarter smaller
than the diameter of the meter body.
254
- METROLOGY
The flow of the liquid around the cylinder
is restricted by four small semi-circular
buckets built into flutes in the cylinder
surFace and free to rotate about center
pivots fastened to the meter body, so
that they rotate about their own pivots
cylinder upon which they are mounted.
The outer edge of the buckets makes a
close fit with the meter body and seals
the meter at all times from any liquid by
pass. As a result of the rotation of the
cylinder and buckets, the liquid trapped
in the buckets or between the buckets
and is therefore metered volumetrically,
and the number of revolutions of the
rotating cylinder is directly proportional
to the flow.
e. Screw Type of Flowmeter consist of
—
three meshed screws or rotors mounted
vertically and rotating in a measuring
chamber. The center, or power, screw
is approximately twice as large in
diameter as the two idler rotors and has
a large thread of special shape
designed to seal the meter completely
by meshing with the idler rotors and
provide maximum meter capacity. The
metering chamber is shaped to seal the
outer edge of the three screws against
any possible by pass of the liquid. The
screws are located in a straight line, and
hence the chamber cross section is that
of a large circle with diametrically
opposite smaller segmented section cut
in the large chamber to seal the two
other idler screws. The head pressure
of the meter forces the liquid in at the
bottom of the screws where it caused
the latter to rotate and in so doing is
carried up through the measuring
chamber and out at the top of the meter.
The meter counter or register is driven
off by the large power rotor through a
gear train which is oil enclosed to
prevent contact with the liquid in the
meter. This type of flowmeter is used in
liquid with low viscosity; otherwise the
pressure drop across the meter may be
excessive.
f. Spiral-Vane Flowmeter — consists of
metering chamber in which a rotor is
mounted with a hallow shaft which
admits the liquid into a meter. The rotor
is similar in design to that of a
 CHAPTER 12
centrifugal air blower with curved blades
mounted between disc attached to the
rotating shaft. As the liquid flows into
the buckets formed by the spiral blades
of the rotor, a rotating action takes place
something like that which occurs in a
simple water wheel. If the flow is not
great enough to fill the meter and in this
way flood the spiral vanes, then the
rotation of the rotor is a direct indication
of the quantity of fluid flowing, and a
counter, or register, on the rotor shaft
will give the total flow.
g. Bellows-Type Gas Flowmeter —
designed primarily and exclusively for
gas-receiving bellows having metal
slides and tanned sheepskin flexible
connections between the metal slides.
These two bellows are mounted
vertically in a tin or steel case and
connected through pipes to two slide
valves mounted on a vertical plate
above the bellows and inside the steel
case. The gas flows from the inlet pipe
alternately into one or the other of the
two bellows. It is in then exhausted into
the outer chamber and then passes out
of the meter through an outlet pipe
connected to the gas chamber. A ft/mm as gas flowmeters. Standard and
counter or register of a typical gas-meter
type is also driven from the crank or
gear mechanism. Adjustments are
usually provided for the stroke of the
bellows and for the timing of the valves
to aid in calibrating the meter.
h. Water-Sealed Rotary Gas Meter —
consists of a drum-shaped meter body
slightly more than half full of water. A
rotor with spirally shaped vanes very
similar to those used in the center of the
rotor shaft and below the level of the
water which is maintained somewhat
above the shaft. It then discharges
through a short vertical pipe just above
the water level, after which it is trapped
in the chamber formed by the spiral
vane which has both ends submerged
under the water; the pressure of the gas
causes the rotor to revolve. When one
vane emerges from the water and
releases the pressure, the next vane
form a closed chamber and continues to
cause the rotor to revolve. If the water
level is exactly correct, there will be no
by-pass, and the rotation of the rotor will
255
- METROLOGY
give a true indication of the volume of
gas discharged.
Roots Type of Volumetric Gas Meter
— consist of a set of two rotors having a
cross —sectional area (at right angles to
the rotating shaft) in the approximately
shape of a figure eight. The rotors are
so mounted in the right meter body so
as to mesh at right angles to each other
by means of two gears mounted outside
the meter body on extensions of the
rotor shafts. The gas is admitted at the
top of the meter, and the head pressure
causes the rotors to revolve. In so
doing they trap a certain of gas between
the rotors and the meter body. The gas
is prevented from by-passing the meter
between the rotors by the close mesh of
the rotors, which almost but not quite
touch at all times. As a result, this
meter is a true volumetric meter, and the
revolutions of either shaft are a direct
indication of the flow.
j. Turbine-Type Current Flowmeters —
used for measuring flows ranging from
0.003 to 15000 gal/mm as standard
liquid flowmeters, and 20 to 9000 cu.
pipeline meters flows are dependent on
the viscosity of the liquid being
measured, and gas meters on the
density of the gas being measured.
Operationally, the turbine rotor is held
between two sets of concentric cylinders
which serve to guide the flow and to
position the rotors in the pipe mounting.
As the turbine rotors resolves, each
vane generates a pulse and represent a
unit volume for flow totalization. These
meters generate a digital electrical
output which is detected by a flowmeter
or tachometer pick-up coil. The total
number of rotor revolution or output
pulses is related to the total output or
volume of flow. The frequency of the
pulses generated is directly proportional
to the flow rate of the material being
monitored or measured. The pulses
generated in the pickup coil are of sine
wave form and can be transmitted
electrically over a great distances to a
variety of readout devices for
computing, indicating, recording,
controlling, and automation.
 CHAPTER 12- METROLOGY
C. Installation of Volumetric Flow Meters.
All volumetric flowmeters that are subjected to
high head pressures should be protected by
means of a by-pass check valve which will
relieve the pressure in case the meter should
become jammed owing to foreign materials.
Otherwise, excessive pressure may be built up
and serious damage is done. It is also
desirable to install the meter in a by-pass
circuit which will permit its removal for
servicing without shutting down the process.
Where a relief valve is installed to by-pass the
meter, it is essential to check it periodically to
see that it does not stick, since, if this should
happen, the meter would develop a serious
error. Where the liquid metered is hot and
likely to solidify in the meter and pipe line if
allowed to stand, it is necessary to blow the
meter with steam after each run. In this case
care must be exercised to blow the line clear
by means of a by-pass and then to clear the
meter with only a short period of blowing. If
too much pressure is used in blowing out the
meter, it is likely to race in and cause damage
to the moving parts. This is due to the excess
speed that may be developed and to the fact
that the steam may purge the meter of all
lubrication and cause galling of the parts in
sliding contact with each other. The piping
manifold should also have a draw-off
connection to permit calibration of the meter in
service. Calibration may be done
volumetrically by observing the time required
to fill a container by using a scale to check the
delivery by weight.
Section 12.0 Measurement of Weight
Weight is a primary method of measuring force and
volumetric devices are calibrated initially by weighing.
Scales have been constructed to weigh a million
kilograms or more, while the chemical balance, at the
opposite extreme will easily weigh a millionth of a
kilogram.
12.1 The common Platform Scale used in the
laboratory consists of a compound leverage
system. A series of standard weights hung on
one end of the leverage system serves to
balance an unknown weight at the other end of
the system. Knife-edge fulcrums are ordinarily
used, although torsion bands or flexure plate are
introduced in large scales to eliminate friction.
12.2 Pendulum Scales give automatic indication on
over a wide range and are extensively used
256
when speed is important. This type of scale is
also a weight balance, but the weights are
mounted on bent levers, and the movement of
these pendulum levers are magnified and
transmitted to pointers that swing in a full circle.
The effective lengths of the two arms of the
pendulum lever are constantly changing; hence
to secure uniformly divided scale dials, a cam
must be interposed between pendulum and
pointer. Some form of damping mechanism
such as a fluid dashpot is used with pendulum
scales because of their high sensitiveness.
12.3 Electrical Scales are combinations of
mechanical elements and electrical measuring
devices. Weighing can also be accomplished by
supporting the load on hydraulic pistons,
diaphragms, or bellows units and measuring the
resulting hydraulic pressure with any convenient
pressure gage.
Section 13.0 The Three Common Methods
of Rational Speed Measurements
a common type of
13.1 Counter and Timer —
revolution counter wherein the rubber of steel tip
is applied directly to the shaft center and friction
is relied upon to drive the spindle. Since the
counter is a direct reading revolution counter,
the starting and stopping errors are the chief
inaccuracies in speed measurements. The
speed indicators averages the speed over a
short period of time and indicates directly the
speed in rpm. A single button winds and starts
the watch, connects the drive shaft to the
counting after a definite period of time. With the
chronometric tachometer, the operator presses
a button to start the timing mechanism, but the
disengagement and speed indication are
automatic, and the duration of the reading is
only one (1) second. The 1-second reading are
automatically repeated by the instruments as
long as the counting and timing mechanism are
engaged.
13.2 Tachometer gives a direct and continuous
indications of speed and is therefore the most
convenient for observing speed variation or
fluctuations and for general observations in
which a high degree of accuracy is unnecessary.
It is made to record and applied to such
machines as turbogenerators, conveyors, paper
machines and gas engines for purposes of
control and record of performance. The electric
tachometers are made in wide variety and have
the advantage of distant location, consistent
accuracy and ease of adaptations to recording
 CHAPTER 12
and integrating. The actuating mechanism of
the common tachometer is (1) a centrifugal
device similar in construction to a centrifugal
flyball governor: (2) an electric generator or
magneto: (3) a centrifugal fan, or (4) a vibrating
red.
13.3 Stroboscope utilizes the phenomenon of
persistence of vision when an object is viewed
intermittently. This is used for speed
measurement with indicating dials calibrated
throughout the range 700 to 14 000 rpm and
especially valuable where it is inconvenient to
make a connection or contact with the rotating
shaft or for light powered machinery where the
load to drive speed measuring instruments affect
the operation of the machine.
Section 14.0 Environmental and Pollution
Measurements
14.1 Humeter — instrument to measure the relative
humidity of the atmospheric air which is
important as comfort factor and is measurable of
how many airborne particulates are held in
suspension where we can take them into our
lungs as we breathe.
14.2 Hygrometer/ Psychrometer
—instrument to
measure also the relative humidity of the
environment, which utilizes the physical or
electrical change of certain material s as they
absorbed moisture. It registers the temperature
difference between two primary elements, on e
of which is kept wet so that water is continuously
being evaporated from its surface. Hygrometers
that depend on physical changes employ human
hair, animal membrane, or other materials that
lengthen when it absorb water. Electrical
hygrometers use transducers that convert
humidity variations into electrical resistance
changes. The hygrometer, humeter, or allied
instruments are used in industries where
humidity control is necessary, especially in
textile mills, paper, cigarettes manufacturing.
a. Provisions of Hygrometer.
In all
departments of cotton spinning and weaving
mills wherein artificial humidification is
adopted, hygrometer shall be provided and
maintained in such positions as are
approved by the Engineer. The number of
hygrometer shall be regulated according to
the following scale:
1. Weaving Department
— One hygrometer
for department with less than 500
257
- METROLOGY
looms, and one additional hygrometer
for every 500 or part of 500 looms, in
excess of 500.
2. Other departments — One hygrometer
for each room of less than 8 500 cubic
meters capacity and one extra
hygrometer for each 5 600 cubic meters
or part thereof, in excess of this.
3. One additional hygrometer shall be
provided and maintained outside each
cotton spinning and weaving factory
wherein artificial humidification is
adopted, and in a position approved by
the inspection, for taking hygrometer
shade readings.
b. Temperature to be recorded at each
Hygrometer. At each hygrometer
maintained, correct wet and dry bulb
temperature shall e recorded daily during
working hours, except intervals for rest, by
competent persons nominated by the
Manager. The temperatures shall be taken
between 7 am/p.m. and 9 am/p.m.,
between 11 a.m./p.m. and 2 p.m.Ia.m., and
between 4 p.m/am. and 5:30 p.m./a.m. if
the factory is working during these hours. In
exceptional circumstances such additional
readings and between such hours shall be
taken. The temperatures shall be entered in
a Humidity Register maintained in the
factory. At the end of each month, the
person who have taken the readings, shall
sign the Register and certify the correctness
of the entries. The Register shall always be
available for inspection.
c. Specification of Hygrometer
1. Each hygrometer shall comprise two
mercurial thermometers of wet and dry
bulb of similar construction, and equal in
dimensions, scale and divisionals of
scale. They shall be mounted on a
frame with a suitable reservoir
containing water.
2. The wet bulb shall be closely covered
with a single layer of muslim, kept wet
by means of a wick attached to it and
dropping into the water in the reservoir.
The muslim covering and the wick shall
be suitable for the purpose, clean and
fee from size and grease.
 CHAPTER 12- METROLOGY
3. No part of the wet bulb shall be within
75 mm from the dry bulb or less than 25
mm from the surface of the water in the
reservoir shall be below it, on the side of
it away from the dry bulb.
4. The bulb shall be spherical and of
suitable dimensions and shall be freely
exposed on all sides to the aid of the
room.
5. The bores of the streams shall be really
distinguishable at a distance of 60 cm.
6. Each thermometer shall be graduated
so that accurate readings may be taken
between 10 to 50 degrees.
7. Every degree from 10 degrees up to 50
degrees shall be clearly marked by
horizontal lines on the stem, each fifth
and tenth degree shall be marked by
longer marks than the intermediate
marked opposite each fifth degree, i.e.,
10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, and 50.
8. The markings as above shall be
accurate, that is to say, at no
temperature between 10 to 50 degrees
shall be indicated readings be in error
by more than two-tenth of a degree.
9. A distinctive number shall be indelibly
marked upon the thermometer.
10. The accuracy of each thermometer shall
be certified by the Bureau of Standards,
Ministry of Trade and Industry.
d. Thermometers to be maintained in efficient
order. Each thermometer shall be
maintained at all times during the period of
employment in efficient working order, so as
to give accurate indication and in particular;
1. the wick and the muslim covering of the
wet tube shall be renewed once a week;
2. the reservoir shall be filled with water
which shall be completely renewed once
a day. The Engineer I Manager may
direct the use of distilled water or pure
rain water in any particular mill or mills
in certain localities;
258
3. no water shall be applied directly to the
wick or covering during the period of
employment.
e. An inaccurate thermometer must not be
used without fresh certificate. If an Engineer
gives notice in writing that a thermometer is
not accurate, it shall not, after one month
from the date of such notice, be seemed to
be accurate unless and until it has been re
examined as prescribed and fresh certificate
obtained which certificate shall be kept
attached to the Humidity Register.
f. Hygrometer not to be fixed to wall, etc.,
unless protected by wood-
1. No hygrometer shall be affixed to a wall,
pillar or other surface unless protected
therefrom by wood or other non
conducting material at least 12.7 mm in
thickness and distant at least 25.4 mm
from the bulb of each thermometer.
2. No hygrometer shall be fixed at a height
of more than 1 700 mm from the floor to
the top of thermometer stem or in the
direct droughts from a fan, window, or
ventilating opening.
g. No reading to be taken within 15 minutes of
renewal of water-
1. No reading shall be taken for record on
any hygrometer within 15 minutes on
the renewal of water in the reservoir.
h. How to introduce steam fro humidification.
In any room in which steam pipes are used
for the introducing of steam for the purpose
of artificial humidification of the air, the
following provisions shall apply:
1. The diameter of such pipes shall not
exceed 25 mm.
2. Such pipes shall be as short as is
reasonably practicable.
3. All hangers supporting such pipes shall
be separated from the bare pipes by an
efficient insulator not less than 15 mm in
thickness.
4. No uncovered jet from such pipes shall
project more than 100 mm beyond the
outer surface of any cover.
 CHAPTER 12- METROLOGY

5. The steam pressure shall be as low as

practicable.

6. The pipe employed for the introduction

of steam into the air in a department
shall be effectively covered, with such
non-conducting material as may be
approved by the Engineer.

259
 CHAPTER 13- MACHINE SHOP MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT
Chapter 13
MACHINE SHOP MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT
Section 1.0 Purpose and Scope
To identify each every equipment/machinery and tools
in a machine shop and the corresponding operating
principles involved.
Machine shop practice consists of certain mechanical
principles that are a part of all machine shop work
everywhere such as the principles of cutting tools,
cutting speeds and feeds, actions of gears, screws,
cams, etc., applied in the construction of certain
machines and tools and in the various machine
operations: that is, in the methods of holding and
doing work.
A machine shop is a room or space with sidings and
roofs where metal parts are cut to size required and
put together to form mechanical units or machine,
which are made to be used in the pioduction of the
necessities of civilization. One or more machines
constitute a machine shop.
Section 2.0 Standard Machine Shop
Equipment
2.1 Lathe — a metal turning machine tool in which
the work, while revolving on a horizontal axis, is
acted upon by a cutting tool which is made to
move slowly (feed) in a direction more or less
parallel to the axis of the work (longitudinal
feed), or in the direction at right angles to the
axis of the work (cross feed). Either feed may be
operated by hand or by power (automatically) as
desired. Straight turning is when feeding
direction is parallel to the axis of the work. When
the cut is in a direction at a slight angle to the
axis of the work a taper is the result, more of an
angle results in turning to an angle. The cut at
right angles to the axis of the work (cross feed
operation) is called facing or squaring. Cutting
inside of a hole is boring.
2.2 Drill or Drill Press — a machine tool used
mainly for producing holes in metal. In this
machine the work is securely held while a
revolving cutting tool is fed into it. The cutting
tool is termed drill.
260
2.3 Shaper — is ordinarily used for finishing flat or
partly curved surfaces of metal pieces few in
number and not over 305 mm or 610 mm long.
The cutting tool has a reciprocating (forward and
return motion) and cuts on the forward stroke
only. The work is held in a vise bolted to the
work table and the regular feed is accomplished
by causing the work table to move automatically
at right angles to the direction of the cutting tool.
The construction of the tool head permits of
down feed at right angles to the regular feed, or
at any other angle if desired.
2.4 Planer a machine tool used in the production
—
of flat surfaces on pieces too large or too heavy
or cannot be held in a shaper. The table or
platen, on which the work is securely fastened,
has a reciprocating (forward and return) motion.
The tool head may be automatically fed
horizontally in either direction along the heavily
supported cross rail over the work and
automatic down feed is also provided.
2.5 Grinding Machine a machine tool in which an
—
abrasive wheel is used as a cutting tool to obtain
a very high degree of accuracy and a smooth
finish on metal parts, including soft and
hardened steel.
2.6 Vertical Boring Mill — a machine purposely
designed for finishing holes, the work table
revolves on a vertical axis and the cutting tool
(which may be a drill or a boring tool or turning
tool) is arranged above the table and may be fed
laterally (toward or away from the centre of the
table) or up or down in any position.
2.7 Horizontal Boring Mill a machine for finishing
—
holes where the cutting tool revolves on a
horizontal axis. The spindle which carries the
cutting tool may be fed longitudinally through the
spindle head and in the more recent designs the
spindle head may be fed vertically. The work
table may be fed longitudinally or transversely.
The horizontal boring mill, while designed
primarily for boring holes, may also be used for
finishing horizontal and vertical flat surfaces by
means of a suitable milling cutter fastened to the
spindle.
 CHAPTER 13— MACHINE SHOP MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT
2.8 Universal Milling Machine a milling machine
—
designed and constructed that the table may be
swivelled to a considerable angle in a horizontal
plane to permit the milling of spiral (twisted)
grooves, such as are cut in twist drills, spiral
mills, etc., the work table may be moved
longitudinally, by hand or automatically, in either
direction, called the longitudinal feed or table
feed. The saddle is arranged on the knee that it
may be owned transverse by hand or power in
either direction, called cross feed. The vertical
movement of the knee may be used as a vertical
hand feed in either direction and in the larger
sizes automatic vertical feed is provided.
2.9 Plain Milling Machine a machine very similar
—
in appearance and construction to the univerSal
milling machine, differing chiefly in that it lacks
the swivel table construction. Many of the
attachments made for the universal milling
machine can be used on the plain milling
machine.
2.10 Vertical-Spindle Milling Machine a machine
—
used of any end-milling and face milling
operations, it is more adaptable than the
machine with the horizontal spindle, because
the cutter and the surface being machined are in
plain view, instead of over in back of the work.
The axis of rotation of the spindle is vertical.
2.11 Metal-Cutting Band Saws a machine tool
—
designed to cut everything all the time, because
it employs an endless band with of sharp teeth
moving in one direction. There is no back stroke.
It cuts direct to layout lines, can saw, file and
polish work to completion using the proper and
right band tool.
Section 3.0 Special Tools and Machinery
in a Machine Shop of a Manufacturing
Plant
3.1 Turret Lathe — a production lathe primarily
consist of multiple-station tool holders or turrets,
in place of a lathe compound rest and tailstock.
These turrets permit the presetting of the total
number of cutters required for the job and allow
multiple and combined cuts from both turrets to
operate on the work piece.
3.2 Broaching Machine
— There are two board
classes of broaching machines available for
performing almost any variety of broaching
operations, the vertical and the horizontal, either
of which may have one or more rams, drives are
either hydraulic or mechanically operated. Plain
261
horizontal machines are usually of the pull type,
but vertical machines are available as pull-up,
pull down, or push down types. Most of these
machines can be arranged for efficient
production of the quantities required and where
necessary semi-automatic operations can be
employed. In these machines, the broaches are
stationary, a continuous chain conveyor with
fixtures carrying the work pieces past the
broaches.
3.3 Mechanical Presses — are classified on the
basis of the construction of the frame, the
mechanism for providing motion to the ram, and
whether or not it is provided with the auxiliaries
required by an automatic press. On the basis of
frame design, the presses are classified as gap
or C frame, arch type, straight side, and pillar
presses. Most presses in small and medium
sizes are mounted in vertical position or in a
titled or even horizontal position to facilitate
stock removal. Motion to the ram may be
provided by cranks, eccentrics, cams, toggles,
screws, knuckles, joints, and in one instances by
a Scoth crosshead. Mechanical presses are also
classified as single-action, double action, or
triple-action presses in which case reference is
made to the number of moving slides or rams.
3.4 Hydraulic Presses — are built in sizes varying
from 3/4 ton bench-type to huge 15,000 ton four-
post presses. Unlike mechanical presses, the
rated force or tonnage capacity is available over
the entire length of the stroke. The available
operating stroke of hydraulic presses is
substantially longer than the corresponding size
of mechanical press. The economical
applications of hydraulic presses are used
successfully on many competitive high
production, deep drawing jobs. They have also
found extensive use in the aircraft industry in
connection with rubber dies. Small and medium-
sized are usually built square platens varying in
dimensions from 5161 mm 2 on up to several mm
on a side.
3.5 Shaper. Shaper cutting Tools: The variety of
cuts that may be made in a shaper on any
metals used in machine work calls for tools of
various shapes. Shaping on a shaper, can be
done to the right or to the left. It also includes
roughing cuts, finishing cuts, slotting,
contouring, under-cutting, dovetailing, and a
variety of operations. Tools can be made from
solid bars of steel, or they may be made from
smaller pieces of tool steel, called bits, which
are ground to the desired shapes and hold by
 CHAPTER 13- MACHINE SHOP MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT

being clamped in a tool holder. The large, solid the tool from digging. Most shaper and planer
tools are specially good for heavy work because manufacturer recommend this type of tool for
they carry away the heat from the cutting edge general work.
of the tool more rapidly, there are also tool
holders using forged bits, the tool holder with the
ground bit is probably the most popular
combination on a shaper.

The shape of the tool is also determined by the

type of work that is to be done. For the
production of an ordinary flat surface, the tool is
either right-hand or left-hand. The left-hand is
more common because it permits the operator
to see the cut better than the right-hand tool. A
dovetailing tool is naturally quite pointed. A
finishing tool is reverse, because a bread-nosed
or square-nosed tool will largely eliminate feed
marks. Whereas feed marks will be more
noticeable with a pointed tool.
There are other factors that help in the
determination of the shape of the tool. These
factors are the finish required, the kind of
material being cut, and the condition of the
machine, as well as feed and speed.
The elements of a shaper tool or a planer tool is
the front rake, front clearance, side rake, etc.,
are in the same relative positions as on the lathe
tool, regardless of the fact that the shaper tool
when in use is held vertically, while the lathe tool
is held horizontally.
3.6
Clearance Angles — There is no rocker in the
tool posts of the shaper, hence the tool cannot
be adjusted for clearance the proper clearance
angles must be ground on the tool, as shown in
Fig. 3-13, the front clearance angle is 4 deg.
Since the shaper feed does not operate during
the cut as does the lathe feed, a side clearance
of 2 or 3 deg. is sufficient.
Rake Angle The shaper tool is usually given
—
side rake angle of 10 deg. or more, depending
on the kind of tool and on the hardness of the
metal to be machined, but no front rake is given
except on finishing tools. Fig. 1 14 shows a
—
side-rake angle and a side-relief angle on the
cross section A-A of the tools shown directly
above.
Shaping with Carbide Tools — Almost any
type of material is machinable with high-
speed-steel cutting tools can be economically
machined with carbide tools. In situations
where the life of the tool is short, as for
machining chilled cast iron, die steel, etc., The
carbide tool is more efficient and economical.
In order that a shaper may be suitable for
carbide shaping, it must be capable of speeds
exceeding 100 ft. per mm. is the absolute
minimum speed at which carbides can be
economically used. At slower speeds, there is
no appreciable difference as to cost of
operation between the high —speed tools and
the carbide tools.
Planer
The cutting tools generally used on planers are
substantially like shaper tools for similar
operations, the only difference being the size.
a. Round-Nosed Roughing Tool for Cast
Iron (Fig. 3-14a.) Made of high-speed steel.
General purpose, light roughing tool which
can be used in feeding from right to left or
from left to right. Since the tool has no side
rake, the depth of cut should not be more
than % in.
b. Right-Hand Round-Nosed Roughing Tool
(Fig. 3-15a.) Made of high-speed steel. The
operator should have two of these tools for a
planer with two rail heads. They are used for
practically all roughing in cast iron.

Study Fig. 3 — 14 carefully for a simple

explanation of the cutting action of a shaper tool
when a plane surface is being machined. Note
that the tool is offset so as to get the tool point
toward the center of the shank. This will prevent

262

CHAPTER 13— MACHINE SHOP MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT
SIDE blank
ANGLE
c. Right-Hand Round-Nosed Roughing Tool
for Steel (Fig. 3—14.) Made of high-speed
steel. This tool is similar to toll b but is
intended for roughing cuts in steel. The
angles of this tool are not suitable for cast
iron and, if used for that purpose, will pull in
cause chatter.
d. Left-Hand Round-Nosed Roughing Tool
for Steel (Fig. 3—15.) Made of high-speed
steel. Use when it is necessary to feed from
left to right, toward the operator. This tool is
used for planning cast iron. For cast-steel
or forgings.
e. Right-Hand Round-nosed Roughing Tool
for Steel (Fig. 3—17b.) Made of high-speed
steel. This tool is similar to tool b but is
intended for roughing cuts in steel. The
angles of this tool are not suitable for cast
iron and, if used for that purpose, will pull in
and chatter.
263
_
f. Left-Hand Round-Nosed Roughing Tool
for Steel (Fig. 3—17b.) Made of high-speed
steel. A campanion tool to 4, used for
roughing cuts in steel when feeding the
hesd from left toright, that is toward the
operator.
4
-1$
4fl60
g. Square-Nosed Roughing Tool for Cast
Iron (Fig. 3-18.) Made of high-speed steel.
For roughing cuts on flat surfaces where a
sharp corner is to be secured (Fig.3-18b).
This tool can also be used for straightening
or heavy-finishing cuts when fine finish is
not required (depth of cut 0.004 to 0.005 in.)
For lighter cuts and finer finishes, see tool 8.
This tool can also be made by brasing a
piece of high-speed steel on machine steel
shank.
h. Square-Nosed Finishing Tool for Cast Iron
and Steel (Fig. 3—19.) Made of high-carbon
steel. This is a general purpose tool for
straightening and finishing cuts (Fig. 3-19b.)
It is good idea to have several on and, or
different widths, from 3/8 to 1 in.
\__A
 _

CHAPTER 13— MACHINE SHOP MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT

Gooseneck Finishing Tool for Cast Iron
(Fig.3-20.) Made of high-carbon steel. For
finishing flat surfaces in any metal, this tool,
in combination with a very shallow cut and
of coarse feed, is most satisfactory.
the corners after most of the metal has been
removed by tool 9. This tool is not so well
suited for general dovetail roughing as is
tool 9, because the sharp corners
breakdown. Made of high-speed steel.

6
a b

j. Right-Hand Dovetail End-cutting Tool for a

Cast Iron (Fig. 3-21.) Made of high-speed
steel. This tool has the cutting edge at the
end. The corner is rounded off so as to
avoid breakdown in taking the roughing cut.
It is to be followed by tool 11, which will
leave a clean, sharp angle in the corner.
m. Left-Hand Dovetail End-Cutting
Roughing Tool for Cast Iron (Fig. 3-24.) A
companion for tool 11, used in feeding in the
opposite direction; that is, from left to right
(Fig.3-24b.) Can be fed downward. Made of
high-speed steel.

a b $

k. Left-Hand Dovetail End-Cutting Tool for b

Cast Iron (Fig. 3-23.) A companion to tool 9,
this is to be used when feeding from, left to
right and downward (Fig. 3-23b.) It may be n. Right-Hand Dovetail End-Cutting
followed by 12, to cut out a sharp angle. Finishing Tool for Cast Iron (Fig.3-25.)
Made of high-speed steel. Made of high-carbon steel for finishing flat
surfaces with cutting edge at the end of tool.
Used after roughing cuts with tools 9 and
11. Feed from right to left (Fig. 3-25.)

34

,
I. Right-Hand Dovetail End-Cutting
Roughing Tool for Cast Iron (Fig. 3-24.)
similar to tool 9 and intended to clean out

264
 CHAPTER 13- MACHINE SHOP MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT

o. Left-Hand Dovetail End-Cutting Finishing Section 4.0 Sizes of Motors for

Tool for Cast Iron (Fig. 3-26.) Made of
high-carbon steel. Companion to tool 13.
Use after tool 10 and 12. Feed from left to
right (fig. 3-26b.)
Machine Shop Equipment and Forging
Machinery
4.1 The machines for which suitable types and sizes
of motors listed below are typical applications for
machine shop equipment and are based upon
information supplied by Westinghouse Electric
Corporation. The kilowatt values shown are for
average practice. They may be decreases for
very light work and must often be increased for
heavy work.

The type of motor be used on each case is

indicated by symbols A, B, C, etc. The meaning
of these symbols is as follows:

A --- Adjustable speed, shunt-wound, direct

p. Right-Hand Dovetail Side-Cutting
Finishing Tool for Cast Iron (Fig. 3-27a.)
Made of high-carbon steel. Used for
finishing angular surface of dovetail, as
shown in (Fig. 4-27b.) Feed downward with
coarse feed, taking a very light cut.
current motor, wherever a number of
speeds are essentials.
B --- Constant speed, shunt-wound, direct
current motor, when the require speeds
are obtainable by a gear-box or other
adjustable speed transmission or when
only one speed is required.

.
4
L
34
8 C

D
---

---
Squirrel-cage induction motor, when direct
current is not available a gear-box or other
adjustable speed transmission must be
used to obtain different speeds.

Constant speed, compound-wound, direct-

current motor, when speeds
obtainable by a gear-box or other
are

adjustable speed transmission or when

a only one speed is required.

q. Left-Hand Dovetail Side-Cutting E --- Wound secondary or squirrel-cage

Finishing Tool for Cast Iron (Fig.2-30a.) induction motors with approximately 10
Made of high-carbon steel. Companion for percent slip, when direct current is not
tool 15. Feed downward with a coarse feed available.
(Fig.2-30b.)
F --- Adjustable speed, compound-wound,
direct-current motor.

Section 50 Machine Screws

5.1 British Machine Screws At a conference
—

organized by the British Standards Institution in

1965 at which the major sectors of British
industry were represented, a policy statement
was approved which urged British firms to
regard the traditional screw thread system
Withworth. to regard the traditional screw
thread system-Withworth.

265
 CHAPTER 13— MACHINE SHOP MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT

Table 13.1 (d) Milling Machines

Motor Power for Machine Tools and Forging Machineries (Type of Motors A, B or C)

(a) Engines Lathes (1) Universal Milling Machines

(Type of Motor: A, B, or C)
Max. Feeding Movements: mm 1KW
Swing of Lathe Service and 1KW Rating Lengthwise Lateral Vertical Rating
mm Average Heavy 558.8 203.2 457.2 2.2 to 3.7
304.8 2.2 3.7 711.2 254 457.2 3.7 to 5.5
355.6 406.4
—
3.7 5.5
- 5.5 7.5
—
863. 6 304.8 482.6 5.5 to 7.5
457.2—609.6 7.5—5.5 11 —18.522 1 066.8 355.6 508 7.5 to 11
685.8—914.4 15-18.5 22 1 270 355.6 508 11 to 15
1 066.8—137.6 22—30 37.5
1 524.0 1 828.8
—
30 -45
(2) Plane Milling Machines
(b) Cylindrical Grinding Machines
(Type of Motor: A, C, D or E) Max. Feeding Movements: mm 1KW
Lengthwise Lateral Vertical Rating
Size of wheel Distance between 1KW Rating 558.8 203.2 482.6 2.2
Mm Centers (mm) 711.2 254 482.6 3.7to5.5
254 x19.05 508 to762 1.5 to 3 863.6 304.8 508 5.5 to 7.5
254 x38.1 508 to 762 1.5 to 3 1 066.8 355.6 508 7.5 to 11
304.8 x31.75 812.8 to 1 676.4 3.7 to 6 1 270 355.6 533.4 11 to 15
304.8 x 38.1 812.8 to 1 676.4 3.7 to 6
304 8 x 63.5 812.8 to 1 438.4 7.5 to 9
355.6 x 38.1 508 to 2 184.4 3.7 to 6 (3) Milling Machines
406.4x 76.2 762 to2286 5.5 to 7.5
457.2 x 50.8 685.8 to 3 048 5.5 to 7.5 Max. Feeding Movements: mm 1KW
508 x50.8 914.4 to2438.4 7.5 to 11 Lengthwise Lateral Vertical Rating
508 x 63.5 990.6 to 4 267.2 9 to 11 558.8 304.8 457.2 2.2 to 3.7
609 x 50.8 2 438.4 to 4 267.2 11 to 15 558.8 330.2 508 3.7 to 5.5
609.6 x 76.6 2 489.2 to 4 368.8 18.5 to 26 863.6 355 588.8 5.5 to 7.5
1 066.8 381 588.8 7.5 toll
(c) Punch Presses 1 320.8 304.8 609.6 11 to 15
(Type of Motor: A, C, D or E)

Soft Steel Thickness KW Rating (4) Horizontal Boring, Drilling & Milling Machines
mm mm (Type of Motor: A, B or C)
6.35 6.35 0.37 to 0.75
9.525 9.525 0.37 to 1 Spindle Horsepow Spindle 1KW
12.7 12.7 0.5to2.2 Diam., mm er Diam., mm Rating
15.875 15.875 1 to 1.5 88.9—114.3 11— 18.5 165.1 15—22
19.05 19.05 0.75 to 3.7 127 15-22 177.8—241.3 22—30
22.225 22.225 1 to 3.7
25.4 25.4 1.5 to 4.5
31.75 25.4 2.2 to 6 (e) Hydraulic Wheel Presses
38.1 25.4 5.5 (Type of Motor: B or C)
44.45 25.4 7.5
50.8 25.4 7.5 KW Capacity, 1KW
Capacity,
57.15 28.575 7.5toll Tons Rating Tons Rating
57.15 34.925 11 to 15 2.2—2.6 400 5.5—7.5
100
63.5 38.1 lltol5 3.7—5.5 500 7.5—11
200
76.2 50.8 15 to 18.5 4.5 5.5 9.3 11
300 —
—

101.6 38.1 18.5

152.4 38.1 30

266
 CHAPTER 13— MACHINE SHOP MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT

(b) Cylindrical Grinding Machines preference an intermediate change to ISO inch

(Type of Motor: A, C, D or E) threads.

Vertical TvDe 5.2 British Standard Machine Screws and

Soft Steel’• Thickness KW Rating Machine Screw Nuts, Metric Series —British
Width, mm of Standard B.S. 4183: 1967 gives dimensions and
Plate, mm tolerances for; countersunk head, raised
762 to 1 066.8 0.79375 0.5 to 0.75 countersunk head, and cheese head slotted
914 to 1 574.8 1.5875 1.5 to 2.2 screws in a diameter range from Ml (1mm) to
914to3657.6 3.175 2.2to7.5 M20 (20 mm); pan head slotted head screws in
914.4 to 3657.6 4.7625 3 to 9 a diameter range from M2.5 (2.5 mm) to M10
1 066.8 to 4 267.2 6.35 4.5 to 15 (10 mm); and square and hexagon machine
1 371.6to3200.4 9.525 lltol5 screw nuts in a diameter range from M 1.6 (1.6
mm) to M 10 (10 mm). Mechanical Properties
are also specified for steel, brass and aluminium
Table 13.1 (Continued) LeverT pe alloy machine screws and machine screw nuts
Soft Steel Soft Steel, in this standard.
Square Bar, KW Rating Square Bar, KW Rating
Size mm Size mm 5.3 Material The materials from which the screws
—

19.05 1.5 to 3.7 63.5 7.5 to 15 and nuts are manufactured have a tensile
25.4 2.2 to 3.7 69.85 11 to 15 strength not less than the following: steel, 40
31.75 3.7 to 5.5 76.2 11 to 18.5 2 (392 N/mm
kgf/mm ); brass, 32 kgf/mm
2 2 (314
38.1 3.7 to 5.5 82.55 15 to 22 ); and aluminium alloy, 32 kgf/mm
2
N/mm ( 314
2
44.45 3.7 to 7.5 88.9 15 to 30 ). The unit, kgf/mm
2
N/mm 2 is in accordance with
50.8 5.5to9 101.6 22to37 ISO DR 911 and the unit in parenthesis has the
57.15 7.5toll ..... relationship, 1 kgf = 9.80665 Newtons. These
minimum strengths are applicable to the finished
(g) Bolt Heading, Upsetting and Forging Machinery products. Steel machine screws conform to the
(Type of Motor: D, E or F) requirements for strength grade designation 4.8.
The strength grade designation system for
Size, mm KW Rating Size, mm KW Rating machine screws consists of two figures, the first
31.75 7.5 76.2 22 is 1/10 of the minimum tensile strength in
38.1 11 101.6 37 kgf/mm2, the second is 1/10 of the ratio
50.8 15 127 45 between the yield stress and the minimum
63.5 18.5 152.4 55 tensile strength expressed as a percentage;
1/10 minimum tensile strength of 40 kgf/mm
2
(h) Bulldozers or Forming or Bending Machines gives the symbol “4”; 1/10 ratio giving the
(Type of Motor: D or E) strength grade

Width, mm Head Movement, KW Rating

mm
736.6 355.6 yield stress = 1 x 32 x 100 = “8”
3.7
863.6 mm. tensile strength 10 40 1
406.4 5.5
990.6 406.4 7.5
1 143 457.2 11
1 600.2 5.4 Isometric screw threads are designated
508 15
according to the following examples: M5 x 0.8 —

6H for an internal thread and M8 x 1.25 6g for

—

an external thread where M denotes the thread

B.A. and B.S.F. as obsolescent, and to make
—

system symbol for ISO metric thread, the 5 and

the internationally agreed ISO metric thread
8 denote the nominal size in millimetres, the 0.8
their first choice (with ISO Unified thread as
and 1.25 denote the pitch in millimetres and 6H
second choice) for all future designs. It is
and 6g denote the thread tolerance.
recognized that some sections of British industry
already using ISO inch (UNIFIED) screw threads
5.5 Length of Thread on Screws Screws of
may find it necessary, for various reasons, over —

nominal thread diameter Ml, M1.2 and M 1.4

be superseded by ISO metric threads in
and screws of larger diameters which are too

267
 CHAPTER 13- MACHINE SHOP MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT
short for the thread lengths are threaded as fast
as possible up to the head. In these the length
of unthreaded shank under the head does not
exceed 1 % pitches for lengths up to twice the
diameter and 2 pitches for longer lengths, and is
defined as the distance from the leading face of
a nut which has been screwed as far as possible
onto the screw by hand to: 1) the junction of the
basic major diameter and the countersunk
portion of the head on countersunk and raised
countersunk head; 2) the underside of the head
on other types of heads. Screws of nominal
thread diameter Ml, M 1.2 and M 1.4 and
screws of larger diameters which are too short
for the thread lengths are threaded as far as
possible up to the head. In these the length of
unthreaded shank under the head does not
exceed 1 1/2 pitches for lengths up to twice the
diameter and 2 pitches for longer lengths, and is
defined as the distance from the leading face of
a nut which has been screwed as far as possible
onto the screw by hand to: 1) the junction of the
basic major diameter and the countersunk
portion of the heed on countersunk and raised
countersunk heads; 2) the underside of the head
on other types of heads.
5.6 Diameter of Unthreaded Shank on Screws —
The diameter of the unthreaded portion of the
shank on screw is not greater than the basic
major diameter of the screw is not greater than
the basic major diameter of the screw head and
not less than the minimum effective diameter of
the screw thread. The diameter of the
unthreaded portion of shank is closely
associated with the method of manufacturer; it
will generally be nearer the major diameter of
the thread for turned screws and nearer the
effective diameter for those produced by cold
heading.
5.7 Radius Under the Head of Screws —The
radius under the head of pan and cheese head
screws runs smoothly into the face of the head
and shank without any step of discontinuity. A
true radius is not essential providing that the
curve is smooth and lies wholly within th
maximum radius. Any radius under the head of
countersunk head screws runs smoothly into the
conical bearing surface of the head and the
shank without any step or discontinuity.
5.8 Ends of Screws When screws are made with
-
rolled threads the “lead” formed by the thread
rolling operation is normally regarded as
providing the necessary chamfer and no other
machining is necessary. The ends of screws
268
with cut threads are normally finished with a
chamfer conforming to the dimension. At the
option of the manufacturer, the ends of screws
smaller than M6 (6mm diameter) may be
finished, with a radius approximately equal to 1
1/
times the nominal diameter of the shank.
Section 6.0 Gearing
6.1 Definition of Gear Terms The terms which
—
follow are commonly applied to various classes
of gearing.
a. Addendum — Height of tooth above pitch
circle of the distances between the pitch
circle and the top of the tooth.
b. Arc of Action — Arc of the pitch circle
through which a tooth travels from the first
point of contact with the mating tooth to the
pitch point.
c. Arc of Approach Arc of the circle through
—
which a tooth travels from the point of
contact with the mating tooth to the pitch
d. Arc of Recess — Arc of the pitch circle
through which a tooth travels from its
contact with the mating tooth at the pitch
point to the point where is contact ceases.
e. Axial Plane —In a pair of gears it is the
plane that contains the two axes, in a single
gear, it may be any plane containing axis
and the given point.
f. Backlash The amount by which the width
—
of a tooth space exceeds the thickness of
the engaging tooth on the pitch circles. As
actually indicated by measuring devices,
backlash may be determined variously in the
transverse, normal or axial planes, and
either in the direction of the pitch circles or
on the lines of action. Such measurements
should be converted to corresponding
 CHAPTER 13- MACHINE SHOP MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT

values on transverse pitch circles for p. Clearance The amount by which the
—

general comparisons. dedendum in a given gear. It is also the

radial distance between the top of a tooth
g. Base Circle - The circle from which an and bottoms of the mating tooth space.
involute tooth is generated or developed.
q. Central Diameter The smallest diameter
—

h. Base Helix Angle The angle, at the base

—
on a gear tooth with which the mating gear
cylinder if an involute gear, that the tooth makes contact.
makes with the gear axis.
r. Contact Ratio The ration of the arc of
—

Base Pitch — In an involute gear it is the
pitch on the base circle or along the line of
action. Corresponding sides of involute teeth
are parallel curves, and the base pitch is the
constant and fundamental distance between
them along a common normal in a plane of
rotation. The normal Base Pitch is the base
pitch in the normal plane, and the Axial
action to the circular pitch. It is sometimes
thought of as the average number of teeth in
contact. For involute gears, the contact ratio
is obtain most directly as the ratio is obtain
most directly as the ratio of the length of
action to the base pitch.
s. Cycloid The curve formed by the path of a
—

Base Pitch is the base pitch in the axial
plane.
j. Center Distance The distance between
—
the parallel axes of spur gears and parallel
helical gears, or between the crossed axes
or crossed helical gears, or between the
crossed axes or crossed helical gears and
worm gears. Also, it is the distance between
the centers of the pitch circles.
point on a circle as it rolls along a straight
line. When this circle tools along the outer
side of another circle, the curve is called an
Epicycloid; when it rolls along the inner side
of another circle it is called a 1-lypocycloid.
These curves are used in defining the
American former Standard composite tooth
form.
t. Dedendum The depth of tooth space
—

below the pitch circle of the radial dimension

k. Central Plane In a worm gear this is the
—
between the pitch circle and the bottoms of
plane perpendicular to the gear axis and the tooth space.
contains the common perpendicular of the
gear and worm axes. In the usual case with u. Diametral Pitch The ratio of the number
—

the axes at right angles, it contains the of teeth to the number of millimetres of pitch
worm axis. diameter-equals number of gear teeth to
each mm pitch diameter. Normal Diametral
Chordal Addendum The height from the
—
Pitch is the diametral pitch as calculated in
top of the tooth to the chord subtending the the normal plane and is equal to the
circular-thickness arc. diametral pitch divided by the cosine of helix
angle.
m. Chordal Thickness Length of the chord
—

subtended by the circular thickness arc (the v. Effective Face Width That portion of the
—

dimension obtained when a geartooth face width that actually comes into contact
caliper is used to measure the thickness at with mating teeth, as occasionally one
the pitch circle. member of a pair of gears may have a
greater face width than the other.
n. Circular Pitch Length of the arc of the
—

pitch circle between the centers or other b. Efficiency — The actual torque ratio of a
corresponding points of adjacent teeth. gear set divided by its gear ratio.
Normal Circular Pitch is the circular pitch in
the normal plane. x. External Gear A gear with teeth on the
—

outer cylindrical surface.

o. Circular Thickness The length of arc
—

between the two sides of a gear tooth, on y. Face of Tooth That surface of the tooth
—

the pitch circles unless otherwise specified. which is between the pitch circle in the top
Normal Circular Thickness is the circular of the tooth.
thickness in the normal plane.

269
 CHAPTER 13— MACHINE SHOP MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT
z. Face Width The length of the teeth in the
—
axial plane. The effective face width is the
width which actually makes contact with the
mating gear. When herringbone gears have
a central clearance groove, the width of this
groove is not included in the effective face
width.
aa. Fillet Curve The concave portion of the
—
mm. Lowest Point of Single Tooth Contact
tooth profile where it joins the bottom of the
tooth space. The approximate radius of this
curve is called the Fillet Radius.
bb. Flank of Tooth That surface which is
—
between the pitch circle and the bottom
land. The flank includes the fillet.
cc. Helical Overlap The effective face width
—
of a helical gear divided by the gear axial
pitch; also called the Face Overlap.
dd. Helix Angle The angle that a helical gear
—
tooth makes the gear axis.
ee. Highest point of Single Tooth Contact — surfaces at a point of contact, and
The largest diameter on a spur gear at
which a single tooth is in c’ntact with the
mating gear. Often referred to as HPSTC.
Gear tooth fillet stress is determined with the
operating load placed at this diameter.
if. Internal Diameter The diameter of a circle
—
coinciding with the tops of the teeth of an
internal gear.
gg. Internal Gear A gear with teeth on the
—
inner cylindrical surface.
hh. Involute The curve formed by the path of
—
a point on a straight line, called the
generatrix, as it rolls along a convex base
curve. (The base curve is usually a circle.)
This curve is generally used as the profile of
gear teeth.
ii. Land The top Land is the top surface of a
—
tooth, and the Bottom Land is the surface of
the gear between the fillets of adjacent
teeth.
ss.
jj. Lead — The distance a helical gear or
woman would thread along its axis one
revolution of it were free to move axially.
kk. Length of Action The distance on an
—
involute line of action through which the
270
point of contact moves during the action of
the tooth profile.
Line of Action The path of contact in
—
involute gears. It is the straight line passing
through the pitch point and tangent to the
base circles.
—
The smallest diameter on a spur gear at
which a single tooth of one gear is in contact
with its mating gear, often referred to as
LPSTC. Gear set contact stress is
determined with a load placed at this point
on the pinion.
nn. Module Ratio of the pitch diameter to the
—
number of teeth. Ordinarily, module is
understood to mean ratio of pitch diameter
in millimetre to the number of teeth. The
English Module is a ratio of the pitch
diameter in inches to the number of teeth.
oo. Normal Plane A plane normal to the tooth
—
perpendicular to the pitch plane.
pp. Pitch —The distance between similar,
equally-spaced tooth surfaces in a given
direction and along a given curve or line.
The single word “pitch” without qualification
has been used to designate circular pitch,
axial pitch, and diametral pitch, but such
confusing usage should be avoided.
qq. Pitch Circle A circle the radius of which is
—
equal to the distance from the gear axis to
the pitch point.
rr. Pitch Diameter The diameter of the pitch
—
circle. In parallel shaft gears the pitch
diameter can be determined directly from
the distance and the numbers of teeth by
proportionality. Operating Pitch Diameter is
the pitch diameter at which the gears
operate. Generating Pitch Diameter is the
pitch diameter at which the outer ends of the
teeth unless otherwise specified.
Pitch Plane — In a pair of gears it is the
plane perpendicular to the axial plane and
tangent to the pitch surface. In a single gear
it may be any plane tangent to its pitch
surface.
tt. Pitch Point This is the point of tangency
—
of two pitch circles (or of a pitch circle and a
 CHAPTER 13- MACHINE SHOP MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT
pitch line) and is on the line of center. The
pitch point of a tooth profile is at its
intersection with the pitch circle.
uu. Plane Rotation — Any plane perpendicular
to a gear axis.
vv. Pressure Angle The angle between a
—
tooth profile and a radical line at its pitch
point. In involute teeth, pressure angle is
often described as the angle between the
line of action and the line tangent to the
pitch circle. Standard Pressure Angles are
established in connection with standard
gear-tooth proportions. A given pair of
involute profiles will transmit smooth motion
at the same velocity ratio even when the
center distance is changed.
ww. Principal Reference Planes These are a
—
pitch plane, axial plane, and transverse
plane, all intersecting at a point and mutually
perpendicular.
xx. A gear with teeth spaced along a straight
line, and suitable for straight line motion. A
Basic Rack is one that is adopted as the
basis of a system of interchangeable gears.
Standard gear-tooth proportions are often
illustrated on an outline used to indicate
tooth details and dimensions for the design
of a required generating tool, such as a hob
or gearshaper cutter.
yy. Ratio of Gearing Ratio of the numbers of
—
teeth on mating gears. Ordinarily the ratio is
found by dividing the number of teeth on the
larger by the number of teeth on the smaller
gear or pinion. For example, if the ratio is “2
or 3 to 1”, this usually means that the
smaller gear or pinion makes two
revolutions to one revolution of the larger
mating gear.
zz. Roll Angle — The angle subtended at the
center of a base circle from the origin of an
involute to the point of tangency of the
generatrix from any point on the same
involute. The radian measure of this angle is
the tangent of the pressure angle of the
point on the involute.
kkk.
aaa. Root Circle — A circle coinciding with or
tangent to the bottoms of the tooth spaces.
bbb. Root Diameter — Diameter of the root circle.
271
ccc. Tangent Plane A plane tangent to the
—
tooth surfaces at a point or line of contact of
material is removed near the tip of the gear
tooth.
ddd. Tip Relief An arbitrary modification of a
—
tooth profile whereby a small amount of
material is removed near the tip of the gear
tooth.
eee. Total Face Width The actual width
—
dimension of a gear blank. It may exceed
the effective face width, as in the case of
double-helical gears where the total face
width includes any distance separating the
right-hand and left-hand helical teeth.
iff. Transverse Plane A plane perpendicular
—
to the axial plane and to the pitch plane. [n
gears with parallel axes, the transverse
plane and the plane of rotation coincide.
ggg. Trochoid The curve formed by the path of
—
a point on the extension of a circle as it rolls
along a curve or line. It is also the curve
formed by the path of a point on a
perpendicular to a straight line as the
straight line rolls along the convex side of a
base curve. By the first definition the
trochoid is a derivative of the cycloid; by the
second definition it is derivative of the
involve.
hhh. True Involute Form Diameter — The
smallest diameter on the tooth at which the
involute exits. Usually this is the point of
tangency of the involute tooth profile and the
fillet curve. This is usually referred to as the
TIP diameter.
iii. Undercut — A condition in generated gear
teeth when any part of the fillet curve lies
inside of a line drawn tangent to the working
profile at its lowest point. Undercut may be
deliberately introduced to facilitate finishing
operations, as in pre-shaving.
jjj. Whole Depth The total depth of a tooth
—
space, equal to addendum plus dedendum,
also equal to working depth plus clearance.
Working Depth The depth of engagement
—
of two gears, that is, the sum of their
addendum’s. The standard working distance
is the depth to which a tooth extends into
the tooth space of a mating gear when the
center distance is standard.
 CHAPTER 13— MACHINE SHOP MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT

Table 13.2 7b Outside Diameter 0

D = (N+1.6)p
Formulas for Dimensions of Standard Spur Gear (American Std. Stub 3. 1416
Notations Teeth)

0 = Pressure Angle 8 Outside Diameter 0

D = D + 2a
a = Addendum
b = Dedendum 9a Pitch Diameter D = N
c = Clearance P
C = Center Distance
D = Pitch Diameter 10 Root Diameter DR = D — 2b
Db = Base Circle Diameter
0
D = Outside Diameter
DR = Root Diameter 6.2 Outside and Root Diameters of Hobbed,
F = Face Width Shaped, or Pre-shaped Gears Formulas are
—

hk = Working Depth of Tooth given for finding the outside and root diameters
h = Whole Depth of Tooth of spur gears with various types of standard
N = Number of Teeth teeth using the data for pitch diameters,
If both gear and pinion are referred to: addenda, and the dedenda. It will be noted from
NG = Number of Teeth in Gear the formula given that the root diameter for a
N = Number of Teeth in Pinion gear of given pressure angle and type of tooth
p = Circular Pitch depends upon whether the gear is being
P = Diatmetral Pitch hobbed, shaped, or pre-shaved. When gears
are finish-hobbed the standard preferred
No. To Find Formula dedendum is used. When gears are cut on the
General Formulas generating type of gear shaper the clearance is
1 Base Circle Diameter Db = D cos 0 made larger so that a dedendum greater than
standard is required. In preparing gears for
2a Circular Pitch p = 3.1416D shaving, it is necessary to semi-finish hob or
N shape the gears deeper than standard depth in
order to avoid interference between the tips of
2b Circular Pitch p = 3.1416 the shaving cutter teeth and the fillet at the base
P of the gear tooth.

3a Center Distance C = Ng+Np 6.3 Tooth Thickness Allowance for Shaving —

2P Proper stock allowance is important for good

results in shaving operations. If much stock is
3b Center Distance C left for shaving, the life of the shaving tool is
=
N reduced and, in addition, shaving time is
increased. The following figures represent the
4a Diametrical Pitch P = 3.1416 amount of stock to be left on the teeth for
P removal by shaving under average conditions.
For diametral pitches of 2 to 4, a thickness of
5a Number of Teeth N = PxD .0762 mm to .1016 mm (one-half on each side
of tooth); for 5 to 6 diametral pitch, .0635 to
5b Number of Teeth N = 3.1416 0.0890 mm; for 7 to 10 diametral pitch, 0.0508
p to 0.0762 mm; for 11 to 14 diametral pitch,
0.0381 to 0.0508 mm; for 16 to 18 diametral
6a Outside Diameter: 0
D = N+2 pitch, 0.0254 mm to 0.0508 mm; for 20 to 48
(Full-depth Teeth) P diametral pitch, 0.1270 to 0.03810 mm; and 52
to 72 diametral pitch, 0.0762 to 0.01 778 mm.
6b Outside Diameter: 0
D = (N+2)r
(Full-depth Teeth) 3.1416 The thickness of the gear teeth may be
measured in several ways to determine the
7a Outside Diameter 0
D = N+1.6 amount of stock left on the sides of the teeth to
(American Std. Stub P be removed by shaving. If it is necessary to
Teeth) measure the tooth thickness during the pre
shaving operations while the gear is in the gear

272
 CHAPTER 13- MACHINE SHOP MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT

shaper or hobbing machine, a gear tooth caliper b. The root radius may vary within the limits
or pins would be employed. 0.25 to 0.39.

