Taxonomy PDF

TAXONOMY
Presented by:
MELANIE I. SAMUDIO
Teacher III
CALAMBA CITY SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

Chipeco Avenue, Brgy. 3, Calamba City, Laguna 4027
Conditions on early Earth made the origin of life
possible
1. Abiotic synthesis of small organic
molecules.
2. Joining of these small molecules into
macromolecules.
3. Packaging of molecules into
“protobionts.”
4. Origin of self-replicating molecules.
CALibrated and SENsible
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Earth’s early atmosphere likely contained water
vapor and chemicals released by volcanic
eruptions (nitrogen, nitrogen oxides, carbon
dioxide, methane, ammonia, hydrogen, hydrogen
sulfide).

• A. I. Oparin and J. B. S. Haldane hypothesized
that the early atmosphere was a reducing
environment.
• Stanley Miller and Harold Urey conducted lab
experiments that showed that the abiotic
synthesis of organic molecules in a reducing
atmosphere is possible.
• However, the evidence is not yet convincing
that the early atmosphere was in fact reducing.
• Instead of forming in the atmosphere, the first
organic compounds may have been synthesized
near submerged volcanoes and deep-sea vents.
• Amino acids have also been found in
meteorites.
Abiotic Synthesis of Macromolecules
Monomers --> Polymers
• Protobionts are aggregates of abiotically

produced molecules surrounded by a
membrane or membrane-like structure.
• Protobionts exhibit simple reproduction and
metabolism and maintain an internal chemical
environment.

• Experiments demonstrate that protobionts
could have formed spontaneously from
abiotically produced organic compounds.
• For example, small membrane-bounded
droplets called liposomes can form when lipids
or other organic molecules are added to water

Self-Replicating RNA and the Dawn of Natural
Selection
• The first genetic material was probably RNA,

not DNA.
• RNA molecules called ribozymes have been
found to catalyze many different reactions

Sedimentary Rocks and Fossils
• Sedimentary strata reveal the relative ages of

fossils.
• The absolute ages of fossils can be determined
by radiometric dating.
• Half-life

• The oldest known fossils are stromatolites,
rock-like structures composed of many layers
of bacteria and sediment.
• Stromatolites date back 3.5 billion years ago
• Prokaryotes were Earth’s sole inhabitants from
3.5 to about 2.1 billion years ago.

Photosynthesis and the Oxygen Revolution
O2 produced by oxygenic photosynthesis reacted

with dissolved iron and precipitated out to form
banded iron formations.

• By about 2.7 billion years ago, O2 began
accumulating in the atmosphere and rusting
iron-rich terrestrial rocks.
• This “oxygen revolution” from 2.7 to 2.2 billion
years ago
Posed a challenge for life
Provided opportunity to gain energy from light
Allowed organisms to exploit new ecosystems.
The First Eukaryotes
• The hypothesis of endosymbiosis proposes that

mitochondria and plastids (chloroplasts and
related organelles) were formerly small
prokaryotes living within larger host cells
• An endosymbiont is a cell that lives within a
host cell.

• Serial endosymbiosis supposes that
mitochondria evolved before plastids through a
sequence of endosymbiotic events.

Key evidence supporting an endosymbiotic
origin of mitochondria and plastids:
1. Similarities in inner membrane structures and
functions.
2. These organelles transcribe and translate their own
DNA.
3. Their ribosomes are more similar to prokaryotic than
eukaryotic ribosomes.
Five Big Mass Extinctions

Massive Meterorite Impact Evidence
• The presence of iridium in sedimentary rocks

suggests a meteorite impact about 65 million
years ago.
• The Chicxulub crater off the coast of Mexico is
evidence of a meteorite that dates to the same
time.

Is a Sixth Mass Extinction Under Way?
Consequences …
• Scientists estimate that the current rate of
extinction is 100 to 1,000 times the typical
background rate.
• Data suggest that a sixth human-caused mass
extinction is likely to occur unless dramatic
action is taken.

• Adaptive radiation is the evolution of diversely
adapted species from a common ancestor
upon introduction to new environmental
opportunities.
• The disappearance of dinosaurs (except birds)
allowed for the expansion of mammals in
diversity and size.

BACTERIA AND ARCHAE

PROKARYOTES
• Unicellular
• 0.5–5 µm
• three most common shapes are spheres (cocci),
rods (bacilli), and spirals.

