TOXIC &

HAZARDOUS
WASTE
MANAGEMENT
THEAR

Interactive
Learning with
Augmented Reality

NUR SHUHADA BINTI ARBAAN

AZEEMA BT MARZUKI
MUHAMMAD SYAFIQ BIN ABDUL GHAFAR
 TOXIC & HAZARDOUS WASTE
MANAGEMENT

Interactive
Learning with
Augmented Reality

FIRST EDITION

By:
Nur Shuhada binti Arbaan
Azeema Bt Marzuki

This book was published as an additional reference for teaching and learning process for students who
enrolled in curriculum Toxic & Hazardous Waste Management courses in the Malaysian Polytechnic.
©Hakcipta Terpelihara. Tidak dibenarkan mengeluar ulang mana-mana
bahagian artikel, ilustrasi dan isi kandungan buku ini dalam apa jua bentuk
dan cara apa jua sama ada dengan cara elektronik, fotokopi, mekanik atau
cara lain sebelum mendapat izin bertulis daripada POLITEKNIK
SULTAN IDRIS SHAH SG LANG, 45100 SG AIR TAWAR,
SELANGOR.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be produced or
transmitted in any form or by any means, electronics or mechanical
including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval
system, without permission in writing from POLITEKNIK SULTAN IDRIS
SHAH SG LANG, 45100 SG AIR TAWAR, SELANGOR.

Toxic & Hazardous Waste Management, Interactive Learning with

Augmented Reality Nur Shuhada binti Arbaan & Azeema Bt Marzuki

ISBN: 978-967-2096-45-0

Diterbitkan Oleh:
Politeknik Sultan Idris Shah Sg Lang,
45100 Sg Air Tawar, Selangor.
Tel:03-32806200
Email: psis.edu.my

2
 Table of Contents

Chapter 1 ............................................................................ 4
Chapter 2 ........................................................................... 51
Chapter 3 ........................................................................... 97
Chapter 4 ........................................................................ 150
Chapter 5 ........................................................................ 172

3
 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO HAZARDOUS WASTE

1.1 Hazardous waste management

1.1.1 Definition of hazardous waste

According to Davis, 2009, hazardous waste is any waste or combination

of waste that poses a substantial danger, now or in future to human, plant,
animal which therefore cannot be handled or disposed of without special
precautions.

Hazardous waste is the label assigned to a specific class of refuse. The key
characteristic that identifies this refuse is that, in some way, it is potentially
dangerous to living beings and/or the environment, particularly when
handled, transported or disposed of in an unsafe manner. Hazardous waste
can take different forms – solid, liquid or gaseous – and it can be emitted
to land, water or air. Further, hazardous substances, materials or goods can
potentially occur in the three major waste streams – MSW (Municipal), C
& I (Commercial and Industrial) and C & D (Construction and
Demolition). For example

 Hazardous substances or contaminants in the municipal waste

stream
o Components of electronic waste such as cadmium and
lead and PVC sheathing on cables;
o Household chemicals such as bleach, oven cleaners,
mineral turpentine and paints
o Products incorporating nano particles (nano sized
ingredients) such as zinc and titanium oxide in sunscreen
and cosmetics and skin gel containing nano silver. One
nanometer (nm) is a billionth of a metre and to put this in
perspective, a human hair is about 80,000 nm-100,000 nm
thick, while a single molecule of the protein haemoglobin
4
 (which carries the oxygen in 3 our blood) is about 4 nm
across‘ (Choice 2009)
o hazardous substances in the commercial and industrial
waste stream (e.g., chemicals, heavy metals)
o hazardous materials in the construction and demolition
waste stream (e.g. asbestos)

Outside those waste streams bisolids, particularly sewage sludge, may be

contaminated by a range of household chemicals, heavy metals and
pharmaceuticals (Environment Protection and Heritage Council 2010:
174)

5
6
1.1.2 Classify the hazardous waste according to engineering
classification system : inorganic and organic aqueous, organic
liquids, oils, inorganic sludge/ solids, organic sludge/ solids

Major Characteristic Examples

category
Liquid waste - Spent sulfuric acid
composed primarily from galvanizing
of water but - Spent caustic baths
Inorganic containing from metal
aqueous waste acids/alkalis and/or finishing
concentrated solutions - Spent ammoniacal
of inorganic etchants from
hazardous substances. manufacturing
(e.g., heavy metals, electronic
cyanide) components
- Rinse water from
electroplating
- Spent concentrates
from
hydrometallurgy

Organic Liquid waste - Rinse water from

aqueous waste composed primarily pesticide containers
of water but - Washings of
containing admixtures chemical reactors
or dilute and formulation
concentrations of tanks.
organic hazardous
substances (e.g.,
pesticides)

7
 Liquid waste - Spent halogenated
containing admixtures solvents from metal
Organic or concentrated degreasing and dry
liquids solutions of organic cleaning.
hazardous substances. - Distillation
residues from
production of
chemical
intermediates.

Liquid wastes - Used lubricating

comprised primarily oils from internal
Oils of petroleum-derived combustion
oils engines
- Used hydraulic and
turbine oils from
heavy equipment
operations
- Used cutting oils
from machinery
manufacture
- Contaminated fuel
oils

Sludges, dusts, solids - Wastewater

and other non-liquid treatment sludge
Inorganic waste containing from mercury cell
sludges / solids inorganic hazardous process of chlorine
substances. production
- Emission control
dust from steel
manufacture and
smelters
8
 - Waste sand from
coking operations
- Lime sludge from
coking operations
- Dust from
deburring of
chromium parts in
fabricated metal
industry

Tars, sludges, solids - Sludges from

and other non-liquid painting operations
Organic waste containing - Tar residues from
sludges/ solids organic hazardous production of
substances dyestuff
intermediates
- Spent filter cake
from production of
pharmaceuticals
- Distillation bottom
tars from
production of
phenols
- Soil contaminated
with spilled
solvents
- Slop oil emulsion
solids

9
 AR
Hazardous Waste Management

1.1.3 The generation of hazardous waste

 Hazardous waste generators are the first link in the hazardous

waste management system. All generators must determine if their
waste is hazardous and must oversee the ultimate fate of the waste.
Furthermore, generators must ensure and fully document that the
hazardous waste that they produce is properly identified,
managed, and treated prior to recycling or disposal. The degree of
regulation that applies to each generator depends on the amount
of waste that a generator produces.

 The term hazardous waste often includes by-products of

industrial, domestic, commercial, and health care activities. Rapid
development and improvement of various industrial technologies,
products and practices may increase hazardous waste generation.

 Most hazardous wastes are produced in the manufacturing of

products for consumption or further industrial application.
Hazardous waste sources include industry, institutional
establishments, research laboratories, mining sites, mineral
processing sites, agricultural facilities and the natural
environment. All sources that discharge liquid, gaseous or solid

10
 wastes that fit the above definition can be regarded as sources of
hazardous wastes.

 Some major sources are agricultural land and agroindusty,

households, mines and mineral processing sites, health care
facilities, commercial facilities, institutional facilities, industrial
sites, solid waste disposal sites, contaminated sites and building
materials. Major hazardous waste sources and their pollution
routes in the environment are listed below.

 Agricultural land and agro-industry: Hazardous wastes from

agricultural land and agro-industry can expose people to
pesticides, fertilizers and hazardous veterinary product
wastes. Farms are a major source of these wastes, and
agrochemicals can leach into the environment while in storage
or can cause damage after their application.

 Domestic: Households stock various hazardous substances

such as batteries and dry cells, furniture polishes, wood
preservatives, stain removers, paint thinners, rat poisons,
herbicides and pesticides, mosquito repellents, paints,
disinfectants, and fuels (i.e. kerosene) and other automotive
products. These can present a variety of dangers during
storage, use and disposal.

 Mines and mineral processing sites: Mining and mineral

processing sites handle hazardous products that are present in
the additives, the products and the wastes.

 Health care facilities: Health care facilities are sources of

pathological waste, human blood and contaminated needles.
Specific sources of these wastes include dentists, morticians,
veterinary clinics, home health care, blood banks, hospitals,
clinics and medical laboratories.
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 Commercial wastes: Commercial waste sources include
gasoline stations, dry cleaners and automobile repair shops
(workshops). The types of hazardous wastes generated by
these sources depend on the services provided.

 Institutional hazardous waste sources: Institutional hazardous

waste sources are mainly research laboratories, research
centers and military installations. Some military installations
are used for the manufacture and storage of ammunition, and
they are also used as testing grounds for military hardware.
Military establishments also carry out activities that generate
other types of hazardous wastes of household, commercial
and industrial nature. Industrial hazardous waste sources:
Hazardous wastes are created by many industrial activities.
For example, the hazardous wastes from the petroleum fuel
industry include the refinery products (fuels and tar),
impurities like phenol and cyanides in the waste stream, and
sludge flushed from the storage tanks.

 Solid waste disposal sites: These are mainly disposal sites for
municipal solid waste, but hazardous wastes that have not
been properly separated from other wastes are also at these
sites. In developing countries, solid waste disposal sites are a
major source of pollutant-laden leachate to surrounding areas,
as well as recyclable materials for scavengers, who can
collect and resell waste materials that have been exposed
to or that contain hazardous substances.

 Contaminated sites: These are sites that are contaminated with

hazardous wastes due to activities that use or produce
hazardous substances or due to accidental spills. Former sites
of industries that used or produced hazardous materials
belong to this group.

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  Building materials: Roofs and pipes made of materials
incorporating asbestos, copper, or other materials may present
a source of hazardous waste.

1.1.4 Effects of hazardous waste to human, environment and

economy

Hazardous wastes can damage the environment by contaminating air,

water and soil. Once in the environment, hazardous wastes can affect all
life forms. Whether through direct exposure or environmental damage,
hazardous wastes present a risk to human health.

In the 1950s and 1960s in the U.S., there was a dramatic decline in the
populations of several predatory birds due to dioxin exposure. DDT
exposure at low levels was found to interfere with calcium deposition in
the eggshells of birds of prey, causing them to be thin and fragile and often
to be crushed by the parents in the nest. One well-known species affected
in this way was the Bald Eagle (Figure 1)

13
 Figure 1 : Bald Eagle

Safety related properties of hazardous wastes include their tendency to

corrode, explode, burn or cause chemical reactions. Safety effects
resulting from hazardous wastes include injury and even death from an
explosion, fire outbreak, chemical reaction or other hazardous situation
created by such wastes.

Effects to property and the physical environment mainly pertain to

property damage, which can also result from fires and explosions. These
incidents, which result from improper hazardous waste management, may
emit hazardous substances to the atmosphere as well, causing deleterious
health effects, through inhalation for example.

Health related properties of hazardous wastes include their tendency to

cause cancer, infections, irritations (mainly due to allergic response),
mutations or other toxic or radioactive effects. Health effects from
hazardous waste exposure occur after hazardous components enter the
body through inhalation, skin absorption, ingestion, or puncture wound.

