THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF PETROLEUM GEOLOGISTS BULLETIN
MAY 1976 VOLUME 60, NUMBER 5
Application of i-ANDSAT imagery to Petroleum and Mineral
Exploration^
Abstract The LANDSAT (ERTS) project is the most
significant mission ever Itovm by NASA. The use of
LANDSAT imagery by the mineral and energy indus-
tries in the United States can improve the nation's do-
mestic resource base in a shorter time and at a more
reasonable cost than would have been possible other-
wise.
Properly interpreted information from LANDSAT im-
ages can save corporations millions of dollars in un-
necessary exploration and development efforts and at
the same time provide geologic clues to the discovery
of tremendous reserves. The more the LANDSAT data
are used, the more innovations for their use will be
established.
LANDSAT data have broad use in the minerals/fuel
field, including the following general applications:
1. Detection of large-scale geologic structures that
previously were unknown and which may be significant
with respect to the localization of hydrocarbons. Such
features commonly are not recognizable on aerial pho-
tographs.
2. The possible detection of very subtle tonal anom-
alies that may represent alteration of the soils resulting resources?" Although the answer was anticipated
from miniseeps of gas from hydrocarbon reservoirs.
3. The potential for detecting natural marine oil
seeps with consequent improvement in efficiency of
offshore exploration.
4. Detection on outcrops of important minerals and
metals, especially in hostile environments.
5. The monitoring in Arctic areas of ice distribution
and movement that may affect transport of materials, Geologists. All rights reserved.
the cost of seismic exploration in sea-ice areas, and
the safety of exploration and production operations.
6. The monitoring of oil-field development and trans-
port facilities, such as the Alaska pipeline, and an as-
sessment of this development on the environment.
7. The potential for improved communication and
decision making within petroleum companies.
LANDSAT imagery provides the explorationist a
most rapid and inexpensive tool which could add im-
measurably to his geologic knowledge.
INTRODUCTION
As early as 1965, the late William T. Pecora,
former Director of the U.S. Geological Survey
MICHEL T. HALBOUTY2
Houston, Texas 77027
and Under Secretary of the Department of the
Interior, emphasized the potential of space imag-
ery and its value to the geologic community, in
general, and the petroleum industry, specifically.
Even before 1965, as petroleum industry leaders
expressed concern about the ability of their in-
dustry to meet the energy demand of the 1970s,
and especially the 1980s, Pecora predicted that
space imagery would provide many answers to
the complexities of future onshore petroleum ex-
ploration.
Fortunately for the country, forward-thinking
people like Pecora were able to combine techno-
logic developments with long-range planning and
develop the space-imagery program which un-
equivocally and affirmatively answers the ques-
tion, "Can pictures from satellites be of value to
the earth scientist in his exploration for mineral
by most interested workers because of the impact
aerial photography had had on geology and spe-
cifically on petroleum exploration, the expected
©Copyright 1976. The American Association of Petroleum
•Manuscript received, November 1, 1975; accepted,
December 18, 1975.
^Consulting Geologist and Petroleum Engineer, Independent
Producer and Operator.
Modified from paper presented at the 1st Annual William T.
Pecora Memorial Symposium, October 29, 1975, Sioux Falls,
South Dakota.
The writer expresses his sincere appreciation for the valuable
assistance rendered in the preparation of the paper by John
DeNoyer, W. A. Fischer, and W. D. Carter of the U.S.
Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia. Thanks also are expressed
to W. W. Brown and Roy Bichan of the Robertson Research
International Ltd., "Tyn-Y-Coed," Llanrhos Llandudno,
Gwynedd, North Wales, for their assistance in the preparation
of the Indonesian figures.
745
746 Michel T. Halbouty
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FIG. 1—Relative roles of spacecraft, aircraft, and man on ground in exploration processes (from U.S.
Geol. Survey).
potential of LANDSAT was significantly less
than that which now can be demonstrated.
It should be stated clearly that satellite data are
not the entire answer to problems of exploration
or monitoring, but rather constitute a new ele-
ment of information to be coupled with existing
technology to increase the efficiency of search.
Figure 1 is a simple expression of the concept
of a systematic approach toward improving our
nation's minerals posture and how remote sensing
from spacecraft and aircraft improves the effi-
ciency of ground surveys. Without remote-sens-
ing data, the cost of a man-conducted ground sur-
vey to estabhsh a resource target would be very
high. If man were able to obtain aircraft remote-
sensing data, the cost of conducting an earth sur-
vey to establish a re.source target would be much
less. On the other hand, if man were able to ob-
tain spacecraft remote-sensing information, the
overall cost of the ground survey to estabhsh a
resource target would be still less. This statement
is illustrated effectively by the fact that each regu-
lar standard spacecraft image covers an area of
13,225 sq mi (34,385 sq km)-115 by 115 mi (185
RVMOrt: SENSING
from spacocrafi and aircraft
IMPFiOVES EFFICIENCY
OF EARTH SURVEYS
by 185 km)—and the total cost for this image is
only $3. Conceivably this $3-image might be re-
sponsible for finding hundreds of milUons of dol-
lars of energy or mineral resources. This figure
substantiates the thesis which was suggested in
early studies by Troliinger (1968), who worked
with Gemini and Apollo photographs, that "the
higher we go, the deeper we see." Troliinger, in
association with geologists knowledgeable of the
subsurface, recognized that a Gemini photograph
of part of Texas and New Mexico (Fig. 2) showed
an undetected surface expression of the Delaware
basin. The western outline of the basin previously
was unrecognized on the surface and would not
have been recognized if a spacecraft image were
not available.
The policy of making LANDSAT data freely
available to anyone has been criticized by some
who think that the data should be retained for
domestic use regardless of the area imaged. How-
ever, the writer believes that with the "open" poli-
cy we can utilize these data better than any other
nation and that cooperation with all involved (im-
aged) countries eventually will lead to quicker
LANDSAT Imagery for Petroleum and Mineral Exploration 747

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748 Michel T. Halbouty

FIG. 3—Stereopair of Gunnison River, Black Canyon, Colorado, area produced by digital correla-
tion of LANDSAT and elevation data to create relief displacement. Imagery was provided by NASA,
elevation data by Defense Mapping Agency, and correlation by U.S. Geological Survey Center of
Astrogeology (Flagstaff, Ariz.). Right-hand image displays topography in its natural form as recorded
by LANDSAT. Left-hand image contains relief displacement, toward north, as function of elevation.
Approximate scale is 1:630,000, ID-1407-17190. North is to the right and top of pair is west.