When the pre-shaved gear can be removed c. Tip relief may be applied within the limits
from the machine for checking, the center shown.
distance method may be employed. In this
method, the pre-shaved gear is mashed without
backlash with a gear of standard tooth thickness
and the increase in center distance over 0.02
max
06
standard is noted. The amount of total tooth max
thickness over standard is left on the pre-shaved
gear can then be determine by the formula: t
2 tan 0 x d, where: t 2 = amount that total
2 = EZ\J
thickness of the tooth.

6.4 British Standard Spur and Helical Gears — 0.39

Metric modules (R.S. 436: Part 2: 1970). The
British Standard is a metric-unit specifications
for external and internal spur and helical gears
for use with parallel shafts. Preferred and
second choice modules are given, and the
requirements for the basic rack tooth profile, and
accuracy are covered. Any of ten different
grades of accuracy may be applied to each gear
element. Thus gear requirements are met
ranging from course commercial to high-speed
and high-lead precision applications. Tolerances
on gear blanks are included in the
specifications. The standard is a companion
specifications. The standard is a companion
specification to B.S. 436: Part 1: 1967, which
covers the requirements of spur and helical
Fig. 13.6.6 (Left) British Basic Rack Tooth Profile
for Unit Normal Metric Module, and (Right)
Limits of Tip Relief (B.S. 436: Part 2: 1970)
Tolerance can also be calculated using the
appropriate formula given in the pitch tolerance
sub-table in Table 13.4. Thus, for a gear of
grade 6 accuracy, the formula is 2.5 J 1 + 6.3.
Substituting 40 mm arc length, the calculation is
2.5 40 ÷ 6.3 = 2.5 x 6.32 + 6.3 = 22.1
micrometers, which rounded down is 0.022 mm.
6.7 Gear Design upon Module System The —

gears in the inch system. module of a gear equals the pitch diameter
divided by the number of teeth, whereas
6.5 Notation To promote the international usage
— diametral pitch equals the number of teeth
of common gear terminology, the terms of draft divided by the pitch diameter. The module
ISO Recommendation No. 888, International system is in general use in countries which have
vocabulary of gears’ have been adopted, and adopted the metric system; hence the term
the notation is derived from ISO module is usually understood to mean the pitch
Recommendation R701 ‘International gear diameter in millimetres divided by the number of
notation, symbols for geometrical data. teeth. The module system

6.6 Basic Rack Tooth Profile The basic rack is

— Table 13.3
generally in agreement with ISO British Standard Spur and Helical Gears Standard
—

Recommendation R53 ‘Basic rack of cylindrical Normal Metric Modules (B.S. 436: Part 2: 1970)
gears for general and heavy engineering.’ In
practice, the basic rack tooth is usually modified, Preferred 1 1.25 1.5 2 2.5 3 4 5 6
and the extent of modification shall be in Modules
accordance with the following: Second 1.13 1.38 1.75 2.25 2.75 3.5 4.5 5.5 7
Choice
a. The total depth may vary within the limits Modules
2.25 to 2.40 which permits an increasing
Preferred 8 10 12 16 20 25 32 40 50
root clearance within the same limits to Modules
allow for the use of different manufacturing Second 9 11 14 18 22 28 25 45
processes. Choice
Modules

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 CHAPTER 13— MACHINE SHOP MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT

The values are in millimetres. 6 2.5/1 + 6.3 0.63 øf + 6.3 1 .0/b + 5.0
*Wherever possible, the preferred modules should be 7 3.55/1 + 9.0 1.0 øf + 8.0 1 .25/b + 6.3
applied rather than those of second choice. 8 5.1/1 + 12.5 1.6 øf+ 10.0 2.0/b + 10.0
9 7.1/1 + 18.0 2.5 øf+ 16.0 3.15/b +16.0
10 10.0/1 + 25.0 4.Oøf+25.0 5.0/b+ 25.0
11 14.0/1+35.0 6.3øf+40.9 8.0/b+40.0
12 20.0/1 + 50.0 10.0 øf + 63.0 12.5/b + 63.0

Limits of
Limits of Limits of
Gear Tolerance on
Tolerance Tolerance
Accur Tooth-to-
on Radial on Total
acy Tooth
Run out of Composite
Grade Composite
Teeth Error
Error
Te flanks or sides are straight (invoiste system) and the pressure angte is 20 degrees.
The shape of the root stearance space and the amount of clearance defend upon the method 3 0.56 øp + 7.1 0.32 p + 4.0 0.8 øp + 10
of cutting and special requirements. The amount of clearance may vary from 0.1 x rnoduln to
0.3 x module. 4 0.90 øp+ 11.2 0.45øp+5.6 1.25 øp+ 16.0
5 1.40 p + 18.0 0.63 p + 8.0 2.0 øp + 25.0
To Find Module Known Circular Pitch known
6 2.24 øp + 28.0 0.9 øp ÷ 11.2 3.l5øp + 40.0
Addendum Equals module 0.3 183 x circular pitch* 7 3.15 øp ÷ 40.0 1.25 øp +16.0 4.5 øp + 56.0
Dedendum 1.157 x module* 0.3183 x Circular pitch* 8 4.0 øp + 50.0 1.8 øp + 22.4 5.6 øp + 71.0
1.167 x module* 0.3ll4xCircularpitch** 5.0 øp + 63.0 2.24 øp+28.0 7.1 øp + 90.0
9
Working Depth 2 x module 0.6366 x Circular pitch** 10 6.3 øp + 80.0 2.8 p + 35.5 9.0 øp ÷ 112.0
1.157 x module* 0.6866 x Circular pitch** 11 8.Oøp+ 100.0 3.55øp45.0 ll.2øp+l4O.0
Total Depth
1.167 x module** 0.6896 x Circular pitch 12 10.0 øp+125.0 4.5 øp + 56.0 l4.Oøp+18O.0
Total Thickness on
1.5708 x module 0.5 x Circular pitch**
Pitch Line

Fig.13.6.7 German Standard Tooth Form form Spur The Limits of Tolerance are in micro-meters.
and Bevel Gears.
The values of symbols given in the above formulas
are:
number of teeth. The module system may,
however, also be based upon inch
I = any selected length of arc in millimetres, are less
measurements and then it is known as English
than d/2.
module to avoid confusion with the metric
module. Module is an actual dimension,
of = ma + 0.1 d, where ma = normal module, and
whereas diametral pitch is only a ratio. Thus, if
d = reference circle diameter in mm.
the pitch diameter of a gear is 50 millimeters
and the number of teeth 25, the module is 2
b = face width in mm, up to a maximum of 150 mm.
which means that there are 2 millimeters of
pitch diameter of each tooth. Table 13.6
op = ma + 0.25 d, where ma = normal module, and
“Tooth Dimensions Based Upon Module
d = reference circle dia.
System” shows the relation between module,
diametral pitch, and circular pitch. (*) are
Formulas for dedendum and total depth marked
used when clearance equals 0.157 x module.
Table 13.4
Formulas marked (**) are used when clearance equals
British Standard Metric Spur and Helical Gears —

one-sixth module. It is the common practice among

Basic Formulas for Limits of Tolerance on
American cutter manufacturers to make the clearance
Elements (B.S. 436: Part 2: 1970)
of metric module cutters equal to 0.157 x module.
Gear Limits of Limits of Limits of
Accura Tolerance Tolerance Tolerance on
cy on Pitch on Tooth Tooth
Grade Profile Alignment
3 0.63/1+ 1.6 0.l6øf+3.15 0.5/b+2.5
4 1.0/1 + 2.5 0.25øf+4.0 0.63/b+3.15
5 1.6/1 + 4.0 0.40 øf + 5.0 0.80/b + 4.0

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 CHAPTER 13- MACHINE SHOP MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT

Table 13.5
Rules for Module System of Gearing Diametral Rule: To find the diametral pitch
Pitch equivalent to a given module, divide 25.4
Equivalent to by the module (25.4 = number of
Rule 1: To find the metric module, divide Metric millimeters per inch.)
the pitch diameter in millimetres by the Module
number of teeth. Example: The module is 12; determine
equivalent diametral pitch
Example 1: The pitch diameter of a gear
is 200 millimeters and the number of equivalent diametral pitch = 25A = 2:17
teeth, 40; then 12
module 200 = 5
= Note: A diametral pitch of 2 is nearest
40 standard of equivalent.
Metric Rule 2: Multiply circular pitch in
Module millimetres by 0.3183 Rule: Multiply number of teeth by module

Example 2: (Same as example 1. Example: The metric module is 8 and

Circular pitch of this gear equals 15.708 Pitch gear has 40 teeth; then
millimeters). Diameter
d = 40 x 8 = 320 millimeters = 12.598
module = 15.708 x 0.31 83 5 inches
Rule 3: Divide outside diameter in
millimeters by the number of teeth plus Outside Rule: Add 2 to the number of teeth and
2. Diameter multiply sum by the module.

Example: A gear has 40 teeth and

Note: The module system is usually module is 6. Find outside or blank
applied when gear dimensions are diameter.
expressed in millimeters, but module
may also be based upon inch Outside Diameter (40 + 2) X 6 = 252
measurements. millimeters.
Rule: To find the English module, divide
English the pitch diameter in inches by the Section 7.0 Guarding of Point of
Module number of teeth. Operating in Turning, Drilling, Shaping,
Milling and Grinding Operations.
module = 12 1 module or 4 diametral
48 4 pitch 7.1 Turning Machines Machines performing
—.

turning operations include engine lathes,

—

Rule: To find the metric module turrets lathes, hollow spindle lathes, automatic
equivalent to a given diametral pitch, lathes and automatic screw machines.
divide 25.4 by the diametral pitch.

Example: Determine metric module Type of Accidents Suitable Guards

Metric equivalent to 10 diametral pitch
Module (a) Contact with (1) Head-stock guard
Equivalent to equivalent module = 25.4 = 2.54 projections of (2) Chuck guard
Diatmetral 10 face plates
Pitch
Note: The nearest standard module is (b) Contact with (1) Counter sunk screw
2.5 projection to
the dogs and
projecting set
screws

275
 CHAPTER 13— MACHINE SHOP MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT
Table 13.6
(c) Flying of metal (1) Enclosure guard Tooth Dimensions Based Upon Module System
chips or long (2) Portable perspex
burrs and screenguard Addendu Whole Whole
Me
DIN
Equivalent J Millimet
Circular Pitch
m, Dedendum, Depth Depth, 1’
turnings (3) Use chip breaker-tool to Standar
Diametral
Inches Millimeter Millimeters* Millimeter Millimeter
Pitch ers a s S
eliminate long turnings dSeries
6.35 0.650 0.647
0.3 84.667 0.943 0.0371 0.3
0.4 63.500 1.257 0.0495 0.4 0.467 0.867 0.863
0.5 50.800 1.57 1 0.0618 0.5 0.583 1.083 1.079
0.6 42.333 1.885 0.0742 0.6 0.700 1.300 1.294
(d) Hand braking (1) Foot-pedal brake with 0.7 36.286 2.199 0.0865 0.7 0.817 1.5 17 1.510
of machines triple-switch 0.8 31 .750 2.513 0.0989 0.8 0.933 1.733 1.726
0.9 28.222 2.827 0.1113 0.9 1.050 1.950 1.94 1
(2) Pneumatic chuck and 25.400 3.142 0.1237 1.167 2.167 2.157
freeding tools for small 1.25 20.320 3.927 0.1546 1.25 1.458 2.708 2.697
1.5 16.933 4.712 0.1855 1.5 1.750 3.250 3.236
jobs 2.042 3.792 3.774
1.75 14.514 5.498 0.2164 1.75
2 12.700 6.283 0.2474 2 2.333 4.333 4.314
(1) Automatic emerging 7.069 0.2783 2.25 2.625 4.875 4.853
(e) Filling 2.25 11.289
2.50 2.917 5.417 5.392
2.5 10.160 7.854 0.3092
emerging Emery holder 2.75 9.236 8.639 0.3401 2.75 3.208 5.958 5.932
without a 3 8.466 9.425 0. 37 11 3.00 3.500 6.500 6.471
3.25 7.815 10.2 10 0.4020 3.25 3.791 7.041 7.010
suitable device 3.5 7.257 10.996 0.4329 3.50 4.083 7.583 7.550
3.75 6.773 11.781 0.4638 3.75 4.375 8.125 8.089
12.566 0.4947 4.0 4.666 8.666 8.628
(f) Gauging the (1) Dial indicators. 4 6.350
4.5 5.25 9.750 9.707
4.5 5.644 14. 137 0.5566
job while 5 5.080 15.708 0.6184 5.0 5.833 10.8331 10.785
17.279 0.6803 5.5 6.416 1.9 1613 11.864
machine is in 5.5 4.618
7.000 .000 12.942
6 4.233 18.850 0.7421 6
motion. 6.5 3.908 20.420 0.8035 6.5 7.583 14.083 14.021
7 3.628 21.991 0.8658 7 8.166 15.166 15.099
8 3.175 25.132 0.9895 8 9.333 17.333 17.256
(g) Attempting to (1) Safety hook/brush. 2.822 28.274 0.1132 9 10.499 19.499 19.413
9
clean chips 10 2.540 31 .416 1.2368 10 11.666 21 .666 21 .571
11 2.309 34.558 1.3606 11 12.833 23.8332 23.728
when job is in 2.117 37.699 1.4843 12 14.000 6.00028 25.684
12
motion. 13 1.954 40.841 1.6079 13 15. 166 .166 28.04 1
14 1.8 14 43,982 1.7317 14 16.332 30.332 30. 198
15 1.693 47. 124 1.854 1 15 17.499 32.499 32.355
(h) Projection of (1) Tube guard 16 1.587 50.266 1.9790 16 18. 666 34.666 34. 512
the work or (2) Bar-stock guard 18 1.411 56.549 2.2263 18 21.000 39.000 38.826
20 1.270 62.832 2.4737 20 23.332 43.332 43. 142
stock 22 1.155 69.115 2.7210 22 25.665 47.665 47.454
beyond 24 1.058 75.398 2.9685 24 28.000 52.000 51 .768
27 0.941 84.823 3.339 27 31 .498 58.498 58.239
machine 94.24 3.7 11 30 35.000 65.000 64.713
30 0.847
33 0.770 103.673 4.082 33 38.498 71 .498 71.181
(1) Splash guard 113.097 4.453 36 41.998 77.998 77.652
(i) Flying off the 36 0.706
45.497 84.497 84. 123
39 0.651 122.522 4.824 39
job from the (2) Full enclosure guard 42 0.605 131 .947 5.195 42 48.997 90.997 90.594
two centres 45 0.564 141.372 5.566 45 52.497 97.497 97.065
50 0.508 157.080 6.184 50 58.330 108.330 107.855
due to sudden 55 0.462 172.788 6.803 55 64.163 119.163 118.635
movement of 60 0.423 188.496 7.421 60 69.996 129.996 129.426
65 0.391 204.204 8.040 65 75.829 140.829 140.205
the tool jerking 219.911 8.658 70 81 .662 151 .662 150.775
70 0.363
back of the tail 75 0.339 235.619 9.276 75 87.495 162.495 161 .775
stock

(j) Inserting Spindle jaws, Mechanical *Dedendum and total depth when clearance = 0.1666
blanks and feeding device like that of x module, or one-sixth module.
moving the F.H.J. Safety fixture tTotal depth equivalent to American standard full-
processed pert- depth teeth. (Clearance = 0.157 x module.)
without
stopping
Special Accidents in Turrets & Capstan Lathes:
(k) Splashing of Splash guard/Enclosure (a) Counter-wL falling (1) Tube guard
coolant guard mounted on rollers. and bar flying thro’ (2) Blank off hole
resulting in turret head
slipping Special Accident in Multispindle Lathe:
hazards and (a) Collecting component Wire-mesh, spoon
dermatitis while just parting off

276
 CHAPTER 13— MACHINE SHOP MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT

(b) Top parted off Sharpening tools properly (a) Removing swan by Brush, Magnetic
component comes in hand using rag to sweep
between tool and of clean excess oil while
first spindle. it is running

(b) Failure to clamp the Permanent magnetic

7.2 Boring Machines Machine performing boring
-
work properly plate fitted on bed
functions-including vertical and horizontal boring according to
mills, jig borers, drilling machines, reamers and connection
honing machine.
(c) Leaving the cutter Extending flexible
A sleeve guard for spindle, telescopic grill guard exposed after the job guard, automatic
for tool or a combined chuck and drill guard can has been withdrawn guard, fixed-bar type
be provided. Spinning of unclamped job and guard or interlocked
subsequent breakable of tool and injury to the guard
operator can be eBminated by clamping if the job
is small or providing iron plate on the table when (d) Failure to draw the job Fixed guard
the job is big. back to a safe
distance when loading
Causes of injury in drilling operations are: and unloading

(a) Contact with the spindle relescopic chuck (e) Slipping of spanner Use of proper spanner
and drill bits and spindle guard while adjusting,
tighten, loosening etc.
(b) Breaking ofa tool and Clamps or use of
lunt it bit L angle iron (f) Attempting to remove Education and
the nut from the Training
(c) Being struck by a job Clamps or use of machine arber by
due to insecurely L angle iron applying power to the
clamped work machine

(d) Catching of hair or loose Cage type guard

sleeve in the revolving
spindle and bit
le) Sweepinq chips by hand Brush
7.3 MiNing Machines — Hazards involve are
contact with revolving cutters generally occurs in
removing chips and waste; flying chips; unsafe
operating practice such as tightening the arber
nut by using the power of the machine or
attempting to adjust the work of the tool while
the machine is in motion and working loose
Varieties of guards have been developed for the
horizontal and vertical milling machine, from a
simple enclosure type of guard to the self
closing guard, in which the cutter is entirely
enclosed when the table is withdrawn and the
guard opens automatically as the table moves
— forward for operation.
Vertical milling machines: Segment
guard and enclosed guard may be
used according to the condition.
7.4 Planning Machines Machine tools performing
—

clothing. Fixed guard, automatic guard and
interlocked guard of innumerable kinds are
available for thee, as described.
Horizontal & Vertical Bed Movement.
About 2/3 of all milling machine accidents occur
when operators unload and load, or make
planning operation include basic planer, shaper,
slotters, broacher and key seaters. Modern
machine tools are designed and built in such a
way that all the transmission parts are guarded
properly with built-in guards. Point of operation
guarding is to made according to operation.
a. Hazards in Planers Struck by the moving
—

adjustments, when running. Other causes of table or by material on the table; caught
injuries are: between the table and the frame or bed of
the machine. In case of huge planning
machines a fall from the table or the bed, fall

277
 CHAPTER 13- MACHINE SHOP MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT

between the uprights may be a serious a. Accidents occur due to the following:
matter. Unsafe practices such as changing
stop dogs when the machine is in motion, 1. Failure to use suitable protective
riding the table during the operation. equipment like goggle face shield
Hazards lie in handling material into or out etc.
of machine and removing chips. 2. Holding the work improperly.
3. No work rest or improperly adjusted
Guard rail or barrier to close off any space work nest.
less than 457.2 mm between fixed part and 4. Improper or no wheel guard.
planner bed. Self adjusting table guard on 5. Excessive wheel speed.
the sides of the planner are essential. 6. Cleaning, adjusting or gauging work
while the machine is in motion.
b. Hazards in Shapers — Flying chips; flying 7. Side grinding
job if the work is not securely clamped; 8. Using wrong type of wheel.
attempting to adjust machine while it is in 9. Bursting of wheels, due to
motion; caught between ram and fixed excessive tightening or damage in
object and out injuries in removing chip. transit.
Shaper can be provided with a combination 10. Applying work too quickly to a cold
container for chips and transparent shield wheel.
for tool, a retriever to the limit of the stroke 11. Vibration due to improper balance.
of ran channel. The reversing dogs on the 12. Applying too heavy a cut.
planers and shapers should be covered. If 13. Using a spindle with incorrect
the planner bed travels within 457.2 mm of a diameter.
wall or fixed objects, there should be barrier 14. Threads on spindle tends to loosen
to prevent entrapping. the nut as spindle revolves.
15. Wrong size of flanges or flanges of
Breaches may be covered with transparent unequal diameter.
cover and guarded by two-hand electric 16. Flanges with un-relieved centers.
interlocks. 17. Failure to use wheel washers.
18. Wheel out of balance.
7.5 Grinding Machines Internal grinding, external
—
19. Grinding too high above the centre
or cylindrical grinding, surface grinding, line of the wheel.
polishing, buffing, honing are classified under 20. Incorrect dressing of the wheel.
this cadre.
7.6 Proper Inspection and Storage:
Wheel guard and eye shield can be fitted to
prevent the most common accident due to flying (a) “Ring” test by qualified person.
of particles on tool grinders. Segment guard for (b) Proper storing in dry area.
portable grinders. Wheel guard and enclosure (c) Then speed test while installing.
for surface grinders:

278
 CHAPTER 14- MANUFACTURING PROCESS

Chapter 14

MANUFACTURING
PROCESS

Section 1.0 Definition Section 2.0 Classification of

Manufacturing Processes
Hobbing A method of making molds for the plastics
—

and die casting industries. 2.1 Processes used to change the shape of materials

Infiltration The process of filling the pores of a

—
Extraction from Ore
sintered product with molten metal in order to decrease Casting
porosity or to improve physical properties. Hot and Cold Working
Powder Metallurgy Forming
Interferometry The science of measuring with light
—
Plastic Moulding
waves, measuring to the millionth part of an inch
(approx. 25 mm). The small instrument is known as Most metal products originate as an ingot casting
optical flats. from one of the many ore-reducing or ore-refining
processes. Molten metal is poured into metal or
Intraforming A process in which metal is squeezed
—
graphite molds to form ingots of convenient size
at a pressure of about 300 tons (4000MP5) or less into and shape for further processing.
a die or mandrel to produce an internal configuration.
Processes used primarily to change the shape of
Ironing A name given to an operation for sizing and
—

metals include the following.

thinning the walls of drawn cups.
Casting Forging Extruding
Metal Spinning The operation of shaping thin metal
—
Rolling Drawing Squeezing
Crushing Piercing Swaging
by pressing it against f form while rotating. Bending Shearing Spinning
Stretch Forming Roll Forming Torch Cutting
Piercing The— method of cold working by Explosive Forming Magnetic Forming Electroforming
compression. Powder Metal Forming Plastic Molding Electrohydraulic
Forming
Powder Metallurgy The art of producing commercial
—

products from metallic powders by pressure. In this group of processes, material is changed
into its primary form for some selected part.
Spinning — The operation of shaping thin metal by Sometimes, the parts are suitably finished for
pressing it against a form while it is rotating. commercial use, as in metal spinning, cold rolling
of shafting, die casting, stretch forming of sheet
Swaging A force in impact which causes the metal to
—
metal and drawing wire. Other times neither the
flow in some predetermined shape according to the dimensions nor the surface finish are satisfactory
design of the dies. for the final product, and further work on the part
is necessary. It should be noted that the last
Toughening A form of tempering used to enhance
—
three processes, eleCtroforming, the forming of
the toughness of a hardened steel where high hardness powder metal parts and plastic moulding do not
is not particularly needed in service. originate as a casting. Electroformed parts are
produced by electrolytic deposition of metal onto
Ultra Sonic Impact Grinding A means of cutting
—
a conductive performed pattern. Metal is supplied
shapes of all kinds by the rapid motion of abrasive from the electrolyte and a bar of pure metal that
particles. acts as an anode. Parts of controlled thickness,
having high pressure can be made by this
process. The method used in the production of

279
 CHAPTER 14— MANUFACTURING PROCESS
powder metal products requires a heating
operation to assist in bonding the particles
together. Plastic are molded under heat and/or
pressure to conform to the configuration of a
mold. Explosive, electrohydraulic, and magnetic
forming are high-energy rate processes in which
parts are formed very rapidly by extremely high
pressures.
2.2 Processes used for machining parts to a fixed
dimension
Traditional machining, chip removal
Non-traditional machining
a. In manufacturing any product there are
usually a number of machining operations,
which may be classified as follows:
Turning Planning Shaping Drilling
Boring Reaming Sewing Broaching
Milling Grinding Robbing Routing
b. Non-traditional machining process:
ultrasonic Electrical discharge Electro-Arc
Optical laser Electrochemical Chem-Milling
Abrasive jet cutting Electro beam machining Plasma-Arc
machining
In these secondary operations, which are
necessary for many products requiring close
dimensional accuracy, metal is removed from the
parts in small chips. Such operations are
performed on machine tools which include the
various power-driven machines used for culling
metal. All of these operate on either a
reciprocating or a rotary-type principle: Either the
tool or the work reciprocates or rotates as
indicated. The planer is an example of
reciprocating machine, since the work
reciprocates past the tool, which is held in a
stationary position. In other machines, such as
the shaper, the work is stationary and the tool
reciprocates. Rotary machines are exemplified by
the lather, which has the work rotating and the
tool stationary. In the drill press it is the tool that
rotates.
In ultrasonic machining, metal is removed by
abrasive grains which are carried in a liquid and
bombard the work surface at high velocity. The
velocity is generated by means of an ultrasonic
generator. For electrical discharge and electro
arc machining, special arcs are generated that
can be used to machine any conducting material.
The optical laser is a strong beam of photons that
can be used to generate extremely high
temperature and thus cut or weld metal.
280
Chemical machining is done either attacking the
metal chemically or by using a reverse plating
process.
2.3 Process for obtaining a surface finish. Surface
finishing operations are used to insure a smooth
surface, great accuracy, aesthetic appearance, or
protective coating. Processes used are:
Polishing Abrasive belt grinding Barrel tumbling
Electroplating Honing Lapping
Super finishing Metal Spraying Inorganic coating
Parke rizing Anodizing Sheradizing
In this group there are processes that cause little
change in dimension and result primarily in
finishing the surface. Other processes, such as
grinding, remove some metal and bring the part
to a pre-planned dimension in addition to giving it
a good finish. In the processes such as honing,
lapping and polishing it is a matter of removing
small scratches with little change in dimension.
Super finishing is also a surface improving
process that removes undesirable fragmented
metal, leaving a base of solid crystalline metal.
Plating and similar processes, used to obtain
corrosion-resisting surfaces or just to give a
better appearance, do not change dimensions
materially.
2.4 Process used for joining parts of materials.
Products requiring the assembly of two or more
parts are usually joined by one of the following
processes:
Welding Soldering Brazing Sintering
Pressing Riveting Screw Fastening Adhesive joining
Welding is the fusion or uniting of metal parts by
heat and pressure. Soldering and brazing
operations are similar except that the parts are
joined by introducing a different metal between
the two in a molten state. Sintering applies to the
bonding of metallic particles by the application of
heat. Structural adhesives in the form of powder,
liquids, solids and tapes are widely used in the
joining of metals, wood glass cloth and plastic.
2.5 Processes used to change the physical
properties. There are number of processes in
which the physical properties of he material are
changed by the application of an elevated
temperature or from rapid or repeated stressing
of the material. Processes in which properties are
changed include:
Heat Treatment Hot Working
Cold Working Shot Peening
 CHAPTER 14 - MANUFACTURING PROCESS
Heat treating includes a number of processes
that results in changing the properties and
structure of metals. Although both hot and cold
working are primarily processes for changing the
shape of metals, these processes have
considerable influence on both the structure and
the properties of the metal. Shot peening renders
many small parts, such as springs, resistant to
fatigue failure.
Section 3.0 Processes
3.1 Brazing A group of welding operation in which
—
a non-ferrous filler metal melts at a temperature
below that of the metal joined but is heated above
425°C. The molten filler metal flows by capillarity
between the heated but unmelted adjacent or
overlapping joint members or is melted in place
between these members.
Filler metals are divided into two classes: copper
aNoys and silver alloys.
Copper alloyed with zinc, tin, nickel, phosphorous
or silver is brazed at 705°C to 175°C.
Silver alloyed with copper, zinc, tin, calcium,
manganese, nickel or phosphorous is brazed at
635°C to 843°C.
3.2 Blow Molding Is used primarily to produce tin
—
walled hollow containers from thermoplastic
resin. A cylinder of plastic materials, known as
parison, is extruded as rapidly as possible and
positioned between the jaws of a split mold. As
the mold is closed, it pinches off the parison and
the product is completed by air pressure forcing
the materials against the mold surface.
3.3 Cold Drawing — Hot rolled stack is descaled,
cleaned and prepared for drawing. A common
way of treating steel is to immerse it in hot
sulphuric acid, rinse, coat with lime and bake.
The leading end of a piece is tapered for insertion
through the die. A piece is pulled though a hole
of a smaller size and emerges corresponding
reduced in size wire is pulled by being wound on
a drum as it comes out of the die. Rods, bars
and tubes are pulled in a straight line by
mechanical means. A mandrel is inserted in a
tube to control the size of the inside diameter.
Drawing pressure against a die must exceed the
yield strength of the work material and commonly
is as much as 7042 to 21126 kg/cm2 for steel.
Steel is only to slide through a die coated by a
281
lubricant that stands up under such tremendous
pressures.
Dies must be hard and wear-resistant as well as
strong. They are made of children iron, hardened
alloy steel, cemented carbide and diamond.
3.4 Electro-Forming — Is one of the special
processes for forming metals. Parts are produced
by electrolytic deposition of metal upon a
conductive removable mold or matrix. The mold
established the sizes and surface smoothness of
the finished product. Metal is applied to the
conductive mold, from electrolytic solution in
which a bar of pure metal acts as an anode for
the plating current. It is particularly valuable for
fabricating thin walled parts requiring a high order
of accuracy. Internal surface finish and
complicated internal forms that are difficult to
cure or machine.
3.5 Explosive Forming —An excellent method of
utilizing energy at a high rate, since the gas
pressure and rate of detonation can be carefully
controlled. Both low and high explosives, known
as cartridge system, the expanding gas is
confined and pressure may build up to 7042
. High explosives which need to be
2
kg/cm
confined and which detonate with a high velocity
may attain pressures of up to 20 times that of
flow liquid set up intense shock waves that pass
through the medium between the change and the
work piece but decrease in intensity as the waves
spread over more areas.
3.6 Electroplating Electroplating is done on all the
—
common metals and even on many metal after
their surfaces have been prepared. The piece to
be plated is immersed in a water solution of salts
of the metal to be applied and made the cathode
in a direct current circuit. Anodes of the coating
metal replenish the solution when the current is
flowing and ions of metal are attracted to the
work piece to form the coating. The rate of
deposition and the properties of the plate such as
hardness, uniformity and porosity depend upon
getting a proper balance among the composition
of the plating solution, current density, agitation,
solution acidity and temperature.
3.7 Extrusion Many plastics are extruded into long
—
shapes by being forced through dies. Sometimes
this is done intermittently by a plunger in a
cylinder, but the common continuous method are
the material drops from a hopper into a heated
cylinder in which it is pushed along and out
through the opening in the die by screw.
 CHAPTER 14— MANUFACTURING PROCESS

open the die. The stock is moved to the next

Many thermoplastic materials can be extruded
into tube, rod, film sheet and other shapes.
Reinforced thermosetting tube and rod are
formed by extruding reinforcing fiber soaked in
liquid resin and passing the extruded shape
slowly though a heated tube to allow it
polymerize.
Extrusion is rapid and more economical than
molding for many parts.
3.8 Forging
station, and the cycle is repeated.
e. Roll Forging — Two half rolls are arranged
on parallel shafts for roll forging. These roll
segments have one or more sets of grooves.
A piece of stock is placed between the rolls,
which in turn squeeze the stock in one set of
grooves. The stock transferred to a second
set of grooves, the roll turn again and so on
until the piece is finished. Bar stock may be
increased in length, reduce in diameter and
changes in section as desired.

a. Hammer Forging A hot work piece is

— f. Foundries — Iron foundry comprises of six
placed on an anvil and struck repeatedly by a basic sections:
hammer.
1. Melting and pouring
b. Drop Forging — The operation of forming
parts hot on drop hammer with impression or 2. Moulding
cavity dies. The products are known as drop
forging closed-die forging or impression die 3. Core-making, including sand
forging. They are made from carbon and preparation
alloy steels and alloy of aluminium copper,
magnesium and nickels, stock in the form of 4. Knock-out, including decoring and
the heated end of a bar, slug or individual sand reclamation
billet is placed in a cavity in the bottom half of
a forging die on the anvil of a drop hammer. 5. Fettling, including inspection and
The upper half is attached to the hammer or testing
ram and fall on the stock which is made to
flow into and fill cavity. 6. Pattern-Making

c. Press Forging — This is done in presses

rather than with hammer. The action is
relatively slow squeezing instead of pending
and penetrates deeply because it gives time
to flow. Dies may have less draft vibration
and noise are less and a press may have a
less bulk than a tons per square inch of
projected area on the parting plane have
been found to be 5-20 for brass, 10—20 for
aluminium, 15—30 for steel, 20-40 for
titanium.

d. Upset Forging —Also called hot reading and

machine forging, consist of applying
lengthwise pressure to a hot bar held
between grooved dies to enlarge some
section or sections, usually the end. The
work piece may have any original uniform
cross sections, but is mostly round and 3.9 Furnace, Kilns, Ovens Principal operation
—

maybe of steel, aluminium, copper, bronze or
other metal. A piece of hot stock is placed in
the cavity on one side of the die. The
machine is stripped, closes the two halves of
the die to grip the stock, pushes the punch
into upset the stock, retract the punch and
performed in furnaces, ovens and kilns.
a. Furnace, smelting and reduction melting and
refining heat treating, brazing and soldering,
heating for hot working, boiler furnaces and
incinerators.

282
 CHAPTER 14— MANUFACTURING PROCESS
b. Kiln, cement kiln, lime kiln, ceramic kiln and
drying kilns.
c. Oven, drying and caring, baking, decorating
and solvent evaporation.
The automatic controls that regulate fuel and
air supply and ensure the correct
temperature should be maintained in good
conditions, these controls should be
calibrated at frequent intervals.
3.10 Galvanizing A process by which zinc coating is
— be exceeded. A notice indicating the spindle
applied to a wide variety of steel product to
provide protection against corrosion.
Two basic method of galvanizing:
a Hot dip-galvanizing dipping or passing the
steel product through a bath of molten zinc.
b Cold electro galvanizing-process of providing
any metal with a zinc coating by means of an
electric current.
3.11 Grinding, Polishing A process of finishing
— operator’s hand could be caught and injured.
various materials for either safety, operational or
aesthetic appearances. Many machine parts
undergo precision finishing to meet their
operational requirements. This process utilizes
high speed rotating wheels that are hazardous to
operators and the surrounding areas. The
following precautions shall be carefully followed:
3.12 Metallizing
a. Handling and Storing — A wheel may
become damaged or cracked during transit or
handling, moisture may attack the bonding
agent in phenolic resin wheel, ultimately
reducing their strength. Vitrified wheels
maybe sensitive to repeated temperature
variations; irregularly absorbed moisture may
throw the wheel out of balance. Wheels are
carefully handled at all stages and kept in an
orderly manner in a dry and protected place.
3.13 Magnetic Forming This is another example of
b. Checking for Crack A new wheel should
— the direct conversion of electrical energy into
be checked to ensure that it is undamaged
and dry, most simply trapping with a worden
mallet.
c. Testing — Before the new wheel is put into
service, it should be tested at full speed with
due precaution being observed. After wet
grinding, the wheel should be run idle to eject
the water otherwise the water may collect at
the bottom of the wheel and cause imbalance
which may result to bursting.
283
d. Mounting —Accident and breakages occur
when wheel are mounted on unsuitable
apparatus or spindle end of buffing
machines. The spindle should be of adequate
diameter but not be large as to expand the
center hole of the wheel; flanges should be
not less than one-third the diameter of the
wheel and made of mild steel or of similar
materials.
e. Speed The maximum permissible operating
—
speed specified by the manufacturer shall not
speed should be fitted to all grinding
machines and the wheel should be marked
with the maximum permissible speed and the
corresponding number of revolution for the
new wheel.
f. Work Rest — Work rest of adequate
dimension and rigidly mounted should be
provided. They should be adjustable and kept
as close as possible to the wheel to prevent a
trap in which the work might be forced
against the wheel and break it or the
Abrasive Wheel should be provided with
guards strong enough to contain the parts of
a bursting wheel. The grinding opening
should be as small as possible and an
adjustable nose piece maybe necessary.
—The equipment for metal spraying
consist of a pistol-shaped spray gun (Schooping
gun) through which the metal, in the form of wire
is fed to a blowpipe flame which melt it, the
molten metal thus produced being sprayed by a
steam of compressed air surrounding the flame.
The heat source on the blowpipe is a fuel
gas/oxygen flame and the fuel gas maybe either
acetylene, propane or compressed town gas.
—
useful work. The process involved charging
voltage is supplied by a high voltage source into
a bank of capacitors connected in parallel. The
amount of energy stored can be varied by either
adding capacitors to the bank or by increasing
the voltage. The charging operation is very rapid
and when complete a high voltage switch triggers
the stored electrical energy through the coils
establishing a rapid high intensity magnetic field.
This field induced a current into the conductive
acts on the work piece.
 CHAPTER 14— MANUFACTURING PROCESS
3.14 Plastic Processes The processes employed in
— of finished shapes to be made, they are first
plastic technology are compression moulding,
transfer moulding, injection moulding, extrusion,
calendaring, blow moulding, film forming, thermal
forming vacuum forming, laminating and resin
technology processes.
The hazard in plastic processing are associated
with the use of machines. Moulding machines
have press platens or dies with locking forces of
many tonnes per square centimetres and these
should be adequately guarded to prevent
crushing injuries. Plastic processing machine
operate at high temperature and severe burn if
body come in contact with the hot metal.
3.15 Presses — The process of pressing is used to
mould or cut many different materials. In
mechanical metal press it works on an
intermittent reciprocating system and so requires
a clutch.
Accident occurs when workers hand is between
the dies as they close either during an expected
stroke because for some reason the worker has
failed to remove his hand or during a repeat
stroke when the worker is feeling on with drawing
work between the dies.
3.16 Plasma-Arc In a plasma-torch, a gas is heated
— These are eliminated in the three-high mill.
by a tungsten arc to such a high temperature that
it becomes ionized and acts as a conductor of
electricity. The torch is generally designed so that
the gas is closely confined to the arc column
through a small orifice. This increases the
temperature of the plasma and concentrates its
energy on a small area of the work piece which
rapidly melts the metal.
3.17 Rolling —Steel ingots that are not to be re
melted and cast into molds are converted to
useful products in two steps;
a. RoIling the steel into intermediate shape-
blooms, billet and slabs
b. Processing blooms, billets and slabs into
plate, sheets, structural shapes or foils
The steel remains in ingots molds until the
solidifications are about to complete when the
molds are removed. While still hot, the ingots are
placed in gas-fired furnaces called soaking pits
where they attain or remain until they have
attained a uniform working temperature of about
1 200°C throughout. The ingots are then taken in
the rolling mill where, because of the large variety
284
rolled into such intermediate shapes as blooms,
billets or slabs. A bloom has a square cross
section with a minimum size of 150 mm x 150
mm. A billet is smaller than a bloom and may
have a square section from 38.1 mm up to the
size of a bloom. Slab maybe rolled from either
ingot or a bloom. They have a rectangular cross
sectional area with a minimum width of 250 mm
and a minimum thickness which maybe as much
as 380 mm. Plates skelp and thin strips are rolled
from slabs.
Most primary rolling is done in either a two-high
reversing mill or a three-high reversing mill. The
piece passes through the roll which then stopped
reversed in direction and the operalion is
repeated. At frequent intervals the metal is turned
90 degrees on its side to keep the section
uniform and to refine the metal throughout. About
30 passes are required to reduce a large ingot
into a bloom. Grooves are provided on both the
upper and the lower rolls to accommodate the
various reductions in cross-sectional area. The
two high rolling is quite versatile, since it has a
wide range of adjustment as to size of pieces and
rates of reductions. It is limited by the length that
can be rolled and by the inertia forces which must
be overcome each time a reversal is made.
Three-high mill is less expensive to make and
has a higher output than the reversing mill.
Billets could be rolled to size in a large mill used
for blooms, but this is not usually done for
economic reasons. Frequently they are rolled
from bloom in a continuous billet mill consisting of
about eight rolling stands in a straight line. The
steel makes but one pass throughout the mill and
emerge with a final billet size approximately 50
mm x 50 mm which is the raw materials for many
final shaped as bars, tubes and forging.
3.18 Riveting Mechanical means of permanently
—
fastening parts together to rivet two parts, a rivet
is put through a hole and its head placed on an
anvil. A punch with a hollowed end mashes the
stem to close the rivet. Some rivets are hollowed
and their edges are curled outward.
3.19 Sizing — Product requiring close tolerance may
necessitate a final operation such as repressing
the part in a die similar to the one for compacting
it. Such sizing is a cold working operation that
improves surface hardness and smoothness as
well as dimension accuracy.
 CHAPTER 14- MANUFACTURING PROCESS

3.20 Stretch Forming — In forming a large thin metal most cases the effect of the heating is complete
involving symmetrical shape or double curve in a very short time. Furnaces for sintering may
bends, a metal stretch press can be used either be by batch or continuous type.
effectively. A single die mounted on a ram is
placed between the slides that grip the metal 3.22 Soldering —Uniting of two pieces of metal by
sheet. The die moves in a vertical direction and means of a different metal which is applied
the slides move horizontally large forces of 50 to between the two in a molten state. The metal for
150 tons (0.5 to 1.3M) are provided for the die this purpose is a low-melting alloy of lead and tin.
slides. The process is a stretching one and
causes the sheet to be stressed above its elastic SOLDERING
limit while conforming to die shape. This
accompanied by a slight thinning of the sheet and Hard Soft
action is such that there is little spring back to the
metal once it is formed. I I
Brazing Silver Soldering Soldering Iron Wiping
321 Sintering — Application of heat, which must be
kept at a temperature below the melting point of 3.23 Thermo-Forming Consists of heating a
—

the metal powder, in the production of
commercial products from metallic powders by
pressure or atomic forces, and resulting in the
bonding of fine particles together, thus improving
the strength and other properties of the finished
thermo-plastic sheet until it softens and then
forcing it to conform to some mold either by
differential air pressure or mechanical means.
3.24 Ultrasonic Machining A mechanical process
—

product. Products made by powder metallurgy
are frequently mixed with different metal powders
or contain non-metallic constituents to improve
the bonding qualities of the particles and
improved certain properties or characteristics of
the final product. Cobalt or other metal is
necessary in the bonding of tungsten carbide
was designed to effectively machine hard brittle
materials. It removes materials by the use of
abrasive grains that are carried in a liquid
between the tool and the work and bombard the
work surface at high velocity.
3.25 Wire Drawing Wire is made by cold drawing
—

particles, whereas graphite is added with bearing-
metal powders to improve the lubricating qualities
of the finished bearing. Sintering is an operation
in which the particles are fused together in such a
way that the density is increased. During the
process grain boundaries are formed which is the
beginning or recrystallization. Plasticity is
increased, and better mechanical interlocking is
produced by building a fluid network. The
temperatures used in sintering are usually well
below the melting point of the principal powder
constituent but may vary over a wide range up to
a temperature just below the melting point Tests
.
hot rolled wire rod through one or more dies to
decrease its size and increase the physical
properties. The wire rod, about 6 mm in diameter,
is rolled from a single billet and cleaned in an
acid bath to remove scale, rust and coating. The
coating is applied to prevent oxidation, neutralize
any remaining acid and to act as a lubricant or a
coating to which a later applied lubricant may
cling.
3.26 Welding and Thermal Cutting — The three
common direct source of heat are:

have proved that there is usually an optimum a. Flame produced by combustion of fuel gas
sintering temperature for a given set of with air or oxygen.
conditions.
b. Electrical arc, stwck between an electrode
For most metals, sintering temperature can be and a work piece or between two electrodes.
obtained in commercial furnaces, but for some
metals requiring high temperature, special c. Electrical resistance offered to passage of
furnaces must be constructed. There is current between two or more work piece.
considerable range in the sintering temperature,
but the following temperatures have proved Types of Welding:
satisfactory: 1 095°C for iron, 1 180°C for
stainless steel, 870 for copper and 1 480°C for 1. Gas Welding
tungsten carbide. Sintering times range from 20 2. ArcWelding
to 40 minutes for the above listed metals. The 3. Atomic Hydrogen Welding Welding
time element varies with different metals, but in 4. Electro-Beam Welding
5. Electro-Slug Welding

285
 CHAPTER 14— MANUFACTURING PROCESS

6. Flash Welding
7. Friction Welding 5. Electro-SIug Welding The work piece
—

8. Laser Welding and Drilling are usually set vertically, with a gap
9. Metal Spraying between them and copper plates or
10. Plasma-Arc Welding shoes are placed one or both sides of the
11. Resistance Welding joint to form a bath at the bottom of which
12. Spark Erosion Machining an arc is established under a flux lager
13. Stud Welding between one or more continuously fed
14. Thermal Welding electrode wires and a metal plate.

1. Gas Welding — The process in which
gases are used in combination to obtain
a hot flame. Commonly used are
acetylene, natural gas, hydrogen in
combination with oxygen. The maximum
temperature developed for oxy-hydrogen
welding is 1 965°C for Oxy-acetylene
Welding is 3 440°C.
6. Flash Welding (Butt Welding) —The
two metal parts to be welded are
connected to a low voltage high current
source. When the end of the components
are brought into a contact, a large current
flows causing flashing to occur and
bringing the end of the components to
welding temperature.

2. Electric-Arc Welding A process

— 7. Friction Welding (Cold Welding) A—

wherein the metal is heated to its liquid
state and allowed to solidify thereby
making the joint. Heating is achieved
through an electric arc between an
electrode and the work pieces. The high
current low voltage power source can
either be an AC or DC.
purely mechanical welding technique in
which one component remains stationary
while the other is rotated against it under
pressure. Heat is generated by friction
and at forging temperature the rotation
ceases. A forging pressure then affect
the weld.

The plain electric arc welding 8. Laser Welding and Drilling Laser
—

(unshielded) as originally practiced beams are used for these purposes in

produced brittle and weak weld joints. industrial application requiring
This is due to contamination from the exceptionally high precision.
surrounding air of the weld metal while
they are at their liquid state. In 1972, the 9. Metal Spraying — Wire or powder from
flux covered electrodes was developed the nozzle of a spraying gun is fused by a
which greatly improved the quality of gas flame, arc or plasma-jet, and the
weld joints. This development rapidly molten particles are projected in the form
revolutionized the electric arc welding of a spray by means of compressed air or
process and was then called “Shielded gas. It is often necessary for articles to
Metal Arc Welding”. be shot blasted or pickled before they are
sprayed.
Today, shielded Arc Welding is the most
widely used welding process in various 10. Plasma-Arc Welding In all these
—

industries. A separate article will be processes the heat source is an arc

devoted for this process. formed at a relatively small orifice
through which steam of air, argon,
3. Atomic Hydrogen Welding — An arc helium, nitrogen or mixture of these
struck between two tungsten electrodes gases flow. The arc “plasma” is formed
into which a jet of hydrogen is directed. into a jet by the gas pressure and
continue as a flame beyond the nozzle.
4. Electro-Beam Welding A work piece
—

contained in an executed chamber is 11. Resistance Welding A high current at

—

bombarded by a beam of electrons from low voltage flows through two

an electron gun at voltages between 0.5 components from electrodes. The heat
KV and 100 Ky. The energy of the generated at the interface between the
electrons is transformed into heat on components brings them to welding
striking the work piece. temperatures. During the passage of the

286
 CHAPTER 14- MANUFACTURING PROCESS

current, pressure by the
produces a forge weld.
12. Spark Erosion Machining In this
technique metal is removed from the
piece to be machined by the action of
electric discharges between the piece
and an electrode immersed in electrolyte
oil.
electrodes the atmosphere that normally results to inferior
quality weld joints. Shielding can be
accomplished by various means such as inert
— gases, welding fluxes but the most common is by
the use of readily available coated electrodes.
Refer to the illustrative drawing, Fig. 14.4.1
below:

13. Stud Welding An arc is struck between

—

the components to be joined and raised

the temperature of the ends of the
components to melting point. The
components are then automatically
pressed together and welded.

14. Thermit Welding A mixture of

—

aluminum powder and a metal oxide

powder is ignited by a special powder in
a crucible. The oxide is reduced to metal
with the evolution of intense heat, the
crucible is tapped and molten metal flow
into the joint to melt the ends of the work Fig. 14.4.1
piece and form the weld. Schematic representation of the shielded metal arc welding.

3.27 Welding Processes With the use of coated electrodes, shielding is

accomplished by the evolution of shielding inert
Welding 1
rP
ocesses gases during the welding process which prevent
air from reaching with the still molten weld metal.
Additionally, heavy slag is formed on the weld
Plastic Fusion
bead which slows the rate of cooling thereby
I I allowing gases to escape and the slag particles to
rise. It also reduces cooling resistance and allows
Forging Electric Resistance Gas Electric Chemical more time for all the necessary chemical
Arc Reaction
1. spot reactions to take place in the weld metal.
2. projection 1. thermit
3. seam It is also through these electrode coatings that
4. butt 1. oxyacetylene make welding with alternating current a
5. flash 2. oxyhydrogen
6. percussion 3. other combination satisfactory operation. For a 60 Hertz AC, the arc
goes out 120 times a second thereby making arc
I stability a major problem. With potassium
I
compounds or other similar additives in the
Manual Machine Shielded Carbon Metal
Sledge 1. Hammer 1. Tungsten 1. Bare
coating, the gases at the arc will remain ionized
2. Rolls Arc with 2. Fluxed during current reversal thereby maintaining a
hydrogen 3. Covered stable arc.
or argon
Other special welding electrodes contain
relatively large amount of iron powder that melt
Section 4.0 Shielded Metal Arc Welding together with the electrode core thereby
increasing weld metal deposition rate.

4.1 Welding Process and Electrodes
As previously discussed, this is a development of
the early electric arc welding. The main
improvement is the introduction of shielding for
the molten weld metal against contamination from
For welding mild steel and low alloy steels, the
weld metal must match the metallurgy of the base
metal. The selection of the right electrode,
therefore, shall be given a very thorough
consideration. The American Welding Society
(AWS) and the American Society for Testing

287
 CHAPTER 14- MANUFACTURING PROCESS
Materials (ASTM) jointly established
standardized coding of most electrodes using a
prefix “E” followed by four or five number system.
This is illustrated below.
EXXXXX
TfL Welding technique variables such
as current supply and application
Welding position number,
1 all positions can be used, flat,
—
horizontal, vertical or over
head
2 Flat and Horizontal fillet
—
3—Flat only
Approximate Tensile strength in
kips
60 —60 000 psi
70 —70 000 psi
100—100,000 psi
Refer to Table 14.4.1 for various Electrode
Classification. After the above number series,
additional suffix maybe added to denote
electrode composition. Refer to Table 14.4.2
4.2 Common Weld Defects
a. Lack of Penetration The root pass did not
—
adequately fuse the adjoining base metals.
This is normally caused by the base metals
did not reach fusion temperature, fast
welding rate or too large an electrode used.
b. Weld Cracks This normally occur at the
—
weld heat affected zone (HAZ) due to brittle
weldments associated with stresses. This is
common in welding molybdenum and
chromium alloys and thick weldments. This
can be minimized by pre-heating and
corrected by either stress relieving or
annealing.
c. Pinholes —These are small holes through
the weldments normally caused by gas
bubbles escaping through the molten weld
metal while cooling. This is commonly due to
moisture loaded electrodes or dirty/moist
base metals.
d. Porosity — These are gas bubbles or minute
impurities trapped in the weldment normally
due to dirty or moist electrode or
contaminated base metals.
a e. Inclusion — This is a common weld defect.
Slags or foreign materials are trapped inside
the weld metal. These are normally due to
poor welding process and dirty work pieces.
f. Weld Undercuts These are cuts between
—
the weld metal and the base metal normally
due to excessive welding current. Refer to
Figure 14.4.2
4.3 Testing and Quality Control
Welded joints can either be tested destructively
or non-destructively.
4.4 Destructive Testing
Materials can be randomly tested by actual
destruction of a work piece for examination. By
this process the particular work piece cannot be
anymore used. The following are types of
destructive testing:
a. Tensile Test A test specimen is cut-out
—
from the work piece and stretched to failure.
Ultimate strength, yield point and percent
elongation can be determined.
b. Bending Test A test specimen is cut out
—
from the work piece and bended 90° to 180°.
This will determine cracking tendency and
joint ductility.
c. Sectioning — The weld joint is cut by
hacksaw along the centreline of the weld to
allow visual examination of the weld.
4.5 Non Destructive Testing (NDT)
This is a process wherein weld examination is
done without destroying the material. Random or
complete examination of all welds can be done
and the material can still be used.
a. Dye Penetrant Examination — This can be
determine surface cracks and porosities
which may not be readily seen. This is done
by thoroughly cleaning with solvents the weld
joint and spraying the surface with a
penetrating dye, normally red. Allow the dye
to penetrate for about one minute and
thoroughly wipe it off the surface and
followed with a gentle spray of a developer,
normally white. The whole surface will
become white except in areas that previously
absorbed the dye wherein the defect will be
revealed.
288
 CHAPTER 14— MANUFACTURING PROCESS

Table 14.4.1 Electrode Classification

Work Current Arc
Class No. Penetration
V

Basic Application
Position Supply Effect

All Position, Deep Penetrating — Good Properties

Designed to produce good mechanical properties consistent with
EXX1 0 All DC + Digging Deep jood radiographic inspection quality. Application is usually structural
vhere multi pass welding is employed, such as ship building, bridges,
buildings, piping and pressure vessels.

AC Designed to do the work of XX 10, but to employ an AC current.

EXX 11 All Mild Medium Slightly higher tensile and yield strength.
(DC i

Production Welding
Especially recommended for single pass, high speed, high current,
DC
— horizontal fillet welds. It is characteris-tically easy to handle and
EXX 12 All Mild Medium useful in cases of poor fit-up, both groove and fillet, where a wide
AC
range of currents is used. Class 12 has reduced penetration but can
meet radiographic standards with single pass welds.
n iron powder type electrode ideal for fillet welds. The iron powder in
AC he electrode coating assists in increasing the deposit rate over the
EXX 24 H.F. — F.
(DC
- Mild Light 12 class. Electrode can be used in drag technique with ease of
handling and good weld appearance. Requires better fit-up than 12,
but is of similar application, although limited as to position.

All Position Light Penetrating

Designed for light metal work, but now used widely as an electrode
EXX 13 AC having light penetration. Frequently used in vertical down welding,
All Soft Medium
(DC -) yen though it produces a flat bed. Particularly well designed for use
-___________________

iith low voltage AC transformers.

n iron powder electrode designed to do the work of 13 with
AC ncreased deposit rate, although 14 has lower deposition rates than
EXX 14 All
‘DC
- Soft Medium 4 and 27. In the fixed position, 13 and 14 have similar welding
‘ peeds. Has improved weld appearance and ease of welding in drag
echnique.
Low Hydrogen Difficult to Weld
Offers exceptional physical properties and best X-ray quality. A ‘low
hydrogen” electrode for difficult to weld materials such as high carbon
r low alloy steel. Also, free machining, high sulphur bearing, steel
EXX 15 All DC Mild and armor plate. Frequently pre- and post heating may be eliminated
+ Medium
r reduced by using low hydrogen rod. The rod coating cannot
perform properly with included moisture. Electrode should be heated
before use as recommended by the manufacturer, or stored in a
oisture-free area.