14
The health effects of the hazardous wastes are dependent on the amount
(doses), and routes and duration of exposure. Temporary health effects of
hazardous waste exposure can include dizziness, headaches and nausea,
while prolonged exposure can also result in cancers, disabilities or death.

Hazardous wastes from some household waste sources are prone to easily
cause health hazards due to their proximity to potential receptors. Wastes
from other sources are further from given receptors so their exposure
routes are longer. This may result in masking or delayed manifestation of
exposure effects.

1.2 The characteristics of hazardous waste

1.2.1 Four characteristics of hazardous waste: ignitability,

corrosivity, reactivity and toxicity.

The characteristic of hazardous wastes is wastes that exhibit measurable

properties posing sufficient threats to warrant regulation. For a waste to be
deemed a characteristic hazardous waste, it must cause, or significantly
contribute to, an increased mortality or an increase in serious irreversible
or incapacitating reversible illness, or pose a substantial hazard or threat
of a hazard to human health or the environment, when it is improperly
treated, stored, transported, disposed of, or otherwise mismanaged. The
final step to determine whether a waste is hazardous is to evaluate it
against the following 4 hazardous characteristics:
 Ignitability
 It is a liquid, other than an aqueous solution containing less
than 24 percent alcohol by volume and has flash point less
than 60 °C (140 °F),
 It is not a liquid and is capable, under standard temperature
and pressure, of causing fire through friction, absorption of
moisture or spontaneous chemical changes and, when ignited,
burns so vigorously and persistently that it creates a hazard.
 It is an ignitable compressed gas
15
 Corrosivity
 Wastes that are hazardous due to the corrosivity
characteristic include aqueous wastes with a pH of less
than or equal to 2
 a pH greater than or equal to 12.5
 Or based on the liquids ability to corrode steel.
 Reactivity
 It is normally unstable and readily undergoes violent
change without detonating.
 It reacts violently with water.
 It forms potentially explosive mixtures with water.
 When mixed with water, it generates toxic gases, vapours
or fumes in a quantity sufficient to present a danger to
human health or the environment.
 It is a cyanide or sulphide bearing waste which, when
exposed to pH conditions between 2 and 12.5, can
generate toxic gases, vapours or fumes in a quantity
sufficient to present a danger to human health or the
environment.
 It is capable of detonation or explosive reaction if it is
subjected to a strong initiating source or if heated under
confinement.
 It is readily capable of detonation or explosive
decomposition or reaction at standard temperature and
pressure.
 Toxicity
 Wastes that are hazardous due to the toxicity
characteristic are harmful when ingested or absorbed.
Toxic wastes present a concern as they may be able to
leach from waste and pollute groundwater.
 The toxicity of a waste is determined by the Toxicity
Characteristic Leaching Procedure (TCLP)

16
17
1.2.2 TOXICOLOGY

Toxicology is the study of how natural or man-made poisons cause

undesirable effects in living organisms.

Environmental toxicology: The study of the effects of pollutants on

organisms, populations, ecosystems, and the biosphere.

“All things are poison and nothing is without poison, only the dose permits
something not to be poisonous.”
Paracelsus, 1538

Toxicological concepts
Acute or Chronic Effects

Acute Effects are observed immediately or

shortly after an exposure at one single
occasion or multiple doses within 24H.

Subacute Effects means exposure during

less than 1 month

Subchronic means exposure over 1-3

months

Chronic Effects are the result of a

continuous exposure during at least 3
Time months

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 Reversible or Irreversible Effects

Reversible Effects disappear if the

exposure stops.
Example: narcotic effect of solvents

Irreversible Effects never disappear

Time Example: damages to nerves, tumor

Local or Systemic Effects

Local Effects are observed on the part of

the body that first came in contact with the
chemical
Example: acid burns

Systemic Effects require that the chemical

is uptaken and distributed to the target
organ
Target organs: Central nervous system Often
Circulatory system
Liver
Kidney
Lungs
Skin
Muscle
Bones
Rarely

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1.2.3 Special Waste: Waste Oil, Polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB)

Waste Oil
 Waste oil is unused oil that has been in some way compromised
and can no longer be used for its intended purpose6. This happens
when an oil container is not properly sealed or handled. Waste oil
can be classified as a hazardous material and must be labelled and
dealt with as such. Waste oil cannot be reused; often, it is diluted
with water or some other chemical that makes it impure. In the
past, waste oil was disposed in landfills, but this practice was
discontinued when the negative effects on the environment
became apparent.

Used Oil vs Waste Oil

 Used oil is oil that has been used, and as a result of such use, is
now contaminated by physical or chemical impurities. The classic
example is used oil drained from the engine of a truck or vehicle,
and then stored for reuse, recycling, or shipping offsite. Waste
oil is oil that has not been used, but is found to be unsuitable for
its originally intended purpose. For example, suppose a 55-gallon
drum of oil was opened only to find that the cap on the drum had
leaked, and now the oil was mixed with water, rendering it
unsuitable for its original purpose.

 Waste oil is a hazardous waste. In terms of regulations, it's a

completely different product than used oil. There's more
liabilities, more regulations to adhere to, necessary actions needed
to remove the product from your site, etc. Having used oil on hand
is a by-product of, and it's ok to have it onsite. Having waste oil
on hand is a potentially serious issue that needs to be resolved
quickly. There are additional regulations, such as the level of
contamination of the used oil, regards to its eventual reuse,
recycling, or disposal. It's much better to have used oil vs waste
oil.

20
Polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB)

 PCBs are a group of man-made organic chemicals consisting of

carbon, hydrogen and chlorine atoms. The number of chlorine
atoms and their location in a PCB molecule determine many of its
physical and chemical properties. PCBs have no known taste or
smell, and range in consistency from an oil to a waxy solid.

 PCBs belong to a broad family of man-made organic chemicals

known as chlorinated hydrocarbons. PCBs were domestically
manufactured from 1929 until manufacturing was banned in 1979.
They have a range of toxicity and vary in consistency from thin,
light-colored liquids to yellow or black waxy solids. Due to their
non-flammability, chemical stability, high boiling point and
electrical insulating properties, PCBs were used in hundreds of
industrial and commercial applications including:
 Electrical, heat transfer and hydraulic equipment
 Plasticizers in paints, plastics and rubber products
 Pigments, dyes and carbonless copy paper
 Other industrial applications

 PCBs do not readily break down once in the environment. They

can remain for long periods cycling between air, water and soil.
PCBs can be carried long distances and have been found in snow
and sea water in areas far from where they were released into the
environment. As a consequence, they are found all over the world.
In general, the lighter the form of PCB, the further it can be
transported from the source of contamination.

 PCBs can accumulate in the leaves and above-ground parts of

plants and food crops. They are also taken up into the bodies of
small organisms and fish. As a result, people who ingest fish may
be exposed to PCBs that have bio accumulated in the fish they are
ingesting.
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1.3 Environmental Law and Regulations Related to Hazardous
Waste in Malaysia.

ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY ACT 1974

ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY (SCHEDULED WASTES)

REGULATIONS 2005

ARRANGEMENT OF REGULATIONS

1. Regulation
2. Citation and commencement
3. Interpretation
4. Notification of the generation of scheduled wastes
5. Disposal of scheduled wastes
6. Treatment of scheduled wastes
7. Recovery of material or product from scheduled wastes
8. Application for special management of scheduled wastes
9. Responsibility of waste generator
10. Storage of scheduled wastes
11. Labelling of scheduled wastes
12. Waste generator shall keep an inventory of scheduled wastes
13. Information to be provided by waste generator, contractor and
occupier of prescribed premises
14. Scheduled wastes transported outside waste generator’s premises
to be accompanied by information
15. Spill or accidental discharge
16. Conduct of training
17. Compounding of offences
18. Revocation
19. SCHEDULES

22
ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY ACT 1974

ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY (SCHEDULED WASTES)

REGULATIONS 2005

In exercise of the powers conferred by sections 21 and 51 of the

Environmental Quality Act 1974 [Act 127], the Minister, after
consultation with the Environmental Quality Council, makes the following
regulations:

Citation and commencement

1. (1) These regulations may be cited as the Environmental Quality

(Scheduled Wastes) Regulations 2005.

(2) These Regulations come into operation on 15 August 2005.

Interpretation

2. (1) In these Regulations, unless the context otherwise requires—

“scheduled wastes” means any waste falling within the categories of waste
listed in the First Schedule;

“incompatible scheduled wastes” means scheduled wastes specified in the

Fourth Schedule which, when mixed, will produce hazardous situations
through heat generation, fires, explosions or the release of toxic
substances;

“on-site treatment facility” means a facility, other than a scheduled wastes

incinerator or a land treatment facility, located on a waste generator’s site
and that is used solely to deal with scheduled wastes produced on that site;

23
“contractor” means any person licensed by the Director General of
Environmental Quality under subsection 18(1A) of the Act;

“waste generator” means any person who generates scheduled wastes;

“prescribed premises” means premises prescribed by the Environmental

Quality (Prescribed Premises) (Scheduled Wastes Treatment and Disposal
Facilities) Order 1989 [P.U. (A) 140/1989].

(2) Words and expressions which are not defined in these

Regulations shall have the same meaning as assigned to them
in the Act and in the Environmental Quality (Prescribed
Premises) (Scheduled Wastes Treatment and Disposal
Facilities) Order 1989.

Notification of the generation of scheduled wastes

3. (1) Every waste generator shall, within 30 days from the date of
generation of scheduled wastes, notify the Director General of the
new categories and quantities of scheduled wastes which are
generated.

(2) The notification given under subregulation (1) shall include

the information provided in the Second Schedule.

Disposal of scheduled wastes

4. (1) Scheduled wastes shall be disposed of at prescribed premises

only.

(2) Scheduled wastes shall, as far as is practicable, be rendered

innocuous prior to disposal.

24
Treatment of scheduled wastes

5. (1) Scheduled wastes shall be treated at prescribed premises or at

on-site treatment facilities only.

(2) Residuals from treatment of scheduled wastes shall be treated

or disposed of at prescribed premises.

Recovery of material or product from scheduled wastes

6. (1) Recovery of material or product from scheduled wastes shall

be done at prescribed premises or at on-site recovery facilities.

(2) Residuals from recovery of material or product from scheduled

wastes shall be treated or disposed of at prescribed premises.

Application for special management of scheduled wastes

7. (1) A waste generator may apply to the Director General in writing

to have the scheduled wastes generated from their particular
facility or process excluded from being treated, disposed of or
recovered in premises or facilities other than at the prescribed
premises or on-site treatment or recovery facilities.

(2) An application under subregulation (1) shall be submitted to

the Director General in accordance with the guidelines for special
management of scheduled wastes as prescribed by the Director
General and shall be accompanied by fee of three hundred ringgit
and shall not be refunded.

25
 (3) If the Director General is satisfied with the application made
under subregulation (1), the Director General may grant a
written approval either with or without conditions.

Responsibility of waste generator

8. (1) Every waste generator shall ensure that scheduled wastes

generated by him are properly stored, treated on-site, recovered
on-site for material or product from such scheduled wastes or
delivered to and received at prescribed premises for treatment,
disposal or recovery of material or product from scheduled wastes.