and more extensive understanding of the data
and to exploration and development of important
geologic phenomena and features throughout the
world.
IMAGE MAPS
In many ways, LANDSAT data are superior to
the photographs derived from Gemini and Apol-
lo, principally because the digital nature of
LANDSAT imagery permits sophisticated data
processing. For example, P. S. Chaves, L. A. So-
derblom, and E. M. Eliason (written commun.,
1975) have computed approximations of true col-
or of the land surface (although the basic obser-
vations are not in true color) and combined the
resulting data with existing digitized topographic
information to produce three-dimensional stereo-
graphic images in essentially true color. An exam-
ple of this type of image is shown in Figure 3.
Cartography
Petroleum exploration and development are
complex processes, but they begin with the need
for a map. Figure 4, a mosaic of LANDSAT im-
ages of the State of Florida (McEwen and
Schoonmaker, 1975), illustrates the present capa-
biUty to produce maps of this quality for essen-
tially 90 percent of the land surface of the earth.
Many nations are using LANDSAT data for
cartographic purposes. For example. South Africa
now is in the process of complete mapping of the
country with these data. J. D. Leatherdale, of
Hunting Surveys Ltd. (written commun., 1975),
reported, "We have recently completed a produc-
tion task involving mapping a large part of the
Sudan at 1:250,000 scale from ERTS as another
proven survey technique to be used in conjunc-
tion with other survey techniques as requirements
dictate."
Geologic Maps
Not only are the nations of the world using
LANDSAT images for cartographic purposes,
but also for interpretation of geologic features.
For example, it is known that the Malay Peninsu-
la was part of the core of the western Indonesian
archipelago, the "Sunda shelf," a relatively stable
landmass since at least the Permian. The north-
eastern boundary of this little "continent" is a
fault zone, which has been traced between Natu-
na Island and the area southeast of Kuching (Fig.
5) by means of offshore seismic surveys and on-
shore geologic mapping. Coal is present just south
of this fault in the "Ketungua basin" southeast of
Kuching.
The known fault and basin with coal are shown
in the northwestern part of the annotated ERTS
image (Fig. 6) and interpretation (Fig. 7). The lat-
ter also shows a previously unknown easterly con-
tinuation of the fault in the central part of the
imaged area for a distance of about 100 mi (160
km).
Additionally in the interpretation, the length of
the coal-bearing units on the surface is extended
 LANDSAT Imagery for Petroleum and Mineral Exploration 749

FIG. 4—"False-color" image map of State of Florida compiled from LANDSAT data by U.S. Geological Survey.
Original scale of map is 1:500,000. On this and subsequent "false-color" images, vegetation in vigorous growth appears
red, clear water black, urban areas and shallow or silty water different shades of blue.
750 Michel T. Halbouty

S U N D A

L E G E N D

PROBABLE TRENCH POSITION-

LOWER TERTIARY

ANTICLINE , SHOWING DIRECTION

t
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TERTIARY SEDIMENTS
W/M
CONTINENTAL AREAS \m :|
FIG. 5—Major tectonic features along northeast boundary of Sunda shelf (from Robertson Research
International Ltd.).
 LANDSAT Imagery for Petroleum and Mineral Exploration 751

FIG. 6—LANDSAT image of west-central Kalimantan. Length of side 115 mi (185 km). Location and geologic
interpretation given in Figure 7.
752 Michel T. Halbouty

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FIG. 7—Geologic interpretation of LANDSAT image shown in Figure 6 (from Robertson Research International Ltd.)-
 LANDSAT Imagery for Petroleum and Mineral Exploration
for a distance of about 50 mi (80 km). Interpreta-
tion of the structure indicates that the area has
been tectonically active during and after deposi-
tion of the coal.
An example of imagery interpretation leading
to a reduction in exploration expenditure is illus-
trated by the map of part of the productive Indo-
nesian Central Sumatra basin (Fig. 8). It is an
elongated Tertiary foreland basin bounded by the
pre-Tertiary Barisan ranges in the southwest and
by the continental Sunda shelf in the northeast.
This basin is controlled by northwest-southeast-
trending strike faults and northeast-southwest-
trending cross faults with both types probably af-
fecting the basement.
It would be a costly and time-consuming exer-
cise to define accurately the boundaries of the
central uplift, the "Kampar high," by convention-
al geologic and geophysical techniques. Interpre-
tation of the LANDSAT image (Fig. 9) clearly
indicates the position of these boundaries, and
subsequent work can be limited to testing the in-
terpretation with a few widely spaced seismic tra-
verses. Subsequent exploration may be concen-
trated on the more promising deeper parts of the
basin. The flanks of the anticlines in the central
part of the map and areas along faults provide
obvious targets which can be explored with a
comparatively restricted program.
In the southern part of the Barito basin, south-
east Kalimantan, Indonesia (Figs. 10, 11), are
three fossil shorelines, which probably are related
to eustatic changes in sea level during the Holo-
cene. These particular shorelines illustrate the
usefulness of LANDSAT images in developing
sedimentologic models for a variety of geologic
frameworks as analogs of petroleum reservoirs.
Land-Use Maps
Image maps present a wealth of detail that can
assist in making initial judgments regarding selec-
tion of areas of consideration for exploration, re-
finery, and other installation sitings, or the count-
less other industry land uses. These image maps
provide not only general cartographic informa-
tion but also data on current and changing land
use or cover; thus the image maps can assist in
making judgments and setting priorities not only
in exploration but in marketing and distributing
activities as well.
For example, James R. Wray (written com-
mun., 1975) developed a land-cover map from
LANDSAT data of Washington, D.C., and envi-
rons (Fig. 12). This map, prepared entirely by au-
tomated means, incorporates the knowledge of an
experienced geographer. The delineation of ur-
ban-growth areas (red color) illustrates the power
753
of the spacecraft system to portray the works of
man as well as natural features. Of course, succes-
sive images may be taken later to show the
changes and provide information for land-plan-
ning purposes. These types of images are essential
in land-use mapping and for many other impor-
tant uses in the complex activities of the petro-
leum and mining industries.
GEOLOGIC APPLICATIONS
LANDSAT (ERTS) was designed to test four
geologic hypotheses: (I) multispectral images,
properly recorded and processed, would prove
useful in mapping the distribution of rock types,
geochemical anomalies, and alteration products;
(2) some geologic and hydrogeologic features are
visible only intermittently, depending on the an-
gle of illumination or snow, water, or vegetation
distributions; (3) large structures on the surface
of the earth, by virtue of their size and subtle ex-
pressions, have been unrecognized in convention-
al ground and aerial surveys; and (4) some dy-
namic geologic processes, such as stream and
ocean currents, glacial motion, freezing and thaw-
ing, and seepage of oil and gas could be located
or understood better if viewed in the time-lapse
mode (Fischer et al, in press).
Multispectral Images
An outstanding example of the usefulness of
the multispectral approach was published by Ea-
son Oil Company in their final report to NASA
(R. J. Collins et al, 1974). The results of this inves-
tigation, although still under study, suggest that
very subtle "color" anomalies are visible and cor-
respond to known oil-producing areas. In addi-
tion, other anomalies were detected which have
not been drilled. An example of this work is given
in Figure 13. An image of part of the Anadarko
basin in western Oklahoma and the Texas pan-
handle permitted the company to prepare an in-
terpretation map showing the distribution of vari-
ous types of anomalies, including the so-called
"hazies" or tonal anomalies. Geochemical anom-
alies associated with hydrocarbon accumulations
(Donovan, in prep.) provide a measure of scientif-
ic support to the company's interpretation. The
results, although not entirely conclusive, certainly
are promising and warrant the present investiga-
tions by scientists of the Jet Propulsion Laborato-
ry and the U.S. Geological Survey in the Anadar-
ko and in the Powder River basins.
In an indirect sense, there is a growing body of
evidence that the multispectral data can be used
to discriminate and map the distribution of cer-
tain rock types. This capability is enhanced great-
ly by the use of computer technology which per-
 754 Michel T. Halbouty

