2005 IEEE/PES Transmission and Distribution
Conference & Exhibition: Asia and Pacific
Dalian, China
Effects of STATCOM on Distance Relay
Tripping Characteristic
A. Kazemi, S. Jamali, Fellow, IEE, and H. Shateri, Member, IEE
Abstract--This paper presents the measured impedance at the
relaying point in the presence of a shunt Flexible Alternating
Current Transmission System (FACTS) device, i.e. STATic
synchronous COMpensator (STATCOM). The presence of
STATCOM on a transmission line has a great influence on the
tripping characteristic of distance relays. Distance relay tripping
characteristic itself depends on the power system structural
conditions, i.e. short circuit levels at the line ends, pre-fault
conditions, i.e. load angle and voltage magnitude ratio of the line
ends, and especially the earth fault resistance. In the presence of
STATCOM, its controlling parameters as well as its installation
location also affect the tripping characteristic. Here, the
measured impedance at the relaying point is calculated due to the
mentioned effective parameters.
Index Terms--Distance protection, Fault resistance, FACTS
devices, Tripping characteristic.
I. INTRODUCTION
T HE measured impedance at the relaying point is the basis
of the distance protection operation. There are several
factors affecting the measured impedance at the relaying
point. Some of these factors are related to the power system
parameters prior to the fault instance [1]-[3], which can be
categorized into two groups. First group are the structural
conditions, represented by the short circuit levels at the
transmission line ends, whereas the second group are the
operational conditions, represented by the line load angle and
the voltage magnitude ratio at the line ends. In addition to the
power system parameters, the fault resistance could greatly
influence the measured impedance, in a way that when the
fault resistance is equal to zero, the power system parameters
do not affect the measured impedance. In other words, power
system parameters affect the measured impedance only in the
presence of the fault resistance, and as the fault resistance
increases, the impact of power system parameters becomes
more and more.
In the recent years FACTS devices are introduced to the
power systems to increase the transmitting capacity of the
lines and provide the optimum utilization of the system
capability. This is done by pushing the power systems to their
limits [4]. It is well documented in the literature that the
introduction of FACTS devices in a power system has a great
The authors are with the Department of Electrical Engineering, Iran
University of Science and Technology (IUST), Narmak, Tehran 16844, Iran,
(e-mails: kazemi@iust.ac.ir, sjamali@iust.ac.ir, and shateri@iust.ac.ir).
0-7803-9114-4/05/$20.00 ©2005 IEEE.
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1
influence on its dynamics. As power system dynamics change,
many sub-systems are affected, including the protective
systems. Therefore, it is essential to study effects of FACTS
devices on the protective systems, especially the distance
protection, which is the main protective device at EHV level.
Unlike the power system parameters, the controlling
parameters of FACTS devices, as well as their installation
points could affect the measured impedance when the fault
resistance is zero. In the presence of FACTS devices, the
conventional distance characteristic such as Mho and
Quadrilateral are greatly subjected to mal-operation in the
form of over-reaching or under-reaching the fault point.
Therefore, the conventional characteristics might not be
usable in the presence of FACTS devices.
The impact of STATCOM on the measured impedance has
been discussed in [4], by assuming the instantaneous
operation of its controlling system. The effects of series
connected FACTS devices on the measured impedance at the
relaying point have been presented in [5] and more detailed
studies for Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC) have been
presented in [6], Where it has been assumed that the protective
system operate before the FACTS devices controlling system.
This paper presents the measured impedance at the relaying
point in the presence of STATCOM. In addition to the
controlling parameters of STATCOM, the measured
impedance depends on its installation location. Therefore, the
studied installation locations are at the relaying point, mid
point and the remote end of the transmission line. Due to the
measured impedance characteristic, it can be seen that how
much a distance relay is subjected to mal-operation in the
presence of STATCOM located at the line ends or mid-point.
II. STATCOM AND ITS MODELING
Shunt connected FACTS devices are usually utilized to
regulate the voltage of their connection point. Static Var
Compensator (SVC) is an early type of the shunt connected
FACTS devices, which controls its connecting point voltage
by adjusting its susceptance in order to supply or absorb the
reactive power. Advancement in the power electronic devices,
such as Gate Turn Off (GTO) devices, introduce the so-called
advanced Static Var Systems (SVS). STATCOM is an
example of the advanced SVS, consisting of three-phase sets
of several GTO based valve and a DC link capacitor and the
associated controlling system. The controlling system operates
in a way that its connecting point voltage is being regulated
1
 2