(2) Every waste generator shall ensure that scheduled wastes that
are subjected to movement or transfer be packaged, labelled and
transported in accordance with the guidelines prescribed by the
Director General.

Storage of scheduled wastes

9. (1) Scheduled wastes shall be stored in containers which are

compatible with the scheduled wastes to be stored, durable and
which are able to prevent spillage or leakage of the scheduled
wastes into the environment.

(2) Incompatible scheduled wastes shall be stored in separate

containers, and such containers shall be placed in separate
secondary containment areas.

(3) Containers containing scheduled wastes shall always be closed

during storage except when it is necessary to add or remove the
scheduled wastes.

26
(4) Areas for the storage of the containers shall be designed,
constructed and maintained adequately in accordance with the
guidelines prescribed by the Director General to prevent
spillage or leakage of scheduled wastes into the environment.

(5) Any person may store scheduled wastes generated by him for
180 days or less after its generation provided that—

(a) the quantity of scheduled wastes accumulated on site shall

not exceed 20 metric tonnes; and

(b) the Director General may at any time, direct the waste
generator to send any scheduled wastes for treatment,
disposal or recovery of material or product from the
scheduled wastes up to such quantity as he deems
necessary.

(6) A waste generator may apply to the Director General in

writing to store more than 20 metric tonnes of scheduled
wastes.

(7) If the Director General is satisfied with the application made

under subregulation (6), the Director General may grant a
written approval either with or without conditions.

27
Labelling of scheduled wastes

10. (1) The date when the scheduled wastes are first generated, name,
address and telephone number of the waste generator shall be
clearly labelled on the containers that are used to store the
scheduled wastes.

(2) Containers of scheduled wastes shall be clearly labelled in

accordance with the types applicable to them as specified in the
Third Schedule and marked with the scheduled waste code as
specified in the First Schedule for identification and warning
purposes.

(3) No person is allowed to alter the markings and labels

mentioned in subregulations (1) and (2).

Waste generator shall keep an inventory of scheduled wastes

11. A waste generator shall keep accurate and up-to-date inventory in

accordance with the Fifth Schedule of the categories and
quantities of scheduled wastes being generated, treated and
disposed of and of materials or product recovered from such
scheduled wastes for a period up to three years from the date the
scheduled wastes was generated.

Information to be provided by waste generator, contractor and

occupier of prescribed premises

12. (1) A waste generator, contractor and occupier of the prescribed

premises shall provide information in accordance with the Sixth
Schedule in the manner provided in this regulation or Director
General shall determine other method as he thinks fit.

28
(2) A waste generator shall complete Part I of the Sixth Schedule
in six copies and hand over the six copies of the Schedule to the
contractor when the scheduled wastes are delivered to him.

(3) The contractor shall, upon receiving scheduled wastes from a

waste generator, complete Part II of the Sixth Schedule in the six
copies given to him by the waste generator and shall thereafter
immediately hand over two copies of the Schedule to the waste
generator who in turn shall submit a copy to the Director General
within 30 days from the date of transportation of the scheduled
wastes.

(4) The contractor shall within 10 days from the date of receipt of
the scheduled wastes deliver the scheduled wastes to the
occupier of any prescribed premises and hand over the
remaining four copies of the Sixth Schedule to the occupier.

(5) The occupier of any prescribed premises shall, upon receiving

scheduled wastes from the contractor, complete Part III of all
the remaining four copies of the Sixth Schedule handed over
to him by the contractor and shall, upon completion, retain
one copy and return a copy each to the contractor, the waste
generator and the Director General, within 20 days from the
date of receipt of the scheduled wastes.

(6) If the waste generator fails to receive his copy of the Sixth
Schedule from the occupier of the prescribed premises
referred to in subregulation (5) within 30 days from the date
of delivery of the scheduled wastes to the contractor referred
to in subregulation (2), he shall notify the Director General
immediately and shall investigate and inform the Director
General of the result of his investigation.

29
 (7) The waste generator, contractor or occupier of the prescribed
premises shall each keep a signed copy of the Sixth Schedule
which shall be retained as a record for at least three years from
the date the scheduled wastes are received by the occupier of
the prescribed premises.

Scheduled wastes transported outside waste generator’s premises to

be accompanied by information

13. (1) Every waste generator shall provide information in accordance

with the Seventh Schedule in respect of each category of
scheduled wastes to be delivered to the contractor and shall give
the Schedule to the contractor upon delivery of the waste to him.

(2) The waste generator shall inform the contractor of the purpose
and use of the Seventh Schedule.

(3) The contractor shall carry with him the Seventh Schedule for
each category of scheduled wastes being transported and shall
observe and comply with the instructions contained therein.

(4) The contractor shall, in the selection of transportation routes,

as far as possible avoid densely populated areas, water catchment
areas and other environmentally sensitive areas.

(5) The contractor shall ensure that all his employees that are
involved in the handling, transportation and storage of scheduled
wastes attend training programmes.

(6) The contractor shall ensure that during the training programme
each employee is well informed of the purpose and use of the
Seventh Schedule.

30
Spill or accidental discharge

14. (1) In the event of any spill or accidental discharge of any

scheduled wastes, the contractor responsible for the waste shall
immediately inform the Director General of the occurrence.

(2) The contractor shall do everything that is practicable to

contain, cleanse or abate the spill or accidental discharge and to
recover substances involved in the spill or accidental discharge.

(3) The waste generator shall provide technical expertise and

supporting assistance in any clean-up operation referred to in
subregulation (2).

(4) The contractor shall undertake studies to determine the impact

of the spillage or accidental discharge on the environment over a
period of time to be determined by the Director General.

Conduct of training

15. Every waste generator shall ensure that all his employees involved
in the identification, handling, labelling, transportation, storage
and spillage or discharge response of scheduled wastes attend
training programmes.

Compounding of offences

16. (1) Every offence which consists of any omission or neglect to

comply with, or any act done or attempted to be done contrary to
these Regulations may be compounded under section 45 of the
Act.

31
 (2) The compounding of offences referred to in subregulation (1)
shall be in accordance with the procedure prescribed in the
Environmental Quality (Compounding of Offences) Rules 1978
[P.U. (A) 281/1978].

Revocation

17. The Environmental Quality (Scheduled Wastes) Regulations 1989

[P.U. (A) 139/1989] is revoked.

32
 FIRST SCHEDULE
(Regulation 2)

SW 1 Metal and metal-bearing wastes

SW 101 Waste containing arsenic or its compound

SW 102 Waste of lead acid batteries in whole or crushed form

SW 103 Waste of batteries containing cadmium and nickel or

mercury or lithium

SW 104 Dust, slag, dross or ash containing arsenic, mercury, lead,

cadmium, chromium, nickel, copper, vanadium,
beryllium, antimony, tellurium, thallium or selenium
excluding slag from iron and steel factory

SW 105 Galvanic sludges

SW 106 Residues from recovery of acid pickling liquor

SW 107 Slags from copper processing for further processing or

refining containing arsenic, lead or cadmium

SW 108 Leaching residues from zinc processing in dust and

sludges form

SW 109 Waste containing mercury or its compound

SW 110 Waste from electrical and electronic assemblies

containing components such as accumulators, mercury-
switches, glass from cathode-ray tubes and other activated
glass or polychlorinated biphenyl-capacitors, or
contaminated with cadmium, mercury, lead, nickel,
33
 chromium, copper, lithium, silver, manganese or
polychlorinated biphenyl

SW 2 Wastes containing principally inorganic constituents

which may contain metals and organic materials

SW 201 Asbestos wastes in sludges, dust or fibre forms

SW 202 Waste catalysts

SW 203 Immobilized scheduled wastes including chemically

fixed, encapsulated, solidified or stabilized sludges

SW 204 Sludges containing one or several metals including

chromium, copper, nickel, zinc, lead, cadmium,
aluminium, tin, vanadium and beryllium

SW 205 Waste gypsum arising from chemical industry or power

plant

SW 206 Spent inorganic acids

SW 207 Sludges containing fluoride

SW 3 Wastes containing principally organic constituents

which may contain metals and inorganic materials

SW 301 Spent organic acids with pH less or equal to 2 which are

corrosive or hazardous

SW 302 Flux waste containing mixture of organic acids, solvents

or compounds of ammonium chloride

34
SW 303 Adhesive or glue waste containing organic solvents
excluding solid polymeric materials

SW 304 Press cake from pretreatment of glycerol soap lye

SW 305 Spent lubricating oil

SW 306 Spent hydraulic oil

SW 307 Spent mineral oil-water emulsion

SW 308 Oil tanker sludges

SW 309 Oil-water mixture such as ballast water

SW 310 Sludge from mineral oil storage tank

SW 311 Waste of oil or oily sludge

SW 312 Oily residue from automotive workshop, service station

oil or grease interceptor

SW 313 Oil contaminated earth from re-refining of used

lubricating oil

SW 314 Oil or sludge from oil refinery plant maintenance

operation

SW 315 Tar or tarry residues from oil refinery or petrochemical

plant

SW 316 Acid sludge

35
SW 317 Spent organometallic compounds including tetraethyl
lead, tetramethyl lead and organotin compounds

SW 318 Waste, substances and articles containing or

contaminated with polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) or
polychlorinated triphenyls (PCT)

SW 319 Waste of phenols or phenol compounds including

chlorophenol in the form of liquids or sludges

SW 320 Waste containing formaldehyde

SW 321 Rubber or latex wastes or sludges containing organic

solvents or heavy metals

SW 322 Waste of non-halogenated organic solvents

SW 323 Waste of halogenated organic solvents

SW 324 Waste of halogenated or unhalogenated non-aqueous

distillation residues arising from organic solvents
recovery process

SW 325 Uncured resin waste containing organic solvents or heavy

metals including epoxy resin and phenolic resin

SW 326 Waste of organic phosphorus compound

SW 327 Waste of thermal fluids (heat transfer) such as ethylene

glycol

36
SW 4 Wastes which may contain either inorganic or organic
constituents

SW 401 Spent alkalis containing heavy metals

SW 402 Spent alkalis with pH more or equal to 11.5 which are

corrosive or hazardous

SW 403 Discarded drugs containing psychotropic substances or

containing substances that are toxic, harmful,
carcinogenic, mutagenic or teratogenic

SW 404 Pathogenic wastes, clinical wastes or quarantined

materials

SW 405 Waste arising from the preparation and production of

pharmaceutical product

SW 406 Clinker, slag and ashes from scheduled wastes incinerator

SW 407 Waste containing dioxins or furans

SW 408 Contaminated soil, debris or matter resulting from

cleaning-up of a spill of chemical, mineral oil or
scheduled wastes

SW 409 Disposed containers, bags or equipment contaminated

with chemicals, pesticides, mineral oil or scheduled
wastes

SW 410 Rags, plastics, papers or filters contaminated with

scheduled wastes

37
SW 411 Spent activated carbon excluding carbon from the
treatment of potable water and processes of the food
industry and vitamin production