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FIG. 8—Geologic map of part of Central Sumatra basin, interpreted from LANDSAT image shown in Figure 9. Length
of side 115 mi (185 km; from Robertson Research International Ltd.).
 LANDSAT Imagery for Petroleum and Mineral Exploration 755

FIG. 9—LANDSAT image (MSS6) of part of Central Sumatra basin. Interpretation given in Figure 8.
756 Michel T. Halbouty

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FIG. 10—Geologic map of part of southern Kalimanlan, showing fossil shorelines in Barito basin. Interpretation from
LANDSAT images. Length of side 115 mi (185 km; from Robertson Research International Ltd.).
 LANDSAT Imagery for Petroleum and Mineral Exploration 757

FIG. 11—LANDSAT image of part of southern Kalimantan, showing fossil shorelines. Interpretation given in Figure 10.
 758 Michel T. Halbouty

FIG. 12—Land cover map of Washington, D.C., and vicinity, compiled automatically from digital LANDSAT data
taken on two different dates. Areas of intense development are in red, predominantly residential areas blue, predomi-
nantly forested areas green, predominantly agricultural land light tan, and air strips brown (map, courtesy of James R.
Wray, U.S. Geol. Survey).
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FIG, 13—LANDSAT image of part of Anadarko basin, western Oklahoma and Texas Panhandle, and map of anomaUes developed by R. J. Collins, F. P. McCown,
L. P. Stonis, G. Petzel, and J. R. Everett (Eason Oil Co.). Map has been modified by addition of large suspected structures (dashed lines) interpreted by W. D. Carter,
U.S. Geological Survey (written commun., 1975).
•>l
 760 Michel T. Halbouty

FIG. 14—Subscene of northeast quadrant of LANDSAT image 1443-14073 of Lake Titicaca area of Bolivia, as
reproduced from digital portrayal on General Electric Image-100 system. Inset is "training sample," enlarged from area
directly south of insert (blocked area). Image is approximately 18 mi (30 km) by 20 mi (33 km). Yellow pixels in
"training sample" and on subscene represent areas believed to be underlain by Totora Sandstone (copper-bearing
formation). Larger image represents extrapolation of distribution of this formation throughout subscene (Carter and
Brockmann, in press). Training sample is approximately 1.8 mi (3 km) by 1.5 mi (2.5 km).
 LANDSAT Imagery for Petroleum and Mineral Exploration 761

FIG. 15—Digital extrapolation of distribution of materials having reflectance characteristics similar to those of
copper-bearing Totora Sandstone to entire area of LANDSAT image 1443-14073 covering parts of Bolivia and Peru
(Carter and Brockmann, in press). Approximate length on a side is 115 mi (185 km). Area blocked in white is shown
in Figure 14.

mits, for example, enhancement and ratioing of
these data. Unquestionably, this capability will be
useful in the basic geologic work that is so neces-
sary in preliminary phases of mineral and hydro-
carbon exploration.
An example of the use of LANDSAT data,
coupled with computer technology, is provided
by the map (Carter and Brockman, in press)
showing distribution of the Tertiary Totora Sand-
stone in a part of Bolivia (Fig. 14). The produc-
tion potential of this rock unit is copper rather
than oil, but the mapping process is equally valid
regardless of the target under investigation. The
enlargement in the figure is part of the Tiahuana-
co Valley of Bolivia near Lake Titicaca. The inset
shows pixels (picture elements that are the small-
est units of LANDSAT image and which cover
59 X 79 m on the ground) along the outcrop of the
copper-bearing Totora Sandstone. Each "spot"
represents the average radiance value which has
been measured by computer for each pixel or
groups of pixels. The pixels extending across the
lower part of the image generally follow the out-
crop of the copper-bearing formation. Using
these measurements, it was possible to extend the
outcrop of the sandstone into that part of Peru
which lies west of the lake outlet near the south-
ernmost part of the imaged area (Fig. 15). The
 762 Michel T. Halbouty

FIG. 16—Two versions of LANDSAT (ERTS-1) panorama of central California display satellite's synoptic powers.
Same digital data generated both photos (see text).
LANDSAT Imagery for Petroleum and Mineral Exploration 763
764 Michel T. Halbouty
geologic map of South America (Comm. Geol.
Map of World, 1964) shows the age of the sand-
stone and associated strata as Tertiary in Bolivia
and Cretaceous in Peru. However, the studies
based on radiance values suggest that the two
mapped formations are the same in both coun-
tries and that additional field studies are neces-
sary to correlate and date the rock types. In addi-
tion, the correlation by computer suggests that
the Totora copper deposits may extend into the
northwestern part of the Titicaca Valley of south-
ern Peru.
LANDSAT (ERTS) images aid the charting of
known geologic features and reveal previously
undetected ones (Fletcher, 1973). Synoptically
such work gives insight to regional studies. Its im-
plications for prospecting remain uncertain. Fig-
ure 16, two versions of a LANDSAT (ERTS-1)
panorama of central California, displays the
sateUite's synoptic powers. The same digital data
generated both photos. The difference in color
shows one means of enhancing LANDSAT
(ERTS) imagery. The images readily show a sub-
stantial amount of geologic information and a
great deal more can be obtained by careful exam-
ination of the imagery. Valuable agricultural data
also can be obtained easily from the imagery. The
extremely dark-red fields (just south of Merced,
for instance) are rice; the blue-gray fields are fal-
low; the dark-blue (or black) fields contain the
recently burned stubble of barley (images and de-
scription after Fletcher, 1973).
Intermittently Visible Geologic Features
The repetitive nature of the LANDSAT data
allows the viewer to see the terrain under many
conditions and sun angles. Many examples now
have been documented wherein knowledge of
geologic structure is improved by the use of im-
ages taken at various times. For example, Fischer
et al (in press) noted a structural feature in north-
ern Alaska (BB' in Fig. 17) that may control part
of the course of the Colville River and explain
some of the lithologic changes that previously had
been noted in the field but not fully analyzed.
This feature is not visible on snow-free images of
the area taken when sun illumination was at a
relatively high angle.
In the same general area, anomalous snow-free
areas are visible on images. Although evidence is
preliminary and weak, one set of these anomalies,
south and east of Umiat (Fig. 18), possibly repre-
sents the surface expression of gas seeps.
At least five examples are now on record show-
ing that oil on water can be discriminated on
LANDSAT data. Although none of these cases
has absolute verification, the behavior of the re-
flectance is commensurate with the known phys-
ics of the situation and one case published by Ot-
terman et al (1974) includes repetitive views of oil
leaking from an underwater pipe beneath an oil
platform in the Gulf of Suez which presumably
was verified as a part of the experiment. Figure 19
is a computer subscene, band 7, of one of the oil
slicks in the Gulf of Suez prepared by M. Deutsch
(oral commun., 1975), who used the General
Electric Image 100 (a computer image enhance-
ment device), at the EROS Data Center, on this
subscene to extrapolate the present oil signature
elsewhere in the gulf (Fig. 20). With computer
processing, concentrations of the presumed oil
signature are revealed offshore from the Abu Ru-
deis oil field on the Sinai Peninsula to the Al
Morgan oil field and in the vicinity of the Suez
Canal. The color-enhanced oil-slick spectral sig-
nature also indicates that a large part of the gulf
is oil covered.
A high-contrast, false-color image of a pre-
sumed oil slick of very large dimensions, off the
United States east coast was detected by Stumpf
and Strong (1974; Fig. 21). There is, of course, a
great potential for these types of observations in
environmental surveys, but one should not over-
look the fact that the repetitive nature of LAND-
SAT imagery may make possible the identifica-
tion of natural marine-oil seeps with consequent
improvement in the efficiency of offshore oil ex-
ploration. Although these images may be used
chiefly to identify oil sHcks from leakage in water
(which are considered as pollution), it should be
noted that any oil slick, determined from se-
quences of images, should be analyzed fully to
determine if it is related to natural seepage. Anal-
ysis is imperative where an oil slick, repeatedly
evident from images taken at various intervals, is
in an area where there is no nearby petroleum
activity or facility of any kind.
Large, Previously Unmapped Geologic Features
W. D. Carter (oral and written commun., 1974)
has begun interpretation of lineations and curvi-
lineations of the United States on mosaics pro-
duced from LANDSAT images by the Soil Con-
servation Service of the Department of
Agriculture in cooperation with NASA. Indepen-
dent interpretations are being made by scientists
in the U.S. Geological Survey to determine ap-
propriate levels of confidence in interpretations.
The studies have been made on maps with scales
of 1:1,000,000 and 1:5,000,000.
The preliminary results of the interpretation
which was made on a map with 1:5,000,000 scale
are given in Figures 22 and 23 (Carter, 1974). Sig-
nificant correlation is thought to exist between
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FIG. 17—LANDSAT images (115 mi or 185 km on side) of part of northern Alaska just south of Umiat illustrating usefulness of low sun angle on snow-covered area
for showing subtle topographic features of possible geologic significance. Feature BB' is not visible with relatively high sun angle and snow-free surface (W. A. Fischer,
written commun., 1975; illustration modified from Fischer et al, in press).
-si
766 Michel T. Halbouty