according to its controlling strategy within its operational EA A B EB

ZS1A p Z1L F (1-p) Z1L ZS1B
limits [7]. ~ ~
STATCOM has two operating voltage-current
characteristics; natural and controlled characteristics. Natural Rf
V-I characteristic at the terminals of a STATCOM depends on
the converter source voltage, ESTATCOM, and the coupling
reactance, XSTATCOM. Generally, the coupling reactance has a Fig. 2. Equivalent circuit for single phase to earth fault
typical magnitude of 0.1 to 0.2 pu. The operational limits of a
STATCOM relate to its power electronic devices ratings. In the case of a non-zero fault resistance, the measured
Their current is independent of the source voltage, or whether impedance by a distance relay is not equal to the mentioned
the current leads or lags the voltage. Usually it is essential that magnitude. In this case, the structural and operational
the slope of the operating characteristic is limited in the range conditions of the power system affect the measured impedance
of 2% to 5%, which is much more than the coupling reactance. at the relaying point. The operational conditions prior to the
This is achieved by controlling the source voltage in a way fault instance can be represented by the load angle of the line,
that the desirable slope is resulted. These two characteristics i.e. δ, and the ratio of the magnitude of the line end voltages,
are shown in Fig. 1. Here the coupling (natural) reactance is i.e. h, or in general EB / EA = he–jδ. The structural conditions
equal to 0.125 pu and the resultant controlled slope is 2.5%. are evaluated by the short circuit levels at the line ends, i.e. SSA
and SSB. With respect to Figs. 2 & 3, the measured impedance
STATCOM Voltage, pu
at the relaying point can be expressed by the following
equations. More detailed calculations can be found in [2].
12.5%
1.1 Z 1 A = Z S 1 A + p Z 1L (1)
1.0 2.5%
Z0 A = Z S 0 A + p Z0 L (2)
0.9
12.5%
Z 1 B = Z S 1 B + ( 1 − p )Z 1 L (3)
Z 0 B = Z S 0 B + ( 1 − p )Z 0 L (4)
2 Z 1 A Z1B Z Z
ZΣ = + 0 A 0B (5)
Z1 A + Z1B Z0 A + Z0 B
Z1B
C1 = (6)
Z1 A + Z1B
Z0 B
Leading STATCOM Current Lagging
C0 = (7)
Z0 A + Z0 B
Fig. 1. Natural and controlled V-I characteristics of a STATCOM
Z0 L − Z1L
K0 L = (8)
As it is mentioned in the previous paragraph, and can be 3Z 1L
seen in Fig. 1, STATCOM has two slopes, i.e. natural and 1 − h e − jδ
controlled ones. Since the distance relay operating time is Kδ = (9)
Z 1 B + Z 1 A h e − jδ
normally less than one cycle, and the STATCOM controlling
system responding time is usually more than one cycle, 3R f
Z A = p Z 1L + (10)
distance relay decision for in-zone or out-of-zone position of ( Z Σ + 3 R f )Kδ + 2C1 + C0 ( 1 + 3 K0 L )
the faults is made before the controlling system is activated.
Therefore, here the natural characteristic of STATCOM is A B
ZS1A p Z1L F (1-p) Z1L ZS1B
utilized to calculate the measured impedance at the relaying
point, such as [5] and [6], and unlike [4], which has assumed V1A I1A V1F I1F V1B I1B
the instantaneous operation of the controlling system.
EA ~ ~ EA

III. MEASURED IMPEDANCE ZS2A p Z2L (1-p) Z2L ZS2B

Distance relay operation is based on the measured 3Rf
V2A I2A V2F I2F V2B I2B
impedance at the relaying point. When the fault resistance is
equal to zero, the measured impedance by a distance relay is
the actual impedance of the line section between the fault and
ZS0A p Z0L (1-p) Z0L ZS0B
the relaying points. According to Fig. 2 this impedance is
equal to pZ1L, where p is the per unit length of the line section V0A I0A V0F I0F V0B I0B
located between the fault and the relaying points, and Z1L is
the line positive sequence impedance in ohms.
Fig. 3. Equivalent circuit of phase A to earth fault