SW 412 Sludges containing cyanide

SW 413 Spent salt containing cyanide

SW 414 Spent aqueous alkaline solution containing cyanide

SW 415 Spent quenching oils containing cyanides

SW 416 Sludges of inks, paints, pigments, lacquer, dye or varnish

SW 417 Waste of inks, paints, pigments, lacquer, dye or varnish

SW 418 Discarded or off-specification inks, paints, pigments,

lacquer, dye or varnish products containing organic
solvent

SW 419 Spent di-isocyanates and residues of isocyanate

compounds excluding solid polymeric material from
foam manufacturing process

SW 420 Leachate from scheduled waste landfill

SW 421 A mixture of scheduled wastes

SW 422 A mixture of scheduled and non-scheduled wastes

SW 423 Spent processing solution, discarded photographic

chemicals or discarded photographic wastes

SW 424 Spent oxidizing agent

38
SW 425 Wastes from the production, formulation, trade or use of
pesticides, herbicides or biocides

SW 426 Off-specification products from the production,

formulation, trade or use of pesticides, herbicides or
biocides

SW 427 Mineral sludges including calcium hydroxide sludges,

phosphating sludges, calcium sulphite sludges and
carbonates sludges

SW 428 Wastes from wood preserving operation using inorganic

salts containing copper, chromium or arsenic of fluoride
compounds or using compound containing chlorinated
phenol or creosote

SW 429 Chemicals that are discarded or off-specification

SW 430 Obsolete laboratory chemicals

SW 431 Waste from manufacturing or processing or use of

explosives

SW 432 Waste containing, consisting of or contaminated with

peroxides

SW 5 Other wastes

SW 501 Any residues from treatment or recovery of scheduled

wastes

39
 THIRD SCHEDULE
(Regulation 10)
LABELLING REQUIREMENT FOR SCHEDULED WASTES

EXPLOSIVE SUBSTANCES
(WASTE)
Symbol (exploding bomb): black; Background: light orange

INFLAMMABLE LIQUIDS
(WASTE)
Symbol (flame): black or white; Background: red

40
 INFLAMMABLE SOLIDS
(WASTE)
Symbol (flame): black; Background: white with vertical red stripes

SOLID: SPONTANEOUSLY COMBUSTIBLE

(WASTE)
Substance liable to spontaneous combustion
Symbol (flame): black; Background: upper half white, lower half red

SOLID: DANGEROUS WHEN WET

(WASTE)
Substances which, if in contact with water, emit inflammable gases
Symbol (flame): black or white; Background: blue

41
 OXIDIZING SUBSTANCES
(WASTE)
Symbol (flame over circle): black; Background: yellow

TOXIC SUBSTANCES
(WASTE)
Poisonous (toxic) substances
Symbol (skull over crossbones): black; Background: white

INFECTIOUS SUBSTANCES
(WASTE)
Symbol (three crescents superimposed on a circle): black;
Background: white

42
 CORROSIVE SUBSTANCES
(WASTE)
Symbol (liquids spilling from two glass vessels and attacking a hand and
a metal): black; Background: upper half white, lower half black

MIXTURE OF MISCELLANEOUS DANGEROUS SUBSTANCES

(WASTE)
Symbol (nil); Background: white with upper half vertical black stripes

43
PARTICULARS OF LABELS

1. The label shall be a square set at an angle of 45 degrees. The

dimension of the label shall not be less than 10 cm by 10 cm except
where the size of the container or package warrants for a label of
smaller size.

2. 2.The colours used on the labels 1 to 11 shall be in accordance

with British Standard BS 381 C, “Colours for specific purposes”.

Colour Reference No.

French blue .. .. .. 166
Canary yellow .. .. .. 309
Signal red .. .. .. 537
Light orange .. .. .. 557

3. The labels shall be divided into halves, the upper half of the label
shall be reserved for the pictorial symbol and the lower half for
text printed in block capitals.

4. The text shall be printed in black on all labels except when the
background of the label is black, red or blue, the text shall be in
white.

5. The labels may be of the following types:

(a) stick-on;
(b) metal plates; or
(c) stencilled or printed on the container or package.

6. All labels shall be able to withstand open weather exposure

without a substantial reduction in effectiveness.

7. Label shall be placed on a background of contrasting colour.

44
8. In the case of waste capable of causing two or more hazards, all
the hazards must be clearly identified and the waste shall be
labelled accordingly.

45
 FOURTH SCHEDULE
(Regulation 2)

SCHEDULED WASTES OF POTENTIAL INCOMPATIBILITY

The mixing of a waste in Group A with a waste in Group B may have the
following potential consequences:

Group 1-A Group 1-B

Alkaline caustic liquids Acid sludge
Alkaline cleaner Chemical cleaners
Alkaline corrosive liquid Electrolyte, acid
Caustic wastewater Etching acid, liquid or solvent
Lime sludge and other corrosive Pickling liquor and other corrosive
acid
alkalies Spent acid
Spent mixed acid

Potential consequences: Heat generation, violent reaction.

Group 2-A Group 2-B

Asbestos Solvents
Beryllium Explosives
Unrinsed pesticide containers Petroleum
Pesticides Oil and other flammable wastes

Potential consequences: Release of toxic substances in case of fire or

explosion.

46
 Group 3-A Group 3-B
Aluminium Any waste in Group 1-A or 1-B
Beryllium
Calcium
Lithium
Magnesium
Potassium
Sodium
Zinc powder and other reactive
metals and metal hydrides

Potential consequences: Fire or explosion; generation of flammable

hydrogen gas.

Group 4-A Group 4-B

Alcohols Any concentrated waste in Group
1-A or 1-B
Calcium
Lithium
Metal hydrides
Potassium
Sodium
Water reactive wastes

Potential consequences: Fire, explosion or heat generation; generation

of flammable toxic gases.

47
 Group 5-A Group 5-B
Alcohols Concentrated Group 1-A or 1-B
wastes
Aldehydes
Halogenated hydrocarbons Group 3-A wastes
Nitrated hydrocarbons and other
reactive organic compounds and

solvents
Unsaturated hydrocarbons

Potential consequences: Fire, explosion or violent reaction.

Group 6-A Group 6-B

Spent cyanide and sulphide Group 1-B wastes
solution

Potential consequences: Generation of toxic hydrogen cyanide or

hydrogen sulphide gas.

48
 Group 7-A Group 7-B
Chlorates and other strong Organic acids
oxidizers
Chlorites Group 2-B wastes
Chromic acid Group 3-B wastes
Hypochlorites Group 5-A wastes and other
flammable and combustible
wastes
Nitrates
Nitric acid
Perchlorates
Permanganates
Peroxides

Potential consequences: Fire, explosion or violent reaction.

49
 FIFTH SCHEDULE
(Regulation 11)

ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY ACT 1974

ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY (SCHEDULED WASTES)

REGULATIONS 2005

INVENTORY OF SCHEDULED WASTES

AS AT: …………………..…………………

Date Waste Name Quantity Waste Handling

Category of Generated
Code Waste (Metric Tonnes)
Method Quantity Place
in Metric
Tonnes

Note:

 Inventory of the current generation of scheduled wastes a Date when the

scheduled wastes are first generated

b. Stored, processed, recovered for materials or product from such

scheduled wastes, incinerated, exchanged or other methods (specify)
c. Give name and address of the facility

I hereby declare that all information given in this form is to the best of my
knowledge and belief true and correct in all respect.

Name of Reporting Officer: .....................................................................................

Designation: ...........................................................................................................

Signature: ........................................................... Date: ................................

I.C. Number:.............................................................................................................

50
 CHAPTER TWO
HAZARDOUS WASTE RECOVERY

2.1 ACTIVATED CARBON ADSORPTION

2.1.1 Adsorption Process

The use of solids for removing substances from either gaseous or liquid
solutions has been widely used since biblical times. This process, known
as adsorption, involves nothing more than the preferential partitioning of
substances from the gaseous or liquid phase onto the surface of a solid
substrate. From the early days of using bone char for decolorization of
sugar solutions and other foods, to the later implementation of activated
carbon for removing nerve gases from the battlefield, to today’s thousands
of applications, the adsorption phenomenon has become a useful tool for
purification and separation.

Adsorption phenomena are operative in most natural physical, biological,

and chemical systems, and adsorption operations employing solids such as
activated carbon and synthetic resins are used widely in industrial
applications and for purification of waters and wastewaters.

The process of adsorption involves separation of a substance from one

phase accompanied by its accumulation or concentration at the surface of
another. The adsorbing phase is the adsorbent, and the material
concentrated or adsorbed at the surface of that phase is the adsorbate.
Adsorption is thus different from absorption, a process in which material
transferred from one phase to another (e.g. liquid) interpenetrates the
second phase to form a “solution”. The term sorption is a general
expression encompassing both processes.

 Sorption refers to the action of absorption or adsorption:

51
  Absorption is the incorporation of a substance in one state into
another of a different state (e.g., liquids being absorbed by a solid
or gases being absorbed by a liquid).
 Adsorption is the physical adherence or bonding of ions and
molecules onto the surface of another phase (e.g., reagents
adsorbed to solid catalyst surface).

Physical adsorption is caused mainly by van der Waals forces and

electrostatic forces between adsorbate molecules and the atoms which
compose the adsorbent surface. Thus adsorbents are characterized first by
surface properties such as surface area and polarity. A large specific
surface area is preferable for providing large adsorption capacity, but the
creation of a large internal surface area in a limited volume inevitably
gives rise to large numbers of small sized pores between adsorption
surfaces. The size of the micropores determines the accessibility of
adsorbate molecules to the internal adsorption surface, so the pore size
distribution of micropores is another important property for characterizing
adsorptivity of adsorbents. Especially materials such as zeolite and carbon
molecular sieves can be specifically engineered with precise pore size
distributions and hence tuned for a particular separation.

Surface polarity corresponds to affinity with polar substances such as

water or alcohols. Polar adsorbents are thus called “hydrophilic” and
aluminosilicates such as zeolites, porous alumina, silica gel or silica-
alumina are examples of adsorbents of this type. On the other hand,
nopolar adsorbents are generally “hydrophobic”. Carbonaceous
adsorbents, polymer adsorbents and silicalite are typical nonpolar
adsorbents. These adsorbents have more affinity with oil or hydrocarbons
than water.

Chemical adsorption, gases are held to a solid surface by chemical forces

that are specific for each surface and each gas. Chemical adsorption occurs
usually at higher temperatures than those at which physical adsorption
occurs; furthermore, chemical adsorption is ordinarily a slower process
52
than physical adsorption and, like most chemical reactions, frequently
involves an energy of activation.

2.1.2 Adsorption Mechanisms

It is an exothermic process which means that energy is liberated during
this process. The amount of heat that gets evolved when one mole of the
adsorbate is adsorbed on adsorbent is known as enthalpy. The change in
enthalpy is denoted to be negative. The reason behind this is that when
adsorbate molecules are adsorbed on the surface, freedom of movement of
molecules become restricted and this results in a decrease in entropy. At
constant temperature and pressure, adsorption occurs spontaneously.