FIG. 18—-LANDSAT image subscene of part of north slope of Alaska south and east of Umiat showing anoma-
lous snow-free areas (some circled) that continued to be snow free on subsequent images, possibly indicating gas
seeps (Fischer et al, in press). Image is approximately 86 mi (144 km) by 71 mi (118 km).

both the curvilinear and Unear features and the
presence of minerals, petroleum, and geothermal
sources. Several companies are using this type of
data, especially the curvihnear features, in geo-
thermal investigations.
One of the major lineaments extends north-
westward from Florida, another trends southwest
from New England, and a third extends south-
ward from Lake Michigan (Fig. 23). The three
intersect near New Madrid, Missouri, the site of
the extremely severe earthquake in 1811. The
Missouri lead-zinc district also is located near the
intersection of these hneaments.
Southwestern Alabama was chosen as an area
for an independent experiment to determine if
use of the LANDS AT data could provide insight
into possible extensions of petroleum-producing
areas in a region of active exploration, and also to
determine if the data could aid in reevaluating
existing subsurface information, and in planning
subsequent seismic or other geophysical surveys.
The general trends of exploration potential ex-
tending from Mississippi into Alabama are shown
in the tectonic map prepared by Moore (1971;
Fig. 24). From a mosaic of a part of Mississippi
and southwestern Alabama prepared by the U.S.
Soil Conservation Service, three experienced
LANDSAT interpreters, in concert, studied the
spectral band-5 and band-7 versions of the mosa-
ic and a part of the area in false color.
They mapped the linear and curvilinear fea-
tures that are shown on the mosaic (Fig. 24). The
locations of producing fields (Moore, 1971), when
compared to the imagery features, reveal that
 LANDSAT Imagery for Petroleum and Mineral Exploration 767

FIG. 19—Subscene of area in Gulf of Suez studied by Joseph Otterman and presented on screen of Image-100
processor (Morris Deutsch, written commun., 1975) showing presumed oil slick (in deep blue; two of relatively white
dots are believed to be oil-production or exploration platforms, third is oil tanker in transit). Length of side is approxi-
mately 20 mi (32 km).

producing fields are aligned along linears or are
on the flanks of large curvilinear features. Possi-
bly the curvilinear features may represent large
areas of salt intrusions or withdrawals with cupo-
las (Seglund, 1974). The image was taken in 1972,
and the interpretation was made prior to the cur-
rent exploration and drilling activity in the area
which resulted in the discovery of the giant Hat-
ters Pond field and other new fields. Also it is
most noteworthy that the locations not only of
the new but also of the old oil and gas fields cor-
respond with the geologic features of the image.
The LANDSAT data also were compared with
a structural contour map defining the configura-
tion of the Upper Cretaceous Tuscaloosa Forma-
tion (Moore, 1971). Several major discrepancies
between the surface data (imagery) and the sub-
surface data were noted. For example, the Citro-
nelle field (one of the largest fields in the world
producing by artificial lift from depths greater
than 10,000 ft or 3,030 m) is shown by the subsur-
face map to be on the crest of a dome at depth
whereas it appears on LANDSAT imagery to be
in an interdomal area.
Other areas of interest near the Citronelle field
are those shown as circular features. Also of ex-
ploration interest are the curvilinear area near the
coast of Mississippi and the arcuate pattern of the
 768 Michel T. Halbouty

FIG. 20—Computer extrapolation of color signature of presumed oil slick shown in Figure 19 to entire Gulf of Suez
area. Presumed oil slicks are shown in red. Abu Rudeis oil field is on Sinai Peninsula in left center of image. North-
western red area is near Suez Canal and that in lower part is Al Morgan oil field. Length of side is 115 m (185 km).
Area blocked in white is shown in Figure 19.
 LANDSAT Imagery for Petroleum and Mineral Exploration 769

FIG. 21—High-contrast enhanced-color LANDSAT image (E-1348-15082) of

presumed oil slick off east coast of United States (from EROS program, U.S.
Geol. Survey; Stumpf and Strong, 1974; Morris Deutsch, written commun.,
1975). Length of side is 115 mi (185 km).