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It can be seen when the fault resistance is equal to zero, the ( Z S 0 A + 0.5 Z 0 L )Z ST
Z 0 A = ( p − 0.5 ) p Z 0 L + (18)
measured impedance at the relaying point is equal to the Z S 0 A + 0.5 Z 0 L + Z ST
impedance of the line section between relaying and fault
Z ST
points. The power system conditions only affect the measured C11 = (19)
impedance in the presence of fault resistance. Z S 1 A + 0.5 Z 1L + Z ST
When a STATCOM is introduced to a power system, the Z ST
C00 = (20)
above equations would vary. This variation not only depends Z S 0 A + 0.5 Z 0 L + Z ST
on the STATCOM parameters, but also to its installation
( 0.5 Z 1L + Z 1SB )( 1 − EST ) + Z ST ( 1 − h e − jδ )
location. Therefore, the modified equations are presented for Kδ =
three installation points, i.e. relaying point, mid-point, and ( Z 1SA + 0.5 Z 1L )(( p − 0.5 ) Z 1 L h e − jδ + Z 1B EST ) (21)
remote end. In the following sub-section, STATCOM is + Z ST ( Z 1B + ( Z 1SA + P Z 1 L )h e − jδ )
represented by its source voltage, EST, and its natural coupling − ( 0.5 Z 1 L + Z 1SB ) + ( Z 1SA + 0.5 Z 1L )h e − jδ
reactance, ZST.
+ ( Z 1SA + Z 1L + Z 1SB )EST
A. STATCOM at the Near End K'δ = (22)
( Z 1SA + 0.5 Z 1 L )(( p − 0.5 ) Z 1L h e − jδ + Z 1B EST )
In this case STATCOM is not present in the fault loop. + Z ST ( Z 1 B + ( Z 1SA + P Z 1L )h e − jδ )
Here, some of the above equations are modified as below:
Z Z Z A = p Z1L
Z 1 A = p Z 1L + S 1 A ST (11)
Z S 1 A + Z ST ⎡( p − 0.5 )Z 1L ( Z Σ + 3 R f )K'δ + ⎤
⎢ ⎥ (23)
Z S 0 A Z ST ⎢⎣2C1 ( 1 − C11 ) + C0 ( 1 − C00 )( 1 + 3 K 0 L ) + 3 R f ⎥⎦
Z0 A = p Z0 L + (12) +
Z S 0 A + Z ST ( Z Σ + 3 R f )Kδ + 2C1C11 + C0 C00 ( 1 + 3 K 0 L )
− Z 1SA ( h e − jδ − EST ) + Z ST ( 1 − h e − jδ ) It can be seen that in this case the measured impedance at the
Kδ =
Z 1SA ( p Z 1L h e − jδ + Z 1B EST ) (13) relaying point is affected by STATCOM parameters, even in
the absence of the fault resistance.
+ Z ST ( Z 1B + ( Z 1SA + P Z 1 L )h e − jδ )
It can be seen that in the absence of fault resistance, the C. STATCOM at the Remote End
measured impedance is equal to the actual impedance to the In this case STATCOM is installed at the remote bus of the
fault point. transmission line. Therefore, STATCOM is not present in the
fault loop. Here, the equations should be modified as:
B. STATCOM at the Mid-Point
Z Z
In this case STATCOM is not present in the fault loop Z 1B = ( 1 − p )Z 1L + S 1B ST (24)
Z S 1B + Z ST
when the fault occurs on the line section between the relaying
point and the mid-point. On the other hand, when the fault Z S 0 B Z ST
Z 0 B = ( 1 − p )Z 1L + (25)
occurs at the line section between the mid-point and the Z S 0 B + Z ST
remote end, STATCOM is included in the fault loop. In the Z 1SB ( 1 − EST ) + Z ST ( 1 − h e − jδ )
former case, some of the mentioned equations should be Kδ =
Z 1SB (( 1 − p ) Z 1L + Z 1 A EST ) (26)
modified as follow: − jδ
( 0.5 Z 1L + Z S 1 B )Z ST + Z ST (( 1 − p ) Z 1L + Z 1SB + Z 1 A h e )
Z 1B = ( 0.5 − p ) p Z 1L + (14)
0.5 Z 1L + Z S 1B + Z ST It can be seen that in this case when the fault resistance is
equal to the zero, the measured impedance is equal to the
( 0.5 Z 0 L + Z S 0 B )Z ST
Z 0 B = ( 0.5 − p ) p Z 0 L + (15) impedance of the line section which is located between the
0.5 Z 0 L + Z S 0 B + Z ST relaying and fault points.
( 0.5 Z 1L + Z 1SB )( 1 − EST ) + Z ST ( 1 − h e − jδ )
Kδ =
( 0.5 Z 1L + Z 1SB )(( 0.5 − p ) Z 1L + Z 1 A EST ) (16) IV. EFFECTS OF STATCOM ON DISTANCE RELAY TRIPPING
− jδ CHARACTERISTIC
+ Z ST (( 1 − p )Z 1 L + Z 1SB + Z 1 A h e )
The impacts of the installation of a STATCOM on a
It can be seen that in this case also the measured impedance in
transmission line have been tested for a practical system. A
the absence of the fault resistance does not deviate from its
400 kV Iranian transmission line with a length of 300 km has
actual value.
been used for this study. The structure of this line is
When the fault is located at the line section between the
mentioned in [8]. By utilizing the Electro-Magnetic Transient
mid-point and the remote end, STATCOM is present in the
Program (EMTP) [9] various sequence impedances of the line
fault loop and therefore, influences the measured impedance.
are evaluated according to its physical dimensions. The
Here, the mentioned equations should be modified as:
calculated impedances and the other parameters of the system
( Z + 0.5 Z 1L )Z ST
Z 1 A = ( p − 0.5 ) p Z 1L + S 1 A (17) are as follow:
Z S 1 A + 0.5 Z 1L + Z ST R1L = 0.01133 Ω/km
X1L = 0.3037 Ω/km
3