AR
Figure 2.1.1: Adsorption, Adsorbant and Adsorbate

Adsorption is the deposition of molecular species onto the surface. The

molecular species that gets adsorbed on the surface is known as adsorbent
and the surface on which adsorption occurs is known as the adsorbate.
Common examples of adsorbents are clay, silica gel, colloids, metals etc.
Thus, adsorption is a surface phenomenon. The process of removal of
adsorbent from the surface of adsorbate is known as desorption.
Activated Carbon uses the physical adsorption process whereby attractive
van der Waals forces pull the solute out of solution and onto its surface.
Once the solute is bound to the carbon is it considered "removed" from the
water. The animation below illustrates this process where the organics are
drawn toward the activated carbon by these forces.

53
 AR
Figure 2.1.2: Mechanism for Activated Carbon

Activated carbon adsorption proceeds through 3 basic:

 Substances adsorb to the exterior of the carbon granules
 Substances move into the carbon pores
 Substances adsorb to the interior walls of the carbon

2.1.3 Activated Carbon

2.1.3.1 Natural Resources and form of Activated Carbon

Activated carbon has an incredibly large surface area per unit volume, and
a network of submicroscopic pores where adsorption takes place.
Activated carbon is a material that is produced from carbonaceous source
materials, such as coal, coconuts, nutshells, peat, wood, and lignite. The
primary raw material used for activated carbon is any organic material
with a high carbon content. The carbon-based material is converted to
activated carbon through physical modification and thermal
decomposition in a furnace, under a controlled atmosphere and
temperature. The finished product has a large surface area per unit volume
and a network of submicroscopic pores where adsorption takes place.

54
2.1.3.2 Properties of Activated Carbon

 The carbon structure is resistant to acidic or basic media

 The structure is stable at high temperature (even >1000K), in the
absent of air.
 A gram of activated carbon can have a surface area in excess of
500m2 , with 1500 m2 being readily achievable.
 Activated carbon binds materials by VAN Der Waals force or
London dispersion force physically.
 Activated carbon adsorbs iodine very well.
 Carbon monoxide is not well adsorbed by activated carbon.
 Cost of the carbon supports is usually lower than conventional
supports such as alumina and silica.

An activated carbon product can be characterized by its activity and

physical properties. Activity properties include pore size distribution that
defines the available pore volume of a carbon over three pore size regions:
the micropore, mesopore, and macropore regions:
Micropore region – less than 100 Angstroms

 Mesopore region – between 100 and 1,000 Angstroms

 Macropore region – greater than 1,000 Angstroms

Pore size distribution properties are key indicators of a carbon’s potential

performance for removing contaminants (adsorbates) from water. The
molecules encountered in the gas phase are generally smaller than those in
the liquid phase applications; therefore, a gas phase carbon has the
majority of its pores concentrated in the micropore region.

A broad range of pore sizes must be available, both for ease of movement
of adsorbates through the carbon pores and for the adsorption of particular
molecular sizes. Liquid phase carbons often contain a broader pore size
distribution to remove color bodies and larger organic materials, while

55
maintaining some microporosity for the removal of taste and odor
compounds.

Physical properties include surface area, product density, mesh size,

abrasion resistance, and ash content.

Typical measured carbon properties include:

 Iodine Number – standard testing done to estimate the surface

area of the activated carbon by measuring iodine adsorption at a
given set of standard testing conditions, reported in mg I2
adsorbed per gram carbon
 Surface Area – amount of surface available for adsorption for a
given mass of carbon, measured using techniques such as BET
nitrogen adsorption; reported in units of m2/g
 Product Density – several properties available, including
apparent density which is the density of the carbon at maximum
packing efficiency, reported in g/cc or lbs/cf
 Mesh Size – measure of particle range of the granular product,
usually reported as a range of sieve openings, such as 12 x 40 for
a carbon that passes a 12 mesh screen, but is retained on a 40 mesh
screen with a specification on the amount that can be retained on
the larger opening screen or passing the smaller opening screen;
basis is US sieve sizes Abrasion Number – measure of the ability
of the carbon product to resist attrition; this important property
permits one to understand how durable the activated carbon is in
applications where backwashing is required, carbon will be
transferred, or treatment velocities are above average
 Ash Level – a measure of the non-carbon content of the activated
carbon; all base materials have a certain ash constituency, with the
content varying from base material to base material; for example,
coconut shell carbon tends to have more alkali earth metals, while
coal-based carbons have more heavy metals

56
2.1.3.3 Classification of Activated Carbon
Activated carbons are complex products that are difficult to classify on the
basis of their behavior, surface characteristics, and preparation methods.
However, some broad classification is made for general purpose based on
their physical characteristics.

Powdered activated carbon (PAC)

Figure 2.1.3: Powdered Activated Carbon

Traditionally, active carbons are made in particular form as powders or

fine granules less than 1.0 mm in size with an average diameter between
.15 and .25 mm. Thus they present a large surface-to-volume ratio with a
small diffusion distance. PAC is made up of crushed or ground carbon
particles, 95–100 percent of which will pass through a designated mesh
sieve or sieve. Granular activated carbon is defined as the activated carbon
being retained on a 50-mesh sieve (0.297 mm) and PAC material as finer
material, while ASTM classifies particle sizes corresponding to an 80-
mesh sieve (0.177 mm) and smaller as PAC. PAC is not commonly used
in a dedicated vessel, owing to the high headloss that would occur. PAC
is generally added directly to other process units, such as raw water
intakes, rapid mix basins, clarifiers, and gravity filters.

57
Granular activated carbon (GAC)

Figure 2.1.4: Granular Activated Carbon

Granular activated carbon has a relatively larger particle size compared to

powdered activated carbon and consequently, presents a smaller external
surface. Diffusion of the adsorbate is thus an important factor. These
carbons are therefore preferred for all adsorption of gases and vapors as
their rate of diffusion are faster. Granulated carbons are used for water
treatment, deodorization and separation of components of flow system.
GAC can be either in the granular form or extruded. GAC is designated by
sizes such as 8x20, 20x40, or 8x30 for liquid phase applications and 4x6,
4x8 or 4x10 for vapor phase applications. A 20x40 carbon is made of
particles that will pass through a U.S. Standard Mesh Size No. 20 sieve
(0.84 mm) (generally specified as 85 percent passing) but be retained on a
U.S. Standard Mesh Size No. 40 sieve (0.42 mm) (generally specified as
95 percent retained). AWWA (1992) B604 uses the 50-mesh sieve (0.297
mm) as the minimum GAC size. The most popular aqueous phase carbons
are the 12x40 and 8x30 sizes because they have a good balance of size,
surface area, and headloss characteristics.

58
Extruded activated carbon (EAC)

Figure 2.1.4: Extruded Activated Carbon

Consists of extruded and cylindrical shaped activated carbon with

diameters from 0.8 to 45 mm. These are mainly used for gas phase
applications example sewerage odour control because of their low pressure
drop, high mechanical strength and low dust content.

Impregnated carbon

Figure 2.1.4: Impregnated Carbon

Porous carbons containing several types of inorganic impregnant such as

iodine, silver, cation such as Al, Mn, Zn, Fe, Li, Ca have also been
prepared for specific application in air pollution control especially in
museums and galleries. Due to antimicrobial/antiseptic
properties, silver loaded activated carbon is used as an adsorbent for
59
purifications of domestic water. Drinking water can be obtained from
natural water by treating the natural water with a mixture of activated
carbon and flocculating agent Al (OH)3. Impregnated carbons are also
used for the adsorption of H2S and mercaptans. Adsorption rates for H2S
as high as 50 % by weight have been reported

Polymer-coated carbon
Porous carbon material can be coated with a biocompatible polymer to
give a smooth and permeable coat without blocking the pores. The
resulting carbon is useful for hemoperfusion. Hemoperfusion is a
treatment technique in which large volumes of the patient's blood are
passed over an adsorbent substance in order to remove toxic substances
from the blood.

Other

Activated carbon is also available in special forms such as cloths and

fibers.

Table 2.1.1: Grade of Activated Carbon and its Sector

60
2.1.3.4 Types of Activated Carbon Reactors and Treatment Process
Batch Reactors

Figure 2.1.5: Batch Reactor

 The simplest reactor type

 Flow is neither entering nor leaving the reactor
 The liquid contents are mixed completely and uniformly

Applications:
It is non-continuous and perfectly mixed closed vessel where a reaction
takes place. A common use of batch reactors in laboratories is to
determine the reaction equation and rate constant for a chemical reaction.
The kinetic information determined in a batch reactor can be used to
design other types of reactors and full-scale treatment facilities.

61
Complete-Mix Flow Reactors

Figure 2.1.5: Complete-Mix Flow Reactors

 Fluid particles that enter the reactor are instantaneously

dispersed throughout the reactor volume
 Fluid particles leave the reactor in proportion to their statistical
population

CASCADE of Complete Mix Reactors (Complete Mix Reactor in

Series)

Figure 2.1.6: Cascade-COMPLETE MIX REACTORS

This is used to model the flow regime that exists between the hydraulic
flow patterns corresponding to the complete and plug flow reactors.

 If the series is composed of one reactor complete mix regime

prevails
 If the series consists of an infinite number plug-low regime
prevails of reactors in series

62
 Packed Bed Reactors

Figure 2.1.6: Packed Bed Reactors

→ These reactors are filled with some type of packing medium (example:
rock, slag, ceramic or plastic)
→ With respect to flow, completely filled (anaerobic filter) intermittently
dosed (trickling filter)

 When the pore volume of the medium flow is said to be

SATURATED is filled with a liquid
 When the pore volume is partially filled flow is said to be
UNSATURATED

Application:
 Used to study the movement of water and contaminants in
groundwater systems. → Packed bed reactors in which the
packing medium is expanded by the

63
 Fluidized-Bed Reactors

Figure 2.1.6: FLUIDIZED-BED reactors

 Packed bed reactors in which the packing medium is expanded

by the upward movement of fluid (air or water) through the bed.
 Example: Filter backwashing

2.1.3.5 Application of Activated Carbon

Applications

Activated carbon is used in gas purification, gold purification, metal

extraction, water purification, medicine, sewage treatment, air filters in
gas masks and filter masks, filters in compressed air and many other
applications.

One major industrial application involves use of activated carbon in metal

finishing field. It is very widely employed for purification of electroplating
solutions. For example, it is a main purification technique for removing
organic impurities from bright nickel plating solutions. A variety of
organic chemicals are added to plating solutions for improving their
deposit qualities and for enhancing properties like brightness, smoothness,
and ductility. Due to passage of direct current and electrolytic reactions of
anodic oxidation and cathodic reduction, organic additives generate
unwanted break down products in solution. Their excessive build up can
adversely affect the plating quality and physical properties of deposited
metal. Activated carbon treatment removes such impurities and restores
plating performance to the desired level.

64
Environmental applications

Carbon adsorption has numerous applications in removing pollutants from

air or water streams both in the field and in industrial processes such as:

 Spill clean-up
 Groundwater remediation
 Drinking water filtration
 Air purification
 Volatile organic compounds capture from painting, dry cleaning,
gasoline dispensing operations, and other processes

Medical applications

Activated carbon is used to treat poisonings and overdoses following oral

ingestion.