Leptospira
Lactobacillus
Staphylococcus
aureus
Cell wall
• maintains cell shape

• provides physical protection
• prevents the cell from bursting in a hypotonic
environment.
• contain peptidoglycan, a network of sugar
polymers cross-linked by polypeptides

Cell wall
• A capsule covers many prokaryotes

which is made up of polysaccharide
or protein
• Fimbriae ( attachment pili )
• Sex pili – longer ; allow prokaryotes
to exchange DNA by conjugation

2 kinds of bacteria according to cell wall
composition;
1. Gram positive
2. Gram negative

Gram-negative bacteria
•have less peptidoglycan and an outer membrane

that can be toxic, and they are more likely to be
antibiotic resistant.

Gram positive
• thick peptidoglycan

Gram positive
–Actinomycetes, which decompose soil.
–Bacillus anthracis, the cause of anthrax.
–Clostridium botulinum, the cause of
botulism.
–Some Staphylococcus and
Streptococcus, which can be
pathogenic.
–Mycoplasms, the smallest known cells.

Reproduction and Endospores Adaptation
• Asexually by binary
fission
• Endospores – remain
dormant and viable
in harsh conditions for
centuries

Genetic Recombination
TRANSFORMATION – incorporation of foreign
DNA from the surrounding environment
TRANSDUCTION – movement of genes
between bacteria by bacteriophages
CONJUGATION - process where genetic
material is transferred between bacterial
cells.

NUTRITIONAL ADAPTATION
Phototrophs obtain energy from light.

Chemotrophs obtain energy from
chemicals.
Autotrophs require CO2 as a carbon
source.
Heterotrophs require an organic
nutrient to make organic compounds.
FOUR MODES OF NUTRITION
1. photoautotrophy
2. chemoautotrophy
3. Photoheterotrophy
4. chemoheterotrophy

The Role of Oxygen in Metabolism
–Obligate aerobes require O2 for cellular

respiration.
–Obligate anaerobes are poisoned by O2
and use fermentation or anaerobic
respiration.
–Facultative anaerobes can survive with or
without O2
Nitrogen Metabolism
•some prokaryotes convert
atmospheric nitrogen (N2) to
ammonia (NH3)
•Anabaena azolla,
photosynthetic cells and
nitrogen-fixing cells called
heterocytes exchange
metabolic products
Nitrogen Metabolism
•Rhizobium - They form root

nodules in legumes
(mutualism ++ ) and fix
atmospheric N2

Domain: Archaea
•prokaryotes and share certain traits with bacteria
and other traits with eukaryotes
•Extremophiles – archaen that live in extreme
environments
•Extreme halophiles live in highly saline, salty
environments.
•Extreme thermophiles thrive in very hot
environments.
•Methanogens live in swamps and marshes and
produce methane as a waste product.

Ecological Interactions
•Symbiosis is an ecological relationship in which

two different species live in close contact: a larger
host and smaller symbiont.
•In mutualism, + +
•In commensalism, + 0
•In parasitism, + - an organism called a parasite
harms but does not kill its host. Parasites that
cause disease are called pathogens.

•Exotoxins cause disease even if the prokaryotes
that produce them are not present.
•Endotoxins are released only when bacteria die
and their cell walls break down.

PROTIST
Reproduce asexually or sexually
Photoautotrophs - contain chloroplasts.

Heterotrophs - absorb organic molecules or
ingest larger food particles.
Mixotrophs - combine photosynthesis and
heterotrophic nutrition.

Endosymbiosis in Eukaryotic Evolution
• Mitochondria evolved by endosymbiosis of an

aerobic prokaryote.
• Plastids evolved by endosymbiosis of a
photosynthetic cyanobacterium

Endosymbiosis --> Eukaryotic Evolution
Plastid
Dinoflagellates
Secondary
endosymbiosis
Apicomplexans
Cyanobacterium Red alga
Primary
endosymbiosis Stramenopiles
Heterotrophic Secondary Plastid

endosymbiosis
eukaryote
Over the course
of evolution,
this membrane Euglenids
was lost.
Secondary
endosymbiosis
Green alga
Chlorarachniophytes
Euglenozoans
• predatory
heterotrophs,
photosynthetic
autotrophs, and
pathogenic parasites
• spiral or crystalline rod
of unknown function
inside their flagella
Trypanosoma -
the Kinetoplastid
that causes
Sleeping Sickness

Euglenids can be both autotrophic and
heterotrophic

Dinoflagellates some are bioluminescent /cause
“Red Tides”