Chandeleur Islands on the south. The structural
interpretation of the Mobile graben from LAND-
SAT data differs significantly from the interpreta-
tion derived from subsurface data. LANDSAT
data also suggest that the structure is far more
complex in the northeastern part of the imaged
area (Fig. 24) than that reflected by subsurface
contours. The subsurface map was compiled en-
tirely from electric-log correlations, with the den-
sity of control being quite variable and with un-
certainty in some correlations (Moore, 1971). The
results support the desirability of continuing these
investigations and perhaps a reevaluation of sub-
surface correlations.
D. F. Saunders et al (1973) made structural
studies of the (1) Colorado, (2) Montana, (3) New
Mexico-West Texas, and (4) other mineralized
and petroliferous regions of North America. They
concluded that a great advantage in photogeolog-
ic interpretation from satellite imagery is the ca-
pability for truly synoptic examination of region-
al geologic features, such as lineaments and other
geomorphic features with dimensions of tens to
hundreds of miles, which generally are not detect-
ed on conventional aerial photographs.
They also found that the use of LANDSAT im-
agery for regional-scale structural studies is about
'/500 as expensive as conventional aerial photogra-
phy. They have noted that close empirical rela-
tions between lineaments and curvilinear tonal or
dissection anomalies are present between both
mineral deposits and the structure of sedimentary
basins.
For example, Saunders et al (1973) noted that
hneament^ control on the location of oil and gas
fields is particularly significant in the San Juan
basin (Fig. 25), where known gas accumulations
apparently are confined between the Paradox and
Ute lineaments and the zone of oil fields is
bounded by the Ute and Henry lineaments.
Also, the Steamboat Springs hneament has a
series of 5 oil and 2 gas fields on or adjacent to it
(Fig. 25), and other oil and gas localizations ap-
pear to cluster around several major lineaments.
3Saunders et al (1973) in their studies defined linears and
lineaments as follows: "Linear or gently curved alignments of
topographic features or tones identified on ERTS imagery are
termed 'linears,' and those linears or groups of aligned linears
which are interpreted to have geologic structural significance
are termed 'lineaments'."
770 Michel T. Halbouty

J3

OS

E !«
O _:
UH O

KM

en o
£ UJ
'3

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mMam'mm
1K^\"^ -^-os^-^"'>\^' 'iC/^ij/~ ^^
o

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d
LANDSAT Imagery for Petroleum and Mineral Exploration 771

.2 O.

11
Sc3

^^
-<(^
/ /'
'3

I
o
 to

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^ Producina oH fMds (locations approximate)

Linear and curvilinear features interpreted from LANDSAT
FIG. 24—On left, map depicting general trends of petroleum exploration potential and index map (Moore, 1971); on right, part of mosaic of United States
prepared from LANDSAT data by U.S. Soil Conservation Service, with overlay showing locations of producing oil fields and structural interpretations made
from LANDSAT data. Citronelle field indicated in yellow. Hatter's Pond field in black. Mobile Bay graben white dashes, and arrow points to Chandeleur
Islands.
 LANDSAT Imagery for Petroleum and Mineral Exploration
Saunders et al (1973) concluded that in this re-
gion LANDSAT hneament studies can be used to
guide more detailed search in virgin areas, and
certainly, a review of exploration and geophysical
data in light of this information is warranted.
Associations between linear features and oil
and gas production are not as significant nor as
common in Montana and western North Dakota
(Fig. 26) as those shown in the San Juan basin
(Saunders et al, 1973). Some do exist, such as
those adjoining the Cedar Creek linear near the
North Dakota-Montana boundary, and some ra-
dial pattern of linears apparently is associated
with producing areas. Saunders et al (1973) noted
that some oil and gas fields show apparent struc-
tural control where lineament pairs or groups nar-
row or widen and/or where they are bordered or
cut off by another lineament. They also noted
that most of the fields lie in blocks between, but
nearer the lineaments than the center of the
blocks. This type of distribution might be expect-
ed if the lineament defines the edges of basins or
upHfts where conditions are more favorable for
formation of oil or gas traps by structural adjust-
ment, reef growth during sedimentation, facies
changes, development of pinchouts, etc. Saunders
et al (1973) concluded that in this area lineament
interpretation best can be used for petroleum re-
connaissance as a guide for seismic surveys.
The Panhandle field northwest of Amarillo,
Texas, is controlled structurally by the Wichita
lineament zone (Saunders et al, 1973; Fig. 27).
Lineament control of the major structures in the
Permian basin is evident as well as apparent clus-
tering of oil fields along several linears such as the
Pecos, Lubbock, and Lamesa lineaments (Saun-
ders et al, 1973).
The Scurry Reef field is truncated by the Lub-
bock Uneament on the northeast and by a parallel
linear which borders it on the southwest. Other
producing areas are bordered clearly by Hnears.
Although the significance of many curvilinear
features is not understood fully, the isolated gas
field adjacent to the La Vita lineament in the ex-
treme northwest part of the illustration (Fig. 27)
shows a coincidence with such an area.
Results of these studies and others undertaken
earlier using aerial photography strongly suggest
that major lineaments are related to basement-
weakness zones, which by reactivation are re-
sponsible for increased rock fracturing in overly-
ing sedimentary rocks (Lattman and Matzke,
1961). Saunders et al (1973) stated that folds, re-
lated to the major basement "shears," commonly
cross hydrocarbon-bearing sedimentary basins.
They are primary target localities in any basin-
wide search for hydrocarbons.
773
Because the basement-weakness zones which
may relate to folding commonly are represented
as lineaments on aerial photographs or LAND-
SAT imagery, basement-lineament mapping
should be the first step in defining more favorable
zones for hydrocarbon accumulation. In addition,
Sikabonyi and Rogers (1959) noted that hnea-
ments, as reflections of basement-weakness zones,
may indicate zones which have affected paleoto-
pography and influenced conditions during depo-
sition of reservoir units.
Because fluid-hydrocarbon accumulations re-
quire proper lithologic conditions, knowledge of
basement topography is of the utmost importance
in the search for hydrocarbons to help define
zones of changing lithologic conditions. For these
and other reasons it is clear that mapping of lin-
eaments can prove helpful in the initial reconnais-
sance of sedimentary basins. The mapping that
thus far has been accomplished, which goes be-
yond that reported in this paper, certainly indi-
cates that ample opportunity exists for the discov-
ery and subsequent development of new
petroliferous areas within the United States.
In Alaska, landform analysis of LANDSAT-1
images substantiated by geophysical data per-
suaded Fischer and Lathram (1973) to propose a
new area for petroleum exploration. As seen on
the images, lakes in the Arctic coastal plain are
dominantly elongate, having their long axes par-
allel and trending about N10°W. Northwest of
the Umiat oil field, an additional strong east-
trending regional lineation (Fig. 28) not recog-
nized previously on aerial photographs or in field
study, is expressed by elongation of some lakes,
alignment of others, and by linear interlake areas.
The trend of this lineation is parallel with the
trend of deflections in contours of the magnetic
and gravity fields in the area and parallel with
westerly deflections in the northwest ends of
northwest-trending folds mapped on the south. In
addition, the alignment of many small lakes
forms a large ellipse superimposed on the regional
hneation. Sparse seismic profiles show periodic
reversals in dip and regional arching in shallow
strata beneath the anomalous area. Collectively,
these data suggest that heretofore unsuspected
deep structures may be concealed beneath the
manthng Quaternary Gubik Formation in the
area of the image. In addition, strata in shallow
folds which are younger than those tapped by the
oil wells of the Umiat field may contain favorable
reservoir beds.
In parts of the Louisiana-Mississippi Gulf
Coast, analysis of a LANDSAT image (Fig. 29)
revealed many dark circular features (Carter,
1974). When these features were compared with
774 Michel T. Haibouty