It is thought to bind to poison and prevent its absorption by

the gastrointestinal tract. In cases of suspected poisoning, medical
personnel either administer activated charcoal on the scene or at a
hospital's emergency department. Dosing is usually empirical at 1 gram/kg
of body weight, usually given only once. Depending on the drug taken, it
may be given more than once. In rare situations activated charcoal is used
in Intensive Care to filter out harmful drugs from the blood stream of
poisoned patients. Activated carbon has become the treatment of choice
for many poisonings, and other decontamination methods such as ipecac-
induced emesis or stomach pumps are now used rarely.

While activated carbon is useful in an acute poisoning situation, it has been

shown to not be effective in long term accumulation of toxins, such as with
the use of toxic herbicides.

65
Mechanisms of action:

 Binding of the toxin to prevent stomach and intestinal

absorption. Binding is reversible so a cathartic such as sorbitol
may be added as well
 It interrupts the enterohepatic circulation of some drugs/toxins
and their metabolites
 Allows certain drugs/toxins to be drawn out of the blood and
bind to the charcoal in the intestine—a kind of "gut dialysis"

Incorrect application (for example, into the lungs) results in pulmonary

aspiration which can sometimes be fatal if immediate medical treatment is
not initiated.[2] The use of activated charcoal is contraindicated when the
ingested substance is an acid, an alkali, or a petroleum product.

For pre-hospital use, it comes in plastic tubes or bottles, commonly 12.5

or 25 grams, pre-mixed with water. The trade names include InstaChar,
SuperChar, Actidose, and Liqui-Char, but it is commonly called simply
Activated Charcoal. As an over-the-counter drug, it is often used to treat
mild diarrhea.

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Gas purification

Filters with activated carbon are usually used in compressed air and gas
purification to remove oil vapors, odors, and other hydrocarbons from the
air. The most common designs use a 1 stage or 2 stage filtration principle
where activated carbon is embedded inside the filter media. Activated
charcoal is also used in spacesuit Primary Life Support Systems.

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Figure 2.1.7: Activated Carbon in Gas Purification

Distilled alcoholic beverage purification

Activated carbon filters can be used to filter vodka and whiskey

of organic impurities. Since the activated carbon does not bind well to
alcohols, the percentage of ethanol is not significantly affected, but the
carbon will bind to and remove many organic impurities which can affect
color, taste, and odor.

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Scrubbing mercury from stack gas

Activated carbon, often impregnated with iodine or sulfur, is widely used

to trap mercury emissions from coal-fired power stations, medical
incinerators, and from natural gas at the wellhead. This carbon is a
specialty product but is often not recycled.

The mercury-laden activated carbon presents a disposal problem. If the

activated carbon contains less than 260 parts per million (ppm) mercury,
Federal regulations allow it to be stabilized (for example, trapped in
concrete) for landfilling. However, waste containing greater than 260 ppm
is considered in the "high mercury" subcategory and is banned from
landfilling (Land-Ban Rule). This material is now accumulating in
warehouses and in deep abandoned mines at an estimated rate of 1000 tons
per year.

2.2 DISTILLATION

2.2.1 General Principles.

Distillation has been used widely to separate volatile components from

non-volatile compounds. The underlying mechanism of distillation is the
differences in volatility between individual components. With sufficient
heat applied, a gas phase is formed from the liquid solution. Simple
distillation is a procedure by which two liquids with different boiling
points can be separated. Simple distillation can be used effectively to
separate liquids that have at least fifty degrees difference in their boiling
points. As the liquid being distilled is heated, the vapors that form will be
richest in the component of the mixture that boils at the lowest
temperature. The resulting condensed vapor called the distillate.
Purified compounds will boil, and thus turn into vapors, over a relatively
small temperature range (2 or 3°C), by carefully watching the temperature
in the distillation flask, it is possible to affect a reasonably good separation.
As distillation progresses, the concentration of the lowest boiling
component will steadily decrease. Eventually the temperature within the
apparatus will begin to change; a pure compound is no longer being
distilled. The temperature will continue to increase until the boiling point

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of the next-lowest-boiling compound is approached. When the
temperature again stabilizes, another pure fraction of the distillate can be
collected. This fraction of distillate will be primarily the compound that
boils at the second lowest temperature. This process can be repeated until
all the fractions of the original mixture have been separated.

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Figure 2.2.1: Industrial continuous distillation columns

2.2.3.1 Continuous distillation

This is an ongoing separation process in which a liquid mixture of two or
more miscible components is continuously fed into the process and
physically separated into two or more products by preferentially boiling
the more volatile (i.e., lower boiling point) components out of the mixture.
Large-scale, continuous distillation is very commonly used in the chemical
process industries where large quantities of liquids have to be distilled, as
in petroleum refining, natural gas processing, petrochemical production,
hydrocarbon solvents production, coal tar processing, the liquefaction of
gases such as hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and helium), and other low-
temperature processing.

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 Figure 2.2.2: Schematic diagram of a continuous binary distillation
column

Industrial distillation is typically performed in large, vertical cylindrical

columns commonly referred to as distillation columns, distillation towers
or fractionators with diameters ranging from about 65 centimetres to 11
metres and heights ranging from about 6 metres to 60 metres or more. To
provide for the intimate mixing of the upward flowing vapor and
downward flowing liquid in distillation columns, the columns usually
contain a series of horizontal distillation trays or plates.

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AR

Figure 2.2.3: A distillation column with bubble-cap trays.

71
Distillation is one of the fundamental unit operations of chemical
engineering. If the feed contains more than two components, it is
commonly referred to as multi-component distillation and, if it contains
only two components, it is referred to as binary distillation.

If the distillation column feed contains a very great number of components

(such as is the case in distilling petroleum crude oil), separation into pure
components is impractical and such columns are therefore designed to
yield fractions which are groups of components within a desired range of
boiling points. Those fractions are probably the origin of the terms
fractional distillation and fractionation.

2.2.3.2 Batch distillation

It refers to the use of distillation in batches, meaning that a mixture is
distilled to separate it into its component fractions before the distillation
still is again charged with more mixture and the process is repeated. This
is in contrast with continuous distillation where the feedstock is added
and the distillate drawn off without interruption. Batch distillation has
always been an important part of the production of seasonal, or low
capacity and high-purity chemicals. It is a very frequent separation
process in the pharmaceutical industry.

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Table 2.2.1: A distillation column with bubble-cap trays.
* The pot is filled
with liquid mixture
and heated.

* Vapour flows
upwards through the
columns as reflux
and condenses at the
top.

* Part of the liquid is

returned to the
column as reflux,
and the remainder
withdrawn as
distillate.

* Nothing is added
or withdrawn from
the still until the run
is completed.

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2.2.4 Column Shell Construction and Column Internal: Trays and
Packing

2.2.4.1 Bubble Cap Trays

A bubble cap tray has riser or chimney fitted over each hole, and a cap that
covers the riser. The cap is mounted so that there is a space between riser
and cap to allow the passage of vapour. Vapour rises through the chimney
and is directed downward by the cap, finally discharging through slots in
the cap, and finally bubbling through the liquid on the tray.

Figure 2.2.4: Bubble-cap trays.

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2.2.4.2 Sieve Trays
Sieve trays are simply metal plates with holes in them. Vapour passes
straight upward through the liquid on the plate. The arrangement, number
and size of the holes are design parameters.

Figure 2.2.4: Sieve trays.

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2.2.4.3 Valve Trays
In valve trays, perforations are covered by liftable caps. Vapour flows lifts
the caps, thus self-creating a flow area for the passage of vapour. The
lifting cap directs the vapour to flow horizontally into the liquid, thus
providing better mixing than is possible in sieve trays. Valve tray is a steel
sheet on which liftable valves are mounted. They are much more efficient
than sieve trays.

Figure 2.2.4: Valve trays.

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2.2.4.4 Liquid and Vapour Flows In a Tray Column
The image below show the direction of vapour and liquid flow across a
tray, and across a column.

Each tray has 2 conduits, one on each side, called DOWNCOMER.

Liquid falls through the downcomers by gravity from one tray to the one
below it.

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Figure 2.2.4: Tray Column
A Weir on the tray ensures that there is always some liquid (Holdup) on
the tray and is designed such that the the holdup is at a suitable height, e.g.
such that the bubble caps are covered by liquid. Being lighter, vapour
flows up the column and is forced to pass through the liquid, via the
openings on each tray. The area allowed for the passage of vapour on each
tray is called the Active Tray Area.

77
2.2.4.5 Tray Designs
A tray essentially acts as a mini-column, each accomplishing a fraction of
the separation task. From this we can deduce that the more trays there are,
the better the degree of separation and that overall separation efficiency
will depend significantly on the design of the tray. Trays are designed to
maximise vapour-liquid contact by considering the

 liquid distribution and

 vapour distribution
on the tray. This is because better vapour-liquid contact means better
separation at each tray, translating to better column performance. Less
trays will be required to achieve the same degree of separation. Attendant
benefits include less energy usage and lower construction costs.

2.2.4.6 Structured Packing

The term structured packing refers to a range of specially designed
materials for use in absorption and distillation columns. Structured
packings typically consist of thin corrugated metal plates or gauzes
arranged in a way that they force fluids to take complicated paths through
the column, thereby creating a large surface area for contact between
different phases.

Figure 2.2.5: Structured Packing

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Structured packing is formed from corrugated sheets of perforated
embossed metal or wire gauze. The result is a very open honeycomb
structure with inclined flow channels giving a relatively high surface area
but with very low resistance to gas flow. The surface enhancements have
been chosen to maximize liquid spreading. These characteristics tend to
show significant performance benefits in low pressure and low irrigation
rate applications.

2.2.4.7 Packings versus Trays

A tray column that is facing throughput problems may be de-bottlenecked
by replacing a section of trays with packings. This is because:

 packings provide extra inter-facial area for liquid-vapour contact

 efficiency of separation is increased for the same column height
 packed columns are shorter than tray columns
 Packed columns are called continuous-contact columns while tray
columns are called staged-contact columns because of the manner
in which vapour and liquid are contacted.

2.2.5 Typical Industrial Waste Treated By Distillation Process

2.2.5.1 Purified Water And Ethanol.
If distillation can be used to separate water from salt, obviously it can also
be used to separate water from microbes and other impurities through a
more detailed process of rectification. Distilled water, purchased for
drinking and other purposes, is just one of the more common applications
of the distillation process. Another well-known use of this process is the
production of ethyl alcohol, made famous (or perhaps infamous) by stories
of bootleggers producing homemade whiskey from "stills" or distilleries
in the woods.