AC , rod similar to 15 designed to be used with AC and DC + current

EXX 16 All + Mild Medium upply.
DC

AC \ 30% iron powder titanis type electrode. A rod similar to 15 with a

EXX 18 H.F.- F
DC
- Mild Medium higher deposition rate but an improved weld appearance. Offers
better slag removal and higher usable current than the E6016 type.
\ 50% iron powder lime type electrode. This one yields the highest
DC leposition rates of the low hydrogen group. The coating also
E)(X25 H.F. - F —
(AC)
Mild Medium
produces an easy to maintain are with a smooth, wide bead; can only
,e used in the flat position.
Deep Groove Heavy Sections
. high production electrode designed for heavy sections, such as
DC Medium pressure vessels, heavy machines bases, and structural parts; in flat
EXX2O H•F - F
AC
— Mild
Deep rr horizontal fillet position. The weld has good quality and is
requently used where deep fillet techniques are required.
rvhen this high iron powder electrode is used in the drag technique, it

EXX27 H.F. - DC — s 50% faster than the 20 electrode. It is primarily a downward deep
F Mild Medium troove rod, well suited for heavy sections. Second only to 24 in
AC
velding speed, but with properties superior to it. Both are equally
asy to handle.
apable of higher deposition rates than 20. Designed for welding of
EXX3O DC—
F Mild Medium heavy plate in the flat position and good in deep groove welding. Has
A
less fluid slag than 20.
Current supply in parenthesis, as (C +), indicates that, for production H.F. = Horizontal Fillet Position
welding, some sacrifice in advantages must be made using the F. = Flat Position
designated supply.

289
 CHAPTER 14- MANUFACTURING PROCESS

Table 14.4.2
Electrode Composition

Class Comp. Chromium Manganese Silicon Sulfur Nickel

Carbon Molybdenum
No. Suffix
CARBON MOLYBDENUM_STEEL_ELECTRODES
—

XX 10 Al 0.35—0.60 0.40
XX 11 Al 0.35 0.60 0.40 —

XX 15 Al 0.10 0.40—0.65 0.45—0.90 0.60@ 0.04

XX 16 Al 0.45—0.90 0.60@
XX 20 Al 0.35— 0.60 0.40
CHROMIUM MOLYBDENUM_STEEL_ELECTRODES
-

10 Bl
11 Bl 0.35—0.60 0.40 0.04
13 Bi 0.10 0.40—0.65 0.40—0.65
15 Bi 0.45—0.90 0.60@ 0.04
16 Bl

10 B2
11 B2 0.35—0.60 0.40 0.04
13 B2 0.10 0.40—0.65 1.00—1.50
15 B2 0.45 — 0.90 0.60@ 0.04
16 B2

10 B3
11 B3 0.35 — 0.60 0.60
13 B3 0.12 0.90 — 1.20 2.00 — 2.50 0.04
15 B3 0.45—0.90 0.60
NICKEL STEEL ELECTRODES
15 Cl 0.12 2.00
16 Cl 0.12 0.90 0.60@ 0.04 2.75
15 C2 0.10 3.00
16 C2 0.10 3.75

@ The silicon content may be 1.00 maximum if the carbon content is restricted to 0.06 maximum.
CAUTION: It is important that this electrode selection procedure not be considered a final authority instead of
a series of actual weld trials or field experience. In cases of production welding, it is most
important that welding procedures or specifications be produced through experimentation.
Success and failure in high speed welding may still be in the proper selection of such variables as
amperage, voltage, speed of travel, electrode angle, welding technique, joint preparation, preheat,
inter pass temperature, post heat treatment, etc.

290
 CHAPTER 14— MANUFACTURING PROCESS
b. Hardness Testing This is a method of
—
determining the hardness of the weld more
particularly the heat affected zone. The
hardness will determine the cracking
tendency of weld joints. A 220 Brinell
Hardness Number (BHN) is normally
acceptable for common mild steel and low
alloy steels.
c. Magnetic Particle Testing Uses electrical
—
current to create a magnetic field in a
specimen with the magnetic particles (iron
powder) indicating where the field is broken
by discontinuities such as cracks in the
material. Applicable to ferromagnetic
materials only.
d. Radiographic Examination This employs
-
radioactive isotopes such as Cobalt-60,
lridium-192, Thulium-170 or Cesium-137 and
radiographic films. The internal or external
properties of the work piece can be depicted
on the film by the passage of radiation
through the work piece. This examination can
reveal cracks, porosities, inclusions, lack of
penetration and other defects. With the film, a
permanent record of the joint can be kept.
Areas that need repairs can likewise be
pinpointed.
This needs a trained technician to safely
handle and operate the radio isotope.
e. X-ray Examination — Essentially the same
with radiographic examination except only on
the source of radiation. This utilizes electricity
powered X-ray machine that generate
ionizing radiation.
Also needs a trained technician to safely
handle and operate the machine.
f. Ultrasonic Examination —This utilizes
ultrasounds that penetrate most common
materials. The time of rebound of ultrasounds
from the probe which is pressed on one side
of the material to the other side or any
discontinuity is converted to unit of linear
measure. This method can detect
laminations, cracks and inclusions. This
needs an expert to evaluate the findings.
4.6 Final Test of Completed Work
The completed work is normally tested for
soundness by actual test loading. Particularly for
291
pressurized piping’s and vessels, the final test
should be by hydro testing at a minimum
pressure of 1.5 times the design pressure plus
corrections for higher temperature operations.
Section 5.0 Safety Precautions
5.1 Processes which emit fumes, mist, toxic vapor,
dust shall be provided with adequate exhaust
ventilation or proper enclosure.
5.2 Protective clothing, eye, nose, feet and hand
protection shall be used when exposed to hazard
such as toxic substances, radiation, hot and
corrosive substances.
5.3 Automatic control that regulate fuel and air supply
should be maintained in good condition to ensure
the correct temperature for the process.
5.5 Substitution of toxic substances to non-toxic
substances in any quantity process is possible.
5.4 Sources of dangerous noise should be
acoustically enclosed.
5.6 Rest rooms shall be provided with proper
ventilation and facilities.
5.7 Pipe lines or hoses shall be properly color coded.
5.8 Uninsulated hot pipelines or ducts shall be
provided with guards or insulated at portions
adjacent to passage ways for personnel
protection.
5.9 Moving machine parts shall be provided with
adequate protective guards.
5.10 Welders must wear protective clothing, welding
masks and gloves.
5.11 Operations involving radiations shall be properly
identified and barricaded. Only authorized
technicians shall handle these equipment.
Section 6.0 Pollution Control
6.1 Air Pollution Control Equipment
a. To promote a clean environment,
manufacturing process or installation whose
operation results in the emission of
contaminants must be provided with
appropriate air pollution control equipment.
 CHAPTER 14- MANUFACTURING PROCESS
b. Air pollution control equipment for collecting
particulate matter (smoke, dust, fumes, mists,
etc.) emission are:
1. Inertial separators — used for collecting
medium and coarse size particulates.
The louver type collector is effective in
collecting dry above microns (p) in size
while the multi-baffle type is used in the
collection of mists.
2. Centrifugal separators the tangential
—
inflow tube or cyclone separators are
normally suitable for medium size (15 to
40 i) and coarse size particulates while
the axial flow inversion type or multiple-
cyclone separators are effective in
collecting particulates in the 5 to 15 p
range.
3. Rinsing or wet collection device
depending on the particular design, some
are capable for collecting particulates in
the sub-micron range. These devices
include spray-type, cyclone-type, orifice-
type, mechanical venture-type, jet-type,
and packed tower scrubbers.
4. Filtration devices — have a high
collection efficiency for sub-micron size
particulates. Panel filters are usually
used in filtering small volumes of
contaminated air while fabric filters can
handle large volumes of contaminated
air.
5. Electrostatic precipitators suitable for
—
the collection of a wide variety of dust
and fumes.
6. Gravitational precipitators used as
—
pre-cleaners to remove coarse and
abrasive particulates to protect and
augment the main dust collectors.
c. Air pollution control equipment for the
collection of a wide gaseous and vapor
emissions are:
1. Adsorption Equipment the absorbent
—
selectively capture or remove gases or
liquids from dirty gas streams even at
very small concentrations.
2. Absorption Equipment by using
—
selective liquids solvents, one or more
constituents of a gas stream can be
removed or covered.
3. Afterburners combustion converts the
—
combustible constituents of a gas stream
into carbon and water.
4. Vapor Condensers by extracting heat
—
or increasing pressure, vapor
condensation is achieved.
d. Water Pollution
1. Pollution is the downgrading of water
quality by sewage or other wastes to the
point where it unreasonably affects water
use for domestic, industrial, agricultural,
navigational or other beneficial uses. It is
therefore the concern of any citizen or
management to prevent water pollution to
— existing streams or rivers. In order to
comply with the government effluent
standards for waste water the following
waste water treatment processes are
briefly discussed.
2. Clarifying waste water is the process of
removing turbidity, sediment and floating
materials. It is the first step in treatment
since these impurities are highly
objectionable and interfere with any
subsequent treatment. Clarifiers are
sized on the basis of settling rate (area)
and detention time (volume). Pre
treatment ahead of sedimentation may
include screening and communiting,
degritting as well as grease and scum
removal.
3. Coagulation is the gathering together of
finely divided or colloidal suspended
matter into larger particles. In this way
coagulating agents speed up the settling
of suspended matter and make it
possible to remove those small solids not
touched by conventional sedimentation.
4. Flocculation is the agglomeration of finely
divided suspended matter and floc
caused by gently stirring or agitating the
waste water. The resulting increase on
particles size increases the settling rate
and improves suspended solids removal
by providing more efficient contact
between suspended solids, dissolved
impurities and chemical coagulants.
292
 CHAPTER 14- MANUFACTURING PROCESS
5. Floatation is basically sedimentation in
reverse to remove floatable materials and
solids with a specific gravity so close to
water that they settle very slowly or not at
all. The principle of air floatation is based
on the fact that when the pressure on a
liquid is reduced, dissolved gasses are
released as extremely fine bubbles.
These bubbles attach themselves to any
suspended matter present and rapidly
float them to the surface where they
concentrate and can be removed by
skimming.
6. Gravity separation is used to remove
liquid pollutants that are insoluble in
water such as petroleum oils and the
cutting and coolant oils used in metal-
finishing operations. Most have specific
gravity lower than water and will rise
rather than settle.
7. Granular activated carbon has long been
used in filtering equipment to remove
color and turbidity and improve the taste
of water by removing residual chlorine.
This same material is extremely effective
in absorbing organic contaminations from
waste water measured in terms of BOD,
COD, color, odor, optical density or other
analytical techniques.
8. Biological filters commonly called trickling
filters are basically a pile of rocks over
which sewage or industrial waste slowly
trickles. The rock simply provides surface
on which microbes cling and grow as
they feed on the organic matter.
9. Activated sludge is the process by which
masses on settle able solid formed by
simply aerating waste water containing
biologically degradable compounds in the
presence of microbes. The settle able
solids, called activated sludge consist of
bacterial fungi, protozoa, rotifiers and
nematodes are responsible for stabilizing
the organic matter and forming the floc.
10. Anaerobic digestion is widely used to
stabilize concentrated organic solids
removed from settling tanks, biological
filters and activated sludge plants. The
waste is mixed with large quantities of
microbes and oxygen is excluded. Under
these conditions highly specialized
293
bacteria grow, which convert the organics
into carbon dioxide and methane gas.
e. Chemicals and chemical processes play a
basic role in waste water treatment:
1. Adsorption using granulated activated
—
carbon is a reliable and effective way of
removing organic impurities found in
most water supplies. Activated carbon
adsorbers can be used after conventional
filtration of suspended matter or installed
as a combination filtration adsorption
unite.
2. Coagulation is the process of adding
chemicals to waste water to produce a
flocculent precipitate that will remove fine
suspended matter and colloidal
substances by adsorption or mechanical
entrainment.
3. Dialysis — a practical toll for recovering
chemicals from process waste.
4. Electra dialysis reduces the dissolved
solids content of water. Main application
is converting brackish water (1 000 to 10
000 ppm) to supply that is suitable for
potable use (below 500).
5. Ion exchange is a versatile process that
keeps extending its range of service. In
waste water treatment it is used to
remove or recover anions and cations
depending on whether or not they are
valuable, undesirable or both.
6. Neutralization of waste water is
frequently needed to keep pH in the
range of 6 to 8 required by most water
quality criteria.
7. Oxidation reduction and precipitation
system are widely applied for the
treatment of plating wastes.
8. Sludge handling and disposal is a final
step from waste water treatment plants.
9. Sludge concentrators are mainly used
to thicken sludge from secondary
clarifiers or mixtures of sludge from both
primary and secondary treatment units.
10. Digestion under anaerobic conditions
makes sludge solid easier to dewater and
 CHAPTER 14- MANUFACTURING PROCESS

convert parts of the inorganic matter to Section 7.0 Anti-Pollution for

gaseous end products. Sludge pumped
into an enclosed air tight vessel where
the solids decompose rapidly.
11. Dewatering is handled by drying beds,
lagoons, filters, and centrifugal.
12. Vacuum filtration is the most widely
used method of mechanical sludge
dewatering. Sludge is sucked by a
vacuum against a revolving drum partially
submerged in a vat or slurry tank.
Manufacturing Processes
7.1 All machineries/equipment used in manufacturing
processes whose operation results in dust,
gaseous and/or odor emissions should be
provided with appropriate air pollution control
facilities.
7.2 Manufacturing processes resulting in the
discharge of waste water should be provided with
appropriate waste water treatment facilities.

13. Gravity filter consists of two cells

operating at atmospheric pressure.
These cells are formed by a fine-mesh
nylon filter cloth continuously travelling
over front and rear guide wheels. The
filter cloth is rotated by a drive roll and
sprocket assembly which also separates
the cells.

294

I
 CHAPTER 15— FUELS AND LUBRICANTS
Chapter 15
FUELS AND LUBRICANTS
Section 1.0 Fuels
Classifications. There are three general types of fuel,
solid, including coal, coke, peat, briquets, wood,
charcoal, and waste products.
Liquid, including petroleum and its derivatives,
synthetic liquid fuels manufactured from natural gas
and coal, shale oil, coal by-products (including tars
and light oil), and alcohols.
Gaseous, including natural gas, manufactured and
industrial by-product gases, and the propane and
butane or liquefied petroleum (LP) gases that are
stored and delivered as liquids under pressure but
used in gaseous form.
Section 2.0 Solid Fuels
2.1 Coal Classification. Three methods of
classifying coals have been adopted as
standard in the United States as the result of a
10-year study begun in 1927 by a large group of
specialists from the United States and Canada.
These classifications are: by rank (degree of
metamorphism, or progressive alteration, in the
natural series from lignite to anthracite); by
grade (quality determined by size designation,
calorific value, ash, ash-softening temperature,
and sulfur); and by type or variety (determined
by nature of the original plant material and
subsequent alteration thereof). Other methods
of coal classification are by use or suitability for
specific purposes or types of combustion
equipment, and by various trade systems set up
to meet particular conditions in a given area or
time. Examples of the use or special purpose
type of classification are given in two or other
standards that have been adopted in this
country. One of these classifies coal by ash
content and the other, a standard for gas and
cooking coals, classified by use.
2.2 Classification by Rank. Probably the most
universally applicable method of classification is
by rank, in which coals are arranged according
to fixed carbon content and calorific value, in
BTU, calculated on the mineral-matter-free
295
basis. The higher-rank coals are classified
according to fixed carbon on a dry basis; the
lower-rank coals, according to BTU.
2.3 Classification by Grade. The standard for
classification of coal by grade provides a symbol
designation system indicating size, BTU content,
ash, ash-softening temperature, and sulfur
content of coals. The size designation is given
first in accordance with the standard screen
analysis method followed by calorific value
(expressed in hundreds of BTU per pound to the
nearest hundred), and symbols representing
ash, ash-softening temperature, and sulfur, in
accordance with Table 15.2.1.2.
2.4 Burners for Pulverized Coal. Figure 15.2.2
shows schematically the basic methods of
feeding pulverized coal and air to furnaces. The
function of any burner is to supply coal and air in
such a manner as to obtain (1) complete
combustion within the furnace, thereby
minimizing carbon losses and utilizing the heat-
absorbing surface most effectively, (2) adequate
mixing of the coal and air, (3) stable ignition to
prevent furnace pulsations, (4) uniform
distribution of temperature and composition of
the gases leaving the furnace, (5) minimum slag
and ash deposits on boiler or secondary heating
surfaces, and (6) sufficient flexibility to burn a
range of quality coal.
Vertical firing, although an early method, still is
used extensively, but with all the secondary air
admitted around the burner nozzle so that it
mixes quickly with the coal primary air mixture
from the burner nozzle.
 CHAPTER 15— FUELS AND LUBRICANTS

Table 15.2.1.1 Classification of Coals by Rank* Horizontal firing, employs a turbulent burner,
(FC = fixed carbon; VM = volatile matter. Btu British thermal units) which consists of a circular nozzle within a
Limits of Fixed Csrbori or
housing provided with adjustable valves, the unit
I Ph
Class Group Btiu (Mineral-matter-
R equisleysica
being located in the front or rear wall. The
primary air and coal are fed to the nozzle, in
I. Anthracitic 1. Meta-anthracite Dry FC, 98% or more which the mixture is given a rotary motion by
2. Anthracite
(dry) VM, 2% or less)
Dry FC, 92% or more
narrow, spiral vanes. The secondary air enters
and less than 98% (dry the outer housing through the adjustable vanes,
VM, 8% or less, and more
than 2% which provide rotary motion at an angle different
3. Semi-anthracite Dry FC, 86% or more,
and less than 92% (dry
Non-agglomeratingt
from that of the primary air and coal, the
VM, 14% or less, and meeting of the primary-air coal mixture at the
more than 8%
periphery of the nozzle, creates a high degree of
II. Bituminous f 1. Low-volatile
bituminous coal
Dry FC, 78% or more
and less than 68% (dry
turbulence. This type of burner is suited to high
VM, 22% or less, and capacity and dry bottom furnaces.
more than 14%
2. Medium-volatile Dry FC, 69% or more
bituminous coal and less than 78% (dry
VM, 31% or less, and
Corner or tangential firing is characterized by
more than 22% burners located in each corner of the furnace
3. High-volatile A Dry FC, less than 69%
bituminous coal (dry VM, more than 31%), and directed tangent to a horizontal, imaginary
4. High-volatile B
and moist § Stu, 14 000
Moist § Btu, 13 000 or
circle in the middle of the furnace, thereby
bituminous coal more, and less than 14 making the furnace the burner in effect, since
000
5. High-volatile C Moist Btu, 11 000 or more turbulence and intensive mixing occur where the
bituminous and less than 13 000
streams meet. The coal and primary air enter
Ill. Sub- 1. Sub-bituminous Moist Btu, 11 000 or Both weathering and
non-agglomerating ¶
through rectangular or square coal nozzles;
A coal more, and less than 13
bituminous
2. Sub-bituminous 000 secondary air is supplied partly around the
B coal
3. Sub-bituminous
Moist Btu, 9500 or more,
and less than 11 000
nozzles and partly through ports above and
C coal Moist Btu, 8300 or more, below them. Dampers proportion the secondary
and less than 9500
IV. Ligriitic 1. Lignite Consolidated air to the various sections. The relative velocities
2. Brown coal Moist Btu, loss than 8300
Moist Btu, less than 8300
Unconsolidated
of gas and fuel produce a scrubbing action that
promotes the transport of oxygen to the fuel,
*
This classification does not include a few coals that have unusual through the film of combustion products around
physical and chemical properties and which come within the limits of the particles. Further, the tangential motion of
fixed carbon or BTU of the high-volatile bituminous and sub- the gases produces a vortex, which effectively
bituminous ranks. All these coals either contain less than 48% dry,
mineral-matter-free fixed carbon or have more than 15 500 moist, lengthens the time that the combustible is in the
mineral-matter-free Btu. furnace. This type of firing is suited to either wet
t If agglomerating, classify in low-volatile group of the bituminous or dry-bottom furnace operation or medium or
class.
Moist Btu refers to coal containing its natural bed moisture but not high volatile coals, and it is capable of extremely
including visible water on the surface of the coal. high capacities.
§ It is recognized that there may be non caking varieties in each
group of the bituminous class.
¶ There are three varieties of coal in the high-volatile C bituminous 2.5 Furnace Heat Release and Heat Available.
group, namely, (1) agglomerating and non-weathering, (2) Furnaces for pulverized coal firing are designed
agglomerating and weathering, and (3) non-agglomerating and non either to remove the ash as molten slag
weathering.
intermittently or continuously (wet bottom), or as
Occasionally, the admission of secondary air dry ash (dry bottom). Wet-bottom construction
along the front walls is used with considerable generally is chosen for low-grade coals that
success, particularly in connection with very low- have low fusion characteristics, whereas dry-
volatile coals, which require long flame travel, bottom construction often is selected for high-
or in high, narrow furnaces. fusion coals. Experience has shown, however,
that it is possible to design reliable dry-bottom
Impact firing, a form of vertical firing, consists of units to burn any grade of coal available, at high
burners located in an arch low in the furnace or boiler availability. Pulverized-fuel firing is used
in the side walls and directed toward the furnace for steam capacities ranging from 23,730 to
door, with high velocities of both primary and 454,550 kgs. per hr. capacities above 68,180
secondary air. This type of firing is used kgs. per hr. being almost exclusively fired with
exclusively in wet-bottom or slagging type pulverized coal. The furnace heat release varies
3 per hr.
from 558,662 to 1,117,224 kilo Joules/m
furnaces.
782,071 to 819,313 kJ for best performance of
wet-bottom furnaces or for dry-bottom units

296
 CHAPTER 15- FUELS AND LUBRICANTS

Table 15.2.1.2 Symbols for Grading Coal According Ash-Softening Temperature

Asht Softening Temperature of Ash Sulfur t

Symbols %, t inclusive Symbol *F, Inclusive Symbol %, inclusive

A4 0.0— 4.0 F28 2800 and higher S0.7 0.0— 0.7

A6 4.1 —6.0 F26 2600—2790 S1.0 0.8—1.0
A8 6.1—8.0 F24 2400—2590 S1.3 1.1—1.3
AlO 8.1—10.0 F22 2200—2390 S1.6 1.4—1.6
A12 10.1 —12.0 F20 2000—2190 S2.0 1.7—2.0
A14 12.1 14.0
— F20 minus Less than 2000 S3.0 2.1 3.0
—

A16 14.1 16.0

—

A18 16.1 18.0

—
S5.0 3.1 5.0—

A20 18.1 20.0

—
S5.0 plus 5.1 and higher
A20 Plus 20.1 and higher

t Ash and sulfur shall be reported to the nearest 0.1% by dropping the second
decimal figure when it is 0.01 to 0.04, inclusive, and by increasing the percentage
by 0.1% when the second decimal figure is 0.03 to 0.09, inclusive. For example 4.85
to 4.94%, inclusive, shall be considered to be 4.9%.
J Ash-softening temperatures shall be reported to the nearest 10 F. For example,
2,635 to 2,644 F, inclusive, shall be considered to be 2,640 F.
§ For commercial grading of coals, with ash less than 2%, ranges in the percentage
ash smaller than 2-4 are commonly used.

Fixed Carbon in coal = 100 %moisture %volatile -%ash. In anthracites, heating

- -

value ranges from 14,800 to 15,500 Btu/Ib. In bituminous coal 13,000 to 15,500
Btu/Ib. In liquates, it may be as low as8 300 Btu/lb. See also Table 15.2.1.2(a) for
Quality of coals in the Philippines.

Note: °C = (°F - 32)

burning coal with an ash-fusion temperature
above 1,150°C. The available furnace heat is
defined as the heat in the coal as fired, plus the
heat in the preheated air, minus one-half the
radiation of unaccounted-for losses, minus the
heating value in the unburned carbon. This
value, divided by the projected area, in square
feet, of the furnace wall tubes plus the plane of
the first row of boiler tubes, gives a useful factor
for comparing furnaces. For round tubes, the
projected area is taken as the diameter
multiplied by the length; and with finned tubes
and studded tubes, the projected area, including
fins and studs, is used. Most central station
boilers in this country have values for the
available furnace heat between 567,505 and
1,135,010 Kilo Joules per sq. m. of heat-
absorbing surface.
Section 3.0 Coke
3.1 Coke is the solid, infusible, cellular residue left
after fusible bituminous coals are heated, in the
absence of air, above temperatures at which
active thermal decomposition of the coal occurs.
Pitch coke and petroleum coke of somewhat
different characteristics are obtained by similar
heating of coal-tar pitch and petroleum residues.
High temperature coke is made from coal at
temperature ranging from 815°C to 1,093°C
(average practice, 926°C to 1,037°C.
Low temperature coke is formed at
temperatures below 704°C. The residue, if made
from a non-cooking coal, is known as char.

Note: °C
Section 4.0 Wood and Hogged Fuel
= (°F 32) + 1.8
-

kg lbs+2.2
4.1 Wood fuel may come to the boiler plant in the
M = ft.+3.28
form of cordwood, slabs, edging, bark, sawdust,
kilo Joules (kJ) = BTU x 1.055
or shaving and frequently several forms are

297
 CHAPTER 15- FUELS AND LUBRICANTS
Table 15.2.1.la
Quality of Major Coal Fields in the Philippines
(Air-Dried Basis)
Calorific Volatile Total Fixed Ash Total Coral Fields
.

Coral Fields Value (BTU/LB) Matter (%) Moist (%) Carbon (%) % s (%)

36—38 14— 16 25—29 15— 18 0.7— 11 Lignite

CAGAYAN BASIN 6 800—7 400
41 —55 8— 12 28—32 8 16 Lignite-sub
Cauayan,lsabela 9 300—9 700 — ---

22—25 3—7 50—55 9— 15 1.2— 1.6 Bituminous

MaddelaQuirino Prov. 10 300 -12 000
CATANDUANES Sub-bituminous
8 200 —8 900 36 37 16 19 34 36 5 —6 1.7—2
BATAAN —
— —

Sub-bituminous
10500—11 300 35—37 6—10 42—47 2—7 1.5—3
East Sub-bituminous
9100—11 000 30—35 11 —14 1—6 1—6 0.3—1.3
West
Bituminous
POLILIO ISLAND

12 900 48 5 42 4 0.4 Bituminous

50 53 6 36-39 2-3 3-4.1 Sub-bituminous
QUEZON(Gen. Nakar) 11 000 113 000
—
—

8000—10 000 37-38 17-18 37-41 2-9 0.5-0.7 Lignite-sub

SOUTHERN MINDORO
Bituminous
SEMIRARA ISLAND

40 5-6 46-48 3-6 0.4-0.6 Bituminous

CEBU 12 000— 12 400
38-40 1 1-12 39-42 5-6 0.3-0.5 Sub-bituminous
Angao-Dalaguete 9 700— 10 400
40-41 6-9 38-44 5-8 0.3-1 Sub-bituminous
Uling-Alpaco 10 500— 11 500
36-39 3-4 41-46 10-13 3-5 Sub-bituminous
Danao-Compostela 9 300— 12 2000
Bituminous
Toledo-Balamban

32-34 17-19 35-37 12-13 1.5-4.4 Sub-bituminous

8400—9 100
NEGROS (East)
37-40 8-9 28-34 17-20 2.4-3.8 Sub-bituminous
SURIGAO 8600—9 300
8 800—9 700 31-34 1 2-14 34-38 1 1-13 0.5-1 Sub-bituminous
Guigagult
24-28 2-4 56-57 5-7 0.4-0.9 Bituminous
Bislig 12 700—13 100
Semi-anthracite
ZAMBOANGA

33-44 18 36 9 0.6-1.7 Lignite-Sub

DAVAO 8 200— 11 000
Bituminous

NOTE: kg lb + 2.2
Kilo Joules (KJ) = BTU x 1.055

o
Cl) 4

fi —

Impact firing Corner or tangenflal

Vertical firing
firing
Horizontal firing

298
 CHAPTER 15— FUELS AND LUBRICANTS
available together. From 30 to 50% of the
lumber delivered to woodworking mills becomes
waste available as fuel, the percentage
depending on whether the mill is of the “rough”
or “finishing” type. Waste from finishing mills
usually runs 25 to 40% of lumber processed and
is usually of smaller size consist, is drier, and
contains less bark and foreign material.
Technically, “hog” fuel, a term sometimes
loosely applied to sawdust, shavings, and bark,
is only that wood which has been chopped up in
“hog” choppers, which may be (1) steel disks
with attached knives, (2) two concentric cones
bearing knives and revolving in a conical
housing, (3) a cylinder with attached knives
revolving a cylindrical housing, (4) “hammer
hogs”, in which wood is broken by impact of
hammer against anvils. Dull-knifed hogs may
shred rather than cut wood: such shredded
wood in long, stringy pieces may clog
mechanical feeders.
a. Properties of Woods. The major variable in
wood is moisture content; air-dried wood
seldom contains less than 12% water,
whereas kill-dried usually contains from 1 to
7%. Moisture in wood from rough mills
averages 30 to 50%; waste from logs floated
to mills often contains up to 70%. Well-dried
wood is hydroscopic; i.e., it will absorb
moisture from the air. The specific gravity of
wood ranges from 0.3 to 1.2; the heating
value of dry wood (except where resin
increases heating value) is approximately
proportional to the specific gravity. Moisture
in newly-felled wood varies with the species
but averages 40%.
b. Combustion of Wood and Wood Waste.
Require intelligent handling, knowledge of
their composition and the important
influence of moisture, and understanding of
the three-stage wood combustion process.
These three stages of conibustion involve
(1) evaporation of moisture, 2) distillation
and burning of volatile matter, and (3)
burning of fixed carbon, i.e., the residual
charcoal. However, these steps usually
overlap somewhat. The first and second
stages absorb heat from the furnace,
whereas the burning of volatile matter and
fixed carbon give up heat to the furnace.
There are three general methods of
burning
wood fuels, through combinations
maybe
used. Wood fuels may be burned
(1) in
moving bed on an inclined grate,
(2) in
299
suspension, as in spreader strokes, or (3) in
piles in flat grates. Method 3 is the slowest.
Method 1 tends to segregate the three
combustion stages (a not desirable effect). It
is necessary to supply excess air in burning
wood fuels.
Table 15.4.1.2 Fuel-gas Analysis for Complete
Combustion of Wood
Composition of Dry Products, % by Volume
%Excess Air 0 20 40 60 80 100
2
CO 20.1 16.8 14.4 12.5 11.2 10.0
02 0.0 3.6 6.1 8.0 9.5 10.6
2
N 79.9 79.6 79.5 79.5 79.3 79.4
Section 5.0 Miscellaneous Solid Fuels
5.1 Charcoal. Charcoal provided the only carbon for
steel making and other metal smelting from pre
historic times up to the eighteenth century in
Europe and up to early in the nineteenth century
in the United States, when coke gradually began
to take place of charcoal in steel making.
a. Production. Charcoal is produced by partial
combustion of wood at about 400 C and with
limited air. It may be made in kilns, ovens,
buried pits, or any suitable type of enclosure
in which wood can be piled and burning can
be restricted through control of inlet air. The
object is to char the wood without burning
anymore of it than is necessary to
accomplish the charring operation. Kilns are
frequently constructed of mound like piles of
wood covered with sod of turf and provided
with a central fuel and with air-inlet ports
around the periphery. Kilns vary in capacity
from 4 to 12 cu. m. of wood. The time
required to char a kiln of wood depends on
the moisture content of the wood and the
size of the kiln. It may take as long as two
weeks. The process is complete when
smoke from the kiln becomes thin and blue.
Portable kilns that can be moved to new
supplies of wood have received increasing
attention.
b. By Products. Both hardwoods and
softwoods are now used in the production of
charcoal; hardwood charcoal weights about
31 kgs. per cu. m. and softwood charcoal
about 28 kgs per cu. m. When very resinous
wood are processed in sloped clay-floor
kilns, tar is formed from the resin in the
wood. The tar collects on the flood and can
be drained off and recovered from small
 CHAPTER 15— FUELS AND LUBRICANTS
charcoal operations. With operations of
sufficient size to make recovery and refining
economical, large volumes of gas, a watery
pyroligneous acid condensate, and tar can
be recovered. An average gas yield of
approximately 62.5 cu. m per cu. m. of wood
has been obtained from large commercial
plants. Typical gas composition is: CC ,
2 distillate fuel oils which are distillates
59%; CC, 33%; ,
4
CH 3.5%; H, 3.0%;
Vapors, 1.5%. Considerable variation in gas
yield and composition is reported; for
example volumes of 36 to 62.5 cu. m. of gas
per cu. m. and methane content of 3.5 to
18%. The water pyroligneous acid contains
a complex mixture of organic acids,
alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, etc., and
approximately 80 to 90% water. Formic and
acetic acids, methyl (wood) alcohol,
formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, turpentine,
and acetone are some of the more familiar
by-products recovered. The tar is a complex
mixture containing most of the products
found in the pyroligneous acid and many
others. It may be distilled to give “light” oils,
“heavy” oils, and pitch.
c. Specifications. Charcoal is seldom sold on
specification; the usual market guarantees
relate only to weight per cu. m. and to
volatile and moisture content. The maximum
of 14% volatile and 2% moisture is
customarily established. The heating value
of charcoal ranges from 25,531 to 32,495
kJ/kg and can be approximately calculated
from Dulong’s formula.
5.2 Straw, Paper, and Miscellaneous Waste
Fuels. With properly designed equipment,
almost any solid material having a heating
value exceeding that required to evaporate the
moisture in the material can be used to produce
heat and power. The important consideration is
that an adequate and assured supply of the
material be available at a price, including
transportation and handling, to make the
installation economically sound. Table 15.5.2
gives the heat of combustion of various
substances.
Section 6.0 Liquid Fuels
6.1 Characteristic of Fuel Oil
a. Fuel Oil is defined (ASTM D288-47) as any
liquid or liquefiable petroleum products
burned for the generation of heat in a
furnace of firebox, of the generation of
300
power in an engine, exclusive of oils with a
flash point below 37.7°C by the Tag closed
tester, and oils burned in cotton or wool-wick
burners. Fuel oils in common use fall into
four classes: (1) residual oils, which are
topped crude petroleum’s or viscous
residuum obtained in refinery operations; (2)
derived directly or indirectly from crude
petroleum; (3) crude petroleum’s and
weathered crude petroleum’s of relatively
tow commercial value; (4) blended fuels,
which are mixture of two or more of the
preceding classes.
6.2 Commercial Fuel Oil Specifications (ASTM
D396-48T) cover five standard grades limited by
the detailed requirements summarized in Table
15.6.2. The several grades are defined as: No. 1
— a distillate oil intended for vaporizing pot-type
burners and other burners requiring this grade of
fuel; No. 2 — a distillate oil for general-purpose
domestic heating in burners not requiring No. 1
fuel oil; No.4 an oil for burner installations not
—
equipped with pre-heating facilities; No. 5 a
—
residual type oil for burner installations equipped
with pre-heating facilities; No. 6 an oil for
—
burners equipped with pre-heaters permitting a
high viscosity fuel.
a. Flash Point (ASTM D93-46) is the
temperature to which oil must be heated to
give off sufficient vapor to form an
inflammable mixture with air. It varies with
apparatus and procedure, and both must be
specified when flash point is stated. The
minimum flash point usually is controlled by
law. If no legal requirements exist, minimum
values of Table 15.6.2 are used.
b. Pour Point (ASTM D97-47) is the lowest
temperature at which oil will flow under
prescribed conditions.
c. Water and Sediment (ASTM D96-47) are
excluded almost entirely in No. 1 and 2 oils
but are allowed to limited extent in No. 4, 5,
and 6 oils. Water and sediment are
determined together by the centrifuge,
except that, in No. 6 oil water is determined
by distillation (ASTM D95-46) and sediment
is determined by extraction with benzol
(ASTM D473-46T).
d. Carbon Residue (ASTM 0524-42). The
carbon residue test, in connection with other
tests and the use for which the oil is
 CHAPTER 15— FUELS AND LUBRICANTS

intended, furnishes information and throws Table 15.5.2

light on the relative carbon-forming qualities Heat of Combustion of Various Substances,
of an oil. For No. 1 and 2 oils, the Rams on Dry Basis
bottom carbon residue test is made on 10%
bottoms. For medium viscosity and blended Heating
oils, it is used to detect heavy residual Substance Value, Btu
products. per Ib, dry

Petroleum coke 15,800

e. Ash (ASTM 0482-46). The ash test #1 Gilsonite selects* 17,699
determines the amount of non-combustible Asphalt 17,158
impurities, which come principally from the Pitch 15,120
natural salts present in the crude oil, from Soot (from oil) 11,787
Soot (from smokeless coal) 7,049
chemicals used in refinery operations, or Soot (Island Creek) 5,425
from sea water contamination, as in the Soot (Red Jacket Thacker) 10,569
case residual fuels transported by sea. They Soot (Crystal Block Winifrade) 4,951
also may come from scale and dirt picked Wood sawdust (oak) 8,493
up from containers and pipes. Depending on Wood sawdust (pine) 9,347
its chemical composition, the ash in fuel oil Wood sawdust (pine) 9,676
Wood sawdust (hemlock) 7,797
may cause rapid deterioration of refractory Wood sawdust (fir) 8,249
materials in the combustion chamber, Wood sawdust (spruce) 8,449
particularly at high temperatures. Some ash- Wood shavings 8,248
producing impurities are abrasive and Wood shavings (hardwood)
destructive to pumps, valves control auto bodies 8,878
Wood bark (spruce) 8,817
equipment, and other burner parts. Ash Wood bark (hemlock) 8,753
specifications are included to minimize Wood bark (fir) 9,496
these operating difficulties. Wood bark (fan) 7,999
Brown skins from peanuts 10,431
f. Distillation Temperatures (ASTM D86-46 Corn on the cob 8,100
for No. 1 oil, ASTM D158-41 for No. 2 oil) of Rags (silk) 8,391
Rags (wool) 8,876
a sample under prescribed conditions are an Rags (linen) 7,132
index of volatility. The 10% and 90% points Rags (cotton) 7,165
represent, respectively, temperatures at Cotton batting 7,114
which 10% and 90% of the sample are Corrugated fiber carton 5970
distilled over. The end point is the maximum Newspaper 7,883
Wrapping paper 7,106
temperature recorded by the distillation. The
Oats 7,998
10% point is an index of ease of ignition. Wheat 7,532
The 90% point and the end point are Oil (cottonseed) 17,100
specified to insure that the oil will burn Oil (lard) 16,740
completely and produce a minimum of Oil (olive) 16,803
carbon. Oil (paraffin) 17,640
Oil (rape) 17,080
Oil (sperm) 18,000
g. Viscosity. is a measure of the resistance of Candy 8,096
oil to flow (ASTM D88-44 for Saybolt Butter 16,560
viscosity). It is the time in seconds in which Casein 10,548
a definite volume of oil will pass through a Egg white 10,260
tube of specified dimensions at a definite Egg yolk 14,580
Fats (animal) 17,100
temperature. For oils having viscosities less Hemoglobin (blood) 10,620
than 32 sec. Saybolt Universal, such as No. Waste hemp hurds 7,982
1 fuel oil, it is necessary to determine Cottonseed hulls (fusion 2342 F) 8,600
Kinematic viscosity in centistokes (ASTM Cottonseed hull brans
D445-46T). Viscosity decreases (fusion 23071 F) 8,675
as
Pecan shells 8,893
temperature increases. Pre-heating makes
Coffee ground 10,058
possible the use of oils of relatively high Pecan shell (few meats left
viscosities at normal temperatures. in them) 10,144
Maximum viscosity is limited because of its
effect on oil flow in pipe lines and on the *Material used for cores in foundries.
degree of atomization that can be had in Note: kilo Joules = BTU x 1.055
Kg = lbs ÷ 2.2

301
 CHAPTER 15— FUELS AND LUBRICANTS
given burner equipment. The Say bolt
Universal viscosimeter is used for low
viscosity fuel oils, and the Say bolt Furol
viscosimeter for heavier oils. Other types
of viscosimeters for fuel oils are the
Redwood and Engler.
6.3 Firebrick and Refractory Cement. Firebrick
and refractory cements should be selected on
the basis of the service in which they are used.
A grade higher than absolutely necessary
should be chosen because of abuse under
extreme operating conditions. The life is
refractory material in combustion chambers is
shortened by sustained high temperature, by
rapid changes in temperature, and by panting or
vibration from combustion. High temperatures
result from operation above normal rating,
normal operation with insufficient combustion
chambers designed for high heat releases.
Rapid temperature changes may be reduced to
the minimum by the operating personnel. A cold
boiler should be brought up to operating
temperature and pressure as slowly as possible.
When taking the boiler out of service, registers
and dampers must be closed tightly to allow the
boiler to cool slowly. Panting is usually due to
improper drafts, faulty atomization, fluctuating oil
pressure or high heat releases. Sputtering
results from water in the oil or wet steam
supplied to steam-atomizing burners.
6.4 Furnace Floors. The burners’ manufacturer
usually specifies the furnace floor construction.
The several layers are as follows: (1) insulating
brick or material; (2) first course of brick, dry,
laid 1.6 mm apart to provide for expansion joints
broken between adjacent rows; (3) dry refractory
cement, filling all cracks and covering bricks to
depth of 3.17 mm; (4) second course of brick
similar to first, overlapping joints in first course;
and (5) day refractory cement as in (3). After
firing, the bricks take a permanent set and the
cement vitrifies to a hard surface. For airports
built into the floor, the bricks may be set in
refractory cement mortar.
6.5 Metal Combustion Chambers. For wet-base
domestic heating boilers and forced warm air
furnaces, stainless steel combustion chambers
are used extensively. Type 430 stainless steel
(17% chromium) is representative of the lowest-
grade material that may be used for this service.
302
Section 7.0 Storage and Handling of Fuel
Oil
7.1 Fuel Oil Storage Tanks — generally are
classified by material, as steel or concrete; by
size, as gallons, etc; by location, as exposed or
inside, underground or buried; and by use, as
light or heavy oil tanks. The essential
requirements for tanks are tightness and
durability. The following specifications are
generally accepted standards. Local regulations
should be studied before installation. Tanks for
heavy oil usually have a manhole and provision
for a tank pre-heater, using either steam or hot
water. Such tanks should be designed to heat
the oil in the vicinity of the suction pipe to not
over 37.7°C.
a. Capacity and Location of Tanks. The
location of a tank with respect to distance
from tank shell to line of adjoining property
or nearest building depends on the
construction, contents, equipment, and
greatest dimension (diameter, length, or
height) of the tank and should be in
accordance with Table 15.7.1.1
The minimum distance between shells of
any two all-steel, gas tight tanks should be
not less than one-half the greatest
dimension (diameter, length, or height) of
the smaller tank except that such distance
should not be less than 9910 mm; for tanks
of 68 130 litres or less, the distance need
not exceed 915 mm.
Tanks should be so located as to avoid
possible danger from high water.
When tanks are located on a stream without
tide, they should, where possible, be down
stream for burnable property.
b. Fill Lines. Not less than 50 mm pipe should
be used for light oils (No. 1); for heavy oils
(No. 6), 150 mm or 200 mm pipe should be
used. A pipe too large is better than one too
small. The fill line for any storage tank
should pitch from the fill box to the tank. A
trap should be provided, either directly
inside or outside of the tank, or the fill line
sealed by ending it in the tank below the
bottom of the suction line. The fill line
always should be connected at the low end
of the tank and never cross-connected to
the vent pipe.
 CHAPTER 15— FUELS AND LUBRICANTS

Table 15.7.la Table 15.7.1.1

Specifications for Underground Oil Storage Tanks
Maximum -
Capacity and Location of All-Steel Tanks
Capacity, 285 560 1100 4000 12000 20000 30000
Gal
Approved
Distance
Gage of Attached
Metal 16 14
Class of . . . between and
12 7 1/4 5/16 3/8 Extinguishing
Weight of Tanks and Property Lines or
System
Metal, lb 2.5 3.12 4.37 7.5 10.00 12.50 15.00 Contents Nearest
Per square 5 5 or Approved
ft. .

Floating_Roof Building
*Top of underground tanks to be not less than 305 mm Group A for Yes Not less than
underground. Material to be galvanized steel, basic open- refined greatest
hearth, or wrought-iron. Joints to be welded, or riveted and petroleum dimension
caulked. When the tank is installed inside buildings without products not (diameter,
enclosure, the maximum capacity is 1 040 litres and the subject to length, or
minimum thickness of 1.984 mm. boil- over height);
Note: maximum
litres = gals. X 3.785
mm = inch x 25.4 distance
2 = Pounds/sq. Foot x 4.88
kg/rn required, 37
..metre
Table 15.7.lb Group B for Yes Not less than 1
Specifications for Above ground Oil Storage Tank refined 1/2 times the

Maximum petroleum greatest

60 350 560 1100 Over products not dimension
Cageof 18 16 1100 subject to (diameter,
Metal
14 12
boil- over length, or
*
Thickness of metal for outside aboveground tanks of over height);
1100 gal capacity to be calculated by the following formula: maximum
H x D/8 450 x E, where t = thickness of metal in inches; H distance
= height of tank in feet above bottom of ring under required, 53.0
consideration; D = diameter of tank in feet; E = efficiency of
vertical joint in ring under consideration where tensile metre
strength of steel be considered to be 55 000 psi and Group C for Yes Not less than
shearing strength of rivets to be 40 000 psi. Minimum crude twice the
thickness of shell or bottom is 3/16 in. and of roof 1/8 in. petroleum greatest
and dimension
Note: litre = gallon z 3.785 flammable (diameter,
mm = inch x 25.4 liquid subject length, or
kPa = psi x 6.895 to boil-over height);
m =ft÷3.28 minimum
Kpa = psi x 6.895
distance
c. required, 6.0
Vent Pipe. All fuel oil storage tanks must be
metre, maximum
vented. The size of the vent pipe should be
distance
proportion to the size of the fill line and
required, 53.4
should never be less than 32 mm pipe.
metre
Where tight fill box connections are used for
Group D for No Not less than
pressure filling, the vent must be of
crude three times
adequate size to prevent pressures being
petroleum greatest
built up in the storage tank.
and dimension
flammable (diameter,
Section 8.0 Gasoline and Kerosene liquid subject length, or
to boil-over height);
8.1 Gasoline is defined (ASTM D288-47) as a
minimum
refined petroleum naphtha which by its distance
composition is suitable for use as a carburetant required, 6.0
in internal combustion engines. The term is metre; maximum
often applied to hydrocarbon liquids used as distance
solvents for specific purposes, such as cleaning, required, 107.0
manufacture of rubber cement, of manufacture meter

303
 CHAPTER 15— FUELS AND LUBRICANTS
of paints or varnishes. For example, cleaners
naphtha or Standard solvent (ASTM D484-40)
has a distillation range of about 148.8°C to
204.4°C and a minimum flash point requirement
of 37.7°C.
Although gasoline and kerosene are not
invariable in composition and properties, they
vary only within limits of quality requirements
recognized by refiners and consumers of those
products.
a. Motor gasoline for automotive use, is
mixture of hydrocarbons distilling in the
range of 37.7°C to 204.4°C by the standard
method of test (ASTM D86-46). The
hydrocarbons belong chemically to four
principal classes; paraffin, olefins,
naphtenes, and aromatics. A typical motor
gasoline is a blend of (1) straight-run or
prime-cut naphtha, i.e., the portion of natural
crude oil boiling at temperatures up to
204.4°C; (2) reformed naphtha, i.e., the
product of the same volatility obtained by
thermal treatment or by catalytic
dehydrogenation of the heavy straight-run
naphtha; (3) cracked naphtha, i.e., the
product of the same volatility obtained by
thermally or catalytically decomposing gas
oil and less volatile portions of the crude oil;
and (4) casing head gasoline and other light
ends, i.e., the liquefiable hydrocarbons,
including substantially none more volatile
than isobutance, normally carried as vapor
in natural gas or in stabilizer gases from
cracking processes.
Compounds other than hydrocarbons occur
in only very minor proportions in gasoline.
Tetraethyl lead is often present, usually as
an anti-knock compound in concentration
not exceeding 3 cc per gal or motor
gasoline. Sulfur compounds of non corrosive
properties may be present, since sulfur
compounds occur in crude oil, but their
concentration in gasoline rarely represents a
content of sulfur greater than 0.1% by
weight. When stored for a long time,
gasoline may form organic peroxides up to
about 200 parts of active oxygen per million
parts of gasoline, and resinous polymers,
called gum, up to about 30 mg. per 100 cc
of gasoline. Many commercial gasoline
contain minor concentrations of
antioxidants, and some contain solvent oil to
guard against the deposition of gum.
Commercial gasoline on the market are
304
usually free of suspended water, acid
compounds, and other deleterious
impurities.
The elementary composition of gasoline by
weight is, in general, not far from 85%
carbon and 15% hydrogen. The air-fuel ratio
for stoichiometric requirements in the
combustion of gasoline and kerosene varies
between 14 and 15 kg of air per kg of fuel.
Gasoline ordinarily is graded by volatility
and antiknock value, or octane number, into
motor gasoline of regular and premium
grades and into aviation gasoline of several
antiknock grades, of which the most
generally used are 91/98 and 100/130
(ASTM D910-47). Typical characteristics of
gasoline are listed in Table 15.8.1.1. Other
typical physical properties of gasoline are:
(1) volume coefficient of thermal expansion,
per °C at 15.5°C 0.0006 to 0.0007 (ASTM
D206-36); (2) latent heat of vaporization, at
1 atm. vapor pressure, 130 Btu per Ib; (3)
specific heat of vapor at 1 atm. pressure and
37.7°C 0.4 Btu per (lb x °F); (4) electric
restivity of water free liquid, 2 X 10 ohm per
cu. cm; (5) dielectric constant at 20°C 2.2
referred to air as unity; (6) surface tension
against air at 20°C 21 dynes per cm for
aviation grade, 25 dynes per cm for motor
gasoline.
8.2 Explosive Mixture of Gasoline. Mixtures of air
and gasoline vapor containing from 1.3 to 6.0%
of gasoline vapor by volume are explosive.
8.3 Kerosene is defined as a petroleum distillate
-
having a flash point not below 22.8°C as
determined by the Abel tester (which is
approximately equivalent to 22.8°C as
determined by the Tag closed tester, ASTM
standard method D56) and suitable as an
illuminant when burned in a wick lamp.
Typical kerosene have the following ranges of
properties: distillation, 160 to 287.8°C. API
gravity, 40 to 48 degrees; Tag flash 43.3 to
54.4°C, Kinematic viscosity at 37.7°C 1.4 to 2.0.
Other properties are listed in Table 15.8.4
Even in areas where electrification has made
kerosene lamps obsolete, kerosene has
continued to be an important fuel for heating
purposes, being consumed in wick type and
various vaporizing-type burners in stoves,
 CHAPTER 15— FUELS AND LUBRICANTS

Table 15.8.1.1 which 2,437 kJ per kg. at 25°C. It is sometimes

Characteristics of Typical Gasolines used in about 20% concentration as a
supplement in gasoline, particularly in countries
Distillation (ASTM, Use Summer Automotive Aviation lacking petroleum resources. Such blended
D86-46) Grade Regular Premium 100/130 gasoline generally contain about 15% benzol
also; in order to make the blend less likely to be
separated into two phases in the presence of
Initial boiling point, °F 101 102 104 water. Aqueous alcohols may be injected as
auxiliary fuel in the intake manifold of Otto cycle
10% evaporated at °F 140 140 140 engines being operated at full power output. The
relatively high latent heat of vaporization of the
50% evaporated at °F 230 225 203 alcohols, which serves to cool the fuel-air
mixture, and their relatively high antiknock
90% evaporated at °F 338 320 262 value, especially in rich fuel-air mixtures, permit
higher power output than the knocking tendency
Final boiling point, °F 400 356 320 of the main fuel, if used alone, would permit.