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R0L = 0.1535 Ω/km STATCOM is also shown in the dotted form for comparison.
X0L = 1.1478 Ω/km It can be seen that even when STATCOM is not active, i.e.
Z1SA = 8 ∠ 85º Ω its current is zero; it slightly affects the measured impedance
Z0SA = 12 ∠ 75º Ω at the relaying point. The measured resistance decreases
Z1SB = 16 ∠ 85º Ω slightly as well as the measured reactance. Here the decrease
Z0SB = 24 ∠ 85º Ω in the resistance is more considerable.
h = 0.96 Fig. 6 shows the effect of the variation of IST on the
δ = 16º measured impedance at the relaying point. Here IST takes the
In the absence of STATCOM, Fig. 4 shows the measured values of 1.0, 0.5, 0.0, –0.5, and –1.0.
impedance at the relaying point when fault resistance varies 100
from 0 to 200 ohms and the fault point varies from the
90
relaying point to the remote end of the transmission line. ( -1.0 )
80 ( 0.0 )
( 1.0 )
100
70

Reactance, X (Ohms)
90
60
80
50
70
40
Reactance, X (Ohms)

60
30
50
20
40
10
30
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
20
Resistance, R (Ohms)

10
Fig. 6. Variation of tripping characteristic with STATCOM at relaying point

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 It can be seen that as STATCOM current varies from the
Resistance, R (Ohms)
Fig. 4. Distance relay tripping characteristic without STATCOM lagging to the leading mode, the measured reactance is
increased while the measured resistance variation is not
Normally a STATCOM controls its connecting point considerable, slight decreasing. In the case of the low fault
voltage according to its controlling strategy. Therefore, resistance, the measured impedance is almost unchanged.
STATCOM parameters vary when the loading conditions of
B. STATCOM at the Mid-Point
the power system are changed. But in this study the
operational conditions of the power system are assumed to be Fig. 7 shows the tripping characteristic when IST is equal to
constant and it is assumed these conditions are achieved by zero, i.e. STATCOM is not active.
the different STATCOM operational parameters. Here 140

STATCOM current is utilized to describe the operational

condition. The lagging current is represented by the positive 120

value while the leading current is shown by the negative value. 100
Reactance, X (Ohms)

A. STATCOM at the Near End

80
The tripping characteristic in the case of IST = 0 is shown in
Fig. 5. In this case STATCOM does not supply or absorb 60

100 40

90
20
80

70 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Reactance, X (Ohms)

Resistance, R (Ohms)
60
Fig. 7. Tripping characteristic with STATCOM at the mid-point
50