Ethanol, the alcohol in alcoholic beverages, is produced by the

fermentation of glucose, a sugar found in various natural substances. The
choice of substances is a function of the desired product: grapes for wine;
barley and hops for beer; juniper berries for gin; potatoes for vodka, and
so on. Glucose reacts with yeast, fermenting to yield ethanol, and this

79
reaction is catalysed by enzymes in the yeast. The reaction continues until
the alcohol content reaches a point equal to about 13%. After that point,
the yeast enzymes can no longer survive, and this is where the production
of beer or wine usually ends. Fortified wine or malt liquor variations of
wine and beer, respectively that are more than 13% alcohol, or 26 proof
— are exceptions. These two products are the result of mixtures between
undistilled beer and wine and products of distillation having a higher
alcohol content.

Distillation constitutes the second stage in the production of alcohol.

Often, the fermentation products are subjected to a multistage rectification
process, which yields a mixture of up to 95% ethanol and 5% water. This
mixture is called an azeotrope, meaning that it will not change composition
when distilled further. Usually the production of whiskey or other liquor
stops well below the point of yielding an azeotrope, but in some states,
brands of grain alcohol at 190 proof (95%) are sold.

2.2.5.2 INDUSTRIAL DISTILLATION.

In contrast to ethanol, methanol or "wood alcohol" is a highly toxic

substance whose ingestion can lead to blindness or death. It is widely used
in industry for applications in adhesives, plastics, and other products, and
was once produced by the distillation of wood. In this old production
method, wood was heated in the absence of air, such that it did not burn,
but rather decomposed into a number of chemicals, a fraction of which
were methanol and other alcohols.

The distillation of wood alcohol was abandoned for a number of reasons,

not least of which was the environmental concern: thousands of trees had
to be cut down for use in an inefficient process yielding only small portions
of the desired product. Today, methanol is produced from synthesis gas,
itself a product of coal gasification; nonetheless, numerous industrial
processes use distillation.

Distillation is employed, for instance, to separate the hydrocarbons

benzene and toluene, as well as acetone from acetic acid. In nuclear power
plants that require quantities of the hydrogen isotope deuterium, the
lighter protium isotope, or plain hydrogen, is separated from the heavier

80
deuterium by means of distillation. Few industries, however, employ
distillation to a greater degree than the petroleum industry.

Through a process known as fractional distillation, oil companies separate

hydrocarbons from petroleum, allowing those of lower molecular mass to
boil off and be collected first. For instance, at temperatures below 96.8°F
(36°C), natural gas separates from petroleum. Other substances, including
petroleum ether and naphtha, separate before the petroleum reaches the
156.2°F-165.2°F (69°C-74°C) range, at which point gasoline separates.
Fractional distillation continues, with the separation of other substances,
all the way up to 959°F (515°C), above which tar becomes the last item to
be separated. Petroleum and petroleum-product companies account for a
large portion of the more than 40,000 distillation units in operation across
the country. About 95% of all industrial separation processes involve
distillation, which consumes large amounts of energy; for that reason, ever
more efficient forms of distillation are continually being researched.

2.2.5.3 Water Purification

Water from natural sources contains a variety of minerals and other
impurities, many of which can be removed by distillation. Distilled water
is commonly used in situations where the presence of minerals might
reduce the effectiveness of certain equipment, such as in steam irons or
cigar humidors. Some people drink distilled water because they like the
taste or want to avoid the minerals found in tap water. Parents will often
use distilled water when preparing baby formula for their infants.
Desalination plants also use distillation to turn seawater into drinking
water.
2.2.5.4 Petroleum Products
A number of products can be produced from crude oil. Because each of
these products has a unique boiling point, a process known as fractional
distillation is used to refine oil into separate materials. These include
gasoline, diesel fuel, lubricating oil, fuel oil, paraffin wax and
petrochemicals.

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2.2.5.5 Perfume
One of the earliest uses of distilling was to make perfume, which began
around 3500 B.C. The aroma from various plants and herbs is contained
in what are known as essential oils, which can be extracted through
distillation. However, many aromatic plants tend to decompose at high
temperatures so separation by normal distillation isn’t practical. In those
instances, steam is passed through the plant material to draw out the
essential oils without burning the mixture. The steam is then captured and
condensed just as in normal distillation.
2.2.5.6 Food Flavourings
Steam distillation is also used to create natural food flavourings. The most
common are citrus oils and liquid extracts of various herbs and spices.
2.2.6 Auxiliary Equipment: Condenser, Re-Boiler and Pumps
Distillation is a process of separating component substances (fractions)
from the whole (liquid mixtures) through vaporization and condensation.
As substances (fractions) of liquid to be distilled have different temperate
for vaporization, a system should be designed to facilitate vaporization,
condensation and removal of the various condensates. Process removes
fractions of whole and it is specifically known as fractional distillation.
A typical distillation system will have following equipment:
1. Feed Tank
2. Pre-Heater
3. Kettle Reboiler
4. Distillation column
5. Main condenser
6. Vent Condenser
7. Reflux Drum
8. Product cooler
9. Receivers

82
All equipment’s are also offered individually or as a system (on-Turnkey
Basis). It can be part of alcohol distillation system or solvent recovery
system or complete chemical process system for distillation or we can also
manufacture distillation system for your proprietary distillation process.
i. Feed Tank
Feed tank is used for Feed or Raw material Storage Purpose. From
this we can pump out the liquid to preheater or directly to column
depending on need of process.
ii. Pre Heater
Pre Heater is used to heat the Feed or Raw material before liquid
feeding to column. This equipment requirement in process
depends on Process Condition, Design Parameter & Raw material
condition.
iii. Kettle Reboiler
Distillation is the process of collecting vaporizing vapour by
condensation process. Kettle Reboiler will create the vapour of
liquid to be distilled. Kettle Reboiler will have U tube bundle
inserted into the kettle. Heating media will be circulated through
the tube bundle, which in turn will transfer the heat to the liquid
inside the kettle.
iv. Distillation Column/Tower
Distillation column is the heart of distillation system. Vapour
created in kettle reboiler will be condensed in the distillation
column. Fractional distillation column will separate the
components (fractions) by repeated vaporization-condensation
cycles within distillation column. We offer packed as well as non-
structured column.
v. Main Condenser
Liquid to be distilled will be partially condensed in the distillation
column and remaining uncondensed vapour will be condensed in
the condenser. It is shell and tube condenser with vapour in the
shell and water in the tubes. The system can also have accessories

83
 and supporting equipment’s like Vent condenser, Reflux drum,
product cooler and a return line as per process requirement.
vi. Vent Condenser
From the condenser, partially condensed vapour will further
condensed in the vent condenser.
vii. Reflux Drum
Part of Condensate collected from the condenser will be collected
in the reflux drum. And will be returned to the upper part of the
distillation column. Inside the column, the down flowing reflux
liquid provides cooling and condensation of the up flowing vapors
thereby increasing the efficiency of the distillation tower.
viii. Product Cooler
If your product needs to be further cooled after receiving from the
condenser, we can be offer Product Cooler.
ix. Product Receiver
Condensed final products will be collected in the product
receivers. As per your requirements we can manufactured the
product receiver.

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2.3 ION EXCHANGE

2.3.1 Ion Exchange Process

Ion exchange is the reversible exchange of ions of the same charge
between a solution and an insoluble solid in contact with it; or between
two electrolytes; or between an electrolyte solution and a complex. The
ion-exchange process percolates water through spherical, porous bead
resin materials (ion-exchange resins). Ions in the water are exchanged for
other ions fixed to the beads. The two most common ion-exchange
methods are softening and deionization. Softening is used primarily as a
pre-treatment method to reduce water hardness prior to reverse osmosis
(RO) processing. The softeners contain beads that exchange two sodium
ions for every calcium or magnesium ion removed from “softened” water.

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Figure 2.3.1: Ion Exchange Mechanism
The exchanged ions have the same charge, that’s to say, positive ions are
exchanged for positive ions, for example:

 Na+ is exchanged for Mg+2 and Ca+2.

 OH- is exchanged for NO3 -

85
Ion-exchange resins are widely used in different separation, purification,
and decontamination processes. The most common examples are water
softening and water purification. In many cases ion-exchange resins were
introduced in such processes as a more flexible alternative to the use of
natural or artificial zeolites. Also, ion-exchange resins are highly effective
in the biodiesel filtration process.

Figure 2.3.2: Ion Exchange Resin

 Cationic resins are materials that have reactive groups that can
give up positive ions in exchange of other positive ions from the
liquid phase.
 Anionic resins are materials that have reactive groups that can
give up negative ions in exchange of other negative ions from
the liquid phase.

 The exchange of ions is governed by the relative preference and

the strength of ions to replace others. The preference series for
the most common cations and anions is given in the next slide.

 From the cation or the anion preference series, the ion in the
upstream of the series can replace or remove all the ions
downstream of the series, such as Ba+2. For example Ba+2 is
able to remove all the ions lower in the series such as Na+. And
SO4 -2 is able to remove all the ions lower in the series such as
OH- .

86
 AR
Figure 2.3.2: Typical Ion Exchange Installation

Column operation

Figure 2.3.3: Column Operation

In the laboratory as well as in industrial plants, ion exchange resins are

used in columns. The water or solution to be treated flows through the
resin. On figure you see the fresh resin, then you see how the resin gets
progressively loaded with the ions from the feed solution. Ions from the
resin not shown on the picture are released into the treated solution. At the
end some of the "blue" ions escape into the pure solution, and operation is
stopped.

87
2.3.2 Types of Resin
Cation-exchange resin
Formula: R−H acidic.
 Cation exchange method removes the hardness of water
but induces acidity in it, which is further removed in
next stage of treatment of water by passing this acidic
water through anion exchange process.
 Removes hardness/alkalinity
 Other cations
 Reaction:
R−H + M+ = R-M+ + H+.

Anion-exchange resin
Formula: NR4+OH-
 Often these are styrene–divinylbenzene copolymer resins
that have quaternary ammonium cations as an integral
part of the resin matrix.
 Removes anions (NO3-, SO4-2, HCO3-)
 Organics : Humic and Fulvic Acid
 Reaction:
NR4+OH- + HCl = NR4+Cl- + H2O.

Figure 2.3.4: Schematic cation and anion exchange resin beads

88
Four main types of ion-exchange resins differ in their functional groups:

 Strong Acid Cation Resins, typically featuring sulfonic

acid groups, example, sodium polystyrene
sulfonate or polyAMPS, Strong acid resins are so named because
their chemical behavior is similar to that of a strong acid.
 Strong Base Anion Resins, typically featuring
quaternary amino groups, for
example, trimethylammonium groups, example, polyAPTAC),
Like strong acid resins. Strong base resins are highly ionized and
can be used over the entire pH range.
 Weak Acid Cation Resins, in a weak acid resin. the ionizable
group is a carboxylic acid (COOH) as opposed to the sulfonic
acid group (SO3H) used in strong acid resins.
 Weak Base Anion Resins, typically featuring primary,
secondary, and/or tertiary amino groups, e.g. polyethylene
amine. Weak base resins are like weak acid resins. In that the
degree of ionization is strongly influenced by pH.
Specialised ion-exchange resins are also known such as chelating
resins (iminodiacetic acid, thiourea-based resins, and many
others).
Anion resins and cation resins are the two most common resins
used in the ion-exchange process. While anion resins attract
negatively charged ions, cation resins attract positively charged
ions.
2.3.3 Application of an Ion Exchange Process
2.3.3.1 Water softening
In this application, ion-exchange resins are used to replace
the magnesium and calcium ions found in hard water with sodium ions.
When the resin is fresh, it contains sodium ions at its active sites. When in
contact with a solution containing magnesium and calcium ions (but a low
concentration of sodium ions), the magnesium and calcium ions
preferentially migrate out of solution to the active sites on the resin, being
replaced in solution by sodium ions. This process reaches equilibrium with
a much lower concentration of magnesium and calcium ions in solution
than was started with.