Vapor pressure, psi at Note kJ BTU x 1.055

1 OOF 7.8 7.8 6.8
kg = lbs ÷ 2.2
Motor octane number
(ASTM D357-47) 74 78 100
°C= °F 32 —

1.8
heaters, and furnaces. In such cases, the
product is frequently known as range oil. The Article 15.9 Other Liquid Fuels
specifications for No. 1 fuel also include Table 15.8.4 Specific Volume and Other Properties
products of the kerosene type. of Gasoline and Kerosene

8.4 Specific Volume of gasoline and kerosene I Gasoline Kerosene

completely vaporized at 1 atm. pressure and at For the liquid
15.6°C are listed in Table 15.8.4 together with * 55 60 65 70 40 45 50
Gravity, API
some typical values of other properties which
normally vary with the densities of these Specific gravity, 0.7587 0.7389 0.7201 0.7022 0.8251 0.8017 0.7796
products. 60°/60 F

Pounds per 6.316 6.151 5.994 5.845 6.870 6.675 6.490

8.5 Alcohol. The alcohol most frequently gallon
considered as fuel for internal combustion
engines is ethyl alcohol, sometimes called grain Specific heat at
0.500 0.515 0.530 0.545 0.475 0.495 0.505
100F, Btu per (lb
alcohol. Its modern chemical name is ethanol.
x°F)
Two other alcohols that have been used as fuel
are methanol and isopropanol, which are also Viscosity, ....... 0.5 ....... 0.5 1.4 1.6 2.0
centipoises* at
called methyl alcohol and isoprophyl alcohol,
68 F
respectively.
Not heating 18,500 18,700 18,900 19,100 18,700 18,900 19,100
Ethanol has the chemical formula, C OH.
5
H
2 value, at
When sold for industrial use; it is mixed with a constant
pressure,
minor proportion of a denaturant to make it unfit
Btu per lb
for human consumption, since alcohol for
beverage has subject to special taxation. 3.45 3.60 3.05
For the Vapor
Specific vol., Cu ft
per lb.
The gross (higher) heating value of pure ethanol
at6OF
is 29,639 kJ per kg and its net (lower) heating
value at constant pressure is 26,889 kJ per kg. *Centipoise is the ems unit of viscosity and is equal to
The products of its complete combustion in
kinematic viscosity in centistokes X the density of the
oxygen are carbon dioxide and water. For
liquid.
aqueous alcohol the net calorific value is lower,
owing in part to the inertness of water and to the
Note: °C=°F—32
absorption of its latent heat of vaporization,
1.8

305
 CHAPTER 15— FUELS AND LUBRICANTS

liters = gals x 3.785 Table 15.9.3

kg lbs. ÷ 2.2 Proper ties of Comm ercial Propane and Butane
Property Propane Butane
8.6 Coal Tar and Tar Oil Coal tar is a product of
—

Chemical composition C
8
H
3 C
1
H
4 0
the destructive distillation of bituminous coal
Boiling point, °F -43.8 +31.1
carried out at high temperature. A typical
Specific gravity, liquid, at 60/60 F 0.508 0.584
composition of tar is: C, 86.7%; H, 6.0%; N,
0.1%; S, 0.8% 0, 3.1%; ash, 0.1%; water, 3.2%. Specific gravity, vapor, at 60 F, 14
psia (air = 1) 1.522 2.006
The black color is due to free carbon in
suspension (about 4%). The high heating value Specific heat, vapor, at 14 psia,
Btu/Ib, cy 0.390 0.396
equals 37,925 kJ per kg. The viscosity is about
140 Say bolt sec at 60°C. Coal tar weighs 1.14 Specific heat, vapor, at 14 psia,
Btu.lb, cx 0.346 0.363
kg per liter. This analysis shows tar to have
almost the same chemical composition as the Heat of vaporization, at 14 psia,
Btu/lb 183 166
combustible matter of the coal from which it is
Weight, lb/gal 4.23 4.86
made. Tar is used principally in reheating 31.8
Vapor produced, cu ft/gal 36.5
furnaces and open-hearth furnaces of steel
Heat content, gross Btu/lb 21,690 21,340
works. It is not easily obtainable in the open
Explosion limits, % in air (lower) 2.0—2.4 15.-1.9
market. Since it is by-product, its price is more
Explosion limits, % in air (upper) 7.0-9.5 5.7-8.5
or less arbitrary. 15.4
Air required for combustion, lb/lb 15.6
8.7 Liquefied Petroleum Gases (LPG) are of fuel
mixtures of hydrocarbons liquefied under
pressure for efficient transportation, storage, VAPOR PRESSURE of LP-Gases
and use. They are generally composed of
ethylene, propane, propylene, butane, 250
isobutene, and butylenes. Commercially, they
are classed as propane, propane-butane
mixtures, and butane. They are odorless,
colorless, and non-toxic. They should always be 200
odorized so that leaks may be detected long
before the lower explosion limit of the gas-air
mixture is reached. These gases are heavier
than air and seek ground level. If leaks will result
150 ro/
if dangerous accumulations collect and are not
dispersed by wind or other means, an automatic
shut-off safety device shall be installed to 100
protect the LPG pipe lines after the regulator in
rigid piping lines and before the flexible
connection to each burner. Liquefied petroleum 50 But ne —
gases are derived in most part from gases
produced in petroleum refining operations and 120
40 -20 0 20 40 60 80 100
also in substantial quantities from natural gas.
The sulfur content is generally low particularly in
gases produced from natural gas. Butane is not
used as extensively as propane for two reasons:
(1) its relatively high boiling point makes it The distribution and uses of LP gases have
necessary to add external heat when the expanded very rapidly. The uses include
temperature drops below 0°C; and (2) butane domestic water heating, cooking, refrigerating,
has high economic value in the manufacture of and space heating. In small communities the
synthetic rubber and for high octane gasoline. gases are distributed from a central point in
The physical properties of propane and butane place of manufactured gas. They are also used
are given in Table 15.9.3. in the gas industry for enriching manufactured
gas and as a stand by supply. Commercially and
industrially, they are used as a fuel for internal
combustion engines and for any of the various

306
 CHAPTER 15— FUELS AND LUBRICANTS
application where manufactured or natural gas
might be used.
LP gases are stored in portable and semi-
portable cylinder containing up to 45.45 kg. of
liquid, and in above or below-ground storage
tanks with capacities up to 30,000 gal. All
storage installation should be made in
accordance with the requirements of local
authorities. Cylinders should be constructed to
meet the requirements. Storage tanks should be
constructed and tested in accordance with the
requirements of the PSME codes for unfired
pressure vessels.
Section 9.0 Diesel Fuel Oils
Diesel engines in general are capable of burning a
rather wide variety of liquid fuels; the large-cylinder
slower-speed diesels will burn a wider range than the
smaller engines. While vegetable and animal oils have
been used to a limited extent, the most available and
cheapest liquid fuels are mineral oils, usually
derivatives of crude petroleum.
9.1 Classification. Refiners grade fuels broadly
according to methods of production: (1) Distillate
fuels are produced by distillation of crudes.
Various grades are distinguished according to
choice of initial and final boiling points used in
the process. (2) Residual fuels are those left
after the distillation process. (3) Blended fuels
are mixtures of straight distillate fuels with
cracked fuel stocks. Cracked stocks are
residuals of fuels which have been treated
thermally or catalytically to obtain yields of
lighter-grade fuels or gasoline.
Lightest grade distillates, classed as kerosene
or No. 1 fuel oil, may have an initial boiling point
of 176.6°C and end point of 260°C. Heaviest
grades of distillates, classed as No. 3 or 4 fuel
oil, may have initial boiling point of 232°C to
260°C and end point of 343°C to 371°C.
Refiners may produce several grades of
distillates fuel and usually try to produce fuels
from the available crudes which will satisfy both
domestic heating use and diesel engine
requirements with least number of grades.
Residual fuels, No. 4 or No. 5, are suitable only
for the slower-speed diesel. Residual and
blended fuels have wide variations in
characteristics and suitability for diesel use and
each must be evaluated separately.
307
Fuel-Oil Price varies with many factors; one of
them is quality. High-quality distillate fuels are
more expensive than residual or blended fuels.
High demands for gasoline and heating fuels
indicate advisability, from the stand point of fuel
cost, of using the lowest suitable grade of diesel
fuel available. However, lower fuel cost must be
balanced against increased operating and
maintenance costs. Always start from engine
builder’s specifications and depart from them
only slowly and cautiously. Specifications are
important in preliminary judgment of fuels, but
the final criterion is acceptance of a fuel by the
diesel engine itself.
9.2 Specifications. Terms usually employed in
diesel-fuel specifications are:
Specific Gravity, seldom used, compares the
weight of the fuel with water; it is expressed as a
decimal, with water taken as 1.0. The term API
(American Petroleum Institute) gravity is
frequently used. Water is taken as API 10
degree. Oils lighter than water have higher
degrees API gravity, according to the formula.
API degree = 141.5 -131.5
Specific gravity at 60 F
Heat Content is expressed in Btu per
second pound higher heating value. Fuel
oil usually is purchased by the gallon, and
the heavier fuels (low API gravity) have
the lower cost per unit of heating value.
Note: kJ = BTU x 1.055
kg = Ibs+2.2
Flash Point is the temperature at which the
—
fuel gives off vapors ignited by an open flame
and is significant only from handling and storage
standpoints. Usually a flash point of 65.22°C
meets all fire, insurance, and transportation
regulations.
Pour Point is important only for handling and
—
storage reasons. Heating coils in storage tanks
make possible the use of high point fuels in cold
weather.
Viscosity — is measure of resistance to flow.
Important from the standpoint of handling
through piping, especially in cold weather, and
very important for injection characteristics. High
viscosity fuels do not atomize as freely and may
upset combustion results in the engine.
 CHAPTER 15— FUELS AND LUBRICANTS
Volatility and Distillation Range Volatility
—
measures vaporizing tendencies and is usually
expressed in distillation-range temperatures
sometimes as temperatures at which successive
10% increments of the fuel are distilled.
Cleanliness — Contamination such as water,
abrasives, gummy constituents, pipe or tank
scale, or sludge must be eliminated. The usual
BS and W (bottom sediments and water) limit is
0.05% maximum when the engine is equipped
with fuel filtration facilities. In large stations, with
special filtration equipment, a limit of 1 to 2% is
advisable.
Ash Content includes non-combustible
—
mineral materials, abrasive in action in engine
cylinders, must be limited to less than 0.01% in
slower-speed engines.
Corrosion — Fuel should be non-corrosive by
test, but this may not correlate with corrosion of
fuel-system parts. Acidity and alkalinity test are
not normally specified or distillate fuels because
manufacturing process produces neutral fuels.
All fuels should be neutral in reaction, and
crudes or heavy fuels should be tested.
Sulfur may be present in many forms, some
—
corrosive and some non corrosive. Products of
combustion of sulfur containing fuels are likely to
be corrosive or cause deposits in engines. In
general, small engines have operated
satisfactorily on fuels containing as much as 1%
total sulfur, whereas large slow-speed units
have operated on fuels with as much as 3%
sulfur.
Carbon Residue — is sometimes called
Conradson carbon. It is the carbonaceous
residue remaining after destructive distillation,
expressed in percentage by weight of the
original sample. In light fuels, a test is run on the
10% remaining after the lightest 90% has been
distilled off. This is called “carbon residue on
10% bottoms”; it gives values about ten times
those obtained from the entire sample. Higher-
speed engines function most satisfactorily on
fuels having carbon residues on 10% bottoms of
0.25% or less, whereas some large low-speed
engines have used fuels with much higher
carbon residues. This test believed to indicate
the tendency of a fuel to form carbon deposits in
an engine, but correlation between tests and
actual engine results is not always good.
Ignition Quality in smaller engines, is one of
—
the most important characteristics of a fuel. The
, term is used to express the speed at which
combustion starts and continues under service
conditions. When fuel is injected into a diesel
engine cylinder, there is a delay until a portion of
the fuel ignites. The burning increases the
temperature and promotes general ignition and
combustion. If ignition quality is low and engine
speed is high, a large part of the fuel charge is
injected before any appreciable ignition occurs.
Hence, at the time of ignition, there is so much
fuel present that combustion takes on the
characteristics of an explosion, causing rough
running.
Cetane Number — The usual method of
expressing ignition quality is the determination
of delay angle of the fuel in a standardized test
engine. The delay angle is the angle of cranks
shaft revolution between the beginning of fuel
injection and the first appreciable rise in
pressure due to combustion. This is expressed
by cetane number. Cetane is a hydrocarbon
fluid of high ignition quality. It is mixed for trials
with alphamethylnaphthalene, which has a poor
ignition quality. After determination of the delay
angle of the fuel being tested, the performance
is duplicated, using a mixture of these two pure
compounds, and employing the trial-and—error
method. The cetane number is the percentage
of cetane used in the mixture.
Fuels with high cetane numbers give smooth
combustion and provide easy starting. The
slower the engine speed, the less the
importance of the cetane number.
Diesel index is also used to express ignition
quality of fuels:
Diesel index = API gravity x Aniline cloud point
100
Both gravity and aniline cloud point are related
to fuel composition, hence to ignition quality.
Diesel index and cetane number can be fairly
well correlated.
Another method of expressing ignition quality is
by the empirical cetane number determined by a
chart that takes into consideration a number of
factors (including gravity, viscosity and volatility)
related to fuel composition.
In the range of 50 to 60, the diesel index is
normally 5 to 10 points higher than the actual
308
 CHAPTER 15 — FUELS AND LUBRICANTS
cetane number. In the range of 35 to 45 diesel
index closely approaches cetane number. Below
30, diesel index is usually somewhat lower than
cetane number. The correlation between
empirical cetane number and actual cetane
number is generally similar, but the results are
more consistent than those obtained from the
diesel index.
Additives (amyl nitrate, etc) improve the ignition
quality of fuels but add to the fuel cost. Engine
tests alone are used for determining the ignition
quality of additive-improved fuels.
9.3 Fuel Selection. Wide and numerous variations
in engine design, such as size of cylinder, speed
of revolution, form of combustion chamber, and
injection system, affect fuel requirements. In
selecting fuel oils, follow the engine builder’s
specifications but permit the fuel supplier as
much latitude within them as possible.
Restrictive specifications increase the fuel price.
Increasing the cetane number above the
minimum required for smooth running does not
increase the operating efficiency, but may
increase the fuel cost. The use of lighter fuels
than actually required increases both the fuel
cost per barrel and the fuel consumption.
9.4 Gas Fuel. The express purpose of the gas-
diesel and dual-fuel engine is to take advantage
of availability of low-cost gas fuel. Any gas
suitable for fuel for gas engines can be used,
but natural gas and sewage gas are most
common. The cost of pilot fuel oil is of lesser
importance, and it is wise to use a good grade of
fuel oil.
Section 10.0 Gaseous Fuels
10.1 Characteristics and Properties of Fuel Gases
a. Advantages. Gaseous fuels commonly
used in industry, whether distributed by
public utilities or produced in isolated plants,
are composed of one or more simple gases
in varying proportions. They can be burned
in furnaces or other appliances under
conditions in which the supply can be varied
almost instantaneously between wide limits
by the manual or automatic manipulation of
a valve. Because complete combustion is
obtained with low excess air, fuel losses are
low and operation is smokeless. The
atmosphere is the furnace may be
maintained oxidizing or reducing with ease
and with little reduction in efficiency. No
309
storage facilities are needed on the
premises of the consumer if the gas is
furnished by a public utility.
b. Gas Analysis. In ordinary methods of gas
analysis, the gas passes through a series of
absorbents, each of which removes a
districts components or group of
components. The remainder of the gas is
subjected to combustion with oxygen or air.
Measurements are made on a volume basis,
and the results are expressed in
percentages, on a dry basis, even though
the actual sample may have saturated with
water vapor. Most of the equipment
available for absorption methods of analysis
provides for determining CD , illuminants,
2
02 CD, H , CH
2 , C
4 , and N
H
2 2 in the order
listed, CO
2 is absorbed in a sodium or
potassium hydroxide solution; illuminants in
sulphuric acid, bromine water, or cuprous
beta-naphthol; 02 in alkaline pyrogallate or
chromous chloride; CO in acid or alkaline
cuprous chloride, cuprous sulphate beta —
naphthol; H , CH
2 4 and C 6 by combustion
H
2
methods; and N 2 by difference.
Other methods of analysis include distillation
methods in which the sample of gas is
liquefied and distilled or fractionated in
suitable apparatus, the use of the mass
spectrometer and infra-red spectroscopy.
c. Heating Value. The total heating value (or
gross heating value, or higher heating value,
hhv) of a gas is the number of BTU
produced by combustion at constant
pressure of 0.0283 m3 of the gas, measured
at 15.5°C and 762 mm, Hg, with air of the
same pressure and temperature as the gas,
what the products of combustion are cooled
to the initial when the water formed by
combustion is condensed to the liquid state.
The net heating value (or lower heating
value, hhV) is the number of kJ produced by
combustion at constant pressure of 0.0283
3 of the gas, measured at 15.5°C, and 762
m
mm Hg, with air of the same pressure and
temperature as the gas, when the products
of combustion are cooled to the initial
temperature of gas and air and when water
formed in combustion remains in the vapor
state.
 CHAPTER 15— FUELS AND LUBRICANTS

11.3 Characteristics. Specifications for lubricating oil

Section 11.0 Diesel Lubricating Oils do not usually mention, any physical
characteristics except viscosity, but such
11.1 Classification. Crude oils are frequently characteristic s should be considered.
described as “paraffinic,” “naphthenic,” or “mixed
base,” according to the physical characteristics
Viscosity must be high enough to provide an oil
of the crude. Many sub classifications of finished
film under the load and temperature conditions
oils can be made, based, on type of base stock,
prevailing between the sliding surfaces in the
refining methods, and subsequent treatment, but
engine, and still flow freely through the
these classifications do not describe the value of
passages and spread over sliding surfaces
a lubricating oil in a diesel engine.
under the prevailing speed and clearance
conditions. The latter is especially important
Two broad types of oil are in use, “straight” oils
when starting at low temperature.
are produced entirely from the crudes chosen
through elimination of undesired constituents by
Viscosity is usually expressed in seconds Say
suitable refining processes. “Additive” oils are
bolt or second SUS (Say bolt Universal
produced by adding to straight mineral oils
seconds). It is determined by measuring the
certain oil-soluble compounds that enhance the
time in seconds required for a standard quantity
lubricating oil properties for use in a diesel
of oil (60cc) to flow through the orifice of the Say
engine.
bolt viscosimeter at a standard temperature.
Three standard temperatures are used, 37.5,
Additives are used principally to inhibit or slow
54.4, and 98.8CC.
down oxidation, to increase film strength, to
keep solids in finely divided state and to hold
114 SAE Grades. The viscosity of lubricating oil
them in suspension (detergency), to improve the
usually is expressed according to grades
viscosity index, to lower the pour point, to
established by the Society of Automotive
decrease friction and wear under extreme
Engineers, given in the following table:
pressure conditions, to reduce foaming, and as
rust or corrosion inhibitors. SAE Viscosity Range, SUS
Viscosity At 130 F At 210 F
11.2 Types. The Society of Automotive Engineers Number Minimum Maximum Minimum Maximum
and the American Petroleum Institute recognize
three types of lubricating oil: 10 90 Less than
120
20 120 Less than
a. Regular Type — suitable for moderate 185
operating conditions. 30 185 Less than
255
b. Premium Type — having oxidation stability 40 255 Less than
80
and bearing corrosion preventive properties 80 Less than
50
making it generally suitable for more severe 105
service than regular duty type. Operating 60 105 Less than
circumstances which bring high load factor, 125
or high load factor or high temperatures
,
70 125 Less than
150
from any cause, require premium oils.
Elevated temperatures increase the rate of
oxidation and tend toward harmful deposits
in the engine. Oils having improved stability The Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE)
and oxidation resistance are required under viscosity numbers classify motor oils and great
such circumstances. lubricants solely according to viscosity limits.
SAE numbers are a means of coordinating and
c. Heavy-Duty Type has oxidation stability, standardizing the products of oil companies
and the recommendations by the oil
being corrosion-preventive properties, and
companies. The system of SAE motor
detergent-dispersant characteristics for use
under heavy-duty service conditions, carry classification is a system based entirely on
carbon particles in suspensions and tend to viscosity and is totally unrelated the other
eliminate deposits in the engine. qualities of a lubricating oil.

310
 CHAPTER 15— FUELS AND LUBRICANTS
a. Viscosity Index - indicates the relative
change in viscosity of an oil for a given
temperature change. The rate of change
varies according to the type of base stock.
Paraffin oils in general have a low rate of
viscosity change with change in
temperature; a particular paraffin oil was
arbitrarily assigned an index number of 100.
Naphthenic oils have a high rate of viscosity
change, and particular naphthenic oil was
arbitrarily given an index number of zero.
The viscosity index, or VI, of any oil
compares its rate of viscosity change with
temperature with these two standards.
b. Pour Point — is the lowest temperature at
which oil will flow its own accord. It is not the
only factor influencing the ease of starting a
cold engine, especially after it is exposed for
some time to cold weather. Special low-
point lubricating oils may be used under
such circumstances, but the preferred
method is to enclose suitably or protect the
engine by heating so that the lubricating oil
and jacket water are at reasonable
temperatures before starting.
c. Flash Point — In lubricating oils the flash
point is valuable for purposes of
identification. The flash point of an oil is
rough indication of its tendency to vaporize
at high temperatures and therefore of oil
consumption especially in internal
combustion engines. With used crankcase
lubricants, the flash point gives an indication
of any dilution.
Flash and fire points have the same
meanings as for fuel oil, but the values are
much higher. Carbon residue has similar
significance, but the test figure is a doubtful
indicator of the likelihood of engine deposits.
Lubricating oils have flash points from 275-
700°F.
Color The color of oil is no indication of its
—
lubricating qualities, except in so far as
contamination may be evident. Sometimes
the degree of deterioration can be estimated
by comparing its color to that of unused oils.
In same applications, color is quite
important. In textile machines, oil may likely
cause stains in the textiles being
manufactured. Stained textile might be
rejected and therefore light colored oils may
be preferred to dark color oils.
311
In food processing plants, oil must be
colorless, odorless and tasteless and if
comes in contact with the food should not
discolor it.
d. Engine Operation. Normal operation of a
diesel engine subjects the lubricating oil to
high pressures and temperatures. The
results is oxidation and a tendency towards
production of gums, resins, and acids. The
products of oil deterioration are an almost
infinite series of compounds, differing
according to the oil used and the operating
conditions. Furthermore, the oil may be
contaminated by metal particles, raw fuel oil,
or the products of combustion. Soot, ash,
partially burned fuel, or raw fuel may mix
with the cylinder wall lubricant and
accelerate the deterioration of the lubricating
oil.
Raw fuel oil will lower the flash and burning
points of the lubricating oil, and lower the
viscosity. Filtering alone will not eliminate
fuel oil; a distillation process is necessary.
The presence of fuel is detected by flash
point and change in viscosity.
Oxidation or lubricating oil forms acidic
products. Periodic tests for neutralization
number will determine the rate of increase of
acidity during service. Use the neutralization
number of the original or new oil as a basis
for comparison.
Small engines are likely to have filters of
moderate capacity, and the lubricating oil is
thrown away periodically after a certain
number of hours of use. Medium and large
engines have more elaborate systems of
filtering the oil; the oil is clarified either by
the batch system or continuously. In the
batch system, oil is drawn from the engine
periodically, clarified, and stored for future
use. No clarified oil is ever thrown away;
only residues or sludges are discarded.
When the batch system is used, some
operators have an analysis of the crankcase
oil made periodically, and drain strictly
according to the indications shown. The
larger the establishment, the more essential
that the correct grade of oil be used, that
crankcase oil be kept in prime condition, and
that losses and wastes be reduced to a
minimum.
 CHAPTER 15— FUELS AND LUBRICANTS
TYPICAL PROPERTIES OF LIQUEFIED PETROLEUM GAS
Section 12.0 Units of Heat Measurement
Property Method Guaranteed Typical
12.1 Several units for measuring the quantity of heat Specifications Tests
in a body are in use. The relations between Cu. Strip,
Corrosion,
them are given in Table 15.13.1 1 hr
@ 38°C ASTM D 1838 1 Max. 1
The British thermal unit (BTU) generally used in
Distillation, 95%
engineering work in the United States and Great Evaporated at 760
Britain is 1/180 of the heat required to raise the mm Hg. °F ASTM D 1837 32
temperature of 1 lb. of water from 32 to 212 F.
Originally, it was defined as the quantity of heat Specific Gravity @
60/60°F ASTM D 1657 Report 0.567
required to raise 1 lb. of water from 62 to 63 F,
but the former definition is now generally Sulfur, Grains/ 100
accepted. cu.ft ASTMD2784 l5Max. 2

Vapor Pressure psig

The kilogram-calorie or large calorie (kg-cal) is ASTM D 1267 150 Max.* 81
the heat required to raise the temperature of 1 @ 100°F
kg. of water from 14.5 to 15.5 C, or 1/100 of the Water Content Visual (No free or Pass
heat required to raise 1 kg. of water from 0 to entrained water)
100 C. Heating Value, -

BTU/lb ASTM D 140 21, 260

The gram-calorie, small calorie, or 15° calorie
(g-cal), generally used in scientific work, is the
heat required to raise 1 gram of water from 14.5
to 15.5 C.

Table 15.13.la
Relation of the Various Units of Heat
Btu Kg-cal Gram-cal Mean cal Ostwald cal Lb-cal

1 Btu 1 0.252 252.0 251.9 2.51 93 0.55555

1 kilogram- = 3.968 1.0 1000 999.76 9.9976 2.2044
calorie
1 gram- 0.003968 0.001 1.0 00999658 0.00996 0.002204
calorie
I mean- =0.003968 0.001 1.00024 1.0 0.009999 0.00205
calorie
1 Ostwald- = 0.3938 0.100024 100.024 100 1.0 0.220499
calorie
1 pound- = 1.8 0.04536 453.6 453.474 4.53474 1.0
calorie

Note: kJ = BTU x 1.055

kg = lbs ÷ 2.2

312
 CHAPTER 15— FUELS AND LUBRICANTS
Table 15.13.lb
Mechanical Equivalent of Heat
Joules Watt-
Kg-
Ft-lb Btu G-cal hr, Hp-hr
roe-ter
mt. Abe mt.
1000 138.26 1355.4 1355.8 1.2849 323.79 0.3765 0.50505x
1 ft-lb
x i0 x io x i02 x i0 x io x i0 x io 106

723.30 100 980.67 0.92938 x 234.30 0.27233 x 0.36530 x

1 Kg-meter 980.37 102
1 02 x 1 02 1 02 x 1 02 1 02 1

737.78 1-2.00 1000 1000.5 0.9480 238.89 0.27778x 0.37262x

1 Joule, i.
= x x iO2 x io x io x i0 x i0 i02 106

737.56 101.97 999.7 1000 0.9477 238.89 0.27778x 037262

1 Joule, abe.
= x io x 3
io x io x i0 x 102 x i0 io x 106

1 Btu 778.26 107.60 1054.9 1055.2 0.15598 x

= 1 252.00 0.29302

308.84 42.70 418.61 417.73 0.3968 100 0.11628x 0.15598x

1 g-cal
= x 102 10 x 102 x 102 x 102 x 102 102

1 watt-hr, mt. 2656.0 367.21 3600* 3601.1 3.41275 860* 1

1.3414x

1980.0 273.75 2683.7 2684.5 2.5441 641.01 0.74548x

1 Hp-hr 1
= x 102 102 x 102 x 102 x 102 102 102
*Exact value by definition:
*The value of 150 grains/i 00 cu ft maximum sulfur applies to unstenched product.

Note: °C= °F—32

1.8

TYPICAL PROPERTIES OF REGULAR GASOLINE

Property Method Typical
Guaranteed Specifications
Test
Color Visual Standard Standard
Orange Orange
Corrosion,
Copper Strip,
3 hr, @ 50°F ASTM D 130 1 Maximum

Distillation, °C ASTM D86

10% Evaporated 65 maximum 52
50% Evaporated 116 maximum 95
90% Evaporated 180 maximum 154
Residue, Vol. % 2 maximum 1.0
Loss, Vol. % To be reported 1.7

Doctor Test P 30 Negative Negative

Gum Existent
mg/i OOml ASTM D38i 4 maximum 2
Induction Period,
@ 100°C, Minutes ASTM D525 480 maximum 1440
Lead, Tetra Alkyl,
gm PB/litre
@15°C ASTM D2547 0.48 maximum 0.2985

313
 CHAPTER 15— FUELS AND LUBRICANTS

TYPICAL PROPERTIES OF KEROSENE TYPICAL PROPERTIES OF FUEL OIL

Property Method Guaranteed Typical Property Method Guaranteed Typical

Specifications Is Specifications Tests
Burning Test, ASTM D187 Satisfactory Satisfactory
Ash, mass % ASTM D482 0.10 maximum 001

Color, Say bolt ASTM D156 21 maximum + 30 Density, Kg/li. ASTM D1298 0 885 mm. — 0.9587
@ 15°C 0.990 max.
Corrosion, Copper
Strip, 3 hr@ 50°C ASTM D130 1 maximum 1 Flash Point
Pensky Martens,
Distillation, End Point, °CASTM D86 274 maximum 246 Closed Cup, °C ASTM D93 60 mm. 81

Doctor Test IP 30 Negative Negative Sediment by

Extraction, mass % ASTM D2473 0.12 maximum NIll
Flash Point, Tag.°C ASTM D56 38 mm. 42
Sulfur, mass % IP 336 4.0 maximum 3.2
Smoke Point ASTM D1322 25 mm. 28
Thermal Value,
MJ/kg (Gross) ASTM D240 - 43.2
Sulfur, mass % ASTM D1266 020 maximum 0.032
Viscosity, Kinematic,
cST @ 50°C ASTM D445 320 maximum 269

Water by distillation,
TYPICAL PROPERTIES OF PREMIUM GASOLINE ASTM D95 0 5 maximum 0.2

Property Method Guaranteed Typical Water & Sediment

Specifications Tests by Centrifuge, Vol % ASTM Dl 796 0.5 maximum 0.08

Color Visual Standard Red Red

Corrosion, Copper Strip,
3 hr. @50°C ASTM D130 1 maximum 1 TYPICAL PROPERTIES OF DIESEL FUEL
Property Method Guaranteed Typical
Distillation, °C ASTM D86
Satisfactions Tests
10% Evaporated 65 maximum 53
50% Evaporated 116 maximum 102 Acid Number,
90% Evaporated 180 maximum 164 mg KOH/gm ASTM D974
Residue, °Vol. % 2 maximum 1.0 Strong nil nil
Loss, Vol. % To be reported 1.5 Total 0.25 maximum 0.01

Doctor Test IP 30 Negative Negative Color ASTM ASTM D1500 3.0 maximum 1.0

Gum Existent, Ash, mass % ASTM D482 0.02 maximum nil

mg/i 00 ml ASTM D381 4 maximum 2
Carbon Residue,
Lead, Tetra Alkyl, gm Ramsbotton
Pb/litre @ 15°C ASTM D2547 0.84 maximum 0.787 On 10% Distillation
Residue, mass % ASTM D524 0.2 maximum 0.01
Induction Period
@ 100°C, Mm. ASTM D525 480 mm. 1,440 Cetane Index ASTM D976 45 mm. 58

Octane Number, Corrosion, Copper

Research Method ASTM D2699 93.0 mm. 94.7 Strip 3 hr @ 100°C ASTM D130 2 maximum 1

Sulfur, mass % ASTM D1266 0.20 maximum 0.016 Density, Kg/litre ASTM D1298 0.815 mm. 0.8407
@ 15°C 0.875 max.
Vapor Lock Protection ASTM D439
Temperature Appendix Xl.3 Distillation, °C ASTM D86
(for V/L = 20), °C 57 mm. ei 90% Recovered 377 maximum 351
End Point 400 maximum 386
Vapor Pressure Reid,
Kpa @ 37.8°C ASTM D323 75 maximum 59 Flash Point,
Pensky Martens
—

Closed Cup, °C ASTM D93 60 mm. 69

Pour Point, °C ASTM D97 15 maximum -6.7

Sulfur, mass % IP 336 1.0 maximum 0.81

Viscosity, Kinematic
cST @40°C ASTM D445 1.71 mm — 2.8
5.5 max.
Water and Sediment by
Centrifuge, Vol. % ASTM D 1796 0.10 maximum Trace

314
 CHAPTER 15— FUELS AND LUBRICANTS

CONVERSION OF VISCOSITIES AT THE SAME TEMPERATURE *

Redwood Redwood Saybolt Saybolt Redwood Saybolt

Engler Engler Redwood Saybolt
II., Universal, Furol, I., Universa
Degrees Degrees II., Furol,
Seconds Seconds Seconds Seconds Seconds Seconds I,
Seconds
Seconds
1.0 27 - 28 - 20.5 631 63 752 75
1.1 30 32 21.0 647 65 771
-
-
77
1.2 33 5 35 - 21.5 662 66 789 79
1.3 36 5 39 - 22.0 677 68 807 81
1.4 40 5 43 - 22.5 693 69 826 83
1.5 43 6 47 23.0 708 71 844 84
1.6 46 6 51 - 23.5 724 72 862 86
1.7 49 6 55 - 24.0 739 74 881 88
1.8 53 7 59 - 24.5 755 76 899 90
1.9 56 7 64 - 25.0 780 78 918 92
2.0 59 7 68 13 26.3 815 82 970 99
2.2 66 8 76 13 27.6 856 86 1,010 103
2.4 72 9 84 14 30.0 937 94 1,100 112
2.6 79 10 92 15 32.0 978 98 1,155 117
2.8 85 10 100 15 33.0 1,018 102 1,210 123
3.0 92 11 108 16 34.0 1,059 106 1,255 127
3.2 98 12 116 17 36.0 1,100 110 1,300 132
3.4 104 12 124 17 37.0 1,140 114 1,350 137
3.6 111 13 132 18 38.0 1,180 118 1,397 141
3.8 117 14 140 18 39.5 1,220 122 1,444 147
4.0 123 14 147 19 41.0 1,260 126 1,491 151
4.5 139 16 165 21 42.0 1,300 130 1,538 156
5.0 154 17 184 22 43.0 1,340 134 1,585 161
5.5 169 19 202 24 45.0 1,380 138 1,632 165
6.0 185 20 220 25 46.0 1,420 142 1,679 170
6.5 200 22 239 27 47.0 1,460 146 1,726 175
7.0 216 23 257 29 49.0 1,500 150 1,773 179
7.5 231 25 275 30 50.0 1,540 154 1,820 184
8.0 246 26 294 32 51.0 1,580 158 1,867 189
8.5 262 28 312 34 53.0 1,620 162 1,914 193
9.0 277 29 330 35 54.0 1,660 166 1,961 198
9.5 293 31 349 37 55.0 1,700 170 2,008 203
10.0 308 32 367 39 57.0 1,740 174 2,055 208
10.5 232 34 385 41 58.0 1,780 178 2,102 212
11.0 339 35 404 42 59.0 1,820 182 2,149 217
11.5 354 37 422 44 60.5 1,860 186 2,196 221
12.0 370 38 440 46 62.0 1,900 190 2,243 226
12.5 385 40 459 48 63.0 1,940 194 2,290 231
13.0 400 41 477 49 64.5 1,980 198 2,337 236
13.5 416 42 495 51 66.0 2,020 202 2,384 240
14.0 431 44 514 53 67.0 2,060 206 2,431 245
14.5 447 45 532 55 68.0 2,100 210 2,478 250
15.0 462 47 551 56 70.0 2,140 214 2,525 255
15.5 477 48 569 57 71.0 2,180 218 2,572 259
16.0 493 49 587 59 72.0 2,220 222 2,619 264
16.5 508 51 606 61 74.0 2,260 226 2,666 269
17.0 524 52 624 62 75.0 2,300 230 2,713 273
17.5 539 54 642 64 76.0 2,340 234 2,760 278
18.0 554 55 661 66 78.0 2,380 238 2,807 283
18.5 570 57 679 68 79.0 2,420 242 2,854 287
19.0 585 59 697 70 80.0 2,460 246 2,901 292
19.5 601 60 715 72 82.0 2,500 260 2,948 297
20.0 616 62 734 73 83.0 2,510 254 2,995 301
*Since fuel and Diesel oils vary in their reading according to source of production,
the above figures should be considered as
approximate only.

315
 CHAPTER 16- MATERIALS

Chapter 16

MATERIALS

Section 16.1 Tools Steels

(b) Evaluate from the table of property
ratings the best compromise between
16.1.1 Classification. Steel for tools must satisfy a properties (e.g.,
often conflicting any conflicting
number of different,
for specific steel comprising on wear resistance for
requirements. The need
from widely varying obtaining better toughness).
properties arising
applications has led to the development of
For those willing to define even further the first
many compositions of tool steels, each
choice or to improve on it in the case of not
intended to meet a particular combination of
The resultant entirely satisfactory experience in one or more
applicable requirements.
meaningful respect, the identifying analysis of
diversity of tool steels, their number of being
the different types of tool steels within each
continually expanded by the addition of new
general category may provide additional
developments, made it extremely difficult for
guidance. In this procedure the general
the user to select the type best suited to his
discussion of the effect of different alloying
needs, or to find equivalent alternatives for
element on the properties of tools steels, will
specific types available from particular
probably be found useful.
sources.
16.1.1.1 High Speed Toll Steels. Their
As a cooperative industrial effort under the
primary application is for tools used
sponsorship of AISI and SAE, a tool
for the working of metals at high
classification system has been developed in
cutting speeds. Cutting metal at high
which the commonly used tool steels are
speed generates heat, the penetration
grouped into seen major categories, several of
of the cutting tool edge into the work
which contain more than a single group, are
material requires great hardness and
listed in the following with the letter symbols
strength, and the continued frictional
used for their identification. The individual
contact of the tool with both the parent
types of tool steels within each category are
material and the detached chips can
identified by suffix numbers following the letter
only be sustained by an abrasion
symbols.
resistant tool edge. Accordingly, the
dominant properties of high speed
When data related to past experience with tool
steel are (a) Resistance to the
steels for identical or similar applications are of elevated
softening effect
not available, a tool steel selection procedure Great hardness
temperature, (b)
may be followed which is based on
penetrating to substantial depth from
information supplied in this book section and
the surface, and (c) Excellent abrasion
comprises these steps:
resistance.
(1) For identifying the AISI category which
(a) High speed tool are listed in the
contain the sought type of steel the Quick
16.1 should be AISI specifications in two groups:
Reference Table
Molybdenum types and Tungsten
consulted. designation
types, these
expressing the dominant alloying
(2) Within the defined category
element of the respective group.
(a) find from the listed applications of the High
(1) Molybdenum Type
most frequently used types of tool Steels. In
Speed Tool
steels that particular type which traditional
distinction to the
corresponds to the job on hand; or

316
 CHAPTER 16- MATERIALS
tungsten base high speed
steels, the tool steels listed in
this category are considered
to have molybdenum as the
principal alloying constituents,
this element being also used
in the designation of the
group. Actually, in several
types listed in this category
other significant elements like
tungsten and cobalt might be
present in equal, or even
greater amount. The
available range of types
comprises also high speed
tool steels with higher than
usual carbon and vanadium
content; these alloying
elements have been
increased to obtain better
abrasion resistance although
such a change in composition
may adversely affect the
machine-ability and the grind-
ability of the steel. The series
in whose AISI identification
numbers 4 is the first digit
where developed for attaining
exceptionally high hardness in
heat treatment which, for
types, usually comprises triple
tempering rather than the
double tempering generally
applied for high speed tool
steels.
16.12 Properties and Applications of Frequently
Used Molybdenum Types
16.12.1 AISI M: This was developed as a
substitute for the classical T to save
on the alloying element tungsten by
replacing most of it with molybdenum.
In most uses this steel is an
acceptable substitute, although it
requires greater care or more
advanced equipment for its heat
treatment than the tungsten alloyed
type it replaces. Selected for cutting
tools like drills, taps, milling cutters,
reamers, lathe tools used for lighter
cuts, and also for shearing dies.
16.1.2.2 AISI M: Similar to M yet with
substantial tungsten content replacing
a part of the molybdenum. It is one of
317
the general purpose high speed tool
steels, combining the economic
advantages of the molybdenum type
steels with greater ease of hardening,
excellent wear resistance and
improved toughness. It is preferred
steel type for the manufacture of
general purpose lathe tool; like milling
cutters, taps, dies, reamers and also
for form tools in lathe operations.
16.1.2.3 AISI M3: A high speed tool steel with
increased vanadium content for
improved wear resistance, yet still
below the level where vanadium
would interfere with the ease of
grinding. Preferred for cutting tools
requiring the improved wear
resistance, like broaches, form tools,
milling cutters, chasers, reamers, etc.
16.1.2.4 AISI M7: The chemical composition
of this type similar to that of Ml except
for the higher carbon and vanadium
content which raises the cutting
efficiency without materially reducing
the toughness. Because of its
sensitivity to decarburization heat
treatment in a salt bath or a controlled
atmosphere is advisable. Used for
blanking and trimming dies, shear
blades, lathe tools and thread rolling
dies.
16.1.2.5 AISI M1O: While the relatively high
vanadium content assures excellent
wear and cutting properties, the only
slightly increased carbon does not
cause brittleness to an extent which is
harmful in many applications. Form
cutters and single point lathe tools,
broaches, planer tools, punches,
blanking dies, shear blades, etc., are
examples of typical uses.
16.1.2.6 AISI M42: In applications where high
hardness both at regular and at
elevated temperatures is needed, this
type of high speed steel with high
cobalt content can provide excellent
service. Typical applications are tools
bits, form tools, shaving tools, fly
cutters, roll turning tools, thread rolling
dies, etc. Important uses are found
for M42, and also for other types of
the “M40” group in the working of
“difficult-to-machine” type alloys.
 CHAPTER 16- MATERIALS
16.1.2.7 Tungsten Type High Speed Tool
Steels. For several decades following
their introduction to tungsten base
high speed steels were the only type
available for cutting operations
involving the generation of substantial
heat, and are still preferred by users
who do not have that kind of
advanced heat treating equipment
which the efficient hardening of the
molybdenum type high speed tool
steel display excellent resistance to
decarburization and can be brought to
good hardness by means of simple
However,
heat treating equipment.
even in the case of the tungsten type
high speed steels, heat treatment by
using modern methods and furnaces
can appreciably improve the
metallurgical qualities of the hardened
material and the performance of the
cutting tools made of these steels.
16.1.3 Properties and Applications of Frequently
Used Tungsten Type
16.1.3.1 AISI TI: Also mentioned as the 18-
4-1 type with reference to the nominal
percentage or its principal alloying
elements (W-Cr-V), it is considered as
the classical type of high speed tool
steel. The chemical composition of Ti
was developed around the turn of this
century, and has since changed very
little. Ti is still considered as perhaps
the best general-purpose high speed
tool steel because of the comparative
ease of its machining and heat
treatment. It combines a high degree
of cutting ability with relative
toughness. Ti steel is used for all
types of multiple-edg e cutting tools
like drills, reamers, milling cutters,
threading taps and dies, light and
medium duty lathe tools, also for
punches, dies, machine knives, as
well as structural parts which are
subjected to elevated temperatures,
like lathe centers, certain types of anti-
friction bearings, etc.
16.1.3.2 AISI T2: Similar to Ti except for
somewhat higher carbon content and
twice the vanadium contained in the
former grade. Its handling ease, both
in machining and heat treating, is
318
comparable to that of Ti although it
should be held at the quenching
temperature slightly longer,
particularly when the heating is carried
out in a controlled atmosphere
furnace. The applications are similar
to that of Ti, however, because of its
increase wear resistance T2 is
preferred for tools required for finer
cuts, and where the form of size
retention of the tool is particularly
important, such as for form and
finishing tools.
16.1.3.3 Hot Work Tools Steels
—
Molybdenum Types. These are
—
closely related to certain types of
molybdenum high speed steels and
possesses excellent resistance to the
softening effect of elevated
temperature but their ductility is rather
low. These steel types are generally
available on special orders only.
16.1.4 Properties and Applications of Frequently
Used Molybdenum Types. AISI H43: The
principal constituents of this work steel,
chromium, molybdenum and vanadium,
provide excellent abrasion and wear-resistant
properties at elevated temperatures. H43 has
a good resistance against the development of
heat checks and a toughness adequate for
many different applications. These include
tools and operations which tend to cause
surface wear in high temperature work, like
hot headers, punch and die inserts, hot
heading and hot nut dies, as well as different
kinds of punches operating at high
temperature in service involving considerable
wear.
16.1.4.1 Cold Work Tool Steels. Tool steels
of this category are primarily intended
for die work, although their use is by
no means restricted to that general
field. Cold work tool steels are
extensively used for tools whose
regular service does not involve
elevated temperatures. They are
available in chemical compositions
adjusted to the varying requirements
of a wide range of different
applications. According to their
predominant properties, characterized
either by the chemical composition or
by the different groups.
 CHAPTER 16— MATERIALS
16.1.4.2 Cold Work Tool Steels — High
Carbon, High Chromium Types. The
chemical composition of tool steels of
this family is characterized by the very
high chromium content, in the order of
12 to 13 per cent, and the
uncommonly high carbon content in
the range of about 1.50 to 2.30 per
cent. Additional alloying elements
which are present in different amounts
in some of the steel types of this
group are vanadium, molybdenum
and cobalt, each of which contributes
desirable properties. The
predominant properties of the whole
group are: (a) excellent dimensional
stability in heat treatment where with
one exception, air quench is used; (b)
great wear resistance particularly in
the types with the highest carbon
content, and (c) rather good
machinability.
16.1.5 Properties and Applications of Frequently
Used High Carbon High Chromium Types
—
16.1.5.1 AISI D2: An air hardening die steel
with high carbon, high chromium
content with several desirable tool
steel properties, such as abrasion
resistance, high hardness as well as
non-deform ing characteristics. The
carbon content of this type, although
relatively high, is not particularly
detrimental to its machining. The
ease of working can further be
improved by selecting the same basic
type with the addition of sulfur.
Several steel producers supply the
sulfurized version of D2, in which the
uniformly distributed sulfide particles
substantially improve the machinability
and the resulting surface finish. The
application comprise primarily cold
working press tools for shearing
(blanking and stamping dies,
punches, shear blades) for forming
(bending, seaming), also for the
thread rolling dies, solid gages, and
wear resistant structural parts. Dies
for hot trimming of forging are also
made of D2 when heat treated to a
lower hardness for the purpose of
increasing toughness.
16.1.5.2 AISI D3: The high carbon content of
this high chromium tool steel type
319
results in excellent resistance to wear
and abrasion and also provides
superior compressive strength as long
as the pressure is gradually applied
without exerting sudden shocks. In
hardening, an oil quench is used,
without affecting the excellent non
deforming properties of this type. Its
deep hardening made it particularly
suitable for tools which require
repeated re-grinding during their
service life, such as different types of
dies and punches. The more
important applications comprise
blanking, stamping and trimming dies
and punches for long production runs;
forming, bending and drawing tools;
also structural elements like plug and
ring gages, lathe centers, etc., in the
applications where high wear
resistance is important.
16.1.5.3 Cold Work Tool Steels — Oil
Hardening Types. With a relatively
low percentage of alloying elements,
yet with a substantial amount of
manganese, these less expensive
types of tool steels attain good depth
of hardness in an oil quench, although
at the cost of reduced resistance to
deformation. Their good machinability
supports general purpose application,
yet because of relatively low wear
resistance they are mostly selected for
comparatively short-run work.
16.1.6 Properties and Applications of Frequently-
Used Oil Hardening Types
16.1.6.1 AISI 01: A low alloy tool steel which
is hardened in oil and exhibits only a
low tendency to shrinking or harping.
It is used for cutting tools, the
operation of which does not generate
high heat, such as taps and threading
dies, reamers, broaches, and for
press tools like blanking, trimming,
and forming dies in short or medium-
run operations.
16.1.6.2 AISI 02: Manganese is the dominant
alloying element in this type of oil
hardening tool steel which has good
non-deforming properties, can be
machined easily and performs
satisfactorily in low volume production.
 CHAPTER 16- MATERIALS
The low hardening temperature
results in good safety in hardening,
both with regard to form stability and
freedom from cracking. The
combination of handling ease
including free-machining properties,
with good wear resistance, made this
type of tool steel adaptable to a wide
range of common applications such as
cutting tools for low and medium
speed operations; forming tools
including thread rolling dies; structural
parts such as bushing, fixed gages,
and also for plastic molding dies.
16.1.6.3 AISI 06: This oil hardening type of
tool steel belongs to a group often
designated as graphitic because of
the presence of small particles of
graphitic carbon which are uniformly
dispersed throughout the steel.
Usually about one-third of the total
carbon is present as free graphite in
modular form, which contributes to the
uncommon ease of machining. In the
service of parts made of this type of
steel the free graphite acts like a
lubricant, reducing wear and galling.
The ease of hardening is also
excellent, requiring only comparatively
low quenching temperature. Deep
hardness penetration is produced and
the oil quench causes very little
dimensional change. The principal
applications of the 06 tool steel are in
the field of structural parts, like arbors,
bushing bodies for inserted tool
cutters and shanks for cutting tools,
jigs and machine parts and fixed
gages like plugs, rings, snap gages,
etc. It is also used of blanking,
forming, and trimming dies and
punches, in applications where the
stability of the tool material is more
important than high wear resistance.
16.1.6.4 Cold Work Tool Steels Medium
— abrasion resistance and reduced
Alloy Air Hardening Types. The
desirable non-deforming properties of
the high chromium types are
approached by the embers of this
family, with substantially lower allow
content which however, is sufficient to
permit hardening by air quenching.
The machinability is good, and the
comparatively low wear resistance is
balanced by relatively high toughness,
320
a property which in certain application
maybe considered of prime
importance.
16.1.7 Properties and Applications of Frequently-
Used Medium Alloy Air Hardening Types. —
AISI
16.1.7.1 AISI A2: The lower chromium
content, about 5 percent, make this air
hardening tool steel less expensive
than the high chromium types, without
affecting its non-deforming properties.
The somewhat reduced wear
resistance is balanced by greater
toughness, making this type suitable
for press work where the process calls
for tough tool materials. The
machinability is improved by the
addition of about 0.12 per cent sulfur,
offered as a variety of the basic
composition by several steel
producers. The prime uses of this tool
steel type are punches and blanking
dies.
16.1.7.2 AISI H12: The properties of this type
are comparable to those of Hil, with
increase abrasion resistance and hot
hardness, resulting from the addition
of tungsten, yet in an amount which
does not affect the good toughness of
this steel type. The applications, base
on this properties are hot work tools
which often have to which can severe
in fact, such as various punches, bolt
header dies, trimmer dies, hot shear
blades, also H12 is used to make
aluminum extrusion dies and die-
casting dies.
16.1.7.3 AISI H13: This type differs from the
preceding ones particularly in
properties related to the addition of
about 1 per cent vanadium which
contributes to increase hot hardness,
activity for heat checking. Such
properties are needed in die-casting
practically of aluminum, where the
tools are subjected to drastic cooling
at high operation temperatures.
Besides die-casting dies, H13 is also
widely used for extrusion dies, trimmer
dies, hot gripper and header dies,
trimmer dies, hot gripper and header
dies, hot shear blades, etc.
 CHAPTER 16- MATERIALS
16.1.7.4 AISI H19: This high-alloyed hot work
tool steel, containing chromium,
tungsten, cobalt and vanadium, has
excellent resistance to abrasion and
shocks at elevated temperature. It is
particularly well adapted to severe hot
work uses where the tool, in order to
retain its size and shape, must
withstand wear and the washing out
effect of hot work material. Typical
applications include brass extrusion
dies and dummy blocks, inserts for
forging and valve extrusion dies, press
forging dies, hot punches, etc.
16.1.7.5 Hot Work Tool Steels — Tungsten
Types. Substantial amount of
tungsten, yet very low carbon content
characterizes the hot work tool steel of
this group. These tool steels have
been developed for applications
where the tool is in contact with the
hot work material over extended
periods of time, therefore the
resistance of the steel to the softening
effect of elevated temperatures is of
prime importance, even to the extent
of accepting a lower degree of
toughness.
16.1.8 Properties and Applications of Frequently-
Used Tungsten Types.
16.1.8.1 AISI H21: This is a medium tungsten
alloyed hot work tool steel with
substantially increased abrasion
resistance over the chromium alloyed
types, yet possessing a degree of
toughness which represents a 16.1.8.4 AISI F2: This carbon-tungsten type is
transition between the chromium and
the higher alloyed tungsten steel
types. The principal application are
for tools subjected to continued
abrasion, yet to only a limited amount
of shock loads, like tools for the
extrusion of brass, both dies and
dummy blocks, pierces for forging
machines, insert for forging tools, hot
nut tools, etc. Another typical
application is dies for the hot extrusion
of automobile valves.
16.1.8.2 AISI H24: The comparatively high
tungsten content (about 14 per cent)
results in good hardness, great
compression strength and excellent
abrasion resistance, but makes it
321
sensitive to shock loads. Taking
these properties into account, the
principal applications include
extrusion dies for brass in long run
operation, hot forming and gripper
dies with shallow impressions,
punches which are subjected to great
wear yet only to moderate shocks, hot
shear blades, etc.
16.1.8.3 AlSI H26: This high alloyed tungsten
type hot work steel resembles in its
composition the type high speed steel
AISI Ti, except for the somewhat
lower carton content for improved
toughness. The high amount of
tungsten provides the maximum
resistance to the softening effect of
elevated temperature and assures
excellent wear-resistant properties,
including the withstanding of the
washing-out effect of certain
processes. However, this type is less
resistant to thermal shocks than the
chromium hot work steels. Typical
applications comprises extrusion dies
for long production runs, extrusion
mandrels operated without cooling,
hot piercing punches, hot forging dies
and inserts. It is used as special
structural steel for springs operating at
elevated temperatures. The areas of
use also include structural parts, like
clutch members, pawls, knuckle pins,
etc., which must withstand shock
loads and still display good wear
properties.
one of the most abrasion resistant of
all water hardening tool steels.
However, it is sensitive to thermal
changes, such as are involved in heat
treatment and is also susceptible to
distortions. Consequently, its use is
limited to tools of simple shape in
order to avoid cracking in hardening.
The shallow hardening characteristics
of F2, which result in a tough core, are
desirable properties for certain tool
types which, at the same time, require
the excellent wear-resistant properties
of this tool steel type.
16.1.9 Water Hardening Tool Steels Steel types
—
in this category are made without, or with only
a minimum amount of alloying elements and
 CHAPTER 16— MATERIALS

need in their heat treatment the harsh 16.1.10 Recommended Applications of Water
quenching action of water or brine, hence the Hardening Type W-l (Plain Carbon) Tool
general designation of the category. Water Steels
hardening steels are usually available with
different percentages of carbon, to provide 16.1.10.1.1 Group I (C-0.70 to 0.90%):
properties required for different applications; Relatively tough and therefore
the classification system lists a carbon range preferred for tools which are
of 0.60 to 2.40 per cent. In practice, however, subjected to shocks or abusive
the steel mills produce these steels in a few treatment. For such
varieties of differing carbon content, often applications as: hand tools —

giving proprietary designations to each chisels, screwdriver blades, cold

particular group. Typical carbon content limits punches, nail sets, etc., and
of frequently used water hardening tools fixture elements — vise jaws,
steels are 0.70 — 0.90, 0.90 — 1.10, 1.05 —
anvil faces, chuck jaws, etc.
1.20 and 1.20 — 1.30 per cent. The 16.1.10.1.2 Group II (C0.90 to 1.10%):
appropriate group should be chosen according Combines greater hardness
to the intended use, as indicated in the steel with fair toughness, resulting in
selection guide for this category, keeping in improved cutting capacity and
mind that while higher carbon content results moderate ability to sustain
in deeper hardness penetration, it also shock loads. For such
reduces toughness. applications as: hand tools —

knives, center punches,

The general system distinguishes the pneumatic chisels; cutting tools
following four grades: (1) special, (2) extra, — reamers, hand taps and
(3) standard and (4) commercial, listed in the threading dies, wood augers;
order of decreasing quality. The differences die parts drawing and heading
—

between these grades, which are not offered dies, shear knives, cutting and
forming dies; and fixture
by all steel mills, are defined in principle only.
The distinguishing characteristics are purity elements — drill bushing, lathe
and consistency, resulting from different centers, collets, fixed gages.
degrees of process refinement and
inspections steps applied in making the steel. 16.1.10.1.3 Group Ill (C-1.05 to 1.20%):
Higher qualities are selected for assuring The higher carbon content
dependable uniformity and performance of the increases the depth of hardness
tools made of the steel. penetrations, yet reduces
toughness, thus the resistance
Since the groups with higher carbon content to shock loads. Preferred for
are more sensitive to heat treatment defects applications where wear
and are generally used for the more resistance and cutting ability are
demanding applications, the better grades are the prime considerations. For
usually chosen for the high carbon types and such applications as: hand
the lower grades for applications where steels tools — woodworking chisels;
with lower carbon content only are needed. paper knives; cutting tools (for
low speed applications) milling
—

However, this last mentioned property may cutters, reamers; planer tools,
prove a desirable characteristic in certain thread chaser center drills; and
applications, such as e.g., cold heading dies die parts — cold blanking,
because the relatively shallow hard case is coining, bending dies.
supported by tough, although softer core.
The AISI designation for water hardening tool 16.1.10.1.4 Group IV (C-1.20 to 1.30%):
steels is W, followed by a numeral indicating The high carbon content
the type, primarily defined by the steel’s produces a hard case of
considerable depth, with
chemical composition, as shown in the
following table. improved wear resistance, yet
sensitive to shock and
concentrated stresses.
Selected for applications where