40 It can be seen that the tripping characteristic is composed

30 of two parts. The lower part is related to the line section
20 located between the relaying point and the mid-point. In this
10
part the measured resistance increases, while the measured
reactance slightly decreases. The upper part is relevant to the
0
0 50 100 150 200
Resistance, R (Ohms)
250 300 350 line section between the mid-point and the remote end. In this
Fig. 5. Tripping characteristic with STATCOM at the relaying point case the measured resistance increases, while the measured
reactive power. In Fig. 5 the tripping characteristic without reactance changes differently. When the fault resistance is

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 5

zero, the deviation of the measured reactance is high,

especially at the remote end.
In Fig. 7 the lower and the upper parts of the tripping
characteristic has a common boundary, which is the upper
boundary of the lower part and the lower boundary of the
upper part. These two parts dose not have any overlapped area
and there is no space between them.
Fig. 8 shows the impact of the variation of IST on the
measured impedance at the relaying point. Here IST takes the
values of 1.0, 0.5, 0.0, –0.5, and –1.0.
150

Fig. 9. Tripping characteristic with STATCOM at the remote end

( 1.0 )

100
( 0.5 ) It can be seen that even when STATCOM is not active, it
Reactance, X (Ohms)

( 0.0 ) affects the measured impedance at the relaying point. In this

case the measured impedance varies slightly. The measured
( -0.5 )
resistance decreases slightly as well as the measured reactance.
( -1.0 )
50 Here the measured resistance and reactance decrease
approximately in a same manner. In this case the variation of
the measured reactance is more considerable comparing with
the case of STATCOM presence at the relaying point.
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 Fig. 10 shows the effect of variation of IST on the measured
Resistance, R (Ohms)
Fig. 8. Variation of tripping characteristic with STATCOM at the mid-point impedance at the relaying point. Here IST takes the magnitudes
of 1.0, 0.5, 0.0, –0.5, and –1.0.
It can be seen when STATCOM current varies from the 100

lagging mode to the leading mode, the measured resistance in 90

( 1.0 )
the both upper and lower parts of the tripping characteristic 80 ( 0.0 )

does not change considerably. The resistance increases as 70

( -1.0 )

STATCOM changes its mode from the lagging to the leading

Reactance, X (Ohms)

60
mode. On the other hand, the measured reactance varies
50
greatly when STATCOM changes its operation mode. As it
40
can be seen in Fig. 8 the variation of the measured reactance is
not uniform along the transmission line in the lower and upper 30

parts. In the lower part, as the operational mode of 20

STATCOM is changed, the measured reactance decreases for 10

any value of fault resistance and as the fault resistance 0

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
increases the variation of the measured reactance also Resistance, R (Ohms)

increases. When the operating mode of STATCOM is
changed from the lagging to the leading mode, in the upper
part, the measured impedance in case of the low fault
resistance increases, while for the high magnitudes of the fault
resistance the measured reactance decreases considerably, and
for the medium values of the fault resistance the measured
reactance is exposed to the lowest variation. In the upper part,
unlike the lower part, when the fault resistance is zero, the
measured impedance is not equal to the actual impedance of
the line section located between the fault and relaying points.
Fig. 10. Variation of tripping characteristic with STATCOM at remote end
It can be seen that as the operational mode of STATCOM
varies from the lagging to the leading mode, the measured
reactance decreases, while the measured resistance variation is
not considerable and increases slightly. In the case of low
fault resistance, the measured impedance is almost unchanged.
Comparing this case with the case of the STATCOM presence
at the relaying point, it can be seen that the variation of the
measured impedance has an opposite pattern in these cases.

C. STATCOM at the Remote End V. CONCLUSIONS

Fig. 9 shows the that tripping characteristic in the case of This paper presents the measured impedance by distance
IST is equal to zero. In this case, STATCOM does not supply relay in the presence of a STATCOM on the transmission line.
or absorb any reactive power. The tripping characteristic Three installation positions have been considered for the
without STATCOM is also shown in the dotted form. STATCOM; at the near end bus, at the mid-point of the line,
and at the remote end bus. For each installation point, the
100
measured impedance at the relaying point is evaluated. This
90

80 5
70
(Ohms)