Ciliates: Paramecium
• cilia to move and feed

• large macronuclei and small micronuclei -
micronuclei function during conjugation

Diatoms
• unicellular
algae with a
unique two-
part, glass-like
wall of hydrated
silica

Golden Algae
• yellow and brown

carotenoids
• Photosynthetic
• cells of golden
algae are typically
biflagellated

Brown Algae
• multicellular
• most are marine
• most complex
multicellular anatomy of
all algae
• algal body is plantlike but
lacks true roots, stems,
and leaves and is called a
thallus
Red Algae
• reddish in color due to an accessory pigment

call phycoerythrin
• greenish-red in shallow water to dark red or
almost black in deep water
• most abundant large algae in coastal waters of
the tropics
• seaweeds
Nori. The red alga Porphyra is the
source of a traditional Japanese food. The seaweed is
grown on nets in
shallow coastal
waters.
The harvested
seaweed is spread
on bamboo screens
to dry.
Paper-thin, glossy sheets of nori

make a mineral-rich wrap for rice,
seafood, and vegetables in sushi.
Green Algae
grass-green
chloroplasts

Amoebozoans
• amoeba that have lobe- or tube-shaped, rather

than threadlike, pseudopodia
• They include gymnamoebas, entamoebas, and
slime molds.

Slime Molds > fungus-like
brightly pigmented, usually yellow or orange

PLANTS
Advantages of moving onto land:
1. unfiltered sun
2. more plentiful CO2
3. nutrient-rich soil
4. few herbivores or pathogens
Challenges:
1. a scarcity of water
2. lack of structural support
Derived Traits of Plants
–Alternation of generations - with multicellular,

dependent embryos.
–Walled spores produced in sporangia
–Multicellular gametangia
–Apical meristems

Group of plants according to vascular
tissue:
1. Bryophytes – nonvascular
2. Tracheophytes - vascular

FUNGI
• break down organic material and recycle vital
nutrients
• Heterotrophs
• absorb nutrients from outside of their body
• use enzymes to break down a large variety of
complex molecules into smaller organic
compounds
• most common body structures are
multicellular filaments and single cells
(yeasts)
Fungi exhibit diverse lifestyles:
Decomposers / saphrophytes
Parasites + -
Mutualists + +

Fungal Morphology : hyphae
• Fungi consist of mycelia, networks of branched

hyphae adapted for absorption
• Most fungi have cell walls made of chitin

2 KINDS OF FUNGI ACCORDING TO THE
TYPE OF HYPHAE
Septate fungi - Some fungi have hyphae divided

into cells by septa, with pores allowing cell-to-cell
movement of organelles.
Coenocytic fungi lack septa.

FUNGAL REPRODUCTION
• producing vast numbers of spores, either

sexually or asexually

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Plasmogamy is the union of two parent hyphae,

mycelia
Karyogamy, the haploid nuclei fuse, producing
diploid cells: n + n = 2n

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Molds produce haploid spores by mitosis and

form visible mycelia.
Yeasts reproduce asexually by budding

3 DIVISIONS
1. ZYGOMYCETES
2. ASCOMYCETES
3. BASIDIOMYCETES
4. DEUTEROMYCOTA

ZYGOMECETES
• include fast-growing molds

• Zygosporangia, which are resistant to freezing
and drying, can survive unfavorable conditions

ASCOMYCETES
• live in marine, freshwater, and terrestrial

habitats
• production of sexual spores in saclike asci,
usually contained in fruiting bodies called
ascocarps
• sac fungi

BASIDIOMYCETES
• include mushrooms, puffballs, and shelf fungi,

mutualists, and plant parasites
• clublike structure called a basidium, a transient
diploid stage in the life cycle
• club fungi

LICHENS
• a ++ symbiotic association between a
photosynthetic microorganism and a fungus in
which millions of photosynthetic cells are held
in a mass of fungal hyphae
• The fungal component of a lichen is most often
an ascomycete
• Algae or cyanobacteria

The algae provide carbon compounds,
cyanobacteria provide organic nitrogen, and fungi
provide the environment for growth.