322
 CHAPTER 16
the capacity to withstand
abrasive wear is needed, and
also where the retention of a
keep edge or the original shape
of the tool is important. For
such applications as: cutting
tools (a) for finishing work, like
—
cutters, reamers, (b) for cutting
chilled cast iron and forming
tools — for ferrous and non
ferrous metals, burnishing tools.
By adding small amounts of
alloying elements to W-steel
types 2 and 5, certain
characteristics which are
desirable for specific
applications, are improved. The
vanadium in type 2 contributes
to retaining a greater degree of
fine grain structure after heat
treating. Chromium in type 5
improves the deep hardening
characteristics of the steel, a
property being needed for large
sections, and also assists in
maintaining a keen cutting
edge, which is desirable in
cutting tools, like broaches,
reamers, threading taps and
dies. (a) Tool bits: these are
semi-finished tools and used by
clamping in a tool holder or
shank in a manner permitting
ready replacement. Tool bits are
commonly made o high speed
types of tool steels, mostly in
square, but also in round,
rectangular and other shapes.
Tool bits are made of hot rolled
bars and ground form, ready for
us after the appropriate cutting
edges are ground, usually in the
user’s plant.
16.1.11 Advances in Tool Steel-Making
Technology. In recent years significant
advances in processes for tool steel
production have been made which offer
more homogeneous materials •of greater
density and higher purity for applications
where such extremely high quality is
required. Two of these newer methods of
tool steel production are of particular
interest.
16.1.11.1 Vacuum Melted Tool Steels: These
are produced by the consumable
323
— MATERIALS
electrode method involving a re
melting of the steel originally
produced by conventional processes.
Inside a vacuum-tight shell which has
been evacuated, the electrode cast of
tool steel of the desired chemical
analysis is lowered into a water cooled
copper mold where it strikes a low
voltage-high amperage are causing
the electrode to be consumed by
gradual melting. The undesirable
gases and volatile are drawn off by
the vacuum, and the inclusions float
on the surface of the pool
accumulating on the top of the
produced ingot, to be removed later
by cropping. In the field of tool steels
the consumable electrode vacuum
melting (CVM) process is applied
primarily to the production of special
grades of hot work and high speed
tool steels.
16.1.11.2 High Speed Tool Steel produced by
Powder Metallurgy: The steel
produced by conventional methods is
reduced to a fine powder by a gas
atomization process. The powder is
compacted by a hot isostatic method
with pressures in the range of 103
N/mm to 117 N/mm. The compacted
billets are hot rolled to the final bar
size, yielding a tool-steel material
which has 100 per cent theoretical
density. High speed tool steels
produced by the P/M method offer a
tool material providing increased tool
wear life and high impact strength, or
particular advantage in the interrupted
cuts.
Section 16.2 Standards Steels
16.2.1 Composition and Specifications
16.2.1.1 The standard steel compositions of the
Society of Automotive Engineers
(SAE), Inc., given in the
accompanying table, are considered
adequate for practically all parts made
of ferrous materials that are necessary
for the production of automotive
apparatus, and include grades that
have been found commercially
available and technically adequate for
the service required of such parts.
Definite applications of SAE steels are
 CHAPTER 16- MATERIALS
not specified as the selection of a
proper steel for a given part must
depend upon an intimate knowledge
of a number of important factors, such
as the availability and price of
materials, the detailed design of the
part, and the severity of the service to
be imposed, whether the part is to be
forged or machined and its
machinability; hence only general
applications are indicated. (See
following tables).
16.2.1.2 Specifications Number for Steels.
A numeral index system is used for
SAE steel specification, which makes
it possible to use specification
numerals on shop drawings and
blueprints that are descriptive of the
kind of material covered by such
numbers. The first figure indicates the
class to which the steel belongs: thus
“1” indicates a carbon steel, “2” a
nickel steel, etc. In the case of the
alloy steel, the second figure generally
indicates the approximate percentage
of the predominant alloying element.
Usually the last two or three figures
indicate the average carbon content in
“points”, or hundredths of 1 per cent.
Thus “2340” indicates a nickel steel of
approximately 3 per cent nickel (3.25
to 3.75), and 0.40 per cent carbon
(0.38 to 0.43). In some instances, in
order to avoid confusion, it has been
found necessary to depart from this
system of identifying the approximate
alloy composition of a steel by varying
the second ad third digits of the
number. An instance of such
departure is the steel numbers
selected for several of the corrosion
and heat-resisting alloys.
16.2.1.3 Quality Variations of Carbons and
Alloy Steels. Carbon steels may be
produced with chemical composition
(carbon, manganese, phosphorous,
sulfur, and silicon) within the specified
limits of a given grade and still have
characteristics that are dissimilar.
Each grade and quality variations
thereof has a proper and useful place,
depending upon the end products to
be made and the methods of
fabrication.
324
16.2.1.4 High Strength, Low Alloy Steel,
SAE 950. High strength, low alloy
steel represents a specific type of
steel in which enhanced mechanical
properties and, in most cases, good
resistance to atmospheric corrosion
are obtained by the addition of
moderate amounts of one or more
alloying elements other than carbon.
Steels of this type are normally
furnished in the hot rolled or annealed
condition to minimum mechanical
properties. They are not intended for
quenching and tempering. The user
should not subject them to such
treatment without assuming
responsibility for the ensuing
mechanical properties. Where these
steels are used for fabrication by
welding, no preheat or post heat is
required. In certain complex
structures, stress relieving may be
desirable. These steels may be
obtained in the standard shape or
forms normally available in carbon
steel.
16.2.2 Application. These steels, because of their
enhanced strength, corrosion and erosion
resistance, and their high strength-to-weight
ratio and service life, are adapted particularly
for use in mobile equipment and other
structures where substantial weight savings
are generally desirable. Typical application
are automotive bumper face bars, truck
bodies, frames and structural members,
scrapers, dump wagons, cranes, shovels,
booms, chutes, conveyors, railroad and
industrial cars.
16.2.2.1 Carbon Steels.
(a) SAE Steels 1006, 1008, 1010, 1015:
These steels are the lowest carbon
steels of the plain carbon type, and
are selected where cold formability
is the primary requisite of the user.
They are produced both as rimmed
and killed steels. Rimmed steel is
used for sheet, strip, rod, and wire
where excellent surface finish or
good drawing qualities are required,
such as body and fender stock,
hoods, lamps, oil pans, and other
deep drawn and formed products. It
is also used for cold heading wire
 CHAPTER 16— MATERIALS
for tacks, and rivets and low carbon
wire products. Killed steel (usually
aluminum killed or special killed) is
used for difficult stamping or where
non-aging properties are needed.
Killed steels (usually silicon killed)
should be used in preference to
rimmed steel for forging or heat
treating applications.
When under 0.15 carbon, the steels
are susceptible to serious grain
growth, causing brittleness, which
may occur as the result of a
combination of critical strain (from
cold work) followed by heating to
certain elevated temperatures. If
cold worked parts formed form
these steels are to be later heated
to temperatures in excess of 593°C,
the users should exercise care to
avoid trouble from this cause.
When this condition develops it can
be overcome by heating the parts to
a temperature well in excess of the
upper critical point or at least 954°C.
Steels in this group, being nearly
pure iron or ferritic in structure, do
not machine freely and should be
avoided for cut screws and
operations requiring broaching or
smooth finish on turning. The
machinability of bar, rod and wire
products is improved by cold
drawing. Steels in this group are
readily welded.
(b) SAE 1016, 1017, 1018, 1019, 1020,
1021, 1022, 1023, 1024, 1025,
1026, 1027, 1030: Steels in this
group, due to the carbon range
covered, have increased strength
and hardness, and reduced cold
formability compared to the lowest
carbon group. For heat treating
purposes they are known as
carburizing or case hardening
grades. When uniform response to
heat treatment is required, or for
forging, killed steel is preferred; for
other uses, semi-killed or rimmed
steel may be indicated, depending
on the combination of properties
desired. Rimmed steels can
ordinarily be supplied up to 0.25
carbons.
325
Selection of one of these steels for
carburizing applications depends on
the nature of the part, the properties
desired, and the processing practice
preferred. Increase in carbon gives
greater core hardness with a given
quench, or permits the use of
thicker sections. Increase in
manganese improves the harden
ability of both the core and case; in
carbon steels this is the only change
in composition that will increase
case harden ability. The higher
manganese variants also machine
much better. For carburizing
applications SAE 1016, 1018, and
1019 are widely used for thin
sections or water quenched parts.
SAE 1022 and 1024 are used for
heavier sections or where oil
quenching is desired, and SAE
1027 is sometimes used for such
parts as transmission and rear axle
gears. SAE 1027 is used for parts
given a light case to obtain
satisfactory core properties without
drastic quenching. SAE 1025 and
1030, while not usually regarded as
carburizing types, are sometimes
used in this manner for larger
sections or where greater core
hardness is needed. For cold
formed or headed parts the lowest
manganese grades (SAE 1017,
1020, and 1025) offer the best
formability at their carbon level.
SAE 1020 is used for fan blades
and some frame members, and
SAE 1020 and 1025 are widely
used for low strength bolts. The
next higher manganese types (SAE
1018, 1021 and 1026) provide
increased strength.
All of these steels may be readily
welded or brazed by the common
commercial methods. SAE 1020 is
frequently used for welded tubing.
These steels are used for numerous
forged parts, the lower carbon
grades where high strength is not
essential. Forging from the lower
carbon steels usually machine
better in the as forged condition
without annealing, or after
normalizing.
 CHAPTER 16- MATERIALS
(c) SAE 1030, 1033, 1034, 1035, 1036,
1038, 1039, 1040, 1041, 1042,
1043, 1045, 1046, 1049, 1050,
1052: These steels, of the medium
carbon type, are selected for uses
where higher mechanical properties
are needed and are frequently
further hardened and strengthened
by heat-treatment or by cold work.
These grades are ordinarily
produced as killed steels.
Steels in this group are suitable for
a wide variety of automotive type
applications. The particular carbon
and manganese level selected is
affected by a number of factors.
Increase in the mechanical
properties required in section
thickness, or in depth of hardening,
ordinarily indicates either higher
carbon or manganese or both. The
heat treating practice preferred,
particularly the quenching medium,
has a great effect on the steel
selected. In general, any of the
grades over 0.30 carbon may be
selectively hardened by induction or
flamed methods.
The lower carbon and manganese
steels in this group find usage for
certain type of cold formed parts.
SAE 1030 is used for shift and
brake levers, SAE 1034 and 1035
are used in the form of wire and rod
for cold upsetting such as bolts and
stud. In practically all cases the
parts cold formed from these steels
are heat treated prior to use.
Stamping is usually limited to flat
parts or simple bends. The higher
carbon SAE 1038, 1040 and 1042
are frequently cold drawn to
specified physical properties for use
without heat treatment fro some
applications, such as cylinder head
studs. All of this group of steels for
forging, the selection being
governed by the section size and
the physical properties desired after
heat treatment. Thus SAE 1,030
and 1,035 are used for shifter forks
and many small forging where
moderate properties are desired,
but the deeper hardening SAE 1036
is used for more critical parts where
326
a higher strength level and more
uniformity is essential, such as
some front suspension parts.
Forging such as connecting rods,
steering arms, truck front axles,
axles shafts, and tractor wheels are
commonly made from the SAE 1038
to 1045 group. Larger forging at
similar strength levels need more
carbon and perhaps more
manganese. Examples are
crankshafts from SAE 1046 and
1052. These steels are also used
for small forging where high
hardness after oil quenching is
desired. Suitable heat treatment is
necessary on forging from this
group to provide machinability.
These steels are also widely used
for parts machined from bar stock,
the selection following an identical
pattern to that described for forging.
They are used both with and without
heat treatment, depending on the
application and the level of
properties needed. As a class they
are considered good for normal
machining operations. It is also
possible to weld these steels by
most commercial methods, but
precautions should be taken to
avoid cracking from too rapid
cooling.
(d) SAE 1055, 1060, 1062, 1064, 1065,
1066, 1070, 1074, 1078, 1080,
1085, 1086, 1090, 1095: Steel in
this group are of high carbon type,
having more carbon than is required
to achieve maximum as quenched
hardness. They are used for
applications where the higher
carbon is needed to improve wear
characteristics for cutting edges, to
make springs, and for special
purposes. Selection of a particular
grade is affected by the nature of
the part, its end use, and the
manufacturing methods available.
In general, cold forming methods
are not practical on this group of
steels, being limited to flat stamping
and springs coiled from small
diameter wire. Practically all parts
from these steels are heat treated
before use, with some variations in
 CHAPTER 16- MATERIALS
heat treating methods to obtain
optimum properties for the particular
use to which the steel is to be put.
Uses in the spring industry include
SAE 1065 for pre-tempered wire
and SAE 1066 for cushion springs
of hard drawn wire SAE 1064 may
be used for small washers and thin
stamped parts, SAE 1074 for light
flat springs formed from annealed
stock and SAE 1080 and 1085 for
thicker flat springs. SAE 1085 is
also used for heavier coil springs.
Valve spring and wire music wire
are special products.
Due to good wear properties when
properly heat treated, the high
carbon steels find wide usage in the
farm implement industry. SAE 1070
has been used for plow beams,
SAE 1074 for plow shares, and SAE
1078 for such parts as rake teeth,
scrapers, cultivator shovels and
plow shares. SAE 1085 has been
used for scrapers blades, disks, and
for spring tooth harrows. SAE 1086
and 1090 find use as mower and
binder sections, twice holders, and
knotted disks.
16.2.2.2 Free Cutting Steels.
(a) SAE 1111, 1112, 1113: This class
of steels is intended for those used
where easy machining is the
primary requirement. They are
characterized by a higher sulfur
content than comparable carbon
steels. This results in some
sacrifice of cold forming properties,
weld ability, and forging
characteristics. In general, the uses
are similar to those carbon steels of
similar carbon and manganese
content.
These steels are commonly known
as Bessemer screw stock, and are
considered the best machining
steels available, machinability
improving within the group as sulfur
increases. They are used for a wide
variety of machined parts. While of
excellent strength in the cold drawn
condition, they have an unfavorable
327
property of cold shortness and are
not commonly used for vital parts.
These steels may be cyanided or
carburized but when uniform
response to heat treating is
necessary open hearth steels are
recommended.
(b) SAE 1109, 1114, 1115, 1116, 1117,
1118, 1119, 1120, 1126: Steels in
this group are used where a
combination of good machinability
and more uniform response to heat
treatment is needed. The lower
carbon varieties are used for small
parts which are to be cyanided or
carbonitirided. SAE 1116, 1117,
1118, 1119 carry more manganese
for better hardenability, permitting
oil quenching after case hardening
heat treatments in many instances.
The higher carbon SAE 1120 and
1126 provide more hardness when
this is needed.
(c) SAE 1132, 1137, 1138, 1140, 1141,
1144, 1145, 1146, 1151: This
group of steels has characteristics
comparable to carbon steels of the
same carbon level, except for
changes due to higher sulfur as
noted previously.
They are widely used for parts
where a large amount of machining
is necessary, or where threads,
spines or other operations offer
special tooling problems. SAE
1137, for example, is widely used
for nuts and bolts and studs with
machine threads. The higher
manganese SAE 1132, 1137, 1141,
and 1144 offer greater hardenability,
the higher carbon types being
suitable for oil quenching for many
parts. All of these steels may be
selectively hardened by induction or
flame heating if desired.
16.2.2.3 Carburizing Grades of Alloy Steels.
(a) Properties of the Case: The
properties of carburized and
hardened cases depend upon the
carbon and alloy content, the
structure of the case, and the
degree and distribution of residual
 CHAPTER 16— MATERIALS

stresses. The carbon content of the specification numbers are not

case depends upon the details of meaningful so far as the case is
the carburizing process, and the concerned.
response of iron and the alloying
elements present to carburization. (1) High Hardenability Case.
The original carbon content of the SAE 2500, 3300, 4300, 4800,
steel has little or no effect upon the 9300:
carbon content produced in the
case. Hardenability of the case As these are high alloy steel,
therefore depends upon the alloy both the case and the core
content of the steel and the final have high hardenability.
carbon content produced by These types of steels are
carburizing, but not upon the initial used particularly for
carbon content of the steel. carburized parts having thick
sections, such as bevel drive
With completer carbide solution the pinions and heavy gears.
effect of alloying upon the harden Good case properties can be
ability of the case, will in general be obtained by oil quenching.
the same as the effect of these These steels are likely to have
elements upon the hardenability of retained austenite in the case
the core. As an exception to this, after carburizing and
any element which inhibits quenching, consequently
carburizing may reduce the special precautions or
hardenability of the case. It is also treatments, such as
true that some elements which raise refrigeration, may be required.
the hardenability of the core that
may tend to produce more retained (2) Medium Hardenability Case.
austenite and consequently SAE 1300, 2300, 4000, 4100,
somewhat lower hardness in the 5100, 8600, 8700
case.
Carburized cases of these
Alloy steels are frequently used for steels have medium that their
case hardening because the hardenability is intermediate
required surface hardness can be between that of plain carbon
obtained by moderate speeds of steel and the higher allow
quenching. This may mean less carburizing steels just
distortion than would be described. In general, these
encountered with water quenching. steels can be used for
It is usually desirable to select a average size case hardened
steel which will attain a minimum automotive parts such as
surface hardness of 58 or 60 gears, pinions, piston pins,
Rockwells C after carburizing and ball studs, universal crosses,
oil quenching. Where section sizes crankshafts, etc., satisfactorily
are large, a high hardenability alloy case hardness should be
steel may be necessary, while for produced in most cases by oil
medium and light sections, low quenching.
hardenability steels will suffice.
(b) Core Properties. The core
In general, the case hardening alloy properties of case hardened steels
steels may be divided into two depend upon both carbon and alloy
classes so far as the hardenability content of the steel. Each of the
of the case is concerned. Only the general types of alloy case
general type of steel (SAE 3300- hardening steel is usually made with
4100, etc.) is given. As the original two or more carbon contents so as
carbon content of the steel has no to produce different hardenability in
effect upon the carbon content of the core.
the case, the last two digits in the

328
 CHAPTER 16— MATERIALS
The most desirable hardness for the
core depends upon the design and
functioning of the individual part. In
general, where high compressive
loads are encountered relatively
high core hardness is beneficial in
supporting the case. Low core
hardness may be desirable where
great toughness is essential.
The case hardening steels may
be divided into three general
classes depending upon
hardenability of the core.
(1) Low Hardenability Core.
SAE 4017, 4023, 4024, 4027,
4082, 4608, 4615, 4617 8615,
8617
(2) Medium Hardenability Core.
SAE 1320, 2317, 2512, 2515,
3115, 3120, 4032, 4119,
4317, 4020, 4621, 4812,
4815, 5115, 5120, 8620,
8622, 8720, 9420
(3) High Hardenability Core.
SAE 2517, 3310, 3316, 4320,
4817, 4820, 9310, 9315, 9317
(c) Heat Treatment. In general, all of
the alloy carburizing steels are
made fine grain and most are
suitable for direct quenching from
the carburizing temperature.
Several other types of heat
treatment involving single and
double quenching are also used for
most of these steels.
16.2.2.4 Directly Hardenabality Grades of
Alloy Steels. These steels may be
considered in five groups on the basis
of approximate carbon content of the
SAE specification. In general, the last
two figure of the specification agree
with the mean carbon content.
Consequently, the heading ‘.30 .37.
-
Mean Carbon Content of SAE
Specifications” includes steel such as
SAE 1330, 3135 and 4137.
It is classification of the carbon
molybdenum steels. When carbon
molybdenum steels are used, it is
customary to specify higher carbon
329
content for any given application than
would be specified for other alloy
steels, due to the alloy content of
these steels. For example, as SAE
4063 is used for the same
applications as SAE 4140, 4145 and
5150. Consequently in the following
discussion, the carbon molybdenum
steels have been shown in the groups
where they belong on the basis of
applications rather than carbon
content.
For the present discussion, steels of
each carbon content are divided into
two or three groups on the basis of
hardenability. Transformation ranges
and consequently heat treating
practices vary somewhat with different
alloying elements even though the
hardenability is not changed.
(a) .30 .47 Mean Carbon Content of
-
SAE Specification. These steels
are frequently used for water
quenched parts of moderate section
size or oil quenched parts of small
section size. Typical applications of
these are connecting rods, steering
arms and steering knuckles, axle
shafts, bolts, studs, screws, and
other parts requiring strength and
toughness where section size is
small enough to permit obtaining the
desired physical properties with the
customary heat treatments.
Steels falling in this classification
may be subdivided into two groups
on the basis of hardenability.
(1) Low Hardenability: SAE
1330, 1335
(2) Medium Medium
Hardenability: SAE 2330,
3130, 3135, 4137, 135, 8632,
8635, 8637, 8735, 9437
(b) .40 .42 Mean Carbon Content
-
of SAE Specification. In
general, these steels are used for
medium and large size parts
requiring high degree of strength
and toughness. The choice of the
proper steel depends upon the
section size and the mechanical
 CHAPTER 16- MATERIALS
properties which must be
produced. The low and medium
hardenability steels are used for
average size automotive parts
such as steering knuckles, axle
shafts, propeller shafts, etc. The
high hardenability steels are used
particularly for large axles and
shafts for large aircraft parts.
These steels are usually
considered as oil quenching
steels, although some large parts
made of the low and medium
hardenability classification may be
quenched in water under properly
controlled conditions.
These steels may be divided into
three groups on the basis of
hardenability:
(I) Low Hardenability: SAE
1340, 4047, 5140, 9440
(2) Medium Hardenability: SAE
2340, 3140, 3141, 4053,
4063, 4140, 4640, 8640,
8641, 8642, 8740, 8742, 9442
(3) High Hardenability: SAE
4340, 9840
(c) .45 .50 Mean Carbon content
-
of SAE Specification. These
steels are used primarily for gears
and other parts requiring fairly
high hardness as well as strength
and toughness. Such parts are
usually oil quenched and a
minimum of 90 percent martensite
in the as quenched condition is
desirable.
(1) Low Hardenability: SAE
5045, 5046, 5145, 9747, 9763
(2) Medium Hardenability: SAE
2345, 3145, 3150, 4145,
5147, 5150, 8645, 8647,
8650, 8745, 8747, 8750,
9445, 9845
(3) High Hardenability: SAE
4150, 9850
330
(d) .50 .62 Mean Carbon Content
-
of SAE Specification. These
steels are used primarily for
springs and hand tools. The
hardenability necessary depends
upon the thickness of the material
and the quenching practice.
(1) Medium Hardenability: SAE
4068, 5150, 5152, 6150,
8650, 9254, 9255, 9260, 9261
(2) High Hardenability: SAE
8653, 8655, 8660, 9262
(e) 1,02 Mean Carbon Content of
SAE Specification. SAE -
50100, 51100, 52100
These are straight chromium
electric furnace steels used
primarily for the races and balls or
rollers of anti-friction bearings.
They are also used for other parts
requiring high hardness and wear
resistance. The composition of
the three steels are identical;
except for a variation in
chromium, with a corresponding
variation in hardenability.
(1) Low Hardenability: SAE
50100
(2) Medium Hardenability: SAE
51100, 52100
16.2.2.5 Resulfurized Steels. Some of the
alloy steels, SAE 4024, 4028 and
8641, are made resulfurized so as to
give better machinability at a relatively
high hardness. In general, increased
transverse ductility, notched impact
toughness and weldability.
16.2.2.6 Chromium Nickel Austenitic Steels
(Not Capable of Heat Treatment)
(a) SAE 30301: This steel is capable
of attaining high tensile strength
and ductility by moderate or
severe cold working. It is used
largely in the cold working. It is
used largely in the cold rolled or
cold drawn condition in the form of
sheet, strip and wire. Its corrosion
resistance is good but not equal to
SAE 30302.
 CHAPTER 16- MATERIALS
(b) SAE 30302: This is the most
widely used of the general
purpose austenitic chromium
nickel stainless steels. It is used
for deep drawing largely in the
annealed condition. It can be
worked to high tensile strengths
but with slightly lower ductility
than SAE 30301.
(c) SAE 30303F: This is a free
machining type recommended for
the manufacture of parts
produced on automatic machines.
Caution must be used in forging
this steel.
(d) SAE 30304: This is similar to
SAE 30302 but somewhat
superior in corrosion resistance
and having superior welding
properties for certain types of
equipment.
(e) SAE 30305: Similar to SAE 3034
but capable of lower hardness.
Has greater difficulty with slower
work hardening tendency.
(f) SAE 30310: This steel has the
highest heat resisting properties
of any of the chromium nickel
steels listed herewith and is used
to resist oxidation at temperatures
up to about 10,038°C.
(g) SAE 30316: This steel is
recommended for use in parts
where unusual resistance to
chemical or salt water corrosion is
necessary. It has superior creep
strength at elevated temperatures.
(h) SAE 30317: This steel is similar
to SAE 30316 but has the highest
corrosion resistance of all these
alloys in many environments.
(i) SAE 30321: This steel is
recommended for use in the
manufacture of welded structures
where heat treatment after
welding is not feasible. It is also
recommended for use where
temperatures up to 871°C are
encountered in service.
331
(j) SAE 3025: Used for such parts
as heat control shafts.
(k) SAE 30347: This steel is similar
to SAE 30321 with the following
additional statement. This
columbium alloy is sometimes
preferred to titanium because less
columbium is lost in the welding
operation.
16.2.2.7 Stainless Chromium Iron and
Steels
(a) SAE 51410: This is a general
purpose stainless capable of heat
treatment to show good physical
properties. It is used for general
stainless applications, both in the
heat-treated and annealed
condition but it is not resistant to
corrosion as SAE 51430 in either
the annealed or heat treated
condition.
(b) SAE 51414: This is a corrosion
and heat resisting nickel-bearing
chromium steel with somewhat
better corrosion resistance than
SAE 51410. It will attain slightly
higher mechanical properties
when heat treated than SAE
51410. It is used in the form of
tempered strip or wire, and in bars
and forging for heat treated parts.
(c) SAE 51416F: This is a free
machining grade for the
manufacture of parts produced in
automatic screw machines.
(d) SAE 51420: This steel is capable
of heat treating to a relatively high
hardness. It will harden to a
maximum of approximately 500
Brinell. It has its maximum
corrosion resisting qualities only in
the fully hardened condition. It is
used for cutlery, hardened pump
shafts, etc.
(e) SAE 51420F: This is similar to
SAE 51420 except for its free
machining properties.
(f) SAE 51430: This is a steel of a
high chromium type not capable
 CHAPTER 16- MATERIALS
of heat treatment and is
recommended for use in parts
moderate draw. Corrosion and
heat resistance are superior to
SAE 51410.
(g) SAE 51430F: This is similar to
SAE 51430 except for its free
machining properties.
(h) SAE 51431: This is a nickel
bearing chromium steel designed
for heat treatment to high
mechanical properties. Its
corrosion resistance is superior to
other hardenable steels.
(i) SAE 51440A: A hardenable
chromium steel with greater
quenched hardness than SAE
51420 and greater toughness
than SAE 51440B and 51440C.
Maximum corrosion resistance is
obtained in the fully hardened and
polished condition.
(j) SAE 51440B: A hardenable
chromium steel with greater
quenched hardness than SAE
51440A. Maximum corrosion
resistance is obtained in the fully
hardened and polished condition.
Capable of hardening to 50-60
Rockwell C depending upon
carbon content.
(k) SAE 51440C: This steel has the
greatest quenched hardness and
wear resistance upon heat
treatment of any corrosion or heat
resistant steel.
(I) SAE 51440F: The same as SAE
51440C, except for its free
machining characteristics.
(m) SEA 51442: A corrosion and heat
resisting chromium steel with
corrosion resisting properties
slightly better than SEA 51430
and with good scale resistance up
to 871°C.
(n) SAE 51446: A corrosion and heat
resisting steel with maximum
amount of chromium content with
commercial malleability. Used
332
principally for parts which must
resist high temperatures in service
without scaling. Resists oxidation
upto 1,093°C.
(o) SAE 51501: Used for its heat and
corrosion resistance and good
mechanical properties at
temperatures up to approximately
538°C.
Section 16.3 Corrosion-Resistant Steels
16.3.1 Corrosion-Resistant Steels. Many different
terms and trade names have been applied to
corrosion-resistant steels. “Stainless Steel” is
a term commonly used to indicate any or all
rustles steels or iron alloys designed to resist
atmospheric corrosion, the attack of hot or
cold acids, and scaling at elevated
temperatures. However, “Stainless Steel” is
strictly a trade name, originally applied to
cutlery steels containing no more than 0.70
percent carbon and from 9 to 16 per cent
chromium which were patented in 1916 by the
English metallurgist Brearley, and the genuine
“Stainless Steel” produced in U.S.A. is a
straight chrome-iron alloy made under patents
owned by the Americal Stainless Steel Co.,
Pittsburgh, Pa.
16.3.1.1 Applications. The applications of
stainless steels may be divided
broadly into two groups: (1) Where
corrosion resistance to high
temperature oxidation; (2) Where
unusual mechanical properties of
hardness, strength, toughness or
ductility are required, including
resistance to wear and abrasion.
Corrosion-resistant steels cover a
wide range of compositions and
physical properties. The common
applications include cutlery; surgical
and dental instruments; poppet valves
for internal-combustion engines;
turbine blades; pump shafts;
architectural trim; polished parts or
automobiles; chemical, dairy, laundry,
and oil equipments, etc. The
chromium content commonly ranges
from 10 to 12 to 18 or 20 per cent,
some steels have less and some more
than these minimum or maximum
values. The “18-8” stainless steel
often referred to is a steel having
 CHAPTER 16— MATERIALS
about 18 per cent chromium and 8 per
cent nickel.
16.3.12 Stainless Steel with Free Machining
Qualities. The high-chromium
stainless steel alloys first produced
were extremely difficult to machine,
and grinding and polishing operations
were also difficult and expensive. By
producing this steel with a high sulfur
content or by the addition of selenium,
free machining qualities can be
obtained. Such stainless steels
contain approximately 0.10 per cent
carbon, 18 per cent chromium, 8 per
cent nickel, and 0.30 per cent sulfur
(or 0.25 per cent selenium instead of
sulfur). They can be machined in
automatic screw machines, with
regular tools at speed equal to or
closely approximating those used for
ordinary Bessemer screw stock.
These materials can also be easily
drilled, tapped, and threaded with
dies. Wire and tubing can be cold-
drawn by simply using the lime coat
and lubricants regularly employed for
drawing ordinary steel.
16.3.1.3 Characteristics of 18-8 Stainless
Steel. The chrome-nickel stainless
steel known as 18-8 is made to have
a tensile strength of from 620.68
2 to 689.65 N/mm
N/mm 2 in the
annealed state. The elongation varies
from 60 to 70 per cent. Cold-working
will increase the tensile strength from
827.58 N/mm
2 to 862.06 N/mm .
2 quenching operation, may be retained.
Because of the high feeding pressure
required for drilling 18-8 stainless
steels, a specially heat-treated high-
speed drill with a heavy web section
has been introduced. The web should
be thinned at the point and sulfur-
base oil used as cutting fluid.
16.3.1.4 General Properties of Alloy Steels.
Alloy or ‘special” steels are
combinations of iron and carbon with
some other element, such as nickel,
chromium, tungsten, vanadium,
manganese and molybdenum. All of
these metals give certain distinct
properties to the steel, but in all cases
the principal quality is the increase in
hardness and toughness.
333
Section 16.4 Heat Treatment of Steel
164.1 Effect of Rapid Cooling or Quenching
Carbon Steel. Observations have shown that
as the rate at which carbon steel is cooled
from an austenitic state is increased, the
temperature at which the austenite begins to
change into pearlite drops more and more
below the slow cooling transformation
temperature of about 705°C. (For example, a
0.80 per cent carbon steel that is cooled at
such a rate that the temperature drops 260°C
in one second will show transformation of
austenite beginning at 500°C). As the cooling
rate is increased, the laminations of the
pearlite formed by the transformation of the
austenite become liner and finer up to the
point where they cannot be detected under a
high power microscope, while the steel itself
increases in hardness and tensile strength. As
the rate of cooling is still further increased, this
transformation temperature suddenly drops
down to around 260°C or lower, depending
upon the carbon content of the steel. The
cooling rate at which this sudden drop in
transformation temperature takes place is
called the critical cooling rate. When a piece
of carbon steel is quenched at this rate or
faster, a new structure is formed. The
austenite is transformed into martensite which
is characterized by an angular needle-like
structure and a very high hardness.
If carbon steel is subject to a severe quench
or to extremely rapid cooling, a small
percentage of the austenite, instead of being
transformed into martensite during the
Over a period of time, however, this remaining
austenite tends to be gradually transformed
into martensite even though the steel is not
subjected to further heating or cooling. Since
martensite has a lower density than austenite,
such a change or “ageing” as it is called, often
results in an appreciable increase in volume or
“growth” and the setting up of new internal
stresses in the steel.
16.4.1.1 Steel Heat-Treating Furnaces.
Various types of furnaces heated by
gas, oil or electricity, are used for the
heat-treatment of steel. These include
the oven or box type in various
modifications for “in-and-out” or for
continuous loading and unloading; the
 CHAPTER 16- MATERIALS
retort type; the pit type; the pot type;
and the salt-bath electrode type.
(a) Oven or Box Furnace: This type
of furnace has a box or oven-
shaped heating chamber. The
“in-and-out” oven furnaces are
loaded by hand or by a track
mounted car which, when rolled
into the furnace, forms the bottom
of the heating chamber. The car
type is used where heavy or bulky
pieces must be handled. Some
oven type furnaces are provided
with a full muffle or a semi-muffle
which is an enclosed refractory
chamber into which the parts to
be heated are placed. The full-
muffle, being fully enclosed,
prevents any flames or burning
gases from coming in contact with
the work and permits a special
atmosphere to be used to protect
or condition the work. The semi-
muffle which is open at the top,
protects the work from direct
of the flame
impingement
although it does not shut the work
off from the hot gases. In the
direct-heat type oven furnace, the
work is open to the flame. In the
electric oven furnace a retort is
provided if gas atmospheres are
to be employed to confine the gas
and prevent it from attacking the
heating elements.
Where muffles are used, they must be
replaced periodically and a greater amount of
fuel is required than in a direct-heat type of
oven furnace.
For continuous loading and unloading, there
are several types such as rotary hearth car;
roller-furnace belt, walking-beam or pusher-
conveyor; and a continuous-kiln type through
which track-mounted cars are run. In the
continuous type of furnace, the work may pass
through several zones maintained at different
temperatures for preheating, heating, soaking,
and cooling.
(b) Reactor Furnaces: This is a
vertical type of furnace provided
with a cylindrical metal retort into
which the parts to be heat-treated
are suspended either individually,
334
if large enough, or in a container
of some sort. The use of a retort
permits special gas atmospheres
to be employed for carburizing,
nitriding, etc.
(c) Pit Type Furnace: This is a
vertical furnace arranged for the
loading of parts in a metal basket.
The parts are heated by
convection, the basket, when
lowered into place, hitting into the
furnace chamber in such a way as
to provide a dead-air-space to
prevent direct heating.
(d) Pot Type Furnace: This furnace
is used for the immersion method
of heat-treating small parts. A
cast-alloy pot is employed to hold
a bat of molten lead or salt in
which the parts are placed for
heating.
(e) Salt Bath Electrode Furnace: In
this type of electric furnace,
heating is accomplished by
means of electrodes suspended
directly in the salt bath. The
patented grouping and design of
electrodes provide an
electromagnetic action which
results in automatic stirring action
through the bath. This tends to
produce an even temperature
throughout.
16.4.1.2 Basic Steps in Hardening.
The operation of hardening steel
consists fundamentally of two steps.
The first step is to heat the steel to
some temperature usually at least
38°C above its transformation point so
that it becomes entirely austenitic in
structure. The second step is to
quench the steel at some rate faster
than the critical rate (which depends
on the carbon content, the mounts of
alloying elements present other than
carbon, and the grain size of the
austenite) to produce a martensitic
structure. The hardness of a
martensitic steel depends upon its
carbon content and ranges from about
460 Brinell at 0.20 per cent carbon to
about 710 Brinell, pearlite about 240
 CHAPTER 16— MATERIALS

Brinell, and cementite around 550 max. 150; iron, max. 2; lead, max.
Brinell. 0.40 per cent.

Section 16.5 Non-Ferrous Alloys 16.5.1.4 High Tensile Manganese Bronze

16.5.1 Brass, Bronze, Aluminum and other Alloys
16.5.1.1 Cast Brass and Bronze. The
following information on SAE
Standard Brass and Bronze Castings
includes typical applications of the
different alloys in the automotive
industry, the composition in
percentage, and physical properties
based upon standard test bars cast to
size with only a minimum amount of
machining to remove the fin gate.
Standard specimen of wrought
material are taken parallel to the
direction of rolling and oil rods, bars
and shapes are tested in full size
when practicable.
16.5.1.2 Red Brass Castings. SAE Standard
No. 40. Red brass is used for water
pump impellers, fittings for gasoline
and oil lines, small bushings, small
miscellaneous castings. This is a
free-cuttings brass with good casting
and finished properties.
Composition of No. 40: Copper, 84 to
86; tin, 4 to 6; lead, 4 to 6; zinc, 4 to 6;
iron, max. 0.25; nickel, max. 0.75;
phosphorous, max. 0.05; antimony,
max 0.25; other impurities, max. 0.15
per cent.
Castings. SAE Standard No. 430:
Copper, 60 to 68; iron, 2 to 4;
aluminum, 3 to 6; manganese, 2 to 5;
tin, max. 0.20; and nickel, max. 0.50
per cent; zinc, remainder.
16.5.1.5 Cast Brass to be Brazed. SAE
Standard No. 44. This brass is used
for water-pipe fittings which are to be
brazed. It begins to melt at about
1000°C and is entirely melted at
approximately 1020°C. The alloy or
spelter used for brazing must have a
lower melting temperature. Silver
solder may be used.
Composition of No. 44: Copper, 83 to
86; zinc, 14 to 17; lead, max. 0.60;
iron, max. 0.15 per cent.
16.5.1.6 Brazing Solder. SAE Standard No.
45. This solder begins to melt at
approximately 850°C and is entirely
melted about 870°C. It may be used
by melting in a crucible under a flux of
borax, with or without the addition of
boric acid. The part to be brazed is
dipped into the melted solder. When
used in powdered form, this solder,
mixed with a flux, is applied to the
material and then melted either by
means of brazing torch or by using a
furnace.

Physical Properties: Tensile Composition of No. 45: Copper, 48 to

strength, 138 NI mm
; elongation in 50
2 52; lead, max. 0.50; iron, max. 0.06
mm (or proportionate gage length), 15 per cent; zinc, remainder.
per cent.
16.5.1.7 Hard Bronze Castings. SAE
16.5.1.3 Manganese Bronze Castings. SAE Standard No. 62. This is a strong
Standard No. 43. This only is general utility bronze suitable for
intended for castings requiring severe working conditions and heavy
strength and toughness. It is used for pressures. Typical applications
such automotive parts as gear-shifter include gears, bearings, bushings for
forks; counters, spinders; brackets severe service; valve guides; valve-
and similar fittings; parts for starting tapper guides; camshaft bearings; fuel
motors; landing-gear and til-skid pump, timer and distributor parts;
castings for airplanes. connecting-rod bushings; pistons
pins; rocker lever, steering section
Composition of No. 43: Copper, 55 to and hinge bushings; starting-motor
60; zinc, 38 to 42; tin, max. 1.50; parts.
manganese, max. 350; aluminum,

335
 CHAPTER 16- MATERIALS
Composition of No. 62: Copper, 86 to
89; tin, 9 to 11; lead, max. 0.20; iron,
max. 0.06; zinc, I to 3 per cent.
Physical Properties: Tensile strength,
; yield point, 83 N/mm
207 N/mm
2 ;
2
elongation in 50 mm (or proportionate
gage length), 10 per cent.
16.5.1.8 Leaded Gun Metal Castings. SAE
Standard No. 63. This general-utility
bronze combines strength with fair
machining qualities, It is especially
good for bushings subjected to heavy
loads and severe working conditions.
It is also used for fittings subjected to
moderately high water or oil
pressures.
Composition of No. 62. Copper, 86 to
89; tin, 9 to 11; phosphorous, max.
0.25; zinc and other impurities, max.
0.50; lead, 1 to 2.50 per cent.
16.5.1.9 Phosphor Bronze Castings. SAE
Standard No. 64. This alloy is
excellent when anti-friction qualities
are important and where resistance to
wear and scuffing are desired. It is
used for such parts as wrist-pins,
piston-pins, valve rocker-arm
bushings, fuel and water pump
bushing, steering-knuckle bushings,
aircraft control bushings.
Properties of No. 64: Copper, 78.50
to 81.50; tin, 9 to 11; lead, 9 to 11;
phosphorus, 0.50 to 0.25; zinc, max.
0.75; other impurities, max. 0.25 per
cent.
2 = .10 h
Note: 1 MPa = 1 N/mm
2 = 145 psi
bar = .102 kg/mm
16.5.2 Wrought Copper and Copper Alloys
16.5.1.10 Phosphor Gear Bronze Castings.
SAE Standard No. 65. This bronze is
not used regularly but it may be
employed for gears and worm wheels
where the requirements are severe
and very hard bronze is necessary.
Properties of No. 65: Copper, 88 to
90; tin, 10 to 12; phosphorus, 0.10 to
0.30; nickel, max. 0.05; lead, zinc and
other impurities, max. 0.50 per cent.
336
16.5.1.11 Bronze Backing for Lined Bearing.
SAE Standard No. 66. This is an
expensive but suitable alloy for
bronze-backed bearings of connecting
rods or main engine bearings.
Composition: Copper, 83 to 86; tin,
4.50 to 6; lead, 8 to 10; zinc, max. 2;
other impurities, max. 0.25 per cent.
16.5.1.12 Bronze Bearing Castings. SAE
Standard No. 660. This composition
is widely used for bronze bearings.
Typical applications in the automotive
industry include such parts as spring
bushing, steering-knuckle bushings,
piston-pin bushings, thrust washers,
etc.
Composition of No. 660: Copper, 81
to 85; tin, 6.50 to 7.50; lead, 6 to 8;
zinc, 2 to 4; iron, max. 0.20; antimony,
max. 0.20; other impurities, max. 0.50
per cent.
16.5.1.13 Cast Aluminum Bronze. SAE
Standard No. 68. This alloy has
considerable strength, resistance to
corrosion, hardness equal to
manganese, bronze, and good
bearing, qualities under certain
conditions. It is used for worm-
wheels, gears, valve guides, valve
seats, and forging.
Composition of No. 68: Copper,
(Grade A) 87 to 89 (Grade B) 89.50 to
90.50; aluminum, (Grade A) 7 to 9
(Grade B) 9.50 to 10.50; iron, (Grade
A) 2.50 to 4, (Grade B) not over 1; tin
max. (Grade A) 0.5, (Grade B) 0.2;
total other impurities (Grade A) 1,
(Grade B) 0.5 per cent.
16.5.2.1 Brass Sheet and Strip. SAE
Standard No. 70. There are two
grades designated as 70 A (Cartridge
Brass) and 70C (Yellow Brass).
Tempers ranges from quarter hard
through extra spring. These are given
in the accompanying table. The
numbers following each temper
designation in the table represent the
amount of reduction, the harder the
brass.
 CHAPTER 16— MATERIALS
This ailoy is used to make radiator
cores and tanks in the automotive
industry; bead chain, flashlight shell,
socket and screw shells in the
electrical industry; and eyelets,
fasteners, springs and stamping in the
hardware industry.
Composition of No. 70C: Copper,
68.5 to 71.5; lead, max. 0.07; iron,
max. 0.05; zinc, remainder.
Composition No. 70C: Copper, 64.0
to 68.5; lead, max. 0.15; iron, max.
0.05; zinc remainder.
16.5.2.2 Aluminum Bronze Rods, Bars, and
Shapes. SAE Standard No. 701.
This alloy is commonly used for
bushings, gears, valve parts,
bearings, sleeves, screws, pins, and
fabricated sections. It is also used
where strength at elevated
temperatures, a low coefficient of
friction against steel, or a combination
of strength and corrosion resistance is
required. Alloy grades are: 701B,
701C, and 801D.
Composition of 701 B: Copper, 80.0 to
93.0; aluminum, 6.5 to 11.0; iron, max.
400; nickel, max. 1.00; manganese,
max. 1.50; silicon, max. 0.25; tin, max.
0.20; other elements, max 0.50.
Composition of 701C: Copper, 78.0;
aluminum, 9.0 to 11.0; iron,2.0 to 4.0;
nickel, 4.0 to 5.5; manganese, max.
1.50; silicon, max. 1.25; tin, max. 0.20;
other elements, max. 0.50.
Composition of 701D: Copper, 88.0
to 92.5; aluminum, 6.0 to 8.0; iron, 1.5
to 3.5; other elements, max. 0.50.
16.5.2.3 Copper Sheet and Strip. SAE
Standard No. 71. This alloy is used
for building fronts, roofing, radiations,
chemical process equipment, rotating
bands, and vats.
Composition of No. 71: Copper, mm.
89.90 (plus silver). In one type of
sheet used in the automotive industry
6 to 10 troy ounces of silver may be
added to one ton (avoirdupois) of
copper. This is sufficient to raise the
337
recrystallization temperature
appreciably.
16.5.2.4 Free Cutting Brass Rod. SAE
Standard No. 72. This alloy is used
for small screw machine parts, pins,
nuts, plugs, screws, valve discs and
caps.
Composition of No. 72: Copper, 60.0
to 63.0; lead, 2.5 to 3.7; iron, max.
0.35; other elements, max. 0.50; zinc,
remainder.
16.5.2.5 Naval Brass Rods, Bars, Forging,
and Shapes. SAE No. 73. This
material is intended for use where
brass rod that is stronger, tougher,
and more corrosion resistant than
commercial bras rod is required.
Uses include forging, water pump and
propeller shafts, studs and nuts,
bushings, turnbuckle barrels,
adjusting stud ends, and screw
machine parts.
Composition of No. 73: Copper, 59.0
to 62.0; tin, 0.50 to 1.00; lead, max.
0.20; iron, max. 0.10; other elements,
max. 0.10; zinc, remainder.
16.5.2.6 Seamless Brass Tubes. SAE
Standard No. 74. The alloys
comprising these tubes are identified
by the letters A, B, C, and D. No. 74A
and 74D are used for condenser and
heat exchange tubes and flexible
hose. Nos. 74B and 74C are general
purpose materials used for water pipe
radiator and ornamental work. The
tubes may be formed, bent, upset,
squeezed, swaged, flared, roll
threaded and knurled.
Composition of 74A (Muniz Metal):
Copper, 59.0 to 63.0; lead, max. 0.30;
iron, max. 0.70; zinc, remainder.
Composition No. 74B (Yellow Brass):
Copper 65.0 to 68.0; lead, 0.20 to
0.80; iron, max. 0.07; zinc, remainder.
Composition of 74C (Cartridge Brass):
Copper, 68.5 to 71.5; lead, 0.20 to
0.80; iron, max. 0.07; zinc, remainder.
 CHAPTER 16— MATERIALS
Composition of 74D (Red Brass,
85%): Copper, 84.0 to 86.0; lead,
max. 0.06; iron, max. 0.05; zinc,
remainder.
16.5.2.7 Copper Tubes. SAE Standard No.
75. These tubes which contain a
minimum of 99.90 per cent deoxidized
copper are used for general
engineering purposes, including
gasoline, hydraulic and oil lines.
Mechanical Properties: In the light
drawn temper the minimum tensile
strength is 248.3 NI mm 2 and the
maximum tensile strength is 324
. In the drawn general purpose
2
N/mm
temper the minimum tensile strength
2 and in the drawn
is 248.3 N/mm
temper (applying to tubes up to 25
mm outside diameter, inclusive, with
wall thickness from .50 to 3 mm tubes
over 25 to 50 mm outside diameter,
inclusive, with wall thickness from 0.9
to 4.5 mm tubes over 50 to 100 mm
outside diameter with wall thickness
from 1.5 to 6.35 mm the minimum
tensile strength is 310 N/mm
.
2 max. 0.05; zinc, remainder.
16.5.2.8 Phosphor Bronze Sheet and Strip.
SAE Standard No. 77. Typical uses
for this sheet and strip include springs,
switch parts, sleeve bushings, clutch
discs, diaphragms, fuse clips, and
fastener. There are two grades of this
alloy, 77A and 77C. Six tempers are
applied to this alloy, namely, soft, half
hard, hard, extra hard, spring and
extra spring.
Composition of No. 77A: Tin, 3.5 to
5.8; phosphorus, 0.03 to 0.35; lead,
max. 0.05; iron, max. 0.10; zinc, max.
0.30; antimony, max. 0.01; copper, tin
and phosphorus, mm. 99.50.
Composition of 77C; Tin, 7.0 to 9.0;
phosphorus, 0.03 to 0.35; lead, max.
0.05; iron, max. 0.10; zinc, max. 0.20;
antimony, max. 0.01; copper, tin, and
phosphorus, mm. 99.50.
16.5.2.9 Red Brass and Low Bras Sheet and
Strip. SAE Standard No. 79. There
are two grades designated as 79A
(Red Brass, 85 per cent) and 79B
338
(Low Brass, 80 per cent). Common
tempers of No. 79A strip are quarter
hard, half hard, extra hard, and spring.
Common temper of No. 79A sheet is
half hard, common tempers of No.
79B strip are quarter hard, half hard,
hard, and spring. Typical used
include weather strip, trim, conduit,
sockets, fasteners, radiator cores and
costume jewelry.
Composition of No. 79A: Copper,
84.0 to 86.0; lead, 0.05; iron, 0.05;
zinc, remainder.
Composition of No. 79B: Copper,
78.5 to 81.5; lead, 0.05; iron, 0.05;
zinc, remainder.
16.5.2.10 Brass Wire. SAE Standard No. 80.
This wire is used for making spring,
locking wire, rivets, screws, and for
wrapping turnbuckles. There are two
grades, BOA and BOB.
Composition of No. BOA: Copper,
68.5 to 71.5; lead, max. 0.07; iron,
Composition of No. BOB: Copper,
63.0 to 68.5; lead, max. 0.10; iron,
max. 0.05; zinc, remainder.
16.5.2.11 Phosphor Bronze Wire and Rod.
SAE Standard No. 81. This alloy is
used for springs, width parts, fastener,
and cotter pins. It should withstand
being bent cold through an angle of
120 degrees without fracture, around
a pin with a diameter twice the
diameter of the wire.
Composition of No. 81: Tin, 3.50 to
5.80; phosphorus, 0.03 to 0.35; lead,
max. 2.05; iron, max. 0.10; zinc, max.
0.30; copper, tin and phosphorus,
mm. 99.50.
Mechanical Properties: Minimum
tensile strengths of hard drawn wire in
coils range from 1000 N/mm2 to 724
2 as the wire diameter range
N/mm
from 0.64 mm to 13 mm. Minimum
tensile strengths of spring temper rods
2 to 620 N/mm
range from 862 N/mm 2
 CHAPTER 16- MATERIALS

as the rod diameter ranges from temperatures from 204°C to 260°C. A

.64mm to 13mm. subzero temperatures, however, their
strength increases without loss of
16.5.2.12 Annealed Copper Wire. SAE ductility so that aluminum is a
Standard No. 83. This wire is used particularly useful metal for low-
primarily for electrical purposes but it temperature applications.
is also used for metal spraying and
copper brazing. No composition limits When aluminum surfaces are exposed
are specified for this wire but the to the atmosphere, a thin invisible
copper should be of such quality and oxide skin forms immediately which
purity that when drawn by annealed protects the metal from further
should exhibit the mechanical oxidation. This self-protecting
properties (maximum tensile strength characteristics gives aluminum its high
and minimum elongation) and resistance to corrosion. Unless
electrical characteristics called for in exposed to some substance or
the standard. Its electrical resistivity condition which destroys this
should not exceed 875.20 ohms per protective oxide coating, the metal
mile — lb (100 per cent electrical remains protected against corrosion.
conductivity IACS. International Aluminum is highly resistant to
Annealed Copper Standard) at a weathering, even in industrial
temperature of 20°C. atmospheres. It is also corrosion
resistant to many acids. Alkalis are
Mechanical Properties: Maximum among the few substances that attack
tensile strengths of annealed wire the oxide skin and therefore are
range from 248 N/mm
2 to 262 N/mm 2 corrosive to aluminum. Although the
for wire diameters ranging from 11.7 metal can safely be used in the
mm down to over 0.5 mm. Minimum presence of certain mild alkalis with
elongation is 250 mm of annealed the aid of inhibitors, in general, direct
wire range from 15 to 35 per cent as contact with alkaline substances
the wire diameter ranges from over should be avoided. Direct contact
.076mm to 11.7 mm. with certain other metals should be
avoided in the presence of an
16.5.2.13 Brass Forging. SAE Standard No. electrolyte; otherwise galvanic
88. Typical uses for this alloy are corrosion of the aluminum may take
forging and pressing of all kinds. place in the vicinity of the contact
area. Where other metals must be
Composition of No. 88: Copper, 58.0 fastened to aluminum, the use of a
to 61.0; lead, 1.50 to 2.50; iron, max. bituminous paint coating or insulating
0.30; other elements, max. 0.50; zinc, tape is recommended.
remainder.
Aluminum is one of the two common
16.5.3 Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys. Pure metals having an electrical
aluminum is a silver-white metal characterized conductivity high enough for use as
by a slightly bluish cast. It has a specific an electric conductor. The
gravity of 2.70 resist the corrosive effects of conductivity of electric conductor (EC)
many chemicals and has a malleability grade is about 62 per cent that of the
approaching that of gold. When alloyed with International Annealed Copper
other metals numerous properties are Standard. Because aluminum has
obtained which make these alloys useful over less than one-third the specific gravity
a wide range of applications, conductivities; of copper, however, a pound of
and are highly reflective to both heat and light. aluminum will go almost twice as far
as a pound of copper when used for
16.5.3.1 Characteristics of Aluminum and this purpose. Alloying lowers the
Aluminum Alloys. Aluminum and its conductivity somewhat so that
alloys lose part of their strength at wherever possible the EC grade is
elevated temperatures. Although used in electric conductor
some alloys retain good strength at applications.

339
 CHAPTER 16
Aluminum has non-sparking and non-
magnetic characteristics which make
the metal useful for electrical shielding
purposes such as in bus bar housing
or enclosures for other electrical
equipment and for use around
inflammable or explosive substances.
Aluminum can be cast by any method
known to foundrymen. It can be rolled
to any desired thickness down to foil
thinner than paper and in sheet form
can be stamped, drawn, spun or roll-
formed. The metal also may be
hammered or forged. Aluminum wire,
drawn from rolled rod, may be
stranded into cable of any desired
size and type. The metal may be
extruded into a variety of shapes.
It may be turned, milled, bored, or
machined in machines often operating
at their maximum speeds. Aluminum
rod and bar may readiiy be employed
in the high-speed manufacture of
automatic screw-machine parts.
Almost any method of joining is
applicable to aluminum —riveting,
welding or brazing. A wide variety of
mechanical aluminum fasteners
simplifies the assembly of many
products. Resin bonding of aluminum
parts has been successfully
employed, particularly in aircraft
components.
For the majority of applications,
aluminum needs no protective
coating. Mechanical finishes such as
polishing, sand blasting or wire
brushing meet the majority of needs.
When additional protection is desired,
chemical, electrochemical and paint,
finishes are all used. Vitreous
enamels have recently been
developed for aluminum, and the
metal may also be electroplated.
16.5.3.2 Temper Designations for Aluminum
Alloys. The temper designation
system adopted by The Aluminum
Association and used in industry
pertains to all forms of wrought and
cast aluminum and aluminum alloys
except ingot. It is based on the
sequences of basic treatments used
340
- MATERIALS
to produce the various tempers. The
temper designation follows the alloy
designation, being separated by a
dash.
Basic temper designations consist of
letters. Subdivisions of the basic
tempers, where required, are
indicated by one or more digits
following the letter. These designate
specific sequences of basic treatment,
but only operations recognized as
significantly influencing the
characteristics of the product are
indicated. Should some other
variation of the same sequence of
basic operations be applied to the
same alloy, resulting in different
characteristics, then additional digits
are added.
(a) The basic temper designations
and subdivisions are as follows:
-- F as Fabricated: Applies to
products which acquire some
temper from Aluminum alloys are
light in weight compared to steel,
brass, nickel or copper; can be
fabricated by all common range of
sizes, shapes and forms; resist
corrosion, readily accept a wide
range of surface finished, have
good electrical and thermal
conductivities; and are highly
reflective to both heat and light
-- 0 annealed, recrystallized
(wrought product only): applies to
the softest temper of wrought
products.
-- H strain-hardened (wrought
products only): Applies to
products which have their strength
increased by strain-hardening with
or without supplementary thermal
treatments to produce partial
softening.
The H is always followed by two
—
or more digits. The first digit
indicates the specific combination
of basic operations, as follows:
-- Hi Strain-hardened only:
Applies to products which are
 CHAPTER 16- MATERIALS
strain-hardened to obtain the
desired mechanical properties
without supp!ementary thermal
treatment.
The number following this
designation indicates the degree
of strain-hardening.
-- H2 Strain-hardened only then
partially annealed: Applies to
products which are strain-
hardened more than the desired
final amount and then reduced in
strength to the desired level by
partial annealing. For alloys that
age-soften at room temperature,
the —H2 tempers have
approximately the same ultimate
strength as the corresponding —
H3 tempers. For other alloys, the
H2 tempers have approximately
the same ultimate strengths as
the corresponding.
-- Hi tempers and slightly higher
elongations. The number following
this designation indicates the
degree of strain-hardening
remaining after the product has
been partially annealed.
-- H3 Strain-hardened and then
stabilized: Applies to products
which are strain-hardened and
then stabilized by a low
temperature heating to slightly
lowest their strength and increase
ductility. This designation applies
only to the magnesium-containing
alloys which, unless stabilized,
gradually age-soften at room
temperature.
The number following this
designation indicates the degree
of strain-hardening remaining
after the products has been strain-
hardened a specific amount and
then stabilized.
The second digit following the
designations —Hi, -H2, -H3
indicates the final degree of
strain-hardening. Numeral 8 has
been assigned to indicate tempers
having a final degree of strain-
hardening equivalent to that
341
resulting from approximately 75
per cent reduction of area.
Tempers between 0 (annealed)
-
and 8 (full hard) are designated by
numbers i through 7. Material
having an ultimate strength about
midway between that of the - 0
temper and that of the 8 temper is
designated by the numeral 4 (half
hard); between 0 and 4 by the
-
numeral 2 (quarter hard); between
4 and 8 by the numeral 6 (three-
quarter hard); etc. (Note: For
two-digits H tempers whose
second figure is odd, the standard
limits for ultimate strength are
exactly midway between those for
the adjacent two-digit —H tempers
whose second figures are even).
Numeral 9 designates extra hard
tempers.
The third digit, when used,
indicates a variation of a two-digit
—H temper. It is used when the
degree of control of temper or the
mechanical properties are
different from but close to those
for the two-digit —H temper
designation to which it is added.
(Note: The minimum ultimate
strength of a three-digit —H temper
is at least as close to that of the
corresponding two-digit —H
temper as it is to the adjacent two-
digit —H tempers). Numerals 1
through 9 may be arbitrarily
assigned and registered with the
Aluminum Association for an alloy
and product to indicate a specific
degree of control of temper or
specified mechanical property
limits. Zero has been assigned to
indicate degrees of control of
temper or mechanical property
limits negotiated between the
manufacturer and purchases
which are not used widely enough
to justify registration with the
Aluminum Association.
(b) The following three-digit —H
temper designations have been
assigned for wrought products in
all alloys.
 CHAPTER 16 — MATERIALS

effect of cold work in flattering or

--Hi 11 Applies to products which straightening is recognized in
are strain-hardened less than the applicable specifications.
amount required for a controlled
Hil temper. -- T4 solution heat-treated and
naturally aged to a substantially
-- Hi 12 Applies to products which stable condition: Applies to
acquire some temper from products which are not cold
shaping processes not having worked after solution heat-
special control over the amount of treatment or in which the effect of
strain-hardening or thermal cold work in flattening or
treatment, but for which there are straightening may not be
mechanical property testing recognized in applicable
required. specifications.