60
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 6

impedance depends on the controlling parameters of VII. BIOGRAPHIES

STATCOM, as well as the system operational and structural
conditions. Ahad Kazemi, was born in Tehran, Iran, in 1952.
In the cases of installation of STATCOM at the line ends He received his MSc degree in electrical
buses, STATCOM is not present in the fault loop. When engineering from Oklahoma Statasze University,
U.S.A in 1979. He is currently an associate
STATCOM is installed at the mid-point, if the fault locates professor in electrical engineering department of
between the relaying point and the mid-point, in this case Iran University of Science and Technology, Tehran,
STATCOM is not present in the fault loop; otherwise Iran. His research interests are reactive power
control, power system dynamics, stability and
STATCOM would be included in the fault loop. When control and FACTS devices.
STATCOM is not present in the fault loop for zero fault
resistance, the measured impedance is equal to the actual
impedance of the line section between the relaying and fault Sadegh Jamali, was born in 1956 in Tehran, Iran.
He received his BSc from Sharif university of
points. On the other hand, when STATCOM involves in the Technology in Tehran in 1979, MSc from UMIST,
fault loop, even in the case of zero fault resistance, the Manchester, UK in 1986 and PhD from City
measured impedance would be deviated from its actual value. University, London, UK in 1990, all in Electrical
Engineering. Dr. Jamali is currently an Associate
Therefore, when STATCOM is installed at the line ends, the Professor in the Department of Electrical
conventional distance relays operation would be acceptable, Engineering at Iran University of Science and
but when STATCOM located at the mid-point of the Technology in Tehran. Dr. Jamali is a Fellow of the Institution of Electrical
transmission line, the conventional distance relays are exposed Engineers (IEE) and the IEE Council Representative in Iran. His field of
interest includes Power System Protection and Distribution Systems.
to the mal-operation, in the form of over-reaching or under-
reaching. In this case, the effect of STATCOM on the
protective zones should be considered. Since deviation of the Hossein Shateri, was born in 1979 in Karaj, Iran.
measured impedance is not constant, because of the varying He received his BSc and MSc from Iran University
of Science and Technology in Tehran in 2001 and
parameters of STATCOM, adaptive methods should be 2003, respectively all in Electrical Engineering. He
utilized. is currently working towards a Phd degree in the
Department of Electrical Engineering at Iran
University of Science and Technology (IUST) in
VI. REFERENCES Tehran, Iran since Sep. 2004 and the research
[1] Zhang Zhizhe, C. Deshu, "An adaptive approach in digital distance assistant of Digital Power System Protection Lab. H.
protection”, IEEE Trans. Power Delivery, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 135-142, Jan. Shateri is a Member of the Institution of Electrical Engineers (IEE). His field
1991. of interest includes Power System Protection, and Distribution Systems
[2] Y. Q. Xia, K. K. Li, A. K. David, “Adaptive relay setting for stand-alone Protection and Automation.
digital distance protection”, IEEE Trans. Power Delivery, vol. 9, no. 1,
pp. 480-491, Jan. 1994.
[3] S. Jamali, “A fast adaptive digital distance protection”, in Proc. 2001
IEE 7th International Conference on Developments in Power System
Protection, pp. 149-152.
[4] Y. Q. Xia, K. K. Li, A. K. David, “Operation of impedance protection
relays with the STATCOM”, IEEE Trans. Power Delivery, vol. 17, no.
2, pp. 381-387, April 2002.
[5] P. K. dash, A. K. Pradhan, G. Panda, A. C. Liew, “Digital protection of
power transmission lines in the presence of series connected FACTS
devices”, IEEE Trans. Power Delivery, vol. 15, no. 1, pp. 38-43, Jan.
2000.
[6] P. K. dash, A. K. Pradhan, G. Panda, A. C. Liew, “Adaptive relay setting
for flexible AC transmission systems (FACTS)”, in Proc. 2000 IEEE
Power Engineering Society Winter Meeting, vol. 3, pp. 1967-1972.
[7] A. T. Johns, A. Ter-Gazarian, D. F. Warne, Flexible ac transmission
systems (FACTS), Padstow, Cornwall: TJ International Ltd., 1999.
[8] S. Jamali, H. Shateri, “Robustness of distance relay with quadrilateral
characteristic against fault resistance”, in Proc. 2004 IEEE International
Conference on Power System Technology, PowerCon2004.
[9] H. W. Dommel, “EMPT reference manual”, Microtran Power System
Analysis Corporation, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, August
1997.

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