Practical Uses of Fungi
Food: cheeses, alcoholic beverages, and

bread
Medicine: Penicillium notatum
Genetic research: Saccharomyces
cerevisiae – insulin-like growth factor

ANIMALIA
• multicellular, heterotrophic eukaryotes with
tissues that develop from embryonic layers
• Nutritional Mode: heterotrophs
• multicellular eukaryotes
• lack cell walls
• Their bodies are held together by structural
proteins such as collagen
• Nervous tissue and muscle tissue are unique
to animals.
REPRODUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT
• reproduce sexually
• the zygote undergoes rapid cell division called
cleavage
• blastula
• The blastula undergoes gastrulation, forming a
gastrula with different layers of embryonic
tissues
BODY PLAN - SYMMETRY
1. radial symmetry
2. bilateral symmetry
A dorsal (top) side and a ventral (bottom) side
A right and left side
Anterior (head) and posterior (tail) ends
Cephalization, the development of a head.

BODY PLAN - TISSUES
1. Ectoderm - layer covering the embryo’s

surface.
2. Endoderm - the innermost germ layer
and lines the developing digestive tube,
called the archenteron
3. middle mesoderm layer; these include
all bilaterians

PORIFERA
• Most primitive multicellular organism

perforated with numerous pores (ostia)
• Filter feeding
• Choanocytes (collar cells)–
flagellated cells

CNIDARIANS
Radial symmetry
Mostly marine
Endoskeleton ( chitin; CaCO3 )
Nerve nets
No respiratory nor excretory system
2 body form : polyp or medusa
Cnidocytes – stinging cells
PLATYHELMINTHES
Dorso-ventrally flat
Bilaterally symmetrical
Nervous system ( eyespot )
Monoecious (male and female)

NEMATODA
Parasites
Round, bilaterally symmentrical
Unsegmented
Complete digestive track

MOLLUSCA
• Soft-bodied animal
• Muscular foot
• Shell
• Respiratory : present
• With excretory
(kidneys/metanephridia)
• With nervous system

ANNELIDA
• Segmented worms
• Body walls
• Cuticle
• Closed type of circulatory system
• Complete type of digestive system
• Nervous system (brain)
• Hermaphrodites
• Excretory system(nephridia)
ARTHROPODS
Jointed appendages
Bilaterally symmetrical
Exoskeleton (chitin)
Open circulatory system
Nervous system

ECHINODERMATA
• Spiny-skinned
• Calcareous exoskeleton
• Complete digestive system
• Bilateral symmetry
• Nervous system

CHORDATA
Notochord
Dorsal, hollow nerve cord
Pharyngeal slits or clefts
Muscular, post-anal tail

Thank You!
CALAMBA CITY SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

Chipeco Avenue, Brgy. 3, Calamba City, Laguna 4027

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TAXONOMY

CALAMBA CITY SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

CALibrated and SENsible

• Protobionts are aggregates of abiotically

CALibrated and SENsible

CALibrated and SENsible

• The first genetic material was probably RNA,

CALibrated and SENsible

• Sedimentary strata reveal the relative ages of

CALibrated and SENsible

CALibrated and SENsible

O2 produced by oxygenic photosynthesis reacted

CALibrated and SENsible

• The hypothesis of endosymbiosis proposes that

CALibrated and SENsible

CALibrated and SENsible

CALibrated and SENsible

• The presence of iridium in sedimentary rocks

CALibrated and SENsible

CALibrated and SENsible

CALibrated and SENsible

CALibrated and SENsible

CALibrated and SENsible

• maintains cell shape

CALibrated and SENsible

• A capsule covers many prokaryotes

CALibrated and SENsible

CALibrated and SENsible

•have less peptidoglycan and an outer membrane

CALibrated and SENsible

CALibrated and SENsible

CALibrated and SENsible

CALibrated and SENsible

CALibrated and SENsible

Phototrophs obtain energy from light.

CALibrated and SENsible

–Obligate aerobes require O2 for cellular

•Rhizobium - They form root

CALibrated and SENsible

CALibrated and SENsible

•Symbiosis is an ecological relationship in which

CALibrated and SENsible

CALibrated and SENsible

Reproduce asexually or sexually

Photoautotrophs - contain chloroplasts.

CALibrated and SENsible

• Mitochondria evolved by endosymbiosis of an

CALibrated and SENsible

Cyanobacterium Red alga

Heterotrophic Secondary Plastid

CALibrated and SENsible

CALibrated and SENsible

CALibrated and SENsible

• cilia to move and feed

CALibrated and SENsible

CALibrated and SENsible

• yellow and brown

CALibrated and SENsible

• reddish in color due to an accessory pigment

Paper-thin, glossy sheets of nori

CALibrated and SENsible

• amoeba that have lobe- or tube-shaped, rather