--Hi 13 Applies to products which --T5 artificially aged only: Applies

are strain-hardened less than the to products which are artificially
amount required for a controlled H aged after an elevated
13 temper. temperature rapid-cool fabrication
process, such as casting or
The following three-digit H temper extrusion, to improve mechanical
designation have been assigned properties and/or dimensional
for: stability.

-- W solution heat-treated: An -- T6 solution heat-treated and

unstable temper applicable only to then artificially aged: Applies to
alloys which spontaneously age at products which are not cold
room temperature after solution worked after solution heat-
heat-treatment. This designation treatment, or in which the effect of
is specific only when the period of cold work in flattening of
natural aging is indicated: for straightening may not be
example, -w 1/2 hours recognized in applicable
specifications.
-- T thermally treated to produce
stable tempers other than —F, 0, -- T7 solution heat-treated and
or —H: Applies to products which then stabilized: Applies to
are thermally treated, with or products which are stabilized to
without supplementary strain- carry them beyond the point of
hardening, to produce stable maximum hardness, providing
tempers. control of growth and/or residual
stress.
The —T is always followed by one
or more digits. Numerals 2 -- T8 solution heat-treated, cold
through 10 have been assigned to worked, and then artificially aged:
indicate specific sequences of Applies to products which are cold
basic treatment, as follows: worked to improve strength, or in
which the effect of cold work in
-- Ti annealed (cast products flattening or straightening is
only): Designates a type of recognized in applicable
annealing treatment used to specification s.
improve ductility and increase
dimensional stability of castings. -- T9 solution heat-treated,
artificially aged, and then cold
-- T3 solution heat-treated and worked: Applies to products
then cold worked: Applies to which are cold worked to improve
products which are cold worked to strength.
improve strength, or in which the

342
 CHAPTER 16— MATERIALS
-- T10 solution artificially-aged
and then cold worked: Applies to
products which are artificially
aged after an elevated
temperature rapid-cool fabrication
process such as casting or
extrusion, and then cold worked to
improve strength.
16.5.3.3 Aluminum Alloy Designation
Systems. Aluminum casting alloys
are listed in many specifications of
various standardizing agencies.
These include Federal Specifications,
Military Specifications, ASTM
Specifications and SAE
Specifications, to mention some. The
numbering systems used by each
differ and are not always correctable.
Casting alloys are available from
producers who use a numbering
system is the one used in the table of
aluminum casting alloys which are
given further along in this section.
A system of four-digit numerical
designation for wrought aluminum and
wrought aluminum alloys are adopted
by the Aluminum Association in 1954.
This system is used by the
commercial producers and is similar to
the one used by the SAE; the
differences being the addition of two
prefix letters.
The first digit of the designation
identified the alloy type: 1, indicating
an aluminum of 99.00 per cent or
greater purity; 2, copper; 3,
manganese; 4, silicon; 5, magnesium;
6, magnesium and silicon; 7, zinc; 8,
some elements other than those
aforementioned; 9, unused (note
assigned at present). If the second
digit in the designation is zero, it
indicates that there is no special
control on individual impurities; while
integers 1 through 9, indicate special
control on one or more individual
impurities.
In the 1000 series group for aluminum
of 99.00 percent or greater purity, the
last two of the four digits indicate to
the nearest hundredth the amount of
aluminum above 99.00 per cent.
Thus, designation 1030 indicates
343
99.30 percent minimum aluminum. In
the 2000 to 8000 series groups the
last two of the four digits have no
significance but are used to identify
different alloys in the group. At the
time of adoption of this designation
system most of the existing
commercial designation numbers
were used as these last two digits, as
for example, 14S became 2014, 3S
became 3003, and 75S became 7075.
When new alloys are developed and
are commercially used these last two
digits are assigned consecutively
beginning with -01, skipping any
numbers previously assigned at the
time of initial adoption.
16.5.3.4 Heat-treatability of Wrought
Aluminum Alloys. In high-purity
form, aluminum is soft and ductile.
Most commercial uses, however,
require greater strength than pure
aluminum affords. This is achieved in
aluminum first by the addition of other
elements to produce various alloys,
which singly or in combination impart
strength to the metal. Further
strengthening is possible by means
which classify the alloys roughly into
two categories, non heat-treatable
and heat-treatable.
Non-heat-treatable alloys: The
initial strength of alloys in this group
depends upon the hardening effect of
elements such as manganese, silicon,
iron and magnesium, singly or in
various combinations. The non-heat-
treatable alloys are usually
designated, therefore, in the 1000,
3000, 4000, or 5000 series. Since
these alloys are work-hardenable,
further strengthening is made possible
by various degrees of cold working,
denoted by the “H” series of tempers.
Alloys containing appreciable
amounts of magnesium when
supplied in strain-hardened tempers
are usually given a final elevated-
temperature treatment called
stabilizing for property stability.
Heat-treatable alloys: The initial
strength of alloys in this group is
enhanced by the addition of alloying
elements such as copper,
 CHAPTER 16— MATERIALS
magnesium, zinc, and silicon. Sine
these elements singly or in various
combinations show increasing
temperature, it is possible to subject
them to thermal treatments which will
impart pronounced strengthening.
The first step, called heat-treatment or
solution heat-treatment, is an elevated
temperature process designed to put
the soluble element in solid solution.
This is followed by rapid quenching,
usually in water, which momentarily
“Freezes” the structure and for a short
time renders the alloys very workable.
It is at this stage that some fabricators
retain this more workable structure by
storing the alloys at below freezing
temperatures until they are ready to
form them. At room or elevated
temperatures the alloys are not stable
after quenching, however, and
precipitation of the constituents from
the supersaturated solution begins.
After a period of several days at room
temperature termed aging or room
temperature precipitation, the alloy is
considerably stronger. Many alloys
approach a stable condition at room
temperature, but some alloys,
particularly those containing
magnesium and silicon or magnesium
and zinc, continue to age-hardened
for long periods of time at room
temperature.
By heating for a controlled time at
slightly elevated temperatures, even
further strengthening is possible and
properties are stabilized. This
process is called artificial aging or
precipitation hardening. By the proper
combination of solution heat-
treatment, quenching, cold working
and artificial aging, the highest
strengths are obtained.
16.5.3.5 Clad Aluminum Alloys. The heat-
treatable alloys in which copper or
zinc are major alloying constituents,
are less resistant to corrosive attack
than the majority of non-heat-treatable
alloys. To increase the corrosion
resistance of these alloys in sheet and
plate form they are often clad with
high-purity aluminum a low
344
magnesium-silicon alloy, or an alloy
containing I per cent zinc.
The cladding, usually from 1-12 to 5
per cent of the total thickness on each
side, not only protects the composite
due to its own inherently excellent
corrosion resistance but also exerts a
galvanic effect which further protects
the core material.
Special composites may be obtained
such as clad non-heat-treatable alloys
for extra corrode lubricants regularly
employed for drawing ordinary steel.
16.5.3.6 Characteristics of 18-8 Stainless
Steel. The chrome nickel stainless
steel known as 18-8 is made to have
a tensile strength of from 620.68
2 to 689.65 N/mm
N/mm 2 in the
annealed state. The elongation varies
from 60 to 70 per cent. Cold-working
will increase the tensile strength from
827.58 2
N/mm 862.06 .
2
N/mm
Because of the high feeding pressure
required for drilling 18-8 stainless
steels, a specially heat-treated high-
speed drill with a heavy web section
has been introduced. The web should
be thinned at the point and sulfur-
base oil used as a cutting fluid.
16.5.3.7 General Properties of Alloy Steels.
Alloy or “special” steels are
combinations of iron and carbon with
some other element, such as nickel,
chromium, tungsten, vanadium,
manganese and molybdenum. All of
these metals give certain distinct
properties to the steel, but in all cases
the principal quality is the increase in
hardness and toughness.
Section 16.5.4 Heat Treatment of Steel
16.5.4.1 Effect of Rapid Cooling Quenching
Carbon Steel. Observations have
shown that as the rate at which
carbon steel is cooled form an
austenitic state is increased, the
temperature at which the austenite
begins to change in to pearlite drops
more below the slow cooling
transformation temperature of about
705°C (For example, a 0.80 per cent
carbon steel that is cooled at such a
 CHAPTER 16— MATERIALS

rate that the temperature drops 26000 (1) Oven or Box Furnace:
in one second will show This type of furnace has a
transformation of austenite beginning box or oven-shaped
at 500°C). As the cooling rate is heating chamber. The “in-
increased, the laminations of the and-out” oven furnaces
pearlite formed by the transformation are loaded by hand or by
of the austenite become finer and a track mounted car by
finer up to the point where they cannot hand or b y a track
be detected under a high power mounted car which, when
microscope, while the steel itself rolled into the furnace,
increases in hardness and tensile forms the bottom of the,
strength. As the rate of cooling is still heating chamber, The car
further increased, this transformation type is used where heavy
temperature suddenly drops down to or bulky pieces must be
around 26000 or lower, depending handled. Some oven type
upon the carbon content of the steel. furnaces are provided
The cooling rate at which this with a full muffle or a
temperature takes place is called the semi-muffle which is an
critical cooling rate. When a piece of enclosed refracable as
carbon steel is quenched at this rate plate in the as rolled
or faster, a new structure is formed. condition designated as J
The austenite is transformed into ir. Dowmetal J-1 has the
martensite which is characterized by best mechanical
an angular needle-like structure and a properties of the rolled
very high hardness. alloys and is used in
applications where
If carbon steel is subject to a severe strength is most
quench or to extremely rapid cooling, important. Where better
a small percentage of the austenite, formability is desired
instead of being transformed into along with good shear
martensite during the quenching and tensile strengths,
operation, may be retained. Dowmetal FS-1 Is used.
Dowmetal M is used
Over a period of time, however, this where maximum
remaining austenite tends to be weldability and formability,
gradually transformed into martensite low cost, and moderate
even through the steel is not strength are desired.
subjected to further heating or cooling.
Since marten-site has a lower density (2) Forging Alloys: The
than austenite, such a change or ultimate tensile strengths
“ageing” as it is called, often results in range from 248 N/mm to
an appreciable increase in Volume or 345 N/mm
2 and the yield
‘growth” and the setting up of new strengths from 158.6
internal stresses in the steel. 2 to 234.5 N/mm
N/mm .
2
(a) Steel Heat-Treating Furnace (3) Extruded Alloys: For
Various types of furnaces heated bars and rods the ultimate
by gas, oil or electricity, are used tensile strengths range
for the heat-treatment of steel. from 262 to 345 N/mm
2
These include the oven or box and the yield strengths
type in various modifications for from 179.3 N/mm2 to
“in-and-out” or for continuous 234.5 N/mm
.
2
loading and unloading; the retort
type; The pit type; the pot type; (b) Heat-Treatment of Dowmetal
and the salt-bath electrode type. Alloys. Dowmetal castings may
be used as cast or in a heat
treated condition. Heat-treatment

345
 CHAPTER 16- MATERIALS
is not required for general use.
However, when increased tensile
strength, ductility and toughness
are required, without change of
yield strength or hardness,
castings are “solution heat-
treated”. This solution heat-
treatment is performed in a
specially designed ovens at
temperatures varying from 332 to
418°C, depending upon the alloy,
and is followed by air-cooling.
Castings so treated are in the best
condition for shock resistance of
castings require high yield
strength but are not subject to
shock, they are solution to heat-
treated and aged. This aging or
“precipitation” is done at about
177°C.
16.5.5 SAE Wrought Magnesium Alloys.
16.5.5.1 SAE Standard No. 50 Alloy. This
alloy is used for most commercial
applications. It is used in the “as cast”,
“heat treated” or “hear treated and
aged” condition as may be required.
Composition of No. 50: Aluminum, 5.3
to 6.7; manganese, mm. 0.15; zinc,
2.5 to 3.5; silicon, max. 0.5; copper,
max. 0.05; nickel. max. 0.03; other
impurities, max. 0.3 per cent and the
remainder, magnesium.
16.5.5.2 SAE Standard No. 500 Alloy. This is
a sand casting alloy to be used
particularly where maximum pressure
tightness is required. It may be used
in the “as cast” “heat treated” or “heat
treated and aged” condition as may
be required.
Composition of No. 51: Manganese,
mm. 1.20; silicon, max. 0.3; copper,
max. 0.05; nickel, max. 0.03; other
impurities, max. 0.3 per cent and the
remainder, magnesium.
Physical Properties: Standard tensile
test specimens machined from plate
or sheet stock in thickness between
0.40 mm and 0.64 mm have a
minimum tensile strength of 220
2 in the hard rolled temper, a
N/mm
maximum tensile strength of 241.4
2 in the annealed temper and an
N/mm
346
elongation in 50 mm of 4 per cent in
the hard rolled temper and 12 per cent
in the annealed temper.
16.5.6 Wrought Magnesium Alloys.
16.5.6.1 SAE Standard No. 51 Alloy. This
alloy is used where maximum salt
water resistance and weldability are
desired. It is used in the annealed
temper for applications requiring
maximum formability, such as aircraft
tanks and wheel of airings.
Composition of No. 51: Manganese,
mm. 1.20; silicon, max. 0.3; copper,
max. 0.05; nickel, max. 0.03; other
impurities, max. 0.3 per cent and the
remainder, magnesium.
Physical Properties: Standard tensile
test specimens machined from plate
or sheet stock in thickness between
0.40 mm and 0.64 mm have a
minimum tensile strength of 220
2 in the hard rolled temper, a
N/mm
maximum tensile strength of 241.4
2 in the annealed temper and an
N/mm
elongation in 50 mm of 4 per cent in
the hard rolled temper and 12 per cent
in the annealed temper.
16.5.6.2 SAE Standard No. 510 Alloy. This
alloy is generally used where
moderate formability and mechanical
properties are required.
Composition of No. 510: Aluminum
3.3 to 4.7; manganese, mm. 0.20;
zinc, max. 0.3; silicon, max. 0.5;
copper, max. 0.05; nickel max. 0.03;
other impurities, max. 0.3 per cent and
the remainder, magnesium.
16.5.6.3 SAE Standard No. 511 Alloy. This
alloy is used where high mechanical
properties are required. It is available
in the hard rolled and annealed
tempers.
Composition of No. 511: Aluminum,
5.8 to 7.2; manganese, mm. 0.15;
zinc, max. 0.3; silicon, max. 0.5;
copper, max. 0.05; nickel, 0.03; other
impurities, 0.3 per cent and the
remainder, magnesium.
 CHAPTER 16- MATERIALS
16.5.6.4 SAE Standard No. 52 Alloy. This is
general purpose alloy with moderate
strength and fair weldability. It is
specially suited for the production of
thin wall tubing and other sections
requiring good extrusion
characteristics.
Composition of No. 52: Aluminum,
2.4 to 3.0; manganese, mm. 0.20;
zinc, 0.7 to 1.3; silicon, max. 0.5;
copper, max. 0.05; nickel, max. 0.03;
other impurities, max. 0.3 per cent and
the remainder, magnesium.
16.5.6.5 SAE Standard No. 520 Alloy. This
alloy is used for extruded bars, rods
and shapes with good strength and
fair weldability.
Composition of No. 520: Aluminum,
5.8 to 7.2; manganese, mm. 0.15;
zinc, 0.04 to 1.0; silicon, max. 0.03;
other impurities, max. 0.3 per cent and
the remainder, magnesium.
Physical Properties: Standard tension
test specimens machined from solid
bar stock and structural shapes have
a minimum tensile strength of 276
2 in extruded bars up to 38 mm
N/mm
and 262 N/mm
2 in structural shapes; a
yield strength of 179 N/mm
2 in the
former and 158.6 N/mm
2 in the latter
and an elongation in 50 mm of 12 per
cent in the former and 10 per cent in
the latter.
16.5.6.6 SAE Standard No. 522 Alloy. This is
an extrusion alloy used for
applications requiring maximum
weldability.
Composition of No. 552: Manganese,
mm. 1.2; silicon, max. 0.3; copper,
max. 0.05; nickel, max. 0.03; and
calcium, 0.3 per cent; remainder,
magnesium.
16.5..7 SAE Standard Nos. 53, 531, 532 and
533 Alloys. These are forging alloys.
Nos. 53 and 533 are suitable for
hammer forging. The former has
somewhat better physical properties
but the latter may be readily welded
and contains no tin. No. 533 may also
be press forged. Hammer forgings
347
are normally more economical than
press forgings but can only be used in
applications involving higher stresses.
No. 532 is stronger than No. 531 but
more difficult to forge and is usually
employed only for comparatively
simple forgings requiring highest
physical properties.
Composition of No. 53: Aluminum,
3.0 to 4.0; manganese, mm. 0.2; zinc,
max. 0.3; silicon, max. 0.3; copper,
max. 0.05; nickel, max. 0.005; iron,
max. 0.005; and tin, 4.0 to 6.0 per
cent; remainder, magnesium.
Composition of No. 531: Aluminum,
5.8 to 7.2; manganese, mm 0.15; zinc,
0.4 to 1.5; silicon, max. 0.3; copper,
max. 0.05; nickel, max. 0.005;l and
iron, max. 0.005 per cent; remainder,
magnesium.
Composition of No. 532: Aluminum,
7.8 to 9.2; manganese, mm 0.12; zinc,
0.2 to 0.8; silicon, max. 0.3; copper,
max. 0.05; nickel, max. 0.005; and
iron, max. 0.005 per cent; remainder,
magnesium.
Composition of No. 533: Manganese,
mm. 1.2; silicon, max. 0.3; copper,
max. 0.05; and nickel, max. 0.03 pe
cent; remainder, magnesium.
16.5.7 Nickel and Nickel Alloys
16.5.7.1 Nickel. Nickel is noted for its
corrosion resistance, good electrical
conductivity and high heat-transfer
properties. It is used to fabricate
process equipment for handling pure
foods and drugs, electrical contact
parts, and radio and X-ray tube
elements.
Approximate Composition:
(Commercially pure wrought nickel)
Nickel (including cobalt) 99.4; copper,
0.1; iron, 0.15; manganese, 0.25;
silicon, 0.05; carbon, 0.05; and sulfur,
0.005. (Cast nickel): Nickel, 97.0;
copper, 0.3; iron, 0.25; manganese,
0.5; silicon, 1.6; and
carbon, 0.5.
 CHAPTER 16- MATERIALS

16.5.7.2 Low-Carbon Nickel. A special type and instrument parts are made
of nickel that is corrosion resistant and from this alloy.
has a high ductility and heat
resistance. It lends itself well to Approximate Composition:
spinning and cold coining or forging Nickel, 66; copper, 29; iron, 0.9;
and is used in the manufacture of aluminum, 2.75; silicon, 0.5;
tubing and molds for the beverage manganese, 0.75; carbon, 0.15;
and food industries. and sulfur, 0.005.

Approximate Composition: Nickel, (c) “KR” Monel. This strong, hard,

99.4; copper, 0.05; iron, 0.1; silicon, age hardenable and non-magnetic
0.15; manganese, 0.2; carbon, 0.01; alloy is more readily machinable
and sulfur, 0.005. than “K” Monel. It is used for
making valve stems, small parts
of pumps, and screw machine
16.5.7.3 Duranickel. This age-hardenable products requiring an age-
alloy has good spring and low- hardening material that is
sparkling properties and is slightly corrosion-res istant.
magnetic after heat treatment, items
such as corrosion-resistant paper Approximate Composition:
machine shaker spring, diaphragms, Nickel, 66; copper, 29; iron, 0.9;
and extrusion dies for plastics are aluminum, 2.75; silicon, 0.5;
made from it. manganese, 0.75; carbon, 0.28;
and sulfur, 0.005.
16.5.7.4 Monel. This general purpose alloy is
corrosion-resistant, strong, tough and (d) “S” Monel. This extra hard
has a silvery-white color. It is used for casting alloy is non-galling,
making abrasion and heat-resistant corrosion-resisting, non-magnetic,
valves and pump parts, propeller age-hardenable and has low-
shafts, laundry machines, chemical sparking properties. It is used for
processing equipment, etc. all-resistant pump and valve
which have to withstand high
Approximate Composition: Nickel, 67; temperatures, corrosive chemical
copper, 30; iron, 1.4; silicon, 0.1; and severe abrasion.
manganese, 1; carbon, 0.15; and
sulfur, 0.01. Approximate Composition:
Nickel, 63; copper, 30; iron, 2;
(a) “R” Monel. This free-cutting, manganese, 0.75; carbon, 0.1;
corrosion resistant alloy is used and sulfur, 0.015.
for automatic screw machine
products such as bolts, screws (e) “H” Monel. An extra hard casting
and precision parts. alloy with good ductility
intermediate strength and
Approximate Composition: hardness that is used for pumps,
Nickel, 67; copper, 30; iron, 1.4; impellers and steam nozzles.
silicon,0.05; manganese, 1;
carbon, 0.15; and sulfur, 0.035. Approximate Composition:
Nickel, 63; copper, 31; iron, 2;
(b) “K” Monel. This strong and hard silicon, 3; manganese, 0.75;
alloy, comparable to heat-treated carbon 0.1; and sulfur, 0.015.
alloy steel, is age-hardenable,
non-magnetic and has low- 16.5.7.5 lnconel. This heat resistant alloy
sparking properties. It is used for retains its strength at high heats,
corrosive applications where the resists oxidation and corrosion, has a
material is to be machined or high creep strength and is non-
formed, then age hardened. magnetic. It is used for high
Pump and valve parts, scrapers, temperature application (up to I

348
 CHAPTER 16— MATERIALS
093.3°C) such as engine exhaust
manifolds and furnace and heat
treating equipment. Springs operating
at temperatures up to 371°C are also
made from it.
Approximate Composition: Nickel, 76;
copper, 0.20; iron, 7.5; chromium,
15.5; silicon, 0.25; manganese, 0.25;
carbon, 0.08; and sulfur, 0.007.
(a) Inconel “X”. This alloy has a low
creep rate, is age-hardenable and
non-magnetic, resists oxidation
and exhibits a high strength at
elevated temperatures. Uses
include the making of bolts and
turbine rotors used at
temperatures up to 815.55°C,
aviation brake drum springs with
low load-loss relaxation for
temperatures up to 537.77°C.
Approximate Composition:
Nickel, 73; copper, 0.2 maximum;
iron, 7; chromium, 15; aluminum,
0.7; silicon, 0.4; manganese, 0.5;
carbon, 0.04; sulfur, 0.007;
columbium, 1; and titanium, 2.5.
16.5.8 Titanium and Titanium Alloys
16.5.8.1 Titanium. This metal is used in its
commercially pure state and in alloy
for (being alloyed with manganese or
ferrochromium) for applications
requiring a metal with properties of
light weight, high strength, and good
temperature and corrosion-resistance.
Titanium and its alloy weigh
approximately 44 per cent less than
stainless or alloy steels, are equal or
greater in yield and ultimate tensile
strength than structural alloys in
common use, withstand temperatures
up to 426.66°C and higher
temperatures up to 1,093°C for short
periods and are resistant to corrosive
effects of salt and many acids and
alkalis and other chemicals. It is
available in the form of plates, sheets,
strips, forgings, ingots, bars, rods and
wire.
Composition and Properties: The
accompanying table gives the nominal
349
compositions, yield strengths, tensile
strengths and elongations of titanium
and some of its alloys.
16.5.9 Copper-Silicon and Beryllium Copper
Alloys.
16.5.9.1 Everdur. This copper-silicon alloy is
available in five slightly different
nominal composition for applications
which require high strength, good
fabricating and fusing qualities,
immunity to rust, free-machining and a
corrosion resistance equivalent to
copper. The following table gives the
nominal compositions and tensile
strengths, yield strengths, and per
cent elongations for various tempers
and forms.
Uses. (1010) Hot-rolled-and-annealed
plates for unfired pressure vessels,
and rods for hot forgings, hot
upsetting and machining. (1015) cold-
headed-and-roll-threaded bQfts and
cold-drawn seamless tubes or
electrical metallic tubing and rigid
conduit. (1012). Screw machine
products. (1000) Casting. (1014) Hot
forgings and for free machining
applications; not for cold- working or
welding.
Section 16.6 Etching
16.6.1 Etching and Etching Fluids
16.6.1 Etching Fluid for Different Metals.
A common method of etching names
or simple designs upon steel is to
apply a thin, even coating of beeswax
or some similar substance which will
resist acid; then mark the required
lines or letters in the wax with a sharp-
pointed scriber, thus exposing the
steel (where the wax has been
removed by the scriber point) to the
action of an acid, which is finally
applied.
To apply a very thin coating of
beeswax, place the latter in a silk
cloth, warm the piece to be etched,
and rub the pad over it. Regular
coach varnish is also used instead of
wax, as a “resist”.
 CHAPTER 16— MATERIALS

An etching fluid ordinarily used for For some classes of work paraffin is
carbon steel consist of nitric acid, 1 used for protecting the surface
part: water, 4 parts. It may be surrounding the graduation lines
necessary to vary the amount of which are to be etched. The method
water, as the exact proportion of application consists of melting the
depends upon the carbon in the steel paraffin and raising its temperature
and whether it is hard or soft. For hard high enough so that it will flow freely;
steel, use nitric acid, 2 parts; acetic then the work is held at a slight angle
acid, 1 part. For high-speed steel, and the paraffin is poured on its upper
nickel or brass, use nitro-hydrochloric surface. The melted paraffin forms a
acid (nitric, 1 part; hydrochloric, 4 thin protective coating.
parts). For high-speed steel it is
sometimes better to add a little more
nitric acid. For etching bronze, use 16.6.2 Coloring Metals.
nitric acid, 100 parts; muriatic acid, 5
parts. For brass, nitric acid, 16 parts; 16.6.2.1 General Requirements in the
water, 160 parts; dissolve 6 parts Coloring of Metal Surfaces. Copper
potassium chlorate in 100 parts of is more susceptible to coloring
water; then mix the two solutions and processes and materials than any of
apply. the other metals and hence the alloys
containing large percentages of
A fluid which may be used either for copper are readily given various
producing a frosted effect or for deep shades of copper (or none at all) can
etching (depending upon the time it is be given various colors, but not as
allowed to act) is composed of 1 easily as if copper were the principal
ounce sulfate of copper (blue vitriol); ingredient, and the higher the copper
1/4 ounce alum; 1/2 teaspoon of sale; content, the more readily can the alloy
1 grill of vinegar, and 20 drops of nitric be colored. The shades, and even
acid. For aluminum, use a solution the colors, can be altered by varying
composed of alcohol, 4 ounces; acetic the density of the solution, its
acid, 6 ounces; antimony chloride, 4 temperature and the length of time the
ounces; water, 40 ounces. object is immersed. They can also be
altered by finishing the work in
Various acid-resisting materials are different ways. If a cotton buff is used,
used for covering the surfaces of steel one shade will be produced.
rules etc., prior to marking off the lines
on a graduating machine. When the
graduation lines are fine and very
closely spaced, as on machinists
scales which are divided into
hundredths or sixty-fourths, it is very
important to use a thin resist that will
cling to the metal and prevent any
under-cutting of the acid; the resist
should also enable fine lines to be
drawn without tearing or crumbling as
the tool passes through it. One resist
that has been extensively used is
composed of about 50 per cent of
asphaltum, 25 per cent of beeswax,
and in addition, a small percentage of
Burgundy pitch, black pitch, and
turpentine. A thin covering of this
resisting material is applied to the
clean polished surface to be
graduated and after it is dry, the work
is ready for the graduating machine.

350
 CHAPTER 17— INSTRUMENTATIONS
Chapter 17
INSTRUMENTATIONS
Section 1.0 Purpose.
The purpose of this standard is to establish a
uniform means of designating instruments and
instrumentation systems used for the measurement
and control. To this end a designation system that
includes symbols and an identification code is
presented.
Section 2.0 Scope
2.1 General
a. The procedural needs of various users are
different. The standard recognizes these
needs, when they are consistent with the
objectives of the standards, by providing
alternative symbolism methods. A number
of examples are provided for adding
information or simplifying the symbolism
as desired.
b. Process equipment symbols are not part
of this standard, but are included only to
illustrate application s of instrumentation
symbols.
2.2 Application to Industries
a. The standard is suitable for use in the
chemical, petroleum, power generation,
air-conditioning, metal refining, and
numerous other process industries.
b. Certain fields, such as astronomy,
navigation and medicine, use very
specialized instruments that are different
from the conventional industrial process
instrument. No specific effort was
requirements of those fields. However it is
expected the standard will be flexible
enough to meet the many of the needs of
special fields.
351
2.3 Application to Work Activities
a. The standard is suitable for use whenever
any reference to an instruments or to a
control system function is required for the
purpose of symbolization and
identification. Such references may be
required for the following uses as well as
the other:
Design Sketches
Teaching examples
Technical papers, literature, and discussions
instrumentation system diagrams, loop diagrams,
Logic diagrams
Functional descriptions
Flow diagrams : Process, Mechanical, Engineering,
System, Piping (Process) and Instrumentation
Construction drawings
Specifications, purchase orders, manifest, and other
lists
Identification (tagging) of instruments and control
functions
Installations, operating and maintenance instruction,
drawings and records.
b. The standard is intended to provide
sufficient information to enable anyone
reviewing any document depicting process
measurements and control (who has a
reasonable amount of process knowledge)
to understand the means of measurement
and control of the process. The detailed
knowledge of a specialist in
instrumentation is not a prerequisite to this
understanding.
2.4 Application to Classes of Instrumentation
and to Instrument Functions
The symbolism and identification methods
provided in this standard are applicable to all
classes of process measurements and control
instrumentation. They can be used not only to
described discrete instrument and their
functions, but also to describe the analogous
 CHAPTER 17— INSTRUMENTATIONS
functions of the system which are variously
termed “shared display”, “shared control”,
“distributed control”, and “computer control”.
2.5 Extend of Functional Identification
The standard provides for the identification and
symbolization of the key function of an
instrument. Addition details for the instrument
are better described in a suitable specification,
data sheet, or any document intended for those
requiring such details.
2.6 Extend of Loop Identification
The standard covers the identification of an
instrument and all other instruments or control
functions associated with it in a loop. The user is
free to apply additional identification by serial
— Bubble
number, unit number, area number, plant
number, or by other means.
Section 3.0 Definitions
For the purpose of understanding this standard, the
following definitions apply. Terms italicized in a
definition are also defined in this section.
Accessible A term applied to a device of a function
—
that can be used or be seen by an operator for the
purpose of performing control actions, e.g., set point
changes, automatic-manual transfer, or on-off actions.
Alarm A device or function that signals the existence
—
of an abnormal condition by means of audible or
visible discrete change, or both, intended to attract
attention.
It is not recommended that the term alarm switch or
alarm be used to designate a device whose operation
is simply to close or open a circuit that may or may not
be used for normal or abnormal interlock, start-up,
shutdown, actuation of pilot light or an alarm device, or
the like. The first advice is properly designated as a
level switch, a flow switch, etc., because “switching” is
what the device does. The device may be designated
as an alarm only if the device itself contains alarm
function.
Assignable A term applied to a feature permitting
the chanelling (or direction) of a signal from one
device to another without the need for switching,
patching, or changes in wiring.
Synonym for control station.
Auto-Manuel Station —
Balloon — Synonym for bubble.
352
Behind the Panel A term applied to a location that
—
is within an area that contains (1) the instrument
panel, (2) its associated rack-mounted hardware, or
(3) is enclosed with the panel. Behind the panel
devices are not accessible for the operator; normal
use, and are not designated as local or front-of-panel-
mounted. In a very broad sense, “behind the panel” is
equivalent to “not normally accessible to the operator”.
Binary A term applied to a signal or device that has
—
only two discrete positions or states. When used in its
simplest form, as in “binary signal” (as opposed to
“analog signal”), the term denotes an “on-off” or “high-
low” state, i.e., one which does not represent
continuous varying quantities.
Board — Synonym for panel.
the circular symbol used to denote and
—
identify the purpose of an instrument or function. It
may contain a tag number. Synonym for balloon.
Computer Device A device or function that
—
performs one or more calculations or logic operations,
or both, and transmits one or more resultant output
signal. A computing device is sometimes called the
computing relay.
Configurable A term applied to a device or system
—
whose functional characteristics can be selected or
rearranged through programming or other methods.
The concept excludes rewiring as a means of altering
the configuration.
Controller A device having an output that varies to
—
regulate a controlled variable in a specified manner. A
controller may be a self-contained analog or digital
instruments, or it may be the equivalent of such an
instrument in a shared-control system.
An automatic controller varies its output automatically
in response to a direct or indirect input is a manual
loading station, and its output is not dependent on a
measured process variable but ca be varied only by
manual adjustment.
A controller may be integral with other functional
element of a control loop.
Control Stations A manual loading station that also
—
provide switching be.tween -manual, and automatic
.
control modes of a control loop. It is also known as an
auto-manual station. In addition the operator interface
of a distributed control system may be regarded as a
control station.
 CHAPTER 17— INSTRUMENTATIONS
Control Valve A device, other than a common, hand
—
actuated ON-OFF valve or self-actuated check valve,
that directly manipulated the flow of one or more fluid
process streams.
It is expected that use of the designation “hand control
valve” will be limited to hand-actuated require
identification as an instrument.
Converter A device that receives information in one
—
form of an instrument signal and transmits an output
signal in another form.
An instrument which changes a sensor’s output to a
standard signal is properly designated as a
transmitter, not a converter. Typically, a temperature
element (TE) may connect to a transmitter (TT), not to
a converter (TY).
A converter is also ref erred to as a transducer;
however, “transducer’ is a completely general term,
and its use specifically for signal conversions is not
recommended.
Digital A term applied to a signal or device that used
—
binary digits to represent continuous valve or discrete
states.
Distributed Control System A system which, while
—
being functionally integrated, consist of subsystems
which may be physically separate and remotely
located from one another.
Final Control Element - The device that directly
controls the value of the manipulated variable of a
control loop. Often the final control element is a control
valve.
Function — The purpose of, or an action performed
by, a device.
Identification The sequence of letters of digits, or
— mounted on it, houses the operator-process interface,
both, used to designate an individual instrument or
loop.
Instrument A device used directly or indirectly to
—
measure and/or control a variable. The term includes
primary elements, final control elements, computing
devices, and electrical devices such as annunciators,
switches, and pushbutton. The term does not apply to
parts (e.g., a receiverbellows or a resistor) that are
internal components of an instrument.
Instrumentation A collection of instruments or their
—
application for the purpose of observation,
measurement, control, or any combination of these.
353
Local The location of an instrument that is neither in
—
nor on a panel or console, nor it is mounted in a
control room. Local instruments are commonly in the
vicinity of a primary element or a final control element.
The world “field” is often used synonymously with
local.
Local Panel A panel that is not a central or main
-
panel. Locals panel are commonly in the vicinity of
plant subsystems or sub-areas. The term “local panel
instrument” should not be confused with “local
instrument”.
Loop A combination of two or more instruments or
—
control functions arranged so that signal pass from
one to another fort he purpose of measurement and/or
control of a process variable.
Manual Loading System A device or function
—
having a manually adjustable output that is used to
actuate one or more remote devices. The station odes
not provide switch
ng between manual and automatic
1
control modes of a control loop (see controller and
control station). The station may have integral
indicators, lights, or other features. It is also known as
a manual station or a manual loader.
Measurement The determination of the existence or
—
the magnitude of the variable.
Monitor — A general term for an instrument or
instrument system used to measure or sense the
status of magnitude of one or more variables for the
purpose of deriving useful information. The term
monitor is very unspecific sometimes meaning
—
analyzer, indicator, or alarm. Monitor can also be used
as a verb.
Monitor light — Synonym for pilot light.
Panel — A structure that has a group of instruments
and is chosen to have a unique designation. The
panel may consist of one or more sections, cubicles,
consoles, or desks. Synonym for board.
Panel-Mounted A term applied to an instrument that
—
is mounted on a panel r console and is accessible for
an operator’s normal use. A function that is normally
accessible to an operator in a shared-display system
is the equivalent of a discrete panél-rhounted device.
Pilot Light A light that indicates which of a number
—
of normal conditions of a system or device exists. It is
unlike an alarm light, which indicates an abnormal
condition. The pilot light is also know as a monitor
light.
 CHAPTER 17— INSTRUMENTATIONS

Primary Element - Synonym for sensor. control information from a number of sources at the
command of the operator.
Process Any operation or sequence of operations
-

involving a change of energy, state, composition, Switch A device that connects, disconnects, selects,
—

dimension, or other properties that may be defined or transfers one or more circuits and is not designated
with respect to a datum. as a controller, a relay, or a control valve. As a verb,
the term is also applied to the functions performed by
Process Variable Any variable property of a
— switches.
process. The term process variable is used this
standard to apply to all variables other than instrument Test Point — A process connection to which no
signals. instruments is permanently connected, but which is
intended for the temporary or intermittent connection
Program A repeatable sequence of actions that
—
of an instrument.
defines the status of outputs as a fixed relationship to
a set of inputs. Transducer — A general term for a device that
receives information in the form of one or more
Programmable Logic Controller A controller,
— physical quantities, modifies the information and/or its
usually with multiple inputs and outputs, that contains form, if required, and produces a resultant output
an alterable program. signal. Depending on the application, the transducer
can be a primary element, transmitter, relay, converter
Relay — A device whose functions is to pass on or other device. Because the term “transducer” is not
information in an unchanged form or in some modified specific, its use for specific applications is no
form. Relay is often used to mean computing device. recommended.
The latter term is preferred.
Transmitter A device that senses a process variable
—

The term “relay” also is applied specifically to an through the medium of a sensor and has an output
electric, pneumatic, or hydraulic switch that is actuated whose steady-state value varies only as a
by a signal. The term is also applied to functions predetermined function of the process variable. The
performed by a relay. sensor may or may not be integral with transmitter.

Scan To sample, in a predetermined manner, each

— Section 4.0 Outline of the Identification
of a number of variables intermittently. The function of System
a scanning device is often to ascertain that state or
value of a variable. The device may be associated with
4.1 General
other functions such as recording and alarming.
a. Each instrument of function to be
Sensor That part of a loop of instrument that first is designated by an
identified
—

senses the value of a process variable, and that alphanumeric code or tag number as
assumes a corresponding, predetermined, and
shown in Fig. 1. The loop identification
intelligible state or output. The sensor may be
party of the tag number generally is
separate from or integral with another functional common to all instrument or functions of
element of a loop. The sensor is also known as a the loop. A suffix or prefix may be added
detector of a primary element.
to complete this identification. The typical
identification is shown Figure 1.
Set Point An input variable that sets the desired
—

value of the controlled variable. The set point may be

b. The instrument loop number may include
manually set, automatically set, or programmed. Its
coded information, such as plant area
value is expressed in the same units as the controlled
designation. It is also possible to set aside
variable.
specific series of numbers to designate
special functions; for instance, the series
Shared Controller A controller, containing
900 to 999 could be used for loops whose
—

programmed algorithms that are usually accessible,

primary function is safety-related.
configurable, and assignable. It permits a number of
process variables to be controlled by a single device. Each instrument may be represented on
c.
diagrams by a symbol. The symbol may
Shared Display The operator interface device
be accompanied by a tag number.
-

(usually a video screen) used to display process

354
 CHAPTER 17- INSTRUMENTATIONS
TYPICAL TAG NUMBER
TIC 103— Instrument Identification or Tag Number
T 103— Loop Identification
103— Loop Number
TIC Functional Identification
—
T First-letter
-
IC Succeeding-Letters
—
EXPANDING TAG NUMBER
10— PAH-5A Tag Number
—
10 Optional Prefix
—
A Optional Suffix
—
Note: Hyphens are optional as separators.
Fig. I Tag Number
4.2 Functional Identification
a. The functional identification of an
instrument or its functional equivalent
consists of letter from Table 1 and
includes one first-letter (designating the
measured or initiating variable) and one or
more succeeding-letters (identifying the
function performed).
b. The functional identification of an
instrument is made according to the
function and not according to the
construction. Thus, a differential-pressure
recorder used for flow measurement is
identified by FR; a pressure-actuated
switch connected to the output of a
pneumatic level transmitter are identified
by LI and LS, respectively.
c. In an instrument loop, the first-letter of the
functional identification is selected
according to the measure of initializing
variable, and not according to the
manipulated variable. Thus a control valve
varying flow according to the dictates of a
level controller is an LV, not an FV.
d. The succeeding-letters of the functional
identification designate one or more
readout or passive functions and/or output
functions. A modifying-letters may be
used, if required in addition to one or more
other succeeding letters. Modifying letters
may modify either a first-letter or
succeeding-letter, as applicable. Thus,
355
TDAL contains two modifiers. The letter D
changes the measured variable,
“differential temperature”. The letter L
restricts the readout function A, alarm, to
represent a low alarm only.
e. The sequence of the identification letters
begins with a first-letter selected
according to Table 1. Readout or passive
functional letters follow in any order, and
output functional letter follow these in any
sequence, except that output letter follow
these in any order, and output functional
letter follow these in any sequence, except
that output letter C (control) precedes
output letter V (valve), e.g., PCV, a self
actuated control valve. However,
modifying-letters, if used, are interposed
so that they are placed immediately
following the letters they modify.
f. A multiple function device may be
symbolized on a diagram by as many
bubbles as there are measured variables,
outputs and/or functions. Thus, a
temperature controller with a switch may b
e identified by two tangent bubbles one—
inscribed TIC-3 and one inscribed TSH_3.
The instrument would be designated
TIC/TSH-3 for all uses in writing or
references. If desired, however, the
abbreviation TIC-3 may serve for general
identification or for purchasing, while TSH
3 may be used for electric circuit
diagrams.
g. The number of functional letters grouped
for one instrument should b e kept to a
minimum according to the judgment of the
use. The total number of letters within one
group should not exceed four. The
number within a group may be kept to a
minimum by;
h. Arranging the functional letters into
subgroups. This practice is described in
Section 4.2.6 for instruments having more
than one measured variable or input, but it
may also be used for other instruments.
Section 5.0 Drawings
5.1 Cautionary Notes
a. If a given drawing or set of drawings, uses
graphic symbols that are similar or
identical in shape or configuration and that
 CHAPTER 17— INSTRUMENTA11ONS

have different meanings because they are (12) Electric binary signal
taken from different standards, then
adequate steps must be taken to avoid Note: ‘or’ means user’s choice. Consistency is
misinterpretation of the symbols used. recommended.
These steps may be to use caution notes,
reference notes, comparison charts that *The following abbreviations are suggested to
illustrate and define the conflicting designations may also be applied to purge fluid
symbols, or other suitable means. This supplies.
requirement is especially critical in cases
where symbols taken from different AS — Air Supply HS- Hydraulic Supply
disciplines are intermixed and their
misinterpretation might cause danger to IA — Instrument Air NS — Nitrogen Supply
personnel or damage to equipment.
PA — Plant Air SS — Steam Supply
b. The titles Simplified Diagrams, Conceptual
Diagrams and Detailed Diagrams were ES — Electric Supply WS — Water Supply
chosen to represent a cross section of
symbol usage not any particular generic GS — Gas Supply
document.
The supply level may be added to the instrument
c. The line symbols on Section 6.2 offer supply line, e.g., AS 100, a 100-psig air supply; ES-
—

“user’s choice” alternative electrical 24 DC, a 24-volt direct current power supply.
symbols and optional binary symbols. The
subsequent examples use on consistent
**
The Pneumatic signal symbol applies to a signal
set of these alternatives and apply the using any gas as the signal medium. If the gas other
binary options. This was done for than air is used, the gas may be identified by a note on
consistency of appearance of the the signal symbol or otherwise.
standard. **
The Electromagnetic phenomena include heat, radio
It is recommended that the user choose either the wages, nuclear radiation and light.
dashed line electrical symbol or the triple crossed
hatch symbol and apply it consistently. The optional
binary (on-off) symbols are available for those
applications where the user finds it necessary to
distinguish between analog and binary signals. If in the
user judgment, the application does not require such
differentiation, the reverse slash may be omitted from
on-off signal line symbols. Consistency is
recommended on a given set of documents.

Section 6.0 Instrument Line Symbols

All lines to be in relation to process piping lines.

(1) Instrument supply or connection to process

*

(2) Undefined signal

**
(3) Pneumatic Signal
(4) Electric Signal
(5) Hydraulic signal
(6) Capillary tube
***
(7) Electromagnetic or sonic signal (Guided)
***
(8) Electronic or sonic signal (Unguided)
(9) Internal System Link (Software or Data Link)
(10)Mechanical Link
Optional binary (on-off) symbols

(11) Pneumatic binary signal

356
 CHAPTER 17— INSTRUMENTAflONS

17. 6.3 General Instrument or Function Symbols

Primary Auxiliary
location location
*** normally Field *** normally
accessible to mounted accessible to
operator operator
1 2 3
* IPI**
Discrete
instrumental

4 5 6
Shared display,
shared control

7 8 9
Compur

10 11 12
Programmable
logic control

*
Symbol size may vary according to the user’s needs and the type of document. A suggested square and circle size for large
diagrams is shown above, consistency is recommended.
**
Abbreviations of the user’s choice such as IP1 (Instrument Pannel #1), lC2 (Instrument Console #2), CC3 (Computer Console
#3), etc. may be used when it is necessary to specify instrument of function.

Normally inaccessible or behind-the-panel devices or functions may be depicted by using the same symbols but with dashed
horizontal bars, i.e.

13 14
EEO 15
2584-23
‘—‘ Instrumental sharing common
Instrumental with long tag number housing *
16 17 18 **

Panel mounted Purge or

Pilot light patchboard point 12 flushing device
19 ** 20 21 **

Reset for latch-type Diaphram Undefined

actuator seal interlock logic
*
It is not mandatory to show a common housing.
**
These diamonds are approximately half the size of the larger ones.

357
 CHAPTER 17- INSTRUMENTATIONS

17.6.4 Control valve body valve body symbols, dampder symbols

Further information may added adjacent to the body symbol either by note or code number.

358
 CHAPTER 17— INSTRUMENTATIONS

17.6.5 Actuator symbols

I 2 3 4

Preferred for
diaphragm assembled
with pilot *.Assembly is
With or without actuated by one with input Preferred Optimal
positioner (shown typically with alternative alternative
or other pilot electric input)
Diaphragm, spring opposed,
Diaphragm, spring-opposed with positioner ** and over riding pilot valve that
or unspecified actuator pressurizes diaphragm when actuated
5 6 7

LiJ

Rotary motor (shown typicaly

Diaphragm, with electric signal. May be
pressure-balanced hydrolic or pneumatic Digital
8 9 10

Spring-opposed Preferred for any cylinder that is

single acting
-
Double acting
- — assembled with a pilot* so that

Cylinder, without positkner or other pHot controlled input

*
Pilot may be positioner, solenoid valve, signal converter, etc.
**
The positioner need not to be shown unless an intermediate device is on its output. The
positioner tagging, ZN, need not be used even if the positioner is shown. The positioner
symbol, a box drawn on the actuator shaft, is the same for all types of actuators. When
the symbol is used, the type of instrument signal, i.e. pneumatic, electric, etc., is drawn as
appropriate. If the positioner symbol is used and there is no intermediate device on its
output, then the positioner output signal need not be shown.
***
The arrow represents the path from a common to a fail open port. It does not correspond
necessarily to the director of fluid flow.

359
 CHAPTER 17— INSTRUMENTATIONS

17.6.5 Actuator symbols (continued)

11 12 13

Preferred alternative. A
bubble with instrument tagging,
E.G. TY-1, may be used instead Single-acting cylinder
of the interlock symbol (Implied l/P)

Solenoid Cylender with positioner nd overriding pilot valve

;-- 15 16

Valve actuator
Dual solenoids switching 4-way with atached electro-pneumatic
Hydrolic valve Electrohydraulic converter
17 18 19

(Manual (Remote
reset) reset)
/
Latch-type actuator with reset
(shown typically for solenoid
actuator and typically with electric For pressure relief or sefety valves
signal for remote reset, with only: denotes a spring, weight,or Hand actuator or
manual reset alternative) integral pilot handwheel

360
 CHAPTER 17 INSTRUMENTATIONS

17.66 Symbols for self-actuated regulators, valves, and other devices.

1 2 — (UPSTREAM
‘ ALTERNATIVE)

3, (DOWNSTREAM
ALTERNATIVE)

Automatic regulator with Automatic regulator Indicating variable area meter with
integral flow indication without indication integral manual throttle valve
4 5 6

0
Restriction orifice (orifice plate,
capillary tube or multi-stage type,
etc.) in process line
Restriction orifice drilled in valve
(instrument tag number may be
omitted if valve is otherwise Flow sight glass, plain or with
identified) paddle wheel, flapper, etc.
8 9

li

Flow straightening vane (use of

tag number is optional. The loop
number may be the same as that
of the associated primary element)
1 2 3

Hand actuated on-off

Hand control valve switching valve in Hand control valve
in process line pneumatic signal line in signal line

361
 CHAPTER 17— INSTRUMENTATIONS

17.6.6 Symbols for self-actuated regulators, valves, and other devices (continued).

Level regulation with

mechanical Iinkaoe

PcV
2

Pressure-reducing regulator, self Pressure-reducing reducing Differential-pressure-reducing

contained, with handwheel regulator with external regulator with internal and
adjustable set point pressure tap external pressure taps

Pressure-reducing regulator with

integral outlet pressure relief valve,
and optional pressure indicator

Pressure-relief or safety valve,

Pressure relief or safety straight-through pattern, spring or Vacuum relief valve,
valve, general symbol or with integral pu general symbol

362
 CHAPTER 17- INSTRUMENTATIONS

17.6.6 Symbols for self-actuated regulators, valves, and other devices (continued).

363
 CHAPTER 17— INSTRUMENTATIONS

17.6.7 Symbols for actuator action in event of actuator power failure.

(Shown typically for diaphragm actuated control valve)

I 2 3

V C

Two-way valve, Two-way valve, Three-way valve,

fail open fail closed fail open to path A-C

4 5 6

Four-way valve,
Any valve, fail locked Any valve, fail
fail open to paths A-C and
(position does not change) indeterminate
D-B

The failure modes indicated are those commonly defined by the term, “shelf-position”. As an
aLternative to the arrows and bars, the following abbreviations may be employed:

FO Fail Open
-

FC Fail Closed
-

FL Fail Locked (last position)

-

Fl Fail Indeterminate
-

364
 CHAPTER 17 — INSTRUMENTATIONS

176.8 Primary element symbols

1
A 2 3

C’)
Cl)
>-
<
<

Dual analysis indicating transmitter FIRED FURNANCE

for oxygen and combustibles
concentrations
Bl 3

rERNACE URZ

L One burner ultra-violet flame Two burner flame rod

ce
detector connected to analog-type sensor connected to Television camera and
flame intensity indicator common switch receiver to view burner flame
1
c 2 3

uJ
C-)
0
r
C-)
Cl)
c
w
Cl)
Conductivity cell connected to
point 5 of multipoint scanning Inline consistency
conductivity recorder transmitter
Dl 2 3
SOURCE
CONVEYOf
s
C)

:
‘ ?Dsitftflttèr; Rdio-tjpe density Specific gravity
differential-pressure elements connected to transmitter,
type, externally connected recorder on panel flow-through type
Use of letter C and D defined on user’s legend sheet

365
 CHAPTER 17— INSTRUMENTATIONS

17.6.8 Primary element symbols (continued)

—;- 2 3

Ui
0
<
-I
0
>

Indicating voltmeter connected Low-voltage switch connected

to turbine-generator to pump motor
I 2 3

II

Office plate with flange or corner

General symbol the words taps connected to differential Flange or corner tap test
laminar, etc., may be added pressure type flow indicator connections without orifice plate
4 5 6
F
9 9

‘
Office plate with vena contracta,
radius or pipe taps connected to
Orifice plate with vena differential-pressure-type flow Radius tap test connections
contracta taps transmitter without orifice plate
7 8 9

-)
E1’ -
I

Orifice plate in Single port pitot tube

quick-change fitting or pitot venturi tube Venturi Tube

366
 CHAPTER 17— NSTRUMENTATIONS

17.6M Prmy eemert symbols (continued)

I 11 12

Averaging pitot tube Flume Weir

F 13 14 15

—-[U——- \
>iJ

0 Turbine-or propeller-type Variable area Positive-displacement-type

C-)
primary element flow indicator flow totalizing indicator
Ui
16 17 18
LAMINATOR FLOW,
ETC. MASS FLOW
LL
ETC. iN
FT

L, -)___

Flow element with connection Flow element integral

for controller with transmitter Vortex sensor
19 20 21

Target type sensor Flow nozzle Magnetic flowmeter

367
 CHAPTER 17- INSTRUMENTATIONS

17.6.8 Primary element symbols (continued)

22 23 24
F

.
—
0
C)

Magnetic flowmeter with Sonic flowmeter” doppler” or

integral transmitter ‘transit time” may be added
2 3
i

I
z
LU

z
C.)