M-t
** ^
*
tA
 O
>
3
fi>
(O
o

3
Q.

3
(D

m
FIG. 25—Map showing major linear features in Colorado region (ERTS area 2 Colorado Band 6). Correlation of hydrocarbon accumulations and imagery features X
are shown best in San Juan basin and along Steamboat Springs lineament (Saunders et al, 1973).
o

o
3

'"J
UI
 776 Michel T. Halbouty

• * .' .- .'' > k ffl. , ...» S --»>

FIG. 26—Map of Montana area (ERTS area 1 Montana Band 6) showing major linear features; oil fields are shown in
red, gas fields in blue; correlation is shown best by oil fields along Cedar Creek lineament (Saunders et al, 1973).
 LANDSAT Imagery for Petroteum and Mineral Exploration 777

C 3 f9a*<)tc>niti. taMMH*' m e
] l i i i iiiiiiiiiiiff'*''""
FIG. 27—Map of New Mexico area (ERTS area 3 New Mexico Band 6) showing major linear features;
oil fields are shown in red, gas fields in blue (Saunders et al, 1973).
1 .^
1. ^ V
V

i
^
4 « JM^I
AW Withes
780 Michel T. Halbouty

FIG. 28—ERTS-1 image of area northwest of Umiat, Alaska, showing elongation of ]akesA, alignment
of lakes B, and curvilinear clustering of lakes C suggestive of subsurface structure (from EROS program,
U.S. Geol. Survey; Fischer and Lathram, 1973).

the existing tectonic map of the area, many
(shown by black circles on the image) were found
to correspond with known salt domes (shown by
green circles on the map), but a larger number of
the circular features on the image are not repre-
sented on the tectonic map. In addition, one very
large circular feature and several large unmapped
lineaments on the image have not been assessed.
The unmapped features in the intervening area
between known salt domes on the north and on
the south, are in an area where geophysical pros-
pecting is difficult, but where it can be conducted
with reasonable economy once specific target ar-
eas have been identified.
Recent studies by the writer indicate that the
image anomalies, marked (1) through (6) on Fig-
ure 30, correlate with known geologic and/or geo-
physical deep structures, whereas each one which
is not marked does not seem to have much, if any,
known indication of an anomaly. Specifically on
Figure 30, circle (1) is the site of a deep-salt fea-
ture and of a minor amount of shallow-oil pro-
duction at South Stewart field. Circle (2) also is
the location of a deep-salt feature with major Cre-
taceous production on the west flank of Pistol
Ridge oil field. A deep test is being drilled on a
significant geophysical structure a few miles
southeast of the circle. Circle (3) apparently lies
 o
(0
>

I
(D

o.
o
c
3
a>
3
Q.
s
3*
m
X

• known salt domes -»linaamants o

• suspactad subsurface structures
o"
3
FIG. 29—ERTS-1 image and tectonic map of Louisiana-Mississippi Gulf Coast showing anomalies (from EROS program, U.S. Geol. Survey; Carter, 1974).

00
782 Michel T. Halbouty

FIG. 30—Map of same area shown on right-hand part of Figure 29; numbers 1 through 6 indicate structures that
correlate with known geologic and/or geophysical deep structures.

on the northwest flank of a deep salt swell. Circle
(4) corresponds to a deep-salt pillow. Phillips Pe-
troleum Company drilled a discovery Smackover
high-sulfur gas well on this feature. The well was
completed at a depth of 19,768 ft (6,025 m). Salt
was penetrated at a depth of 20,125 ft (6,134 m).
Circles (5) and (6) are locations of large deep
structures generally located on what is known as
the Stone County high. The scant data available
preclude any definite conclusions about the asso-
ciation of these anomalies with salt structures.
All the features circled on the LANDSAT im-
age are, in the writer's opinion, areas of high ex-
ploratory interest. This image is indicative of the
value of LANDSAT imagery in flatland areas
such as the Gulf coastal plain.
LANDSAT data are being used on a world-
wide basis in exploration. For example, oil com-
panies operating in the headwaters of the Ama-
zon basin on leases offered by the Bolivian and
Peruvian governments have found that LAND-
SAT data are often the only map available for the
region.
In some areas data have been useful in select-
ing exploration targets and reducing the amount
of "blind" exploration, which is often dangerous,
tedious, and expensive. Eduardo Gonzales (per-
sonal commun.) of the Empresa Nacional de Pe-
LANDSAT Imagery for Petroleum and Mineral Exploration 783
 784 Michel T. Halbouty

FIG. 32—LANDSAT image (July 1972, E-1004-21395) of area in northern Alaska west of Umiat, on which are
superimposed heavily used travel routes, drilling and construction sites from development of Umiat oil field in late
1940s and early 1950s. Arrow in east-central part of image points to slight tundra scar (where several trails converged)
detectable on microscopic examination of image (E. H. Lathram, written commun., 1973). Length of side 115 mi (185
km).
 LANDSAT Imagery for Petroleum and Mineral Exploration 785