Current transformer measuring

current of electric motor
l 2 3

Ui

0 -

Indicating wattmeter connected

to pump motor

1
K 2 3

d Clock
Multipoint on-off time sequencing
programmer point 7
Time-schedule controller,
analog type, or self contained
function generator

368
CHAPTER 17— INSTRUMENTATIONS

17.6.8 Primary element symbols (continued)

369
 CHAPTER 17— INSTRUMENTATIONS

17.6.8 Primary element symbols (continued)

13 14 15

I 18B
Ui
-J

Remote viewing of gage Level glass

glass by use of television with illuminator —

i 2
M

©s CONVEYOR

Moisture recorder (if there is a Self-contained

separate primary element, it humidity controller
should be tagged ME-2 In room
Use of letter M to be defined in user’s legend

2 3

0
< With pressure lead line Line-mounted
> Pressure indicator,
direct-connected Pressure Indicator connected t diaphragm seal with filled system
4 5 6
Cl)
U)
Ui
0

Pressure element, strain-gage

type, connected to pressure
indicating transmitter
(tag strain gage PE-19)

370
 CHAPTER 17— INSTRUMENTATIONS

17.6.8 Primary element symbols (continued)

1 2
Q 3
%5N fN
LIGHT ( ) LIGHT 1 ) SCONVEYOR
SOURCE SOURCE
\/SCONVEYOR ‘-‘<%CONVEYOR

Counting switch, photo-electric Counting switch, photo-electric

type, with switch action for type, with switch action based Indicating counter,
each event on cumulative total mechanical type
2 3
R
,
, C.
C)
z
Q RI

Radiation measuring element

Radiation indicator and transmitter
51 2 3
>-
C.)
z
Lii
z
a
Lii
LI

0
LU
LU
0
Speed transmitter
1
T 2 3

:
.
C.
LU

Temperature element without well

Temperature connection Temperature test connection (element not connected to
with well without well secondary instroment)

371
 CHAPTER 17- INSTRUMENTATIONS

17.6.8 Primary element symbols (continued)

4 5 6

Temperature element with well Bimetallic-type thermometer

(element not connected to Filled-system-type temperature glass thermometer, or other local
secondary instruments) indicator with well unclassifed temperature indicator
7 8 9
I I

RTD(IF
CABLE

Thermocouple, resistance bulb Thermocouple connected to Thermocouple parallel-wired to

(RTD) or thermistor (TH) multipoint indicator recording multipoint indicator and
C connected to temperature on multipoint scanning multipoint scanning recorder
0
C.) indicator (tag element TE-lO) recorder (tag element TE-11-2) (tag element TE-1 3-8/14-4)
I1J
10 12

r1
Dual or duplex thermocouple
connected to multipoint indicator Thermal-radiation type
and multipoint scanning recorder for different elevations, temperature indicator,
(tag element TE-1 5-7/16-2) with well in tank self-contained
13 14 15

r3©

Thermal-radiation-type Surface-mounted Thermostat sensing

temperature element temperature sensor ambient temperature

372
 CHAPTER 17— INSTRUMENTATIONS

17.6.8 Primary element symbols (continued)

Alternative 1 Alternative 1
(treated as disbnct loops) Aftemative2 (treated as distfr)Ct lOOPS)
-
- -
- Alternative 2 - - -

Low-flow switch actuating one point of a Level signal received by one point of a
multipoint of multivariable alarm annunciator multipoint multivariable indicator

I 2 SEISMIC

0
Co

z
cE
-j

C) Vibration transmitter Vibration switch Accelerometer with

for motor (manually resettable) auxiliary panel readout
x 4
C) 5
w
z

Mechanical analysis in three planes

373
 CHAPTER 17- INSTRUMENTATIONS

17.6.8 Primary element symbols (continued)

1 2 3
CONVEYOR
w
Ui
C,
0
U

0
I

Strain gage connected to separate

Weight transmitter, weight transmitter Weight-belt scale
direct-connected (tag strain gage WE-2) transmitter
I
SCONVEYOR SOURCE
z
CONVEYOR
c,S
Q
s
ZDS
2
Limit switch that is actuated
Roll-thickness Thickness switch, when valve is closed to a
transmitter radioactive type predetermined position

4 5 6
0
E DRIVEN
F MACHINE
a

Turbine shell/rotor differential

expansion transmeter
(tag primary element ZDE-4)

374
APPENDICES

375
 APPENDIX A

1 PLAN OF TYPICAL DIESEL ENGINE PLANT

FIG. A

1. MAIN ENGINE 12. AIR FILTER

2. GENERATOR 13. AIR STARTING TANKS
3. EXCITER 14. AIR STARTING OUTFIT
4. SWITCHBOARD 15. CENTRIFUGE
5. INTERCONNECTING PLATFORM 16. CENTRIFUGE SUMP TANK
6. DAILY USE FUEL TANKS 17. WATER CIRCULATING PUMPS
8. EXHAUST LINE 18. FUEL OIL TRANSFER PUMP
9. EXHAUST MUFFLER 19. LOCKERS
11. AIR INTAKE 20. WORK BENCH

376
 APPENDIX B

‘1 —

FIG. B
1 ELEVATION OF TYPICAL DIESEL ENGINE PLANT

7. LUBR. OIL SUMP TANKS

10. EXHAUST STACK
21. PIPE TRENCHES
22. PIPING
23. OVERHEAD CRANE

377
 APPENDIX D

Partially Compressed
Car Oil Buffer

FIG. D
1 FIG. D
2

TOP COUNTERWEIGHT CLEARANCES

Bottom terminal

Any equipment except

guide shoes or rollers.
and platform guards
Platform guard safety jaws assemblies
where required which project below
car frame safety plank

Fully compressed
oil or spring buffer
or solid bumper

3 BOTTOM CAR CLEARANCE

FIG. D

378
 _______________

APPENDIX E

HOISTWAY ACCESS—DIAGRAMMATIC
REPRESENTATION

Means of access to car top or pit for inspection,

maintenance or repair, and means of access to
hoistways for emergency purposes
(See Sec. 6.3.10 & 6.3.10.3)

Elevators where a closed door is Elevators where a closed door is unlocked

locked with car at landing: and un- I with car at landing: or locked but openable
openable from landing I by landing means effective only when car is
in landing zone (see note below)

Hoistway Hoistway unlocking Hoistway Hoistway Emergency

access switch device (same unlocking access switch use
landings) but only if device
At one upper If preferred Emergency
landing for top or For car top access At one upper (same key device
or
access, abd rise is not over 15 landing for top landings)
ft (4.6 m) and permitted at all
lowest landing access, and landings
for pit access access landing not lowest landing
intermediate for pit access
landing more than
4ft (1 .2 m) below
top landing
For pit access pit is
no more than 5 ft
(1.5 m)deep

Note:

With the landing means, it is only necessary to open the door of any one or several cars at a floor.

379
 APPENDIX F

ESCALATOR AND MOVING WALK DIAGRAMS

‘4- Escalator width + 6 in. (152 mm) max:

-fri I.4—3 in. (76 mm) 3 in. (76 mm) —fr: :4

max. max.

Escalator width (not less than step tread widht)

27 in (636 mm)
above nose line
of steps

tread

6112 in
610 in
(165 mm)
max.
: 16 in. (406 mm)min.
40 in. (1016 mm) max.
-fri (165 mm) ‘-4
max.
4 Step tread width + 13 in (330 mm) max.

1 RELATIONSHIP OF ESCALATOR PARTS

FIG. F

380
 APPENDIX F

White

CAUTION
Black

yellow

Hold Handrail
Attend Children
Avoid Sliders

4— 4 in. (102 mm)

FIG. F
2 ESCALATOR CAUTION SIGN

381
 _______

APPENDIX F

4 in (102 mm) 4 in (102 mm)

mm.
4
254 mm)

1 in (25 mm)
mm.

>

Width exposed
treadway

3 RELATIONSHIP OF MOVING WALK PARTS

FIG. F

382
 APPENDIX F

Sh.. Door
Operator

Clotob

Dototy odD.

Fig. F
4 TRACTION V.V. GEARLESS ALEVATOR

383
 APPENDIX F

J.dc Casing

II
II

5 OILDRAULIC FREIGHT ELEVATOR

Fig. F

384
 APPENDIX G

ISO METRIC SERIES FOR BASIC THICKNESS

OF SHEET AND DIAMETER OF WIRE

1. The ISO metric series for the basic thickness of sheet and
diameters of wire is established on the series of preferred
numbers set out in ISO Recommendation R 3-Preferred
numbers. Series of preferred numbers. See Table G
.
1

2. The range of sizes is from 0.020 to 25 mm.

3. In selecting sizes, preference should be given to sizes in the R

10, R 20, and R 40 series, in that order.

4. The method of designating the thickness of sheet or diameter

or wire is to be by stating the basic size in millimeters followed,
it desired, by letter U to indicate that this size belongs to the
ISO metric series.

NOTE: The equivalent inch values for sizes above 0.25 mm are
given to an accuracy close to, or better than, one part in one
thousand. This accuracy would be appropriate to practical limits of
size associated with a tolerance of I per cent of the size. For sizes
smaller than 0.25 mm, five places of decimals appear adequate for
any likely method of direct measurement in inches. The true
mililmetre basic sizes should be used if it s desired to compute
limits of size in any alternative characteristic, such as mass or
electrical resistance.

385
 APPENDIX G

Table G
1
TABLE OF BASIC SIZES

NOTE: Preference should be given to sizes in the R 10, R 20 and R 40 series, in that order.

Basic sizes Equivalent

millimetres sizes (for Basic sizes Equivalent
information) millimetres sizes (for
RiO R20 R40 information)
Inches RiO R20 R40
0.020 0.020 0.020 0.000 79 Inches
0.212 0.008 35
0.021 0.000 83 0.224 0.224 0.008 82
0.022 0.022 0.000 87 0.236 0.009 29
0.024 0.000 94 0.250 0.250 0.250 0.009 84
0.025 0.025 0.025 0.000 98
0.265 0.01043
0.026 0.001 02 0.280 0.280 0.01102
0.028 0.028 0.001 10 0.300 0.011 81
0.030 0.001 18 0.315 0.315 0.315 0.01240
0.032 0.032 0.032 0.001 26
0.335 0.013 19
0.034 0.001 34 0.355 0.355 0.01398
0.036 0.036 0.001 42 0.375 0.014 76
0.038 0.001 50 0.400 0.400 0.400 0.01575
0.040 0.040 0.040 0.001 58
0.425 0.01673
0.042 0.001 65 0.450 0.450 0.01772
0.045 0.045 0.001 77 0.475 0.01870
0.048 0.001 89 0.500 0.500 0.500 0.01969
0.050 0.050 0.050 0.001 97
0.530 0.020 87
0.053 0.002 09 0.560 0.560 0.022 05
0.056 0.056 0.002 20 0.600 0.023 62
0.060 0.002 36 0.630 0.630 0.630 0.024 80
0.063 0.063 0.063 0.002 40
0.670 0.026 38
0.067 0.00264 0.710 0.710 0.027 95
0.071 0.071 0.002 80 0.750 0.029 53
0.075 0.002 95 0.800 0.800 0.800 0.031 50
0.080 0.080 0.080 0.003 15 0.850 0.033 46
0.900 0.900 0.03543
0.085 0.003 35 0.950 0.03740
0.090 0.090 0.00354 1.000 1.000 1.000 0.039 40
0.095 0.003 74 1.06 0.041 7
0.100 0.100 0.100 0.003 94 1.12 1.12 0.044 1
0.106 0.004 17 1.18 0.046 5
0.112 0.112 0.00441 1.25 1.25 1,25 0.049 2
0.118 0.004 65
0.125 0.125 0.125 0.004 92 1.32 0.052 0
1.40 1.40 0.055 2
0.132 0.005 20 1.50 0.059 1
0.140 0.140 0.005 52 1.60 1.60 1.60 0.063 0
0.150 0.005 91 1.70 0.066 9
0.160 0.160 0.160 0.005 30 1.80 1.80 0.070 9
1.90 0.074 8
0.170 0.006 69 2.00 2.00 2.00 0.078 7
0.180 0.180 0.007 09
0.190 0.00748 2.12 0083 5
0.200 0.200 0.200 0.007 87

386
 APPENDIX G

Table G,
TABLE OF BASIC SIZES
(continued)
NOTE: Preference should be given to sizes in the R 10, R 20 and R 40 series, in that order.

Basic sizes Equivalent Basic sizes Equivalent

millimetres sizes (for millimetres sizes (for
information) information)
RIO R20 R40 RIO R20 R40
Inches Inches
21.20 0.834 6
2.24 2.24 0.088 2 22.40 22.40 0.881 9
2.36 0.092 9 23.60 0.929 1
2.50 2.50 2.50 0.098 4 25.00 25.00 25.00 0.984 3
2.65 0.1043
2.80 2.80 0.110 2
3.00 0.118 1
3.15 3.15 3.15 0.1240

3.35 0.131 9
3.55 3.55 0.1398
3.75 0.147 6
4.00 4.00 4.00 0.1575

4.25 0.167 3
4.50 4.50 0.1772
4.75 0.1870
5.00 5.00 5.00 0.1969

5.30 0.208 7
5.60 5.60 0.220 5
6.00 0.236 2
6.30 6.30 6.30 0.248 0
6.70 0.263 8
7.10 7.10 0.279 5
7.50 0.295 3
8.00 8.00 8.00 0.3150

8.50 0.334 6
9.00 9.00 0.3543
9.50 0.3740
10.00 10.00 10.00 0.393 7

10.60 0.4173
11.20 11.20 0.440 9
11.80 0.4646
12.50 12.50 12.50 0.492 1

13.20 0.519 7
14.00 14.00 0.551 8
15.00 0.590 6
16.00 16.00 16.00 0.629 9

17.00 0.669 3
18.00 18.00 0.708 7
19.00 0.748 0
20.00 20.00 20.00 0.787 4

387
 APPENDIX H

WIRE GAGES

1 WIRE GAGES
Table H

American Steel Wiro BirmIngham Nd EngIish U.S.

Stubs’ Steel BritIsh Standard
Wire Gage Gage (Washburn Wire Gage Wire Gage Std. Sheet
Gage Wire Gage WIre Gage
B. & S. 8. Moon) (Stub’s Iron) (London) Gage
No. Thickness,
Diam. In. Diam. mm In.
DIam. in. Diam. mm Diam. In. DIam. mm DIam. In. DIam. mm DIam. In. Diam. mm DIam. In. Dlam. mm

.4900 12.4 500 12.7 .5000

0000000
.4615 11.7 464 11.8 .4687
000000
.4305 10.9 432 11.0 .4375
00000

.460 11.7 .3938 10.0 .454 11.5 .454 11.5 400 10.2 .4062
0 000
10.4 .3625 9.2 .425 10.8 .425 10.8 372 9.4 .3750
000 .410
9.3 .3310 8.4 .380 9.7 .380 9.7 348 8.8 .3437
00 .365
.325 8.3 .3065 7.8 .340 8.6 .340 8.6 324 8.2 .3125
0

.289 7.3 .2830 7.2 .300 7.6 .300 7.6 .227 5.77 .300 7.6 .2812
6.5 .2625 6.7 .284 7.2 .284 7.2 .219 5.6 .276 7.0 .2656
2 .258
.229 5.8 .2437 6.2 .259 6.6 .259 6.6 .212 5.38 .252 6.4 .2500
3
5.2 .2253 5.7 .238 6.0 .238 6.0 .207 5.26 .232 5.9 .2344
4 .204
.182 4.6 .2070 5.3 .220 5.6 .220 5.6 .204 5.18 .212 5.4 .2187
5

.162 4.1 .1920 4.9 .203 5.2 .203 5.2 .201 5,11 .192 4.9 .2035
6
3.7 .1770 4.5 .180 4.6 .180 4.6 .199 5.05 .176 4.5 .1875
7 .144
3.3 .1630 4.1 .165 4.2 .165 4.2 .197 5,00 .160 4.1 .1719
8 .128
.114 2.91 .1463 3.77 .148 3.76 .148 3.76 .194 4.93 .14.4 3.66 .1562
9
.102 2.59 .1350 3.43 .134 3.43 .134 3.43 .191 4.85 .128 3.25 .1406
10

.091 2.30 .1205 3.06 .120 3.05 .120 3.05 .188 4.78 .116 2.95 .1250
11
.081 2.05 .1055 2,68 .109 2.77 .109 2,77 .185 4.70 .104 2.64 .1094
12
1.83 .0915 2.32 .095 2.41 .095 2.41 .182 4.62 .092 2.34 .0937
13 .072
14 .064 1.63 .0800 2.03 .083 2.11 .083 2.11 .180 4.57 .080 2.03 .0781
.057 1.45 .0720 1.83 .072 1.83 .072 1,83 .178 4.52 .072 1.83 .0703
15

.051 1.29 .0625 1.59 .065 1.65 .065 1.65 .175 4.45 .064 1.63 .0625
16
17 .045 1.15 .0540 1.37 .058 1.47 .058 1.47 .172 4.37 .056 1.42 .0562
1.02 .0475 1.21 .049 1.24 .049 1.24 .168 4.27 .048 1.22 .0500
18
.036 0.91 .0410 1.04 .042 1.07 .040 1.02 .164 4.17 .040 1.02 .0437
19
0.81 .0348 0.88 .035 0.89 .035 0.89 .161 4.09 .036 0.91 .0375
20 .032

0.72 .0317 0.81 .032 0.81 .0315 0.80 .157 3.99 .032 0.81 .0344
21 .0285
.0253 0.64 .0286 0,73 .028 0.71 .0295 0.75 .155 3.94 .028 0.71 .03 12
22
0.57 .0258 0,66 .025 0.64 .0270 0.69 .153 3.89 .024 0.61 .0281
23 .0226
0.51 .0230 0.58 .022 0.56 .0250 0.64 .151 3,84 .022 0.56 .0250
24 .0201
.0179 0.45 .0204 0.52 .020 0.51 .0230 0.58 .148 3.76 .020 0.51 .0219
25

.0159 0.40 .0181 0.46 .018 0.46 .0205 0.52 .146 3.71 .018 0.46 .0187
26
.0142 0.36 .0173 0.439 .016 0.41 .01875 0.48 .143 3.63 .0164 0.42 .0172
27
.0126 0.32 .0162 0.411 .014 0.36 .0 1650 0.42 .139 3.53 .0148 0.38 .0156
28
.0113 0.29 .0 150 0.381 .013 0.330 .01550 0.394 .134 3.40 :0136 0.345 .0141
29
0.25 .0 140 0.356 .012 0.305 .01 375 0.349 .127 323 .0124 0.315 .0125
30 .0100

.0089 0.227 .0132 0.335 .010 0.254 .01225 0.311 .120 3.05 .0116 0.295 .0109
31 ‘

.0080 0.202 .0128 0.325 .009 0.229 .01125 0.286 .115 2.92 .0108 ‘‘0274 .0101
32
.0071 0.180 .0118 0.300 .008 0.203 .01025 0.260 .112 2.84 .0100 0.254 .0094
33
34 .0063 0.160 .0104 0.264 .007 0.178 .00950 0.241 .110 2.79 .0092 0.234 .0086
.0056 0.143 .0095 0.241 .005 0.127 .00900 0.229 .108 2.74 .0084 0.213 .0078
35

0.127 .0090 0,229 .004 0.102 .00750 0.191 .106 2:69 .0076 0.193 .0070
36 .0050 ‘

.0045 0.113 .0085 0.216 00650 0.165” .103 2.62 .0068 0.173 .0066
37
.0040 0.101 .0080 0.203 00575 0.146 .101 2.57 .0060 0.152 .0062
38
.0035 0.090 .0075 0.191 00500 0.127 .099 2.51 .0052 0.132
39
40 .0031 0.080 .0070 0.178 00450 0.114 .097 2.46 .0048 0.122

41 .0066 0,168 095 2.41 .0044 0.112

42 .0062 0.157 .092 2.34 .0040 0.102
43 .0060 0.152 088 2.24 .0036 0.091
44 .0058 0.147 085 2.16 .0032 0.081
45 .0055 0,140 081 2.06 .0028 0.071

.0052 0.132 .079 2.01 .0024 0.061

46
47 .0050 0.127 .077 1.96 .0020 0.051
48 .0048 0.122 .075 1.90 .0016 0.041
49 .0046 0.117 .072 1.83 .0012 0.030
.0044 0.112 .069 1.75 .0010 0.025
50

388
 APPENDIX I

TEST METHOD

HYDRAULIC TEST

Test Method — Hydraulic test shall be carried out using a HYDROSTATIC TESTER with the following
standard values to be used as criteria for this test.

Nominal Size of Steel Pipe Hydraulic Test Pressure

(mm) (MPa)

(M.W.C.)
6 - 25 4.90 (500)
32 - 80 6.86 (700)
100 - 300 9.80 (1000)

All pipes, when subjected to hydraulic test, shall be able to withstand the required hydraulic test pressure.

389
 APPENDIX I

PHILIPPINE NATIONAL STANDARD SIZES OF BLACK AND HOT DIPPED ZINC-COATED STEEL PIPE
FOR ORDINARY USES

1) CLASSIFICATION OF STEEL PIPES

Black and hot-dipped zinc-coated (galvanized) longitudinally welded steel pipes are generally classified as follows:

a) Heavy series
b) Medium series
c) Light series 1
d) Light series 2

Table Ii
STEEL PIPES DIMENSIONS AND WEIGHT OF HEAVY SERIES

Mass per unit length,

Kg/rn
Nominal Size Outside Diameter Thickness
mm mm mm
. Screwed and
Plain end Socketed end
6 10.2 2.6 0.487 0.490
8 13.5 2.9 0.765 0.769
10 17.2 2.9 1.02 1.03

15 21.3 3.2 1.44 1.45

20 26.9 3.2 1.87 1.88
25 33.7 4.0 2.93 2.95

32 42.4 4.0 3.79 3.82

40 48.3 4.0 4.37 4.41
50 60.5 4.0 5.58 5.61

65 76.3 5.2 9.12 9.18

80 89.1 5.5 11.3 11.37
100 114.3 6.0 16.0 16.10

125 139.8 6.6 21.7 21.83

150 165.2 7.1 27.7 27.87
200 216.3 8.2 42.1

250 267.4 9.3 59.2

300 318.5 10.3 78.3

390
 APPENDIX I

Table 12
STEEL PIPES DIMENSIONS AND WEIGHT OF MEDIUM SERIES

Mass per unit length,

Nominal Size Outside Diameter Thickness Kg/rn
mm mm mm
Plain end
. Screwed and
Socketed end
6 10.2 2.0 0.404 0.407
8 13.5 2.3 0.641 0.645
10 17.2 2.3 0.839 0.845
15 21.3 2.6 1.21 1.22
20 26.9 2.6 1.56 1.57
25 33.7 3.2 2.41 2.43
32 42.4 3.2 3.10 3.13
40 48.3 3.2 3.56 3.60
50 60.5 3.6 5.03 5.10
65 76.1 3.6 6.42 6.54
80 88.9 4.0 8.36 8.53
100 114.3 4.5 12.2 12.5
125 139.7 5.0 16.6 17.1
150 165.1 5.0 19.8 20.4
200 216.3 5.8 30.1

250 267.4 6.6 42.4

300 318.5 6.9 53.0

391
 APPENDIX I
Table 13
STEEL PIPES DIMENSIONS AND WEIGHT OF LIGHT SERIES I

Mass per unit length,

Nominal Size Outside Diameter Thickness Kg/rn
mm mm mm . Screwed and
Plain end Socketed end
6 10.2 2.0 0.404 0.407
8 13.5 2.3 0.641 0.645
10 17.2 2.3 0.839 0.845

15 21.3 2.6 1.21 1.22

20 26.9 2.6 1.56 1.57
25 33.7 3.2 2.41 2.43

32 42.4 3.2 3.10 3.13

40 48.3 3.2 3.56 3.60
50 60.5 3.6 5.03 5.10

65 76.1 3.6 6.42 6.54

80 88.9 4.0 8.36 8.53
100 114.3 4.5 12.2 12.5

125 139.7 5.0 16.6 17.1

150 165.1 5.0 19.8 20.4
200 216.3 5.8 30.1

250 267.4 6.6 42.4

300 318.5 6.9 53.0

Table 14
STEEL PIPES DIMENSIONS AND WEIGHT OF HEAVY SERIES

Mass per unit length,

Nominal Size Outside Diameter Thickness Kg/m
mm mm mm . Screwed and
Plain end
Socketed end
6 10.2 1.8 0.360 0.363
8 13.5 1.8 0.515 0.519
10 17.2 1.8 0.670 0.676

15 21.3 2.0 0.947 0.956

20 26.9 2.3 1.38 1.39
25 33.7 2.6 1.98 2.00

32 42.4 2.6 2.54 2.57

40 48.3 2.9 3.23 3.27
50 60.3 2.9 4.08 4.15

65 76.1 3.2 5.71 5.83

80 88.9 3.2 6.72 6.89
100 114.3 3.6 9.75 10.0

392
 APPENDIX J

Philippine National Standard (PNS) Specification for Unpiasticized Polyvinyl Chloride (uPVC) Electrical Conduit Outside
Diameter and Wall Thickness

The conduit shall conform to the outside diameter and wall thickness specified in Table J
1 when tested in accordance with
PNS/lSO 3126

Table Ji PIPE DIMENSIONS

-

Unit: mm

Tolerance Minimum Wall Thickness

Nominal
Outside For Mean For Max
Outside and Mm on Thin Wall Internal Internal
Diameter Diameter Tolerances Thick Wall Tolerances
Diameter Ovality Diameter
20 0.3 ±0.5 0.35 0.42
1.5 17 2.2 15.6
0 0 0
+ 0.3 ± 0.5 + 0.35 + 0.43
25 1.5 22 2.3 20.4
0 0 0
0.3 ±0.5 0.35 0.44
32 1.5 29 2.4 27.2
0 0 0
40 0.3 ±0.5 0.35 0.44
1.5 37 2.4 35.2
0 0 0
0.3 ± 0.6 0.35 0.47
50 1.5 47 2.7 44.6
0 0 0
+ 0.3 ± 0.8 + 0.35 + 0.48
63 1.5 60 2.8 57.4
0 0 0
0.3 ± 0.9 0.38 0.49
. 1.8 71.4 2.9 69.2
0 0 0
90 0.3 ±0.9 0.42 0.52
2.2 85.6 3.2 83.6
0 0 0
110 0.4 ± 1.4 0.47 0.62
2.7 104.6 4.2 101.6
0 0 0
0.4 ±2.0 0.59 0.81
160 3.9 152.2 6.1 147.6
0 0 0

Physical and Mechanical Properties — The conduit shall conform to the physical and mechanical properties specified in Table J
2

Table J
— PHYSICAL AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
2

Property Value Test Method

Vicar Softening Temperature 76 PNSIISO 2507
C, mm.
Water Absorption, g/m
2 max 40 PNS/ISO 2508

393
 APPENDIX K

Philippine National Standards (PNS) Specifications for

Unpiasticized Polyvinyl Chloride (uPVC) Pipes for
Potable Water Supply

1. Classification Short Term Test The pipe shall withstand a minimum

—

circumferential stress of 34.3 MPa at 28 ± 1°C for at least 1

Pipes shall be classified depending on their hour.
nominal pressure at 28°C as follows:
Proof Test (Optional) For sizes 100 mm and bigger,
—

Class 640 — For maximum working pressure of 640 each pipe shall be proof-tested to 420 mm of water column
kPa for a maximum period of five (5) seconds in accordance
Class 800 — For a maximum working pressure of 800 with AWWA C 900. No proof test is required for sizes 50
kPa mm and 75 mm.
Class 1000 For a maximum working pressure of
—

1000 kPa 4.2 Tensile Properties The test specimen shall have
—

Class 1280— For a maximum working pressure of the following minimum tensile properties at 28°C
1280 kPa when tested in accordance with Annex B.

2. Length Unless otherwise specified by the

—
Minimum Tensile Strength = 38.9 MPa
purchaser, the pipe shall be supplied in standard Minimum Elongation = 80%
effective lengths of 3 metres with a tolerance of +
20 mm. 4.3 Resistance to External Blows The true impact
—

blows of the batch at 28°C shall not exceed 10%

3. Color The color of the pipe shall be blue and
—
when tested in accordance with PNSIISO 3127.
shall be uniform throughout its length.
NOTE The true impact rate is the total number of
—

4. Mechanical Requirements broken test pieces divided by the total number of

4.1 Hydrostatic Pressure Test
Burst Pressure The pipe shall withstand a minimum
—
circumferential stress of 47.4 MPa at 20CC ± 1°C, 42.2 MPa
at 28 ± 1°C for at least 60 seconds without failure.
blows, expressed as percentage as if the whole
batch had been tested. In practice, test pieces are
drawn at random from the batch and only estimate
of the true impact rates are obtained.
4.4 Flattening Test The pipe shall show no evidence
—

of splitting, cracking, and breaking when flattened

Long Term Test The pipe shall withstand a minimum
—
to a minimum of 40% of its outside diameter when
circumferential stress of 25.5 MPa at 28± 1°C for at least I tested in accordance with PNS/ASTM 0 2241.
000 hours.

394
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£90I. L. 1.+ L98 60+ 69 90 99•9 9•0+ 081.
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0 0 0 0 0
0• 1. 9L 8O+ 9(0+ [9ji 9•0+ L9E 91. 1-
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6O+ 9.9 9O 79 L0 •j7 9•0+ 147C j7 i.; 01.1.
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90 (0+ 9t 9•0+ 9VE 90+ 6L [•I. 06
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L0+ 9•0+ L9C 90 99 9•0+ 60 91
0 0 0 0 0
L9i 9•0+ 90 oot 90 90 co £9
0 0 0 0 0
90 0L 90 t’6 90 8C I. g•o; 09
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96 90+ 9C 06 I. t’9 1. 90 0,
0 0 0 0 0
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0 0 0 0
t70 991. LV I. 61.1. 90 1
0 0 0
9t L. LVL. 90 C.o+ 0
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90
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sseu)p!qJ SSOUO!LJ Jejewei
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BdI 08 1. EdN 000 1. EdN 009 EdN 009 BOUEJeIOI. IEU! WON
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DAd pezpisedun
1 XIuNdddV
 APPENDIX L

Continuation of Table L
1

Outside Diameter Wall Thickness

Nominal Tolerance 600 kPa 800 kPa 1 000 kPa 1 280 kPa
Outside Wall Wall Wall Wall
O.D. Ovahty
.

tol. . tol. . tol. . tol.

Diameter
.

Thickness Thickness Thickness Thickness

315 1.0 ±3.8 9.77 1.2 12.11 1.5 15.0 1.7 18.95 2.1
0 0 0 0 0
355 1.1 ±4.3 11.01 1.4 13.65 1.6 16.90 1.9 21.35 2.4
0 0 0 0 0
400 1.2 ±4.8 12.40 1.5 15.38 1.8 19.05 2.2 24.06 2.7
0 0 0 0 0
450 1.4 ±5.4 13.95 1.6 17.31 2.0 21.43 2.4 27.07 3.0
0 0 0 0 0
500 1.5 ±6.0 15.50 1.8 12.93 2.2 23.81 2.6 30.07 33
0 0 0 0 0
560 1.7 ±6.8 17.36 2.0 21.54 2.4 26.67 2.9 33.68 3.6
0 0 0 0 0
630 19 ± 7.6 19.53 2.2 24.23 2.7 30.00 3.2 37.89 4.0
0 0 0 0 0
710 2.2 ±8.6 22.01 2.5 27.31 3.0 33.81 3.6 42.71 4.5
0 0 0 0 0
800 2.4 ± 9.6 24.81 2.7 30.77 33 38.09 4.1 48.12 5.1
0 0 0 0 0
900 2.7 ± 10.8 27.91 3.0 34.61 37 42.86 4.5 5413 57
0 0 0 0 0
1 000 3.O ± 12.0 31.01 34 34.86 4.1 47.61 5.0 60.15 6.3
0 0 0 0 0

396
 APPENDIX M

REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING

Table M-1

WATER PROPERTIES OF LIQUID AND SATURATED VAPOR

Specific volume, Enthalpy Entropy,

Saturation
t, °c pressure, lkg
3
m kJ/kg kJ/kg K
kPa
Liquid Vapor Liquid Vapor Liquid Vapor
0 0.6108 0.0010002 203.3 -0.04 2501.6 -0.0002 9.1577
2 0.7055 0.0010001 179.9 8.39 2505.2 0.0306 9.1047
4 0.8129 0.0010000 157.3 16.80 2508.9 0.0611 9.0526
6 0.9345 0.0010000 137.8 25.21 2512.6 0.0913 9.0015
8 1.0720 0.0010001 121.0 33.60 2516.2 0.1213 8.9513
10 1.2270 0.0010003 106.4 41.99 2519.9 0.1510 8.9020
12 1.4014 0.0010004 93.84 50.38 2523.6 0.1805 8.8536
14 1.5973 0.0010007 82.90 58.75 2527.2 .02098 8.8060
16 1.8168 0.0010010 73.38 67.13 2530.9 0.2388 8.7593
18 2.062 0.0010013 65.09 75.50 2534.5 0.2677 8.7135
20 2.337 0.0010017 57.84 83.86 2538.2 0.2963 8.6684
22 2.642 0.0010022 51.49 92.23 2541 .8 0.3247 8.6241
24 2.982 0.0010026 45.93 100.59 2545.5 0.3530 8.5806
26 3.360 0.0010032 41.03 108.95 2549.1 0.3810 8.5379
28 3.778 0.0010037 36.73 117.31 2552.7 0.4088 8.4959
30 4.241 0.0010043 32.93 125.66 2556.4 0.4365 8.4546
32 4.753 0.0010049 29.57 134.02 2560.0 0.4640 8.4140
34 5.318 0.0010056 26.60 142.38 2563.6 0.4913 8.3740
36 5.940 ‘ 0.001 0063 23.97 150.74 2567.2 0.51 84 8.3348
38 6.624 0.0010070 21.63 159.09 2570.8 0.5453 8.2962
40 7.375 0.0010078 19.55 167.45 2574.4 0.5721 8.2583
42 8.198 0.0010086 17.69 175.31 2577.9 0.5987 8.2209
44 9.100 0.0010094 16.04 184.17 2581.5 0.6252 8.1842
46 10.086 0.0010103 14.56 192.53 2585.1 0.6514 8.1481

397
 APPENDIX M

Table M-1 (continued)

Specific volume, Enthalpy Entropy,

Saturation lkg
3
m kJ/kg kJ/kg . K
t, °C pressure,
kPa Liquid Vapor Liquid Vapor Liquid Vapor

48 11.162 0.0010112 13.23 200.89 2588.6 0.6776 8.1125

50 12.335 0.0010121 12.05 209.26 2592.2 0.7035 8.0776

52 13.613 0.0010131 10.98 217.62 2595.7 0.7293 8.0432

54 15.002 0.0010140 10.02 225.98 2599.2 0.7550 8.0093

56 16.511 0.0010150 9.159 234.35 2602.7 0.7804 7.9759

58 18.147 0.0010161 8.381 242.72 2606.2 0.8058 7.9431

60 19.920 0.0010171 7.679 251.09 2609.7 0.8310 7.9108

62 21.84 0.0010182 7.044 259.46 2613.2 0.8560 7.8790

64 23.91 0.0010193 6.469 267.84 2616.6 0.8809 7.8477

66 26.15 0.0010205 5.948 276.21 2620.1 0.9057 7.8168

68 28.56 0.0010217 5.476 284.59 2623.5 0.9303 7.7864

70 31.16 0.0010228 5.046 292.97 2626.9 0.9548 7.7565

72 33.96 0.0010241 4.646 301.35 2630.3 0.9792 7.7270

74 36.96 0.0010253 4.300 309.74 2633.7 1.0034 7.6979

76 40.19 0.0010266 3.976 318.13 2637.1 1.0275 7.6693

78 43.65 0.0010279 3.680 326.52 2640.4 1.0514 7.6410

80 47.36 0.0010292 3.409 334.92 2643.8 1.0753 7.6132

82 51.33 0.0010305 3.162 343.31 2647.1 1.0990 7.5850

84 55.57 0.0010319 2.935 351.71 2650.4 1.1225 7.5588

86 60.11 0.0010333 2.727 360.12 2653.6 1.1460 7.5321

88 64.95 0.0010347 2.536 368.53 2656.9 1.1693 7.5058

90 70.11 0.0010361 2.361 376.94 2660.1 1.1925 7.4799

92 75.61 0.0010376 2.200 385.36 2663.4 1.2156 7.4543

94 81.46 0.0010391 2.052 393.78 2666.6 1.2386 7.4291

96 87.69 0.0010406 1.915 402.20 2669.7 1.2615 7.4042

98 94.30 0.0010421 1.789 410.63 2672.9 1.2842 7.3796

100 101.33 0.0010437 1.673 419.06 2676.0 1.3069 7.3554

102 108.78 0.0010453 1.566 427.50 2679.1 1.3294 7.3315

104 116.68 0.0010469 1.466 435.95 2682.2 1.3518 7.3078

106 125.04 0.0010485 1.374 444.40 2685.3 1.3742 7.2845

108 133.90 0.0010502 1.289 452.85 2688.3 1.3964 7.2615

110 143.26 0.0010519 1.210 461.32 2691.3 1.4185 7.2388

112 153.16 0.0010536 1.137 469.78 2694.3 1.4405 7.2164

114 163.62 0.0010553 1.069 478.26 2697.2 1.4624 7.1942

116 174.65 0.0010571 1.005 486.74 2700.2 1.4842 7.1723

118 186.28 0.0010588 0.9463 495.23 2703.1 1.5060 7.1507

120 198.54 0.0010606 0.8915 503.72 2706.0 1.5276 7.1293

398
 APPENDIX M

Table M-2

2 THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF SATURATED AIR

MOIST AIR:
AT ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE OF 101.325 kPa

Vapor pressure, Humidity ratio, Specific volume, Enthalpy,

‘ kPa kg/kg kg
3
m kJ/kg
-40 0.01283 0.000079 0.6597 -40.041
-35 0.02233 0.0001 38 0.6740 -34.868
-30 0.03798 0.000234 0.6884 -29.600
-25 0.06324 0.000390 0.7028 -24.187
-20 0.10318 0.000637 0.7173 -18.546
-18 0.12482 0.000771 0.7231 -16.203
-16 0.15056 0.000930 0.7290 -13.795
-14 0.18107 0.001119 0.7349 -11.314
-12 0.21716 0.001342 0.7409 -8.745
-10 0.25971 0.001606 0.7469 -6.073
0.30975 0.001916 0.7529 -3.285
-6 0.36846 0.002280 0.7591 -0.360
-4 0.43716 0.002707 0.7653 2.724
. -2 0.51735 0.003206 0.7716 5.991
0 0.61072 0.003788 0.7781 9.470
1 0.6566 0.00407 0.7813 11.200
2 0.7055 0.00438 0.7845 12.978
3 0.7575 0.00471 0.7878 14.807
4 0.8130 0.00505 0.7911 16.692
5 0.8719 0.00542 0.7944 18.634
6 0.9347 0.00582 0.7978 20.639
7 1.0013 0.00624 0.8012 22.708
8 1.0722 0.00668 0.8046 24.848
9 1.1474 0.00716 0.8081 27.059
10 1.2272 0.00766 0.8116 29.348
11 1.3119 0.00820 0.8152 31.716
12 1.4017 0.00876 0.8188 34.172
13 1.4969 0.00937 0.8225 36.719
14 1.5977 0.01001 0.8262 39.362
15 1.7044 0.01069 0.8300 42.105
16 1.8173 0.01141 0.8338 44.955
17 1.9367 0.01218 0.8377 47.918
18 2.0630 0.01299 0.8417 50.998
19 2.1964 0.01384 0.8457 54.205
20 2.3373 0.01475 0.8498 57.544
21 2.4861 0.01572 0.8540 61.021
22 2.6431 0.01674 0.8583 64.646
23 2.8086 0.01781 0.8626 68.425
24 2.9832 0.01896 0.8671 72.366
25 3.1671 0.02016 0.8716 76.481
26 3.3609 0.02144 0.8763 80.777
27 3.5649 0.02279 0.8811 85.263
28 3.7797 0.02422 0.8860 89.952
29 4.0055 0.02572 0.8910 94.851
30 4.2431 0.02732 0.8961 99.977
31 4.4928 0.02900 0.9014 105.337
32 4.7552 0.03078 0.9068 110.946

399
 APPENDIX M

Table M-2 (continued)

Vapor pressure, Humidity ratio, Specific volume, Enthalpy,

‘ kPa kg/kg kg
3
m kJ/kg
33 5.0308 0.03266 0.9124 116.819
34 5.3201 0.03464 0.9182 122.968
35 5.6237 0.03674 0.9241 129.411
36 5.9423 0.03895 0.9302 136.161
37 6.2764 0.04129 0.9365 143.239
38 6.6265 0.04376 0.9430 150.660
39 6.9935 0.04636 0.9497 158.445
40 7.3778 0.04911 0.9567 166.615
40 7.3778 0.04911 0.9567 166.615
41 7.7803 0.05202 0.9639 175.192
42 8.2016 0.05509 0.9713 184.200
43 8.6424 0.05833 0.9790 193.662
44 9.1036 0.06176 0.9871 203.610
45 9.5856 0.06537 0.9954 214.067
46 10.0896 0.06920 1.0040 225.068
47 10.6161 0.07324 1.0130 236.643
48 11.1659 0.07751 1.0224 248.828
49 11.7402 0.08202 1.0322 261.667
50 12.3397 0.08680 1.0424 275.198
52 13.6176 0.09720 1.0641 304.512
54 15.0072 0.10887 1.0879 337.182
56 16.5163 0.12198 1.1141 373.679
58 18.1531 0.13674 1.1429 414.572
60 19.9263 0.15341 1.1749 460.536
62 21.8447 0.17228 1.2105 512.391
64 23.9184 0.19375 1.2504 571.144
66 26.1565 0.21825 1.2953 638.003
68 28.5701 0.24638 1.3462 714.531
70 31.1693 0.27884 1.4043 802.643
75 38.5562 0.38587 1.5925 1092.010
80 47.3670 0.55201 1.8792 1539.414
85 57.8096 0.83634 2.3633 2302.878
90 70.1140 1.41604 3.3412 3856.547

400
 APPENDIX M

Table M-3

AMMONIA: PROPERTIES OF LIQUID AND SATURATED VAPOR

3

Enthalpy, Entropy, Specific volume

kJ/kg kJ/kg K L/kg
f, °C P, kPa
hf 9
h Sf Sg Vf 9
V

-60 2199 -69.5330 137319 -0.10909 6.6592 1.4010 4685.08

-55 30.29 -47.5062 1382.01 -0.00717 6.5454 1.4126 3474.22
-50 41.03 -25.4342 1390.64 0.09264 6.4382 1.4245 2616.51
-45 54.74 -3.3020 1399.07 0.19049 6.3369 1.4367 1998.91
-40 72.01 18.9024 1407.26 0.28651 6.2410 1.4493 1547.36
-35 93.49 41.1883 1415.20 0.39082 6.1501 1.4623 1212.49
-30 119.90 63.5629 1422.86 0.47351 6.0636 1.4757 960.867
-28 132.02 72.5387 1425.84 0.51015 6.0302 1.4811 878.100
-26 145.11 81 .5300 1428.76 0.54655 5.9974 1.4867 803.761
-24 159.22 90.5370 1431.64 0.58272 5.9652 1.4923 736.868
-22 174.41 99.5600 1434.46 0.61865 5.9336 1.4980 676.570
-20 190.74 108.599 1437.23 0.65436 5.9025 1.5037 622.122
-18 208.26 117.656 1439.94 0.68984 5.8720 1 5096 572.875
-16 227.04 126.729 1442.60 0.72511 5.8420 1.5155 528.257
-14 247.14 135.820 1445.20 0.76016 5.8125 1.5215 487.769
-12 268.63 144.929 1447.74 0.79501 5.7835 1.5276 450.971
-10 291.57 154.056 1450.22 0.82965 5.7550 1.5338 417.477
-9 303.60 158.628 1451.44 0.84690 5.7409 1.5369 401.860
-8 316.02 163.204 1452.64 0.86410 5.7269 1,5400 386.944
-7 328.84 167.785 1453.83 0.88125 5.7131 1.5432 372.692
-6 342.07 172.371 1455.00 0.89835 5.6993 15464 359.071
-5 355.71 176.962 1456.15 0.91541 5.6856 1.5496 346.046
-4 369.77 181.559 1457.29 0.93242 5.6721 1.5528 333.589
-3 384.26 186.161 1458.42 0.94938 5.6586 1.5561 321.670
-2 399.20 190.768 1459.53 0.96630 5.6453 1.5594 310.263
-1 414.58 195.381 1460.62 0.98317 5.6320 1.5627 299.340
0 430.43 200.000 1461.70 1.00000 5.6189 1.5660 288.880
1 446.74 204.625 1462.76 1.01679 5.6058 1.5694 278.858
2 463.53 209.256 1463.80 1.03354 5.5929 1.5727 269.253
3 480.81 213.892 1464.83 1.05024 5.5800 1.5762 260.046
4 498.59 218.535 1465.84 1.06691 5.5672 1.5796 251.216
5 516.87 223.185 1466.84 1.08353 5.5545 1.5831 242.745
6 535.67 227.841 1467.82 1.10012 5.5419 1.5866 234.618
7 555.00 232.503 1468.76 1.11667 5.5294 1.5901 226.817
8 574.87 237.172 1469.72 1.13317 5.5170 1.5936 219.326
9 595.28 241.848 1470.64 1.14964 5.5046 1.5972 212.132
10 616.25 246.531 1471.57 1.16607 5.4924 1.6008 205.221
11 637.78 251.221 1472.46 1.18246 5.4802 1.6045 198.580
12 659.89 255.918 1473.34 1.19882 5.4681 1.6081 192.196
13 682.59 260.622 1474.20 1.21515 5.4561 1.6118 186.058
14 705.83 265.334 1475.05 1.23144 5.4441 1.6156 180.154
15 729.79 270.053 1475.88 1.24769 5.4322 1.6193 174.475
16 754.31 274.779 1476.69 1.26391 5.4204 1.6231 169.009
17 779.46 279.513 1477.48 1.28010 1.4087 1.6269 163.748
18 805.25 284.255 1478.25 1.29626 5.3971 1.6308 158.683
19 831.69 289.005 1479.01 1.31238 5.3855 1.6347 153.804
20 858.79 293.726 1479.75 1.32847 5.3740 1.6386 149.106

401
 APPENDIX M

Table M-3 (continued)

Enthalpy, Entropy, Specific volume

t, °C P, kPa kJ/kg kJ/kg K L/kg
hf 9
h Sf Sg vf 9
v
21 886.57 298.527 1480.48 1.34452 5.3626 1.6426 144.578
22 915.03 303.300 1481.18 1.36055 5.3512 1.6466 140.214
23 944.18 308.081 1481.87 1.37654 5.3399 1.6507 136.006
24 974.03 312.870 1482.53 1.39250 5.3286 1.6547 131.950
25 1004.6 317.667 1483.18 1.40843 5.3175 1.6588 128.037
26 1035.9 322.471 1483.81 1.42433 5.3063 1.6630 124.261
27 1068.0 327.284 1484.42 1.44020 5.2953 1.6672 120.619
28 1100.7 332.104 1485.01 1.45604 5.5843 1.6714 117.103
29 1134.3 336.933 1485.59 1.47185 5.2733 1.6757 113.708
30 1168.6 341.769 1486.14 1.48762 5.2624 1.6800 110.430
31 1203.7 346.614 1486.67 1.50337 5.2516 1.6844 107.263
32 1239.6 351.466 1487.18 1.51908 5.2408 1.688 104.205
33 1276.3 356.326 1487.66 1.53477 5.2300 1.6932 101.248
34 1313.9 361.195 1488.13 1.55042 5.2193 1.6977 98.3913
35 1352.2 366.072 1488.57 1.56605 5.2086 1.7023 95.6290
36 1391.5 370.957 1488.99 1.58165 5.1980 1.7069 92.9579
37 1431.5 375.851 1489.39 1.59722 5.1874 1.7115 90.3743
38 1472.4 380.754 1489.76 1.61276 5.1768 1.7162 87.8748
39 1514.3 385.666 1490.10 1.62828 5.1663 1.7209 85.4561
40 1557.0 390.587 1490.42 1.64377 5.1558 1.7257 83.1150
41 1600.6 395.519 1490.71 1.65924 5.1453 1.7305 80.8484
42 1645.1 400.462 1490.98 1.67470 5.1349 1.7354 78.6536
43 1690.6 405.516 1491.21 1.69013 5.1244 1.7404 76.5276
44 1737.0 410.382 1491.41 1.70554 5.1140 1.7454 74.4678
45 1784.3 415.362 1491.58 1.72095 5.1036 1.7504 72.4716
46 1832.6 420.358 1491.72 1.73635 5.0932 1.7555 70.5365
47 1881.9 425.369 1491.83 1.75174 5.0827 1.7607 68.6602
48 1932.2 430.399 1491.88 1.76714 5.0723 1.7659 66.8403
49 1983.5 435.450 1491.91 1.78255 5.0618 1.7712 65.0746
50 2035.9 440.523 1491.89 1.79798 5.0514 1.7766 63.3608
51 2089.2 445.623 1491.83 1.81343 5.0409 1.7820 61.6971
52 2143.6 450.751 1491.73 1.82891 5.0303 1.7875 60.0813
53 2199.1 455.913 1491.58 1.84445 5.0198 1.7931 58.5114
54 2255.6 461.112 1491.38 1.86004 5.0092 1.7987 56.9855
55 2313.2 466.353 1491.12 1.87571 4.9985 1.8044 55.5019

402
 APPENDIX M

Table M-4
REFRIGERANT 11: PROPERTIES OF LIQUID AND SATURATED VAPOR

Enthalpy, Entropy, Specific volume

kJ/kg kJlkg K L/kg
t, °C P, kPa
hf hg Sf Sg Vf Vg

-30 9.24 174.25 373.57 0.90099 1.72074 0.62466 1581.77

-25 12.15 178.53 376.11 0.91824 1.71447 0.62894 1225.53
-20 15.78 182.81 378.66 0.93517 1.70885 0.63331 960.954
-15 20.25 187.09 381.22 0.95179 1.70377 0.63777 761.949
-10 25.71 191.39 383.77 0.96813 1.69922 0.64234 610.466
-8 28.20 193.11 384.80 0.97459 1.69753 0.64419 560.196
-6 30.88 194.83 385.82 0.98100 1.69592 0.64606 514.840
-4 33.76 196.55 386.84 0.98738 1.69438 0.64795 473.883
-2 36.86 198.27 387.86 0.99371 1.68291 0.64985 436.764
0 40.18 200.00 388.89 1.00000 1.69150 0.65178 403.130
1 41.92 200.86 389.40 1.00313 1.69082 0.65275 387.493
2 43.73 201.73 389.91 1.00625 1.69016 0.65372 372.593
3 45.60 202.59 390.42 1.00936 1.68951 0.65470 358.366
4 47.54 203.46 390.93 1.01246 1.68888 0.65568 344.792
5 49.53 204.32 391.44 1.01555 1.68826 0.65667 331.859
6 51.60 205.19 391.95 1.01863 1.68766 0.65766 319.500
7 53.73 206.05 392.46 1.02170 1.68707 0.65866 307.698
8 55.93 206.92 392.97 1.02476 1.68650 0.65966 296.427
9 58.21 207.79 393.47 1.02782 1.68594 0.66067 285.648
10 60.55 208.65 393.98 1.03086 1.68539 0.66168 275.347
11 62.97 209.52 394.49 1.03389 1.68486 0.66270 265.483
12 65.47 210.39 395.00 1.03692 1.68434 0.66327 256.063
13 68.04 211.26 395.51 1.03994 1.68383 0.66475 247.037
14 70.70 212.13 396.02 1.04294 1.68333 0.66578 238.396
15 73.43 213.00 396.52 1.04594 1.68285 0.66682 230.130
16 76.25 213.87 397.03 1.04893 1.68238 0.66786 222.205
17 79.15 214.74 397.54 1.05191 1.68193 0.66891 214.614
18 82.14 215.61 398.04 1.05488 1.68148 0.66997 207.332
19 85.21 216.48 398.55 1.05785 1.68105 0.67102 200.361
20 88.38 217.35 399.05 1.06080 1.68062 0.67209 193.665
21 91.64 218.22 399.56 1.06375 1.68021 0.67316 187.245
22 94.99 219.10 400.06 1.06669 1.67982 0.67424 181.089
23 98.44 219.97 400.57 1.06961 1.67942 0.67532 175.166
24 101.98 220.84 401.07 1.07254 1.67905 0.67641 169.485
25 105.62 221.72 401.57 1.07545 1.67868 0.67750 164.034
26 109.37 222.59 402.07 1.07838 1.67832 0.67860 158.786
27 113.21 223.47 402.57 1.08125 1.67798 0.67971 153.754
28 117.16 224.34 403.08 1.08414 1.67764 0.68082 148.903
29 121.22 225.22 403.58 1.08702 1.67731 0.68194 144.246
30 125.38 226.10 404.08 1.08989 1.67699 0.68307 139.768
32 134.05 227.85 405.07 1.09561 1.67638 0.68533 131.305
34 143.18 229.61 406.07 1.10130 1.67581 0.68763 123.462
36 152.78 231.37 407.06 1.10696 1.67527 0.68995 116.135
38 162.87 233.13 408.05 1.11259 1.67476 0.69230 109.430
40 173.46 234.90 409.04 1.11819 1.67429 0.69468 103.151
45 202.28 239.32 411.49 1.13206 1.67324 0.70074 89.2884
50 234.64 243.75 413.93 1.14576 1.67237 0.70700 77.6428
55 270.83 248.21 416.34 1.15929 1.67165 0.71346 67.8040
60 311.10 252.68 418.73 1.17267 1.67109 0.72014 59.4543
70 405.15 261.68 423.42 1.19898 1.67031 0.73421 46.2114
80 519.21 270.79 427.98 1.22479 1.66992 0.74937 36.3872

403
 APPENDIX M

Table M-5
REFRIGERANT 12: PROPERTIES OF LIQUID AND SATURATED VAPOR
5

Enthalpy, Entropy, Specific volume

kJ/kg kJ/kg . K LJkg
t, °C P. kPa
hf hg s 9
s
-60 22.62 146.463 324.236 0.77977 1.61373 0.63689 637.911
-55 29.98 150.808 326.567 0.79990 1.60552 0.64226 491.000
-50 39.15 155.169 328.897 0.81964 1.59810 0.64782 383.105
-45 50.44 159.549 331.223 0.83901 1.59142 0.65355 302.683
-40 64.17 163.984 333.541 0.85805 1.58539 0.65949 241.910
-35 80.71 168.369 335.849 0.86776 1.57996 0.66563 195.398
-30 100.41 172.810 338.143 0.89516 1.57507 0.67200 159.375
-28 109.27 174.593 339.057 0.90244 1.57326 0.67461 147.275
-26 118.72 176.380 339.968 0.90967 1.57152 0.67726 136.284
-24 128.80 178.171 340.876 0.91686 1.56985 0.67996 126.282
-22 139.53 179.965 341.780 0.92400 1.56825 0.68269 117.167
-20 150.93 181.764 342.682 0.93110 1.56672 0.68547 108.847
-18 163.04 183.567 343.580 0.93816 1.56526 0.68829 101.242
-16 175.89 185.374 344.474 0.94518 1.56385 0.69115 94.2788
-14 189.50 187.185 345.365 0.95216 1.56250 0.69407 87.8951
-12 203.90 189.001 346.252 0.95910 1.56121 0.69703 82.0344
-10 219.12 190.822 347.134 0.96601 1.55997 0.70004 76.6464
-9 227.04 191.734 347.574 0.96945 1.55938 0.70157 74.1155
-8 235.19 192.647 348.012 0.97287 1.55897 0.70310 71.6864
-7 243.55 193.562 348.450 0.97629 1.55822 0.70465 69.3543
-6 252.14 194.477 348.886 0.97971 1.55765 0.70622 67.1146
-5 260.96 195.395 349.321 0.98311 1.55710 0.70780 64.9629
-4 270.01 196.313 349.755 0.98650 1.55657 0.70939 52.8952
-3 279.30 197.233 350.187 0.98989 1.55604 0.71099 60.9075
-2 288.82 198.154 350.619 0.99327 1.55552 0.71261 58.9963
-1 298.59 199.076 351.049 0.99664 1.55502 0.71425 57.1579
0 308.61 200.000 351.477 1.00000 1.55452 0.71590 55.3892
1 318.88 200.925 351.905 1.00335 1.55404 0.71756 53.6869
2 329.40 201.852 352.331 1.00670 1.55356 0.71924 52.0481
3 340.19 202.780 352.755 1.01004 1.55310 0.72094 50.4700
4 351.24 203.710 353.179 1.01337 1.55264 0.72265 48.9499
5 263.55 204.642 353.600 1.06170 1.55220 0.72438 47.4853
6 374.14 205.575 354.020 1.02001 1.55176 0.72612 46.0737
7 386.01 206.509 354.439 1.02333 1.55133 0.72788 44.7129
8 398.15 207.445 354.856 1.02663 1.55091 0.72966 43.4006
9 410.58 208.383 355.272 1.02993 1.55050 0.73146 42.1349
10 423.30 209.323 355.686 1.03322 1.55010 0.73326 40.9137
11 436.31 210.264 356.098 1.03650 1.54970 0.73510 39.7352
12 449.62 211.207 356.509 1.03978 1.54931 0.73695 38.5975
13 463.23 212.152 356.918 1.04305 1.54893 0.73882 37.4991
14 477.14 213.099 357.325 1.04632 1.54856 0.74071 36.4382
15 491.37 214.048 357.730 1.04958 1.54819 0.74262 35.4133
16 505.91 214.998 358.134 1.05284 1.54783 0.74455 34.4230
17 520.76 215.951 358.535 1.05609 1.54748 0.74649 33.4658
18 535.94 216.906 358.935 1.05933 1.54713 0.74846 32.5405
19 551.45 217.863 359.333 1.06258 1.54679 0.75045 31.6457
20 567.29 218.821 359.729 1.06581 1.54645 0.75246 30.7802
0-

404
 APPENDIX M
Table M-5 (continued)

Enthalpy, Entropy, Specific volume

kJ/kg kJlkg K L/kg
t, °C P. kPa
hf hg Sf Sg Vf 9
V

21 583.47 219.783 360.122 1.06904 1.54612 0.75449 29.9429

22 599.98 220.746 360.514 1.07227 1.54579 0.75655 29.1327
23 616.84 221.712 360.904 1.07549 1.54547 0.75863 28.3485
24 634.05 222.680 361.291 1.07871 1.54515 0.76073 27.5894
25 651.62 223.650 361.676 1.08193 1.54484 0.76286 26.8542
26 669.54 224.623 362.059 1.08514 1.54453 0.76501 26.1422
27 687.82 225.598 362.439 1.08835 1.54423 0.76718 25.4524
28 706.47 226.576 362.817 1.09155 1.54393 0.76938 24.7840
29 725.50 227.557 363.193 1.09475 1.54363 0.77161 24.1362
30 744.90 228.540 363.566 1.09795 1.54334 0.77386 23.5082
31 764.68 229.526 363.937 1.10115 1.54305 0.77614 22.8993
32 784.85 230.515 364.305 1.10464 1.54276 0.77845 22.3088
33 805.41 231.506 364.670 1.10753 1.54247 0.78079 21.7359
34 826.36 232.501 365.033 1.11072 1.54219 0.78316 21.1802
35 847.72 233.498 365.392 11.11391 1.54191 0.78556 20.6408
36 869.48 234.499 365.749 1.11710 1.54163 0.78799 20.1173
37 891.64 235.503 366.103 1.12028 1.54135 0.79045 19.6091
38 914.23 236.510 366.454 1.12347 1.54107 0.79294 19.1156
39 937.23 237.521 366.802 1.12665 1.54079 0.79546 18.6362
40 960.65 238.535 367.146 1.12984 1.54051 0.79802 18.1706
41 984.51 239.552 367.487 1.13302 1.54024 0.80062 17.7182
42 1008.8 240.574 367.825 1.13620 1.53996 0.80325 17.2785
43 1033.5 241.598 368.160 1.13938 1.53968 0.80592 16.8511
44 1058.7 242.627 368.491 1.14257 1.53941 0.80863 16.4356
45 1084.3 243.659 368.818 1.14575 1.53913 0.81137 16.0316
46 1110.4 244.696 369.141 1.14894 1.53885 0.81416 15.6386
47 1136.9 245.736 369.461 1.15213 1.53856 0.81698 15.2563
48 1163.9 246.781 369.777 1.15532 1.53828 0.81985 14.8844
49 1191.4 247.830 370.088 1.15851 1.53799 0.82277 14.5224
50 ‘ 1219.3 248.884 370.396 1.16170 1.53770 0.82573 14.1701
52 1276.6 251.004 370.997 1.16810 1.53712 0.83179 13.4931
54 1335.9 253.144 371.581 1.17451 1.53651 0.83804 12.8509
56 1397.2 255.304 372.145 1.18093 1.56589 0.84451 12.2412
58 1460.5 257.486 372.688 1.18738 1.53524 0.85121 11.6620
60 1525.9 259.690 373.210 1.19384 1.53457 0.85814 11.1113
62 1593.5 261.918 373.707 1.20034 1.53387 0.86534 10.5872
64 1663.2 264.172 374.180 1.20686 1.53313 0.87282 10.0881
66 1735.1 266.452 374.625 1.21342 1.53235 0.88059 9.61234
68 1809.3 268.762 375.042 1.22001 1.53153 0.88870 9.15844
70 1885.8 271.102 372.427 1.22665 1.53066 0.89716 8.72502
75 2087.5 277.100 376.234 1.24347 1.52821 0.92009 7.72258
80 2304.6 283.341 376.777 1.26069 1.52526 0.94612 6.82143
85 2538.0 289.879 376.985 1.27845 1.52164 0.97621 6.00494
90 2788.5 296.788 376.748 1.29691 1.51708 1.01190 5.25759
95 3056.9 304.181 375.887 1.31637 1.51113 1.05581 4.56341
100 3344.1 312.261 374.070 133732 150296 111311 3Qfl2Afl

405
 APPENDIX M

Table M-6
REFRIGERANT 22: PROPERTIES OF LIQUID AND SATURATED VAPOR

Enthalpy, Entropy, Specific volume

kJlkg kJ/kg K LIkg
t, C P, kPa
hf 9
h Sf 9
S Vf 9
V

-60 37.48 134.763 379.114 0.73254 1.87886 0.68208 537.152

-55 49.47 139.830 381.529 0.75599 1.86389 0.68856 414.827
-50 64.39 144.959 383.921 0.77919 1.85000 0.69526 324.557
-45 82.71 150.153 386.282 0.80216 1.83708 0.70219 265.990
-40 104.95 155.414 388.609 0.82490 1.82504 0.70936 205745
-35 131.68 160.742 390.896 0.84743 1.81380 0.71680 166.400
-30 163.48 166.140 393.138 0.86976 1.80329 0.72452 135.844
-28 177.76 168.318 394.021 0.87864 1.79927 0.72769 125.563
-26 192.99 170.507 394.896 0.88748 1.79535 0.73092 116.214
-24 209.22 172.708 395.762 0.89630 1.79152 0.73420 107.701
-22 226.48 174.919 396.619 0.90509 1.78779 0.73753 99.9362
-20 244.83 177.142 397.467 0.91386 1.78415 0.74091 92.8432
-18 264.29 179.376 398.305 0.92259 1.78059 0.74436 86.3546
-16 284.93 181.622 399.133 0.93129 1.77711 0.74786 80.4103
-14 306.78 183.878 399.951 0.93997 1.77371 0.75143 74.9572
-12 329.89 186.147 400.759 0.94862 1.77039 0.75506 69.9478
-10 354.30 188.426 401.555 0.95725 1.76713 0.75876 65.3399
-9 367.01 189.571 401.949 0.96155 1.76553 0.76063 63.1746
-8 380.06 190.718 402.341 0.06585 1.76394 0.76253 61.0958
-7 393.47 191.868 402.729 0.97014 1.76237 0.76444 59.0996
-6 407.23 193.021 403.114 0.97442 1.76082 0.76636 57.1820
-5 421.36 194.176 403.469 0.97870 1.75928 0.76831 55.3394
-4 435.84 195.335 403.876 0.98297 1.75775 0.77028 53.5682
-3 450.70 196.497 404.252 0.98724 1.75624 0.77226 51.8653
-2 465.94 197.662 404.626 0.99150 1.75475 0.77427 50.2274
-1 481.57 198.828 404.994 0.99575 1.75326 0.77629 48.6517
0 497.59 200.000 405.361 1.00000 1.75279 0.77834 47.1354
1 514.01 201.174 405.724 1.00424 1.75034 0.78041 45.6757
2 530.83 202.351 406.084 1.00848 1.74889 0.78249 44.2702
3 548.06 203.530 406.440 1.01271 1.74746 0.78460 42.9166
4 565.71 204.713 406.793 1.01694 1.74604 0.78673 41.6124
5 583.78 205.899 407.143 1.02116 1.74463 0.78889 40.3556
6 602.28 207.089 407.489 1.02537 1.74324 0.79107 39.1441
7 621.22 208.281 407.831 1.02958 1.74185 0.79327 37.9759
8 640.59 209.477 408.169 1.03379 1.74047 0.79549 36.8493
9 660.42 210.675 408.504 1.03799 1.73911 0.79775 35.7624
10 680.70 211.877 408.835 1.04218 1.73775 0.80002 34.7136
11 701.44 213.083 409.162 1.04637 1.73640 0.80232 33.7013
12 722.65 214.291 409.485 1.05056 1.73506 0.80465 32.7239
13 744.33 215.503 409.804 1.05474 1.73373 0.80701 31.7801
14 766.50 216.719 410.119 1.05892 1.73241 0.80939 30.8683
15 789.15 217.937 410.430 1.06309 1.73109 0.81180 29.9874
16 812.29 219.160 410.736 1.06726 1.72978 0.81424 29.1361
17 835.93 220.386 411.038 1.07142 1.72848 0.81671 28.3131
18 860.08 221.615 411.336 1.07559 1.72719 0.81922 27.5173
19 884.75 222.848 411.629 1.07974 1.72590 0.82175 26.7477
20 909.93 224.084 411.918 1.08390 1.72462 0.82431 26.0032

406
 APPENDIX M
Table M-6 (continued)

Enthalpy, Entropy, Specific volume

kJ/kg kJ/kg K L/kg
t, °C P, kPa
1
h 9
h Sf 9
S Vf Vg

21 935.64 225.324 412.202 1.08805 1.72334 0.82691 25.2829

22 961.89 226.568 412.4481 1.09220 1.72206 0.82954 24.5857
23 988.67 227.816 412.755 1.09634 1.72080 0.83221 23.9107
24 1016.0 229.068 413.025 1.10048 1.71953 0.83491 23.2572
25 1043.9 230.324 413.289 1.10462 1.71827 0.83765 22.6242
26 1072.3 231.583 413.548 1.10876 1.71701 0.84043 22.0111
27 1101.4 232.847 413.802 1.11290 1.71576 0.84324 21.4169
28 1130.9 234.115 414.050 1.11703 1.71450 0.84610 20.8411
29 1161.1 235.387 414.293 1.12116 1.71325 0.84899 20.2829
30 1191.9 236.664 414.530 1.12530 1.71200 0.85193 19.7417
31 1223.2 237.944 414.762 1.12943 1.71075 0.85491 19.2168
32 1255.2 239.230 414.987 1.13355 1.70950 0.85793 18.7076
33 1287.8 240.520 415.207 1.13768 1.70826 0.86101 18.2135
34 1321.0 241.814 415.420 1.14181 1.70701 0.86412 17.7341
35 1354.8 243.114 415.627 1.14594 1.70576 0.86729 17.2686
36 1389.2 244.418 415.828 1.15007 1.70450 0.87051 16.8168
37 1424.3 245.727 416.021 1.15420 1.70325 0.87378 16.3779
38 1460.1 247.041 416.208 1.15833 1.70199 0.87710 159517
39 1496.5 248.361 416.388 1.16246 1.7073 0.88048 15.5375
40 1533.5 249.686 416.561 1.16659 1.69946 0.88392 15.1351
41 1571.2 251.016 416.726 1.17073 1.69819 0.88741 14.7439
42 1609.6 252.352 416.883 1.17486 1.69692 0.89097 14.3636
43 1648.7 253.694 417.033 1.17900 1.69564 0.89459 13.9938
44 1688.5 255.042 417.174 1.18315 1.69435 0.89828 13.6341
45 1729.0 256.396 417.308 1.18730 1.69305 0.90203 13.2841
46 1770.2 257.756 417.432 1.19145 1.69174 0.90586 12.9436
47 1812.1 259.123 417.548 1.19560 1.69043 0.90976 12.6122
48 1854.8 260.497 417.655 1.19977 1.68911 0.91374 12.2895
49 1898.2 261.877 417.752 1.20393 1.68777 0.91779 11.9753
50 1942.3 263.264 417.838 1.20811 1.68643 0.92193 11.6693
52 2032.8 266.062 417.983 1.21648 1.68370 0.93047 11.0806
54 2126.5 268.891 418.083 1.22489 1.68091 0.93939 10.5214
56 2223.2 271.754 418.137 1.23333 1.67805 0.94872 9.98952
58 2323.2 274.654 418.141 1.24183 1.67511 0.95850 9.48319
60 2426.6 277.594 418.089 1.25038 1.67208 0.96878 9.00062
62 2533.3 280.577 417.978 1.25899 1.66895 0.97960 8.54016
64 2643.5 283.607 417.802 1.26768 1.66570 0.99104 8.10023
66 2757.3 286.690 417.553 1.27647 1.66231 1.00317 7.67934
68 2874.7 289.832 417.226 1.28535 1.65876 1.01608 7.27065
70 2995.9 293.038 416.809 1.29436 1.65504 1.02987 6.88899
75 3316.1 301.399 415.299 1.31758 1.64472 1.06916 5.98334
80 3662.3 310.424 412.898 1.34223 1.63239 1.11812 5.14862
85 4036.8 320.505 409.101 1.36936 1.61673 1.18328 4.35815
90 4442.5 332.616 402.653 1.40155 1.59440 1.29230 3.56440
95 4883.5 351.767 386.708 1.45222 1.54712 1.52064 2.55133

407
 APPENDIX M

Table M-7
REFRIGERANT 22: PROPERTIES OF SUPERHEATED VAPOR
6

t, °C v, L/kg h, kJ/kg I s, kJ/kg K v, L/kg I h, kJ/kg I s, kJ/kg K v, LIkg I h, kJ/kg I s, kJ/kg • K

Saturation temperature, -20°C Saturation temperature, -10°C Saturation temperature, 0°C
-20 92.8432 397.467 1.7841
-15 95.1474 400.737 1.7969
-10 97.4256 404.017 1.8095 65.3399 401.555 1.7671
-5 99.6808 407.307 1.8219 67.0081 404.983 1.7800
0 101.915 410.610 1.8341 68.6524 408.412 1.7927 47.1354 405.361 1.7518
5 104.130 413.926 1.8461 70.2751 411.845 1.8052 48.3899 408.969 1.7649
10 106.328 417.258 1.8580 71.8785 415.28 1.8174 49.6215 412.567 1.7777
15 108.510 420.606 1.8697 73.4644 418.73O 1.8295 50.8328 416.159 1.7903
20 110.678 432.970 1.8813 75.0346 422.186 1.8414 52.0259 419.649 1.8026
25 112.832 426.353 1.8928 76.5904 425.653 1.8531 53.2028 423.339 1.8148
Saturation temperature, 5°C Saturation temperature, 10°C Saturation temperature, 15°C
5 40.3556 407.143 1.7446
10 41.4580 410.851 1.7578 34.7135 408.835 1.7377
15 42.5379 414.542 1.7708 35.6907 412.651 1.7511 29.9874 410.430 1.7311
20 43.5979 418.222 1.7834 36.6454 416.442 1.7642 30.8606 414.362 1.7556
25 44.6401 421.894 1.7958 37.5804 420.215 1.7769 31.7114 418.260 1.7578
30 45.6665 425.562 1.8080 38.4981 423.974 1.7894 32.5427 422.133 1.7707
35 46.6786 429.229 1.8200 39.4002 427.724 1.8017 33.3568 425.985 1.7833
40 47.6779 432.897 1.8319 40.2884 431.469 1.8137 34.1556 429.823 1.7956
45 48.6656 436.569 1.8435 41.1642 435.211 1.8256 34.9409 433.650 1.8078
50 49.6427 440.247 1.8550 42.0286 438.954 1.8373 35.7139 437.470 1.8197

408
 APPENDIX M

Table M-7 (continued)

Saturation temperature -20°C Saturation temperature, -10°C Saturation temperature, 0°C

20 26.0032 411.918 1.7246
25 26.7900 415.977 1.7383 22.6242 413.289 1.7183
30 27.5542 419.991 1.7517 23.3389 417.487 1.7322 19.7417 414.530 1.7120
35 28.2989 423.970 1.7646 24.0306 421.627 1.7458 20.3962 418.881 1.7262
40 29.0264 427.922 1.7774 24.7027 425.721 1.7590 21 .0272 423.159 1.7400
45 29.7389 431.852 1.7899 25.3575 429.779 1.7718 21.6381 427.378 1.7534
50 30.4379 435.766 1.8021 25.9974 433.807 1.7844 22.2316 431.549 1.7664
55 31.1250 439.668 1.8141 26.6239 437.813 1.7967 22.8101 435.683 1.7791
60 31.8012 443.561 1.8258 27.2386 441.801 1.8087 23.3733 439.787 1.7915
65 32.4678 447.450 1.8374 27.8427 445.777 1.8206 23.9288 443.867 1.8036
Saturation temperature, 5°C Saturation temperature, 10°C Saturation temperature, 15°C
35 19.0907 417.648 1.7182 17.8590 416.325 1.7099
40 19.7093 422.014 1.7322 18.4675 420.792 1.7243 17.2953 419.483 1.7162
45 20.3062 426.310 1.7458 19.0526 425.174 1.7382 17.8708 423.961 1.7304
50 20.8847 430.549 1.7591 19.6178 429.487 1.7517 18.4247 428.358 1.7442
55 21.4471 434.743 1.7719 20.1660 433.747 1.7647 18.9603 432.693 1.7575
60 21 .9956 438.900 1.7845 20.6994 437.963 1.7775 19.4802 436.970 1.7704
65 22.5318 443.028 1.7968 21.2199 442.143 1.7899 19.9865 441.207 1.7830
70 23.0571 447.133 1.8089 21.7289 446.294 1.8021 20.4807 445.410 1.7954
75 23.5726 451.219 1.8207 22.2278 450.424 1.8141 20.9643 449.586 1.8074
80 24.0794 455.292 1.8323 22.7176 454.535 1.8258 21.4385 453.739 1.8193

409
 APPENDIX M

Table M-7 (continued)

t, °C v, L/kg H, kJ/kg I 5, kJ/kg K v, L/kg H, kJ/kg 5, kJ/kg K v, L/kg H, kJ/kg I 5, kJ/kg K

Saturation temperature. 38°C Saturation temperature, 40°C Saturation temperature, 42°C
40 16.1865 418.076 1.7080 15.1350 416.561 1.6995
45 16.7545 422664 1.7225 15.6982 421.274 1.7144 14.6964 419.779 1.7061
50 17.2991 427.155 1.7365 16.2355 425.871 1.7287 15.2286 424.496 1.7208
55 17.8240 431.568 1.7501 16.7514 430.374 1.7426 15.7373 429.101 1.7349
60 18.3320 435.918 1.7632 17.2491 434.803 1.7560 16.2264 433.617 1.7486
65 18.8225 440.218 1.7760 17.7313 439.171 1.7690 16.6987 438.062 1.7618
70 19.3063 444.477 1.7885 18.2001 443.491 1.7817 17.1568 442.449 1.7747
75 19.7760 448.703 1.8008 18.6571 447.771 1.7940 17.6024 446.788 1.7872
80 20.2358 452.901 1.8127 19.1038 452.019 1.8061 18.0371 451.090 1.7992
85 19.5412 456.241 1.8180 18.4622 455.360 1.8115
Saturation temperature, 45°C Saturation temperature, 50°C
45 13.2841 417.308 1.6931
50 13.8136 422.241 1.7084 11.6693 417.839 1.6864
55 14.3154 427.025 1.7231 12.1721 423.028 1.7024
60 14.7946 431.693 1.7372 12.6447 428.026 1.7175
65 15.2550 436.268 1.7509 13.0932 432.877 1.7319
70 15.6995 440.769 1.7641 13.5219 437.613 1.7458
75 16.1303 445.209 1.7769 13.9342 442.258 1.7593
80 16.5492 449.599 1.7895 14.3325 446.828 1.7723
85 16.9578 453.950 1.8017 14.7187 451.337 1.7850
90 17.3571 458.267 1.8137 15.0943 455.796 1.7973

410
 APPENDIXM
Table M-8
REFRIGERANT 502: PROPERTIES OF LIQUID AND SATURATED VAPOR

Enthalpy, Entropy, Specific volume

00 Pressure kJ/kg kJ/kg K L/kg
‘ P,kPa
hf 9
h Sf 9
S Vf Vg

-40 129.64 158.085 328.147 0.83570 1.56512 0.68307 127.687

-30 197.86 167.883 33.027 0.87665 1.55583 0.69890 85.7699
-25 241.00 172.959 335.415 0.89719 1.55187 0.70733 71.1552
-20 291.01 178.149 337.762 0.91775 1.54826 0.71615 59.4614
-15 348.55 183.452 340.063 0.93833 1.54500 0.72538 50.0230
-10 414.30 188.864 342.313 0.95891 1.54203 0.73509 42.3423
-8 443.04 191.058 343.197 0.96714 1.54092 0.73911 39.6747
-6 473.26 193.269 344.071 0.97536 1.53985 0.74323 37.2074
-4 504.98 195.497 344.936 0.98358 1.53881 0.74743 34.9228
-2 538.26 197.740 345.791 0.99179 1.53780 0.75172 32.8049
0 573.13 200.000 346.634 1.00000 1.53683 0.75612 30.8393
1 591.18 201.136 347.052 1.00410 1.53635 0.75836 29.9095
2 609.65 202.275 347.467 1.00820 1.53588 0.76062 29.0131
3 628.54 203.419 347.879 1.01229 1.53542 0.76291 28.1485
4 647.86 204.566 348.288 1.01639 1.53496 0.76523 27.3145
5 667.61 205.717 348.693 1.02048 1.53451 0.76758 26.5097
6 687.80 206.872 349.096 1.02457 1.53406 0.76996 25.7330
7 708.43 208.031 349.496 1.02866 1.53362 0.77237 24.9831
8 729.51 209.193 349.892 1.03274 1.53318 0.77481 24.2589
9 751.05 210.359 350.285 1.03682 1.53275 0.77728 23.5593
10 773.05 211.529 350.675 1.04090 1.53232 0.77978 22.8835
11 795.52 212.703 351.062 1.04497 1.53190 0.78232 22.2303
12 818.46 213.880 351444 1.04905 1.53147 0.78489 21.5989
13 841.87 215.061 351.824 1.05311 1.53106 0.78750 20.9883
14 865.78 216.245 352.199 1.05718 1.53064 0.79014 20.3979
15 890.17 217.433 352.571 1.06124 1.53023 0.79282 19.8266
16 915.06 218.624 352.939 1.06530 1.52982 0.79555 19.2739
17 940.45 219.820 353.303 1.06936 1.52941 0.79831 18.7389
18 966.35 221.018 353.663 1.07341 1.52900 0.80111 18.2210
19 992.76 222.220 354.010 1.07746 1.52859 0.80395 17.7194
20 1019.7 223.426 354.370 1.08151 1.52819 0.80684 17.2336
21 1047.1 224.635 354.717 1.08555 1.52778 0.80978 16.7630
22 1075.1 225.858 355.060 1.08959 1.52737 0.81275 16.3069
23 1103.7 227.064 355.398 1.09362 1.52697 0.81573 15.8649
24 1132.7 228.284 355.732 1.09766 1.52656 0.81887 15.4363
25 1162.3 229.506 356.061 1.10168 1.52615 0.82200 15.0207
26 1192.5 230.734 356.385 1.10571 1.52573 0.82518 14.6175
27 1223.2 231.964 356.703 1.10973 1.52532 0.82842 14.2263
28 1254.6 233.198 357.017 1.11375 1.52490 0.83171 13.8468
29 1286.4 234.436 357.325 1.11776 1.52448 0.83507 13.4783
30 1318.9 235.677 357.628 1.12177 1.52405 0.83848 13.1205
32 1385.6 238.170 358.216 1.12978 1.52318 0.84551 12.4356
34 1454.7 240.677 358.780 1.13778 1.52229 0.85282 11.7889
36 1526.2 243.200 359.318 1.14577 1.52137 0.86042 11.1778
38 1600.3 245.739 359.828 1.15375 1.52042 0.86834 10.5996
40 1677.0 248.295 360.309 1.16172 1.51943 0.87662 10.0521
45 1880.3 254.762 361.367 1.18164 1.51672 0.89908 8.80325
50 2101.3 261.361 362.180 1.20159 1.51358 0.92465 7.70220
55 2341.1 268.128 362.684 1.22168 1.50983 0.95430 6.72295
60 2601.4 275.130 362.780 1.24209 1.50518 0.98962 5.84240
70 3191.8 290.465 360.952 1.28562 1.49103 1.09069 4.28602
80 3900.4 312.822 350.6721.34730 1.45448 1.34203 2.70616

411
 APPENDIX M

EXPRESSION OF ENERGY IN TERMS OF LOE

(Liter Oil Energy)

41800 million kj 1 million LOE

1 LOE 41800 kilo joules

STANDARD GROSS HEATING VALUE OF FUELS

Liquid Fuels

Liquid Fuels
BTUIIb
Gasoline 20 620 35 400
Diesel 19650 38600
Fuel Oil 18600 41 800
Kerosene 19800 36500
LPG (1 kg = 1.86L) 21180 27100
Augas 20 950 35 200
Auturbo 19 800 36 500
Naptha 20 620 35 400
Waste Oil 18600 41800
Methanol 9 600 17 800
Ethanol 12800 23600
Coco-oil 15 750 33 900

Solid Fuels
BTU!Ib K,J!kg
Coal 9 000 20 900
Bagasse (50% moisture) 4 000 9 300
Wood Waste (30% moisture) 4 000 9 300
Rice Hull 6 000 14 000
Coco-Shell 8 630 20 100
Coco Husk 7400 17200

Gaseous
BTUIcu.ft KJIcu. metre
Natural Gas 1 020 37 975
Biogas 650 24 200

Electricity
BTUIKWH KJ/KWH
at 33% Thermal 10340 10909

412
 _______________________________
_______________________________
______________________________
________________________________
_____________________________
________________________________________
_____________________________
___________________________
_____________ ___________________ ____________________________________
_____________________________________
_____________________________________
________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________

APPENDIX 0

Republic of the Philippines

Department of Labor
REGIONAL OFFICE NO.

APPLICATION FOR BOILERIPRESSURE VESSEL INSTALLATION

1. Name of Establishment:
2. Address:
3. Owner/Manager and Address:

4. Where Boiler/Pressure Vessel is to be installed:

5. Plants to be submitted: Submit (in quadruplicate) the foundation plan with design, installation and location plans of the boiler!
Pressure vessel. The plans shall be prepared, signed and sealed by a Professional Mechanical Engineer. Plan shall also
Bear the name and signature of owner or manager of the plant. The working drawing of the boiler/pressure vessel shall be
submitted together with the First Inspection Report.
6. Boiler/Pressure vessel Data:
(a) Manufacturer:
(b) Type: (c) Serial Number:
(d) Place of Origin: (e) Date of Make:
(If unknown, approximate)
(f) Heating Surface: (g.) Max A.W.P.
(h) Horsepower/Cubic Feet:

7. Name and Signature of Person to

supervise the installation:
(Board of Mechanical Engineering License)
8. Other accessories or equipment:

Name and Signature of Owner/Manager

Application No.
‘Plan Fee:
‘P.R. No. Date:
‘Date Received:
‘Received by:

413
 __________

APPENDIX P

REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES

DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC WORKS AND HIGHWAYS
OFFICE OF THE BUILDING OFFICIAL

APPLICATION NO. DISTRICT/CITY/MUNICIPALITY PERMIT NO.

AREA CODE

H
MECHANICAL PERMIT
DATE OF APPLICATION DATE ISSUED

BOX I (TO BE ACCOMPLISHED BY PROFESSIONAL MECHANICAL ENGINEER IN PRINT)

“NAME OF OWNER/APPLICANT LAST NAME, FIRST NAME, MI. TAXACCOUNT NO.

ADDRESS NO., STREET, BARANGAY, CITY/MUNICIPALITY TELEPHONE NO.

LOCATION OF INSTALLATION NO., STREET, BARANGAY, CITY/MUNICIPALITY

SCOPE OF WORK J ADDITIONAL OF BUILDING PERMIT NO.

Li NEW INSTALLATION Li REMOVAL OF
CERTIFICATE OF OCCUPANCY NO.
Li OTHERS (SPECIFY)

USER OF TYPE OF OCCUPANCY

Li RESIDENTIAL Li AGRICULTURAL
Li COMMERCIAL IJ LANDSCAPING
Li INDUSTRIAL Li OTHERS (SPECIFY)
Li INSTITUTIONAL
INSTALLATION AND OPERATION OF
Li BOILER Li CENTRALAIR-CONDITIONING JDUMBWATER
Li PRESSURE VESSELS Li MECHANICAL VENTILATION Li PUMPS
Li INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE Li ESCALATOR LiCOMPRESSED AIR, VACUUM,
Li REFRIGIRATION & ICE-MAKING Li MOVING SIDEWALK INSTITUTIONAL and/or INDUST
Li WINDOW TYPE AIR-CONDITION Li FREIGHT ELEVATOR TRIAL GAS
Li PACAKGE AIR-CONDITIONING UNIT Li PASSENGER ELEVATOR Li PNEUMATIC TUBES, CONVEYORS
and/or MONORAILS

Li OTHERS (SPECIFY)
PROPOSED DATE EXPECTED DATE
OF INSTALLATION OF COMPLETION
TOTAL INSTALLATION COST_____________________________ PREPARED BY
-

BOX2 (TO BEACCOMPLISHED BY THE BUILDING OFFICIAL)

-
ACTION TAKEN:
PERMIT IS HEREBY GRANTED TO INSTALL THE MECHANICAL EQUIP
MENT ENUMERATED HEREIN SUBJECT TO THE FOLLOWING CONDI
TIONS.

1. THAT THE PROPOSED INSTALLATION SHALL BE IN ACCORDANCE WITH AP

PROVED PLfiNS FILED WITH THIS OFFICE AND IN CONFORMITY WITH THE
•NATIONAL BUILDING COE*
2. THAT A DULY LICENSED PROFESSIONAL MECHANICAL ENGINEER BEENGAGED
TO UNDERTAKE THE INSTALLATION/CONSTRUCTION.
3. THAT AACERTIFICATE OF COMPLETION DULY SIGNED BY A PROFESSIONAL
MECHANICAL ENGINEER IN CHARGE OF INSTALLATION SHALL BE SUBMITTED
NOT LATER THAT SEVEN (7) DAYS AFTER COMPLETION OF THE INSTALLATION.
4. THATA CERTIFICATE OF FINAL INSPECTION AND A CERTIFICATE OF OCCU
PANCY BE SECURED PRIOR TO THE ACTUAL OCCUPANCY OF THE BUILDING.
5. THAT AN ANNUAL CERTIFICATE OF INSPECTION SHALL BE SECURED FOR THE
CONTINUOUS OPERATION OF THE MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT INSTALLED.
DATE
NOTE;

THIS PERMIT MAY BE CANCELLED OR REVOKED PURSUANT TO SECTIONS 305 & 306 OF THE NATIONAL BUILDING CODE*

414
 APPENDIX 0

BOX 3 (TO BE ACCOMPLISHED BY THE RECEIVING AND RECORDING SECTION)

r BUILDING DOCUMENTS
I (FIVE (5) SETS EACH)
I MECHANICAL PLANS & SPECIFICATIONS
‘\OS
D BILL OF MATERIALS
T ESTIMATES
J OTHERS (SPECIFY)
BOX4 (TO BE ACCOMPLISHED BY THE DIVISION/SECTION CONCERNED)
‘
ASSESSED FEE
AMOUNT DUE ASSESSED BY OR. NUMBER DATE PAID
MECHANICAL

REVIEWED:
\-
CHIEF, PROCESSING DIV/SEC.
-,
BOX 5 (TO BE ACCOMPLISHED BY THE DIVISION/SECTION CONCERNE
D)
PROGRESS FLOW \

NOTED IN OUT
CHIEF, PROCESSING DIVISION/SECTION ACTION/REMARKS PROCESSED BY
DATE
j TIME DATE TIME
RECEIVING AND RECORDING
MECHANICAL
____
____
____
____
___

WE HEREBY AFFIX OUR HANDS SIGNIFYING OUR CONFORMITY TO THE

INFORMATION HEREIN ABOVE SETFORTH
BOX 6
BOX S
PROF. MECI-I. ENGINEER PRC. REG. NO N 4SIGNATURE
SIGNED AND SEALED PLANS & SPECIFICATIONS
PRINT NAME

APPLICANT
ADDRESS
RES. CERT. NO. DATE ISSUED PLACE ISSUED
P.T.R. NO. DATE ISSUED PLACE ISSUED

SIGNATURE TAN.

BOX 7
“OF. MECH. ENGINEER PRC. REG. NO
IN-CHARGE OF INSTALLATION
PRINT NAME

ADDRESS

RT.R. NO. DATE ISSUED PLACE ISSUED

SIGNATURE TAN.

415
 3
R puIiIir of fIe fltItpptnc
Irofcgsiona1 3Regu{afton QInmmtstnn
,iftttn tht
Board of Mechanical Engineering
Resolution No. 06
Series of 2003

CODE OF ETHICAL AND PROFESSIONAL STANDARDS

FESSION
FOR THE PRACTICE OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING PRO

known as the “Philippine

Pursuant to the provisions of Sections 9(a) of Republic Act No. 8495,
Board Resolution No. 16, Series of
Mechanical Engineering Act of 1998” and Section 50, Rule XIII of
es of the Act, the Board of Mechanical
1998, providing for the Rules and Regulations to carry out purpos
Ethical and Professional Standards for
Engineering hereby adopts, promulgates and issues this Code of
the Practice of Mechanical Engineering profession.

PREAMBLE
ant profession. It is also a
Engineering is a profession as old civilization. It is not only and import
learned one.
ize that their work has a direct
The Members of the Mechanical Engineering professional recogn
and vital impact on the quality of life of the people.
with public interest for it affects the
The services that Mechanical Engineers provide is impressed
, fair impartial and just in dealing
health, safety and welfare of the people, hence, they should be honest
not only with their clients but also with their fellowmen.
profession by observing a standard
As a professional, the Mechanical Engineer must practice his
les of ethic and professional conduct
of professional behavior that requires strict adherence to the princip
provided by the Code of Ethics of their profession.

FUNDAMENTAL CANONS
shall:
Mechanical Engineers in the fulfillment of their professional duties,
in the performance of their pro
1. Hold paramount the safety, health, and welfare of the public
fessional duties

2. Perform services only in areas of their competence.

ve and truthful manner.
3. Make I issue public statements on issues only in an objecti
l agents or trustees.
4. Act in a professional manner of each employer or client as faithfu

5. Avoid improper solicitation of clients or professional employment.

 GENERAL PRINCIPLES

Rule 1. The mechanical engineer shall, in the practice of his profession, be guided by the Golden
Rule, the ideals of service to man and his environment, and the need to secure unwaver
ing public confidence, integrity and humanity.

Rule 2. The mechanical engineer shall maintain the proper professional fee for his profession,
observe the standards of professional practice, safeguard the dignity, and reputation of
his colleagues in the profession, and fulfill his duties and obligations as a citizen of the
Republic of the Philippines.

Rule 3. The mechanical engineer shall update and enhance constantly his professional know
ledge and skills through assiduous research and study, and participation in continuing
professional development programs and seminars conducted or authorized by the Inte
grated Organization of Mechanical Engineers accredited by the Board of Mechanical
Engineering and the Professional Regulation Commission (PRC) or education institu
tions supervised by the State.

Rule 4. The ethical principles required to be observed by mechanical engineers shall equally
apply to partnership, firms and entities organized and exiting for the practice of
mechanical engineering.

RELATIONS WITH THE STATE

Rule 5. The mechanical engineer shall honor and respect the supreme authority of the State the
Rule of Law, the primacy of the general welfare, the fundamentals rights of persons,
and the obligations and privileges of citizens recognized and guaranteed by the
Constitution of the Philippines.

Rule 6. He shall cooperate fully with the State in the pursuit of national development plans and
programs, shall respect the inviolability of national security, shall assist in the promotion
of peace and order and when circumstances arise shall assist in the prevention and/or
prosecution of unjust, criminal or unlawful acts and omissions.

Rule 7. He shall be ready to render the services needed for the development of the resources
of the country, and to offer his mechanical devices and inventions essential or
necessary for national defense.

Rule 8. In case of national emergency, he shall be ready to offer his professional knowledge,
skill and experience in the service of the State.

RELATIONS WITH THE COMPANY

Rule 9. The mechanical engineer shall be well-informed of the latest technological progress in
his own line of work. He shall encourage or require whenever appropriate the use, or ap
plication of standard mechanical equipment, machinery, or process for safety, economy
and efficiency.

Rule 10. Whenever he designs a mechanical equipment, machinery or process, or prepares the
layout of a project, he must apply and adequate factor of safety, and provide for the ne
cessary leeway to insure and maintain for proper operating and maintenance condition.

Rule 11. When he discovers faulty or unsafe devices, equipment or machinery in any place, work or
plant, he shall without delay, give notice thereof to the proper authority, public of private,
for the immediate and effective correction, regardless of whether or not he is responsible
for said place, work or plant.
RELATIONS WITH LABOR

Rule 12. The mechanical engineer shall recognize labor as one of the major resources of our
country. He must acknowledge that a working man is not a mechanical robot but a
human being.

Rule 13. He should be familiar with State policies on labor and social justice, as well as,
the labor and social legislations and shall observe faithfully these policies and laws in
dealing with labor in general, and with his workmen in particular.

Rule 14. He shall strive to improve the skills of his workmen, pay them a fair living wage, and
instruct them on how to prevent accidents in their place of work.

RELATIONS WITH CLIENTS AND EMPLOYERS

Rule 15. The mechanical engineer shall observe punctuality in his appointments, perform
honestly and in good faith, his contractual obligation and his duties and obligations
to his clients or employer, and observe fair dealing i his relations with his clients and
employers.

Rule 16. He shall treat with confidentially any information obtained by him regarding the business
affairs and technical methods or processes of a client, or employer.

Rule 17. He shall inform his client or employer of his business connections, interests, or
affiliations which may influence his judgement, or impair the quality or character of his
services.

Rule 18. The mechanical engineer is entitled to a just and fair compensation of his services.
In the computation of such compensation, the period of time consumed, his
professional knowledge, skill, experience, and reputation, and the depreciation of
instruments and materials used, shall be considered and accorded such weight as is
just and reasonable.

Rule 19. He shall accept compensation, financial or otherwise, for his services from his clients
or employer only. He may agree to or receive compensation from any other source
,

only with the full knowledge and consent of all parties concerned.

Rule 20. The mechanical engineer shall be completely above suspicion or reproach in his
relation with his clients or employers, avoiding the remotest reference or relations to any
secret or questionable agreement on commissions or other financial consideration
promised by or received from any person or entity other than his client or employer.

RELATIONS WITH COLLEAGUES AND ASSOCIATES

Rule 21. “To thine ownself be true and thou cannot be false to any men” expresses the duty
which a mechanical engineer owes to himself and to others.

Rule 22. The mechanical engineer shall use only fair means to gain professional advancement.
In the pursuit thereof, he shall not injure the work or employment opportunities of others,
or use any improper or questionable method of soliciting employment or clients.
 Rule 23. He shall refrain from associating with, or allowing the use of his name by, and any
person or entity of questionable reputation.
Rule 24. He shall provide the opportunity and the means to improve and advance the
knowledge, skills, and experience of his colleagues and associates.
Rule 25. He shall define clearly the line of authority and scope of responsibility of his associates
and assistance Orders, or the recall thereof, shall be issued through proper channels.
Rule 26. He shall be receptive to new ideas and suggestions from others, and ready to
recognize, encourage, and accredit the authors thereof. Suggestions for
colleagues and associates shall be given more careful attention.
Rule 27. He shall use tact and discretion in dealing with his colleagues and associates, but not
at the sacrifice of firmness. He shall work out difficult problems with courage and
serenity.
Rule 28. Careful selection of understudies shall be a guiding principle, and preference shall be
given to those with adequate engineering education.
Rule 29. He shall not expect others to face danger that he himself will not face. He shall
observe at all times safety requirements for the protection of all concerned.
Rule 30. The mechanical engineer shall actively support the duly accredited association with
the end in view of enhancing the practice of the profession and discharging his public
responsibilities as a professional.
PROVISIONS ON DISCIPLINARY ACTION

Rule 31. Violation of any provision of this Code shall constitute a ground for the revocation or
suspension of the certificate of registration and professional license I professional
identification card or the cancellation of a temporary or special permit under the
provisions of Sec. 26 and Sec. 27, Art Ill of R.A. No. 8495, known as the “Mechanical
Engineering Act of 1998” and Sec. 41, Rule VII of the “Rule and Regulations
Implementing R.A. No., 8495.
EFFECTIVITY

Rule 32. This Code shall take effect after fifteen (15) days following its publication in full in the
Official Gazette or in a newspaper of general circulation, whichever comes earlier.

Done in the City of Manila, this 10th day of March, 2003

/
ANTONIO RO. HERRERA
Chairman
DONIcTO K. KARAMIHAN CHONA . NGELISTA
Member e ber
Attested:

çACGLOR
Secretary, Professional Regulatory Boards
Approved:

0 0 G. ABAD AVELINA DE LA REA-TAN

Commissioner Commissioner
 aepubttc of tje TjiIippini
3rofcIona1 cçu(ation QDommiion
fflanila
Board of Mechanical Engineering

Series of 2003

INC. (PSME) AS
RECOGNITION OF THE PHILIPPINE SOCIETY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS,
PROFESSIONAL MECHANICAL
THE ONE AND ONLY INTEGRATED AND ACCREDITED ORGANIZATION OF
ENGINEERS AND CERTIFIED PLANT MECHANICS.
“Philippine Mechanical
WHEREAS, Sec. 23,Art. Ill of RepublicAct. No.8495, otherwise known as the
Engineering Act of 1998”, provides:
organization of me
“Sec. 23 Integrated and Accreditation of mechanical Engineers. An Integrated
Mecha nical Engineering and
chanical engineers shall be created and accredited by the board of
the roll of profession
Professional Regulation Commission. All person whose names now appear in
under the custody
al mechanical engineers, mechanical engineers and certified plant mechanics
be includ ed therein upon registra
of the board and the Commission, or those who may hereafter
of the integra ted and
tion and payment of the required fees shall automatically become members
nical engineering
accredited organization of mechanical engineers. The integration of the mecha
ary organi zation of mecha nical engineers
professional shall not be a bar to the formation of volunt
nical engineers. The
which may coexist with the integrated and accredited organization of mecha
existing accredited
Board, subjected to the approval the commission and after consultation with the
nical engineers
organization of mechanical engineers and other affiliated organization of mecha
ers who are non-or ganization
and, if possible, with the substantial number of the mechanical engine
t and creatio n, con
members, shall provide the guidelines and mechanism for the establishmen
nical engineers. The
tinued supervision and the integrated and accredited organization of mecha
nics shall receive the benefits and
registered and licensed engineers and certified plant mecha
nical engineering
privileges appurtenant to their membership duly integrated and accredited mecha
association only upon payment of the required fees and dues.”

WHEREAS, on May 6, 1998, in a Consultative Meeting for the creatio

n of the integrated organiza
and called by the Board
tion of mechanical engineers at the Manila Midtown Hotel, Ermita, Manila, hosted
ation with the Philippine
of Mechanical Engineering, and the Professional Regulation Commission in cooper
, the local government of
Society of Mechanical Engineers, Inc. (PSME), the participant-officer of PSME
ine Institu te of Mechanical Engineer
Mechanical Association of the Philippines (LOGOMEAP), the Philipp
Engineers (PSVARE), the
ing Educators (PIMEE), The Philippine Society of Ventilating and Refrigerating
Association of Government
Philippine Association of Mechanical and electrical Engineers (PAMEE) and
ously agreed or arrived at a
Mechanical and electrical Engineers of the Philippines (AGMEEP) unanim
lly recognized as the
consensus, for reason stated in the minutes of the said meeting, that PSME be officia
and the Commissio, and
integrated organization of mechanical engineers in the Philippines by the board
and its acronym “PSME”
that its present organizational name Philippine Society of Mechanical Engineers
-

be retained and adopted.

WHEREAS, the PSME, the national organizational of professional mecha

nical engineers, mechani
E, was organized and reg
cal engineers and certified plant mechanics, after its secession from the PAME
nical engineers.
istered in and since then, has been the one only national organization of mecha
 WHEREAS, the PSME is the one and only national organization of mechanical
engineers that the
Commission has accredited and to which it issued a Certificate of Accreditation
No. 004, pursuant
to Sec. 5(l) of P.D. No. 223, as amended, and Art. IX (Accreditation of Professional
Organizations)
of the Rules and Regulations Governing the Regulation and Practice of Profes
sionals”.
WHEREAS, the PSME is presently composed of about seventy six (76) local
chapters throughout
the Philippines and two (2) chapters in foreign countries.

WHEREAS, a substantial number of professional mechanical engineers,

mechanical engineers
and certified plant mechanics registered and licensed by the Board and
the Commission are mem
bers of the PSME.

NOW, THEREFORE, the Board resolved as it hereby resolves to recognize

the Philippine Society
of Mechanical Engineers, Inc. (PSME) as the one and only integrated
and accredited association
of Professional Mechanical Engineers, Mechanical Engineers and Certifi
ed Plant Mechanics reg
istered with the Board the Commission.

Be it further resolved to direct the PSME -

(1) to inform the Professional Mechanical Engineers, Mechanical Engine

ers and
Certified Plant Mechanics who are registered with the
Board and the
Commission but who are not members of the PSME as of the date of
effectivity of R.A.
8495 have, by operation of law, automatically become members of
PSME as such,
they shall register with the PSME and pay the membership fee
and other dues
authorized by it Constitution and By-laws to be collected from membe
rs of the
PSME and to receive the benefits and privileges appurt
enant to their
membership in the duty integrated and accredited organization of mecha
nical
engineers.

(2) to participate and or! support the Board and the Commission in planni
ng and
implementing programs and activities where such participation, suppor
t and
assistance are necessary for the accomplishment of the objectives, aims
and purposes of such programs and activities.

This Resolution, shall, upon approval by the Professional Regulation

Commission, take
effect after fifteen (15) days following its publication in the Official Gazett
e or in a
newspaper of general circulation in the Philippines, whichever is earlier
.

ANTOMORO.HERRERA
77 7 / Chairman
DONScTO K. KARAMIHAN ELISTA
Member ber
Attested:

gACg&GLMELOR
Secretary, Professional Regulatory Boards
Approved:

,,
AN ONIETA FORTUNA-IBE
j 7’) Chairperson
OFSO G. ABAD AVELINA DE LA REA-TAN
Commissioner Commissioner
 3EkipuLiIic of tlw llji1ippInc
Jrofi.ionat 3&cçllkLtion Dornmtton

Board of Mechanical Engineering

Resolution No. 13
Series of 2003

RECOMMENDING TO THE PROFESSIONAL REGULATION COMMISSION TO REQUIRE THE

PROFESSIONAL MECHANICAL ENGINEERS, MECHANICAL ENGINEERS AND CERTIFIED PLANT ME
CHANICS WHO RENEW THEIR PROFESSIONAL IDENTIFICATION CARDS TO SUBMIT “CERTIFICATE OF
GOOD STANDING” AS MEMBER OF THE RECOGNIZED INTEGRATED AND ACCREDITED ASSOCIATION
OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS.

WHEREAS, Sec. 23 Art. Ill of Republic Act No. 8495, otherwise known as the “Philippines Mechanical
Engineering Act of 1998” requires that “[AjIl person whose names now appear in the roll of the professional mechanical
engineers, mechanical engineers and certified plant mechanics under the custody of the board and the
Commission, or those who may hereafter be included therein upon registration and payment of the required fees
shall automatically become members of the integrated and accredited organization of mechanical engineers”.

(Underscoring supplied)

WHEREAS, the President of the PSME has requested the Board of Mechanical Engineering to recommend
to the Commission to require the Professional Mechanical Engineers, Mechanical Engineers, Mechanical and Certified
Plant Mechanics who are not yet members of the PSME as of the date the PSME has been recognized as the one and
only integrated and accredited association of Professional Mechanical Engineers, Mechanical Engineers and
Certified Plant Mechanics to submit “Certificate of Good Standing” as members issued by the appropriate officials
of PSME as a condition for the issuance I renewal of their professional identification cards in order to hasten the
integration of all Professional Mechanical Engineers and Certified Plant Mechanics into
one and only recognized integrated and accredited association as required by Section 23 R.A. No. 8495,
afo re-quoted.

WHEREAS, the suggestion of the President of the PSME is well-taken as it will create a need for the
Professional Mechanical Engineers, Mechanical Engineers and Certified Plant Mechanics to register as members
of their professional organization.

WHEREFORE, the Board Resolved as it hereby Resolves to recommend to the Commssion to require
professional mechanical engineers, mechanical engineers and certified plant mechanics who are not yet members
of the PSME as of date of issuance of this Resolution to submit Certificates of Good Standing as member of the
PSME signed by its appropriate officials as a condition for the issuance I renewal of their professional
identification cards.
 This Resolution shall take effect after Fifteen (15) days following its publication in the Officials Gazette or in a
newspaper of general circulation in the Philippines, whichever is earlier.

Done in the City of Manila, this 4th day of March, 2003

/
- ANTONIO RO. HERRERA
Chairman
DON TO K. KARAMIHAN CHONA .1 STA
Attested:
\ Member iber

c(9SGLMEWR
Secretary, Professional Regulatory Boards
_—. Approved:
.‘., 1-
ANT’ONIETA y
FORTUNA•lB,,<
Chairperson
O OGABAD AVELINA DE LA REA-TAN
Commissioner Commissioner
 4,
i’puhlihn lul i1ipinns
REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES

niirpninn ni_ jJnniriiln

OFFICE OF THE PRESIDENT

nil luirI
PROFESSIONAL REGULATION COMMISSION

n1iimjnit ug mihnhi1n1n
CERTIFICATE OF ACCREDITATION
tIhngmi nit jPnglmhilntn JMg. —N)—Ut1
Certificate ofj4ccreditation [JV0. I-J4P0-005

i1n’rj nnnp41nhmntj nn mrq

This is to certify that

PHILIPPINE SOCIETY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS (PSME)

ntrtlnpns gmupnnmi miii 1n1zt1 U ntgn pnncimttnilmiitnn an Fncrhibinnuj—hnrnpnlnrnl mrthilzitn t1üisniu an init1na nr mi
[raving complied with alithe requirementsfor accreditation in accordance with the

nnn ng Lln1na
krutlwlmai lnbl
7 tit {ts’{nth1ihn Itiki. I.Ii ni 3nlns ncj cpitb{ihn {!itlit. L111 1 nI nil ntqn LLi.flthflrni n Althuthniin,
pertinent provisions of Rjpu6(ici4ct 0
qr 8495 andRepu6(ic4ct Wo. 8981 and its implementing cNu(es andR.pgu(ations,

pncr{mzthrpnr mm T Iuntknlnlmiy SUZUW hnintj liZi £ZIflltli?nhifl si’aijtutiI

1
jni Sfl iLrr17zUitrn1 tnnnircrz
is duly accredited as bonafide Professiona( Organization for vtec[ranicalngineers

ni 1un4 Iwrrqinlnn szi 1nin1 ng mgzi pnbth’1vjonLl nnuu1w ôita.

and as such shall be entitled to all privileges appertaining hereto

Lnkniuizui nUn, nng 1 ui nc jinqtr.iln1n

n1iini
z ni pinrigknkisth

12’IWI’E1’flESS W91JEOF, this Certificate ofccreditation is here6y issued

nn tzmlnij nug anqtzrni ncr lulnnaLTml sn ffiuini1n Jthpnrnz nrrunnci thi— 1 nrrnu rai ..“sinsIn an kmiui _Ltltl
1
under the seal of this Commission at SManila cPlirlzppines this 1 day ofjaugust in the year 2008
/
LEONOR TRIPON-ROSERO
7 Secretary
RUTH RANA-PADILLA NILO L. ROSAS
hitnniijiitôtt i!OIlUSi1LUI.li1t1
Commissioner Commissioner

RENEWAL. Valid from August 1, 2008 to August 1, 2011

 3puMic of tije PbitIppine
rofeionat 3eu{.aton QLonmiiion

RESOLUTION NO.Z8-469
Series of 2008

I’or consideration of this Commission is the petition for the renewal of the
accreditation of Engr. Saylito M. Purisima in behalf of the Philippine Society of
Mechanical Engineers (PSME). as the bonaficle professional organization for
mechanical engineers. In support of its petition are the following, to wit:

i. Notarized pen ion signed by its President for the renewal of the
certificate of accreditation;
2. List of current officers including its chapters;
.
Photo copy of Certificate of Registration issued by the Securities and
Exchange Commission (SEC);
4. Photo copy of the Amended Articles of Incorporation and By-Laws;
5. Copy of audited financial statement submitted to the SEC duly signed
hr a Certified Public Accountant;
6. Complete list of members indicating their PRC Registration Nos. and
Dates o Registration;
7. Report on significaurt achievements as corporate body; and
8. Proof ot payment of t:he prescribed renewal fee.

Commission Resolution No. 2004-178, Series of 2004, dated January 29,

2004, provides the Rules Governing the Status of the present Accredited
Professional Organizations (APOs), Accreditation of New/Future Professional
Organizations, the Renewal of the Certificates of Accreditation, and their
Cancellation/Suspension, among others, to wit:

RULE .
Renewal of Certthcatc of Accreditation.

The accredited professional organization shall renew its Certificate

of Accreditation once every three (3) years after the date of the herein
Resolution granting the petition for accreditation and the issuance of the
said certificate upon submission of the requirements enumeraied
hereunder and l)aYmeit of the prescribed fees provided that the
certificate of nccrec.litation has not been cancelled or revoked under any of
the causes/grounds set forth in Rule 4 hereof.’

After a careful perusal of the documents submitted, petitioner

substantially cornpled with the requirements for the renewal of accreditation.

WHEREFORE, the Commission RESOLVEI), as it hereby RESOLVES

to approve and issue the renewal of the Certificate of Accreditation to the
Phili ppirie Society of Mechanical Engineers (PSME) as tile bonaficle professional
organization of mechanical engineers.

Accordingly. it is hereby reiterated to the petitioner Rule 4, Resolution No.

2004—178, Series of ooe, dated .lamlarv), 2004, which read as follows:

“Cancellation of AccreditatioH. A certificate of accreditation of an

—

accredited professional organization shall he cancelled or suspended by

the Commission or hr the concerned professional regulatory board upon
appro’al or concurrence by the Commission only after due hearing under
any of the following grounds/causes:

i. The accredited professional organization has ceased to possess any of

I he qualifications for accreditation.

2. The accredited professional organization no longer served the best

nlen’st of the prutession fo’ which ii was accredited.
P. PAREOES ST., CORNER MORAYTA STREET, SAMPALOC, MANILA, PHILIPPINES
P.O. 130X 2O. MANII A
 3. The membership of the accredited professimial organization falls 50%
or below 01 those who have been issued their annual registration cards
for the current yea r.

4. The accredited professional organization has committed acts inimical

to its members and to the profession.

5. The accredited prolessional organizalion has not renewed its

certificate of accreditation after a lapse of an unreasonable period
from the date ol its renewability.

6. The accredited professional organization and/or its chapter

organizations has not submitted audited financial statements thereof.”

Let copy of this Resolution be furnished the petitioner for its

information and guidance.

Done in the City of Manila this 1st day ofAuist , 2008.

-L
LEONOR TRIPON-ROSERO
Chairperson

T
Ai
NILO L. R SAS UT RANA ADILLA
Commissioner Commissioner

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 ViJUL4,,

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°THE’ j1iititi
OFFICE ORDER NO. 2007-287
October 2007

TO : ALL REGIONAL DIRECTORS

Mrs. LINDA D. MACOROL

OIC, Registration Division
This Commission

SUBJECT : Implementation of the Board of Mechanical Engineering

Resolution No. 05 dated 04 March 2003 and Department of
Justice (DOJ) opinion dated July 18, 2007 affirming the
validity of the said Board Resolution.

Republic Act No. 8495 (Philippine Mechanical Engineering Act of 1998), more
particularly Section 23 thereof, provides “xxx. AU persons whose names now appear
in the roll of professional mechanical engineeis, mechanical engineers and certified
plant mechanics under Ihe custody oF the Boaid and the Commission, or those who
may hereafter be included therein upon registration and payment of the required fees
shall automatically become members of the integrated and accredited organization
of mechanical engineers.”

Pursuant to the abovernentioned section, the Board of Mechanical Engineering

issued Resolution No. 05, Series of 2003 entitled “RECOMMENDING TO THE
PROFESSIONAL REGULATION COMI’vIISSION TO REQUIRE THE
PROFESSIONALS MECHANICAL ENGINEERS, MECHANICAL
ENGINEERS AND CERTIFIED PLANT MECHANICS WHO RENEW
THEIR PROFESSIONAL IDENTIFICATION CARDS TO SUBMIT
CERTIFICATE OF GOOD STANDING AS MEMBER OF THE
RECOGNIZED INTEGRATED AND ACCREDLTED ASSOCIATION OF
MECHANICAL ENGINEERS.”

In view of the foregoing, all concerned are hereby directed to strictly enforce the
provisions of Resolution No. 05, Series of 2003 and to coordinate with Philippine
Society of Mechanical Engineers (PSME), the accredited association of mechanical
engineers, presently headed by Engr. Vicente B. Vosotros for the implementation.
Let copies of the subject Resolution and opinion be furnished to all concerned for
their guidance.

For strict and immediate compliance.

. _
4
J4.
LEONOR TRIPON-ROSERO
Chairperson
 PHILIPPINE SOCIETY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS
INTEGRATED ASSOCIATION OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS
Accredited National Organization, Certificate I APO 005- -

Professional Regulation Commission

PSME National Headquarters Building
Rm. 300 B, 3/F Don Lorenzo Bldg., 889 P. Paredes Street, Sampaloc, Manila, Philippines
Tel.: +63 (02) 736-2043 / 703-1420 / 703-1436 Telefax: + 63 (02) 493-4268 E-mail: psmenational@yahoo.com
Website: www.psmeonline.org