FIG. 33—False-color image (July 1972) of Umiat area, northern Alaska, shows no indication of scarring of tundra. Area is
same as that in Figure 32 (E. H. Lathram, written commun., 1973).
786 Michel T. Halbouty
troleo of Chile (Chilean Natl. Petroleum Co.),
who prepared a mosaic of small cloud-free parts
of several LANDS AT images of the Magallanes
area, defined a new basin which he postulates is
filled with Tertiary sedimentary rocks. In south
Chile such rocks are hosts for petroleum.
Dynamic Phenomena
The repetitive nature of the satellite permits the
observation of the same scenes several times dur-
ing any given period which in turn makes possible
the observation of dynamic phenomena, such as
sediment movement and ice dynamics and man's
disturbance of the land in resource development,
in addition to the oil and gas seeps noted previ-
ously.
Rehder (1973) has demonstrated the use of
temporal data in monitoring strip-mine activity in
the Appalachian region (Fig. 31). Not only was it
possible to map the development of new mining
areas, but it is also possible to observe progress in
reclamation of the land to other uses. The top-left
square shows the activity as of April 18, 1972; the
middle square shows the additional activity which
occurred between April 18 and October 15, 1972;
and the right square shows the strip-mine activity
between October 15, 1972, and July 12, 1973. The
three different images monitored exactly the
strip-mining activity in that area over a period of
14 months. This capability has been adopted by
the U.S. Bureau of Mines as part of its program
to map all the coal strip mines of the United
States, and the Bureau of Land Management is
using the data to monitor the environmental ef-
fects of strip mining on public lands in Wyoming
and Montana.
LANDSAT data also have relevance to the
monitoring of petroleum developments (E. H. La-
thram, written commun., 1973). A July 1972
ERTS image of an area west of Umiat, Alaska,
that was the site of intensive oil exploration in the
late 1940s and early 1950s, shows no scars of trav-
el and installations (Figs. 32, 33). In fact, detailed
examination of the vegetative cover on the false-
color image (Fig. 33) revealed no indications of
scarring of the delicate tundra as a result of the
intense oil exploration. These data indicate that
the environmental effects of oil exploration were
not spreading but rather had healed at a relatively
rapid rate. This is important and most significant;
facts such as these should and must be used in the
future for conclusive evidence for determining
objectively the effect of exploration and devel-
opment on the environment. In this case, the tun-
dra did not experience any permanent damage, a
conclusion largely substantiated by low-level heli-
copter surveys undertaken by R. L. Detterman in
the summer of 1973 and reported by Lathram
(1974). One short, clear-dozed, and repeatedly
used trail near Umiat still formed a slight scar on
the tundra. Subsequent microscopic examination
of the band-5 black-and-white LANDSAT image
revealed this scar and established LANDSAT as
a viable monitoring tool for this purpose.
Apparently LANDSAT data will have value in
monitoring the development, operation, and envi-
ronmental effects of the Alaskan pipeline in a
completely objective manner. Perhaps this will
aid in planning future developments in arctic ar-
eas. On an image taken in May 1975 of a section
of the pipeHne-development route just north of
the Brooks range, the trace of the haul road can
be seen clearly (Fig. 34).
In general, data concerning the movement of
oceanic surface water in nearshore areas are
sparse, and this certainly is true of the Gulf of
Alaska. Reimnitz and Carlson (1975) recently
completed a report dealing with circulation pat-
terns in the Gulf of Alaska that are based largely
on LANDSAT data (Fig. 35). The data showing
the current and sedimentary dynamics of an area
between Bering Glacier and Icy Bay are expected
to be useful in many ways, including transporta-
tion of oil, guiding cleanup of any future spills,
siting of industrial facilities (such as oil refiner-
ies), and determining location for drill sites and
drilling platforms.
Whereas the value of data relating to current
dynamics is related to lapse of time for delivery of
images, they do have a continuity of value for a
period of time. However, dynamic phenomena
such as the ice movement in 1 day in the Beaufort
Sea, as it affects transport and operations, must
be delivered quickly to be of significant value.
The three images in Figure 36 were taken in three
different periods. The top two were taken 24
hours apart and the third 17 days later. The lead
or passage way was freest in the early part of the
period of study (Fig. 36, top right); whereas at the
end of the period, the passage way was closing
rapidly (Fig. 36, bottom). To define this value,
McQuillan and Clough (1973) undertook a study
of the potential benefits of a system with the nec-
essary characteristic of rapid delivery. A summa-
ry of their findings is as follows:
Improved efficiency is projected in Arctic shipping
inbound, making possible a longer season of operation
by permitting ships to operate throughout a wider area
and reducing insurance rates. It is estimated that, with
increased shipping, timely data will result in an annual
benefit to the Canadians of $21 to 24 million in 1980.
Arctic shipping outbound is a growing application
with the development of Arctic resources. For example,
ships traveling via Point Barrow, Alaska, without satel-
 LANDSAT Imagery for Petroleum and Mineral Exploration 787

COASTAL FLAW

FIG. 34—LANDSAT image (May 1975, E-2104-21055) of section of trans-Alaska pipeline showing haul
road (A. E. Belon, written commun., 1975).

lite information on ice movement, must operate in a
very conservative manner and leave the ice area early.
This leads to less efficient utilization of ship time. Pro-
jected gross annual benefits in the transport of iron ore
from the Mary River deposit, transport of oil from El-
lesmere Island, and transport of liquefied gas, are be-
tween $55.7 and 80.7 million.
Damage to ships in ice-infested waters can be re-
duced significantly. An estimated 15 percent of 150
ships usually operating in the Arctic receive ice damage
each year, for an average cost of $75,000 per damaged
ship or a total cost of $1.68 million annually. Remote-
sensing techniques including satellites probably could
reduce the damage by 10 percent or $168,000 annually.
The safe potential movement of resources by sea was
the prime reason behind the "Manhattan Experiment."
Humble Oil (now Exxon Company, U.S.A.) calculated
it could save between $350-450 million a year by using
super tankers rather than a pipeline to move the oil.
Damage to the Manhattan in its experimental voyage
was caused by a colUsion with a multiyear ice flow
whose presence in the area could have been detected
from ice classification derived from satellite data.
Productivity in marine seismic surveys can be in-
creased. A single LANDSAT image in 1973, by showing
the presence of open water, added 75 mi (120 km) of
surveying at a benefit of over $100,000. Total benefits
from this application in Canadian waters alone will to-
tal $1 million per year for the next 7 years. On-ice seis-
mic studies also would gain improved efficiency
 788 Michel T. Halbouty

SEPTEMBER 22. 1972

50 km
_J

FIG. 35—LANDSAT image of part of Gulf of Alaska showing circulation patterns as revealed by sediment distribu-
tion, and map showing current vectors as determined from this and other images by Reimnitz and Carlson (1975).
 LANDSAT Imagery tor Petroleum and Mineral Exploration 789

n » n lllMlKn

FIG. 36—Sequential LANDSAT images, Beaufort

Sea, Banks Island area, N.W.T., Canada, showing
movement of marine ice. (From W. J. Campbell, EROS
program, U.S. Geol. Survey.)
790 Michel T. Halbouty
through ice classification; total benefits in Canadian ar-
eas are estimated to be $2.5 million per year.
Operational decisions to suspend or continue drilling
on the Alaskan Beaufort OCS will depend, in part, on
knowledge of ice conditions. Assuming satellite remote
sensing could save 2 days drilling for each of eight wells,
annual benefits of $1.44 million are estimated for the
Canadian Arctic in 1980.
CONCLUSIONS
Generally, four basic steps in petroleum and
mineral exploration are: (1) regional geologic re-
connaissance and cursory appraisal of geomorph-
ic features; (2) detailed geologic surface and sub-
surface mapping; (3) ground geophysical
exploration supplemented, if warranted, with aer-
ial geophysical surveys; and (4) actual drilling
and mining operations.
Each succeeding step is more expensive than
the preceding one, and for economic reasons ev-
ery available means should be employed to re-
duce the total exploration costs without sacrific-
ing efficiency or the accumulation of necessary
scientific data. Remote sensing is not only a
means for obtaining valuable data but is also a
data source which contributes to the exploratory
effort in any region and at the same time consid-
erably reduces the total costs of exploration (Al-
exander et al, 1974).
Geologists involved in mineral resources have
adopted use of LANDSAT data not only in ex-
ploration but also in development and production
phases. Many petroleum geologists have not fully
adopted LANDSAT data nor realized the availa-
bility and importance of its applications to the
everyday exploration effort. One fact emerges
from the analyses of many LANDSAT images:
remote sensing using LANDSAT data can be of
vital assistance to the petroleum explorationist in
his search for hydrocarbons—whether the search
is conducted in old or new areas.
LANDSAT imagery can be used effectively to
outhne sedimentary terrains and to determine the
areal distribution of key strata and their relation
to regional structure, a significant prerequisite in
evaluating the petroleum potential of an area.
Geologists agree that most potential structural
traps with surface expression have been mapped
and drilled. Therefore, it is the subtly expressed
anomalies in heavily vegetated and relatively flat
areas that remain to be explored properly for hy-
drocarbons, and LANDSAT images afford a
quick and rehable appraisal of the various aspects
of the geologic and geomorphic framework of
such a region (Martin Marietta Corp., 1974). One
of the most interesting and far-reaching results of
the LANDSAT data studies is the study of linears
and curvilinears in the search for anomalous con-
ditions which appear to be conducive to the en-
trapment of minerals and/or hydrocarbons. In-
terpretation of linears and curvilinears from
LANDSAT images suggests a close relation be-
tween both the curvilinear and hnear features and
the presence of mineral, petroleum, and geother-
mal sources. Producing fields and mines are
aligned along linears or on the flanks of large cur-
vilinears or at the intersection of linear and/or
curvilinear features.
Interpretive data gleaned from images must be
correlated properly with past or present geologic
and geophysical information. Properly interpret-
ed information from these images could save
companies milhons of dollars in unnecessary ex-
ploration and development efforts and at the
same time provide possible geologic clues which
could lead to discovery of tremendous reserves.
The LANDSAT project is probably the most
significant mission ever flown by NASA. The
U.S. Geological Survey has led the way in de-
monstrating to industry the many utilizations of
these data, which in reality represent a new tool
for exploration, development, and monitoring. A
debt of gratitude is owed to the late William Pe-
cora, who was in large measure responsible for
the project and for establishing the international
policy governing the dissemination of data.
GENERAL INFORMATION
The following information is from the U.S.
Geological Survey booklet. The EROS Data
Center.
The first Earth Resources Technology Satellite,
ERTS-1 (now renamed LANDSAT-1), was
launched July 23, 1972. LANDSAT-2 was
launched on January 22, 1975 (U.S. Geol. Survey
pamphlet, 1974). LANDSAT flies in a circular or-
bit 570 mi (920 km) above the earth's surface and
circles the earth every 103 minutes, or roughly 14
times per day (Fig. 37). Each daytime orbital pass
is from north to south. From such a vantage
point, each LANDSAT can cover the entire
globe, except for the poles, with repetitive cover-
age every 18 days. A unique feature of the satel-
lite, because of the orbit, is that it views the earth
at the same local time, roughly 9:30 AM at the
equator, on each pass.
The sensors on the spacecraft transmit images
to NASA receiving stations in Alaska, California,
and Maryland either directly or from data stored
on tape recorders. The data are converted from
electronic signals to photographic images and
computer-compatible tapes at NASA's Goddard
Space Flight Center (GSFC) in Greenbelt, Mary-
land. Master reproducible copies are flown to the
EROS Data Center in Sioux Falls, South Dakota,
 LANDSAT Imagery for Petroleum and Mineral Exploration
FIG. 37—Earth Resources Technology Satellite (ER IS;
now renamed LANDSAT).
where images are placed in the public domain,
and where requests for reproductions are filled
for the scientific community, industry, and the
public at large. Because of the experimental na-
ture of the satellite and the limited capabilities of
NASA ground-processing equipment at Green-
belt, approximately 30 days are required from the
time the signals first are received on the ground to
the time that the data are available to the public
at the EROS Data Center.
LANDSAT presently carries three data-acqui-
sition systems: (1) a multispectral scanner (four
spectral bands), (2) a return-beam vidicon (RBV)
or television system, and (3) a data-collection sys-
tem (DCS) to relay environmental data from
ground-based data-collection platforms (DCPs).
The multispectral scanner, or MSS, is the primary
sensor system and acquires images of 115 mi (185
km) per side in four spectral bands in the visible
and near-infrared parts of the electromagnetic
spectrum. These four bands are;
Band 4, the green band, 0.5 to 0.6 micrometers,
emphasizes movement of sediment-laden water
791
and delineates areas of shallow water, such as
shoals, reefs, etc.;
Band 5, the red band, 0.6 to 0.7 micrometers,
emphasizes cultural features;
Band 6, the near-infrared band, 0.7 to 0.8 mi-
crometers, emphasizes vegetation, the boundary
between land and water, and landforms; and
Band 7, the second near-infrared band, 0.8 to
1.1 micrometers, provides the best penetration of
atmospheric haze and also emphasizes vegetation,
the boundary between land and water, and land-
forms.
An analysis of the four individual black and
white images or the false-color infrared composite
images often permits scientists to identify and in-
ventory different environmental phenomena,
such as distribution and general type of vegeta-
tion, regional geologic structure, and areal extent
of surface water. The repetitive (9 or 18 days) and
seasonal coverage provided by LANDSAT imag-
ery is an important new tool for the interpretation
of dynamic phenomena. It .should be noted that
because of the earth's rotation and the fact that
the image is created by an optical-mechanical
scanner, ERTS MSS images are parallelograms,
not squares. The sides are parallel with the orbital
track of the satellite on the earth's surface. RBV
images have a square format because the image is
acquired instantaneously.
The arbitrary forward overlap between consec-
utive LANDSAT images is approximately 10 per-
cent. The sidelap between adjacent orbits ranges
from 14 percent at the equator to 85 percent at
the 80° parallels of latitude.
Latitude and longitude tick marks are depicted
at 30" intervals outside the image edge. These
geographic reference marks are annotated in de-
grees, minutes, and compass direction. A 15-step
gray-scale tablet is exposed on every frame of
LANDSAT imagery as it is produced. This scale
is used to monitor and control printing and pro-
cessing functions and to provide a reference for
analysis related to a particular image. The anno-
tation block directly over the gray scale contains
data that give the unique-image identification, the
geographic location, and the time (with respect to
Greenwich mean time) an image was acquired.
If one wishes to order a single black and white
image, it is best to order band 5. This band usual-
ly gives the best general-purpose view of the
earth's surface. By ordering a complete set of
black and white images from all four bands, how-
ever, one can see how the same area differs in
appearance when filtered to green, red, and near-
infrared wavelengths. MSS false-color composites
are available as standard products. An MSS false-
color composite image generally is created by ex-
792 Michel T. Halbouty
posing three of the four black a n d white b a n d s
through different color filters onto color film. On
these false-color images, healthy vegetation ap-
pears bright red rather than green; clear water
appears black; sediment-laden water is powder
blue; a n d u r b a n centers often appear blue or
blue-gray. M S S false-color composite images
which have not been prepared already can be or-
dered from the D a t a Center.
A set of L A N D S A T images has been prepared
for the conterminous United States. T h e 470
scenes required to cover the United States are
available in a single black a n d white b a n d (band
5), all four b a n d s of black a n d white, or high-
quahty color composites. The scenes selected
were chosen on the basis of quality, o p t i m u m
time of year (generally spring or summer), a n d
minimum cloud cover.
L A N D S A T d a t a in digital form are available
as Computer Compatible Tapes (CCT). T h e tapes
are standard magnetic tapes '^-in. (12.7 m m )
wide and m a y b e requested in either seven- or
nine-track format at 800 or 1,600 bpi. F o u r CCTs
are required for the digital data corresponding to
one L A N D S A T image. The data for the four
bands are interleaved a m o n g the four tapes there-
by necessitating all tapes to complete a set.
All information pertinent to the preceding may
be obtained from the E R O S D a t a Center, U.S.
Geological Survey, Sioux Falls, South D a k o t a
57198.
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