89
 Figure 2.3.5: Idealised image of water-softening process,
involving replacement of calcium ions in water with sodium
ions donated by a cation-exchange resin
The resin can be recharged by washing it with a solution containing a high
concentration of sodium ions which called brine solution (e.g. it has large
amounts of common salt (NaCl) dissolved in it). The calcium and
magnesium ions migrate from the resin, being replaced by sodium ions
from the solution until a new equilibrium is reached. The salt is used to
recharge an ion-exchange resin, which itself is used to soften the water.
The exchange reaction can be written as:
2 RNa + Ca++R2Ca + 2 Na+

Figure 2.3.6: Water Softening & Recharge Process

90
2.3.3.2 Water purification
In this application, ion-exchange resins are used to
remove poisonous (e.g. copper) and heavy-metal (e.g. lead or cadmium)
ions from solution, replacing them with more harmless ions, such
as sodium and potassium.
Few ion-exchange resins remove chlorine or organic contaminants from
water – this is usually done by using an activated charcoal filter mixed in
with the resin. There are some ion-exchange resins that do remove organic
ions, such as MIEX (magnetic ion-exchange) resins. Domestic water
purification resin is not usually recharged – the resin is discarded when it
can no longer be used.
The cation exchange reactions will be:
2 R’H + Ca++  R2Ca + 2 H+
R’H + Na+  R’Na + H+
In these equations, R’ represents the cation resin. This is shown on figure
2.3.7. The resin is initially in the hydrogen (H+ ) form. In this picture the
anions in water are not shown. You can see that one Ca++ ion getting in
causes two H+ ions to leave the resin, whilst one Na+ cation is exchanged
for one H+ ion.

Figure 2.3.7: Decationisation (all cations replaced by H+ )

Water of highest purity is required for electronics, scientific experiments,
production of superconductors, and nuclear industry, among others. Such
water is produced using ion-exchange processes or combinations of
membrane and ion-exchange methods.Similarly, an anion exchange resin
initially in the OH form can remove all anions. The anion exchange
reactions will be:

91
 R’’OH + Cl-  R’’Cl + OH-
2 R’’OH + SO4  R’’2SO4 + 2 OH-
where R’’ represents the anion exchange resin. All anions are replaced by
hydroxide (OH– ) ions. There is no picture for this anion exchange, as it is
very similar to the cation exchange picture in figure 2.3.7 above.
At the end of the exchange process, the resin beads have loaded all cations
and anions from the water and released H+ and OH– ions. The resin beads
are nearly exhausted (fig. 2.3.8 shows them completely exhausted).

Figure 2.3.8: Resin beads are exhausted. H+ and OH-

ions have been released into the water
These ions will immediately combine and form water:
H + + OH-  HOH H2O
The ionic contaminants are now sitting on the two resins (Na and Ca on
the cation resin, Cl and SO4 on the anion resin) and the water has been
completely demineralised. Its salinity is reduced to almost nothing, a few
ions that have “escaped” from the resin columns, and that are called ion
leakage.

Figure 2.3.9: Demineralisation summary

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2.3.3.3 Ion exchange in metal separation
Ion-exchange processes are used to separate and purify metals, including
separating uranium from plutonium and other actinides,
including thorium;
and lanthanum, neodymium, ytterbium, samarium, lutetium, from each
other and the other lanthanides. There are two series of rare-earth metals,
the lanthanides and the actinides. Members of each family have very
similar chemical and physical properties. Ion exchange was for many years
the only practical way to separate the rare earths in large quantities. This
application was developed in the 1940s by Frank Spedding.
Subsequently, solvent extraction has mostly supplanted use of ion-
exchange resins except for the highest-purity products.
A very important case is the PUREX process (plutonium-uranium
extraction process), which is used to separate the plutonium and
the uranium from the spent fuel products from a nuclear reactor, and to be
able to dispose of the waste products. Then, the plutonium and uranium
are available for making nuclear-energy materials, such as new reactor fuel
and nuclear weapons.
Ion-exchange beads are also an essential component in in-situ
leach uranium mining. In-situ recovery involves the extraction of
uranium-bearing water (grading as low as 0.05% U3O8) through boreholes.
The extracted uranium solution is then filtered through the resin beads.
Through an ion-exchange process, the resin beads attract uranium from the
solution. Uranium-loaded resins are then transported to a processing plant,
where U3O8 is separated from the resin beads, and yellowcake is
produced. The resin beads can then be returned to the ion-exchange
facility, where they are reused.
The ion-exchange process is also used to separate other sets of very similar
chemical elements, such as zirconium and hafnium, which incidentally is
also very important for the nuclear industry. Zirconium is practically
transparent to free neutrons, used in building reactors, but hafnium is a
very strong absorber of neutrons, used in reactor control rods.

93
2.3.3.4 Catalysis
Ion exchange resins are used in organic synthesis, e.g.
for esterification and hydrolysis. Being high surface area and insoluble,
they are suitable for vapor-phase and liquid-phase reactions. Examples can
be found where basic (OH--form) of ion exchange resins are used to
neutralize of ammonium salts and convert quaternary ammonium
halides to hydroxides. Acidic (H+-form) ion exchange resins have been
used as solid acid catalysts for scission of ether protecting groups and for
rearrangement reactions.
2.3.3.5 Juice purification
Ion-exchange resins are used in the manufacture of fruit juices such as
orange and cranberry juice, where they are used to remove bitter-tasting
components and so improve the flavor. This allows tart or poorer-tasting
fruit sources to be used for juice production.
2.3.3.6 Sugar manufacturing
Ion-exchange resins are used in the manufacturing of sugar from various
sources. They are used to help convert one type of sugar into another
type of sugar, and to decolorize and purify sugar syrups. The principal
applications of ion exchange in the purification and treatment of sugar
solutions, juices and syrups are:
1. Softening and demineralization of sugar juices to remove
scale-forming elements prior to evaporation;
2. Decolourization with anion exchange resins;
3. Catalytic inversion of sucrose to fructose and glucose;
4. Glucose/fructose separation.

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2.3.3.7 Pharmaceuticals
Ion-exchange resins are used in the manufacturing of pharmaceuticals, not
only for catalyzing certain reactions, but also for isolating and purifying
pharmaceutical active ingredients. Three ion-exchange resins, sodium
polystyrene sulfonate, colestipol, and cholestyramine, are used as active
ingredients. Sodium polystyrene sulfonate is a strongly acidic ion-
exchange resin and is used to treat hyperkalemia. Colestipol is a weakly
basic ion-exchange resin and is used to
treat hypercholesterolemia. Cholestyramine is a strongly basic ion-
exchange resin and is also used to treat hypercholesterolemia. Colestipol
and cholestyramine are known as bile acid sequestrants.
Ion-exchange resins are also used as excipients in pharmaceutical
formulations such as tablets, capsules, gums, and suspensions. In these
uses the ion-exchange resin can have several different functions, including
taste-masking, extended release, tablet disintegration,
increased bioavailability, and improving the chemical stability of
the active ingredients.

2.3.3.8 Other applications

 In soil science, cation-exchange capacity is the ion-exchange

capacity of soil for positively charged ions. Soils can be
considered as natural weak cation exchangers.
 In pollution remediation and geotechnical engineering, ion-
exchange capacity determines the swelling capacity of swelling
or expansive clay such as montmorillonite, which can be used to
"capture" pollutants and charged ions.
 In planar waveguide manufacturing, ion exchange is used to
create the guiding layer of higher index of refraction.
 Dealkalization, removal of alkali ions from a glass surface.
 Chemically strengthened glass, produced by exchanging K+ for
Na+ in soda glass surfaces using KNO3 melts.

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2.3.3.9 Benefits and Limitations of Ion Exchange Process
Benefits

 Removes dissolved inorganics (ions) effectively, allowing

resistivity levels above 18.0 MΩ•cm @ 25 °C to be reached
(corresponding roughly to less than 1 ppb total ionic
contamination in water).
 Regenerable (by acid and bases in “service deionization” or by
electrodeionization).
 Relatively inexpensive initial capital investment.

Limitations

 Limited capacity: once all ion binding sites are occupied, ions
are no longer retained (except when operating in an
electodeionization process).
 Does not effectively remove organics, particles, pyrogens or
bacteria.
 Chemically regenerated DI beds can generate organics and
particles.
 Single use, “virgin” resins require good pretreated water quality
to be economically efficient.

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 CHAPTER THREE
HAZARDOUS WASTE TREATMENT

3.1 FILTRATION PROCESS

3.1.1 Filtration Process
Filtration, the process in which solid particles in a liquid or
gaseous fluid are removed by the use of a filter medium that permits the
fluid to pass through but retains the solid particles. Either the clarified
fluid or the solid particles (dewatering) removed from the fluid may be
the desired product. The liquid which has passed through the filter is
called the filtrate. The filter may be paper, cloth, cotton-wool, asbestos,
slag- or glass-wool, unglazed earthenware, sand, or other porous
material.

Filtration is very frequently employed in chemical technology, and it

often presents great difficulties. In most technical operations, cotton
cloth is the filtering material, but occasionally woolen or hair cloth is
necessary. The cloth may be fastened on a wooden frame in such a way
that a shallow bag is formed, into which the turbid liquid is poured. The
filtrate, in this ease, is cloudy at first, but soon becomes clear, and then
the turbid portion is returned to the filter.

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 Figure 3.1.1: Simple Filtration
The mixtures are of two main types: homogeneous and heterogeneous
mixtures. A homogeneous mixture is a mixture that is uniform throughout.
A heterogeneous mixture is a mixture that is not uniform throughout, i.e.,
ingredients of the mixture is distributed unequally. Air is a homogeneous
mixture of different gases, including oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide,
and water vapour.
Homogeneous mixtures are sometimes also called solutions; especially
when it is a mixture of a solid dissolved in a liquid. An example of a
heterogeneous mixture is the mixture of sand in water. On shaking, sand
will stay undissolved and are distributed unevenly. The sand particles
floating around which will eventually settle to the bottom of the bottle
makes it a heterogeneous mixture. Different types of filters are used to
purify and to separate these mixtures from the contaminants. Based on the
type of contaminant-large or small, filters of different pore sizes can be
used, even at home.
Filtration also plays a role in water treatment. The process of filtration can
become a costly process when it comes to water treatment and water
purification. Maintenance and lack of regulation can become major
disadvantages of filtration. Also, water treatment filters are not regulated
by any health commission or department, so the effectiveness of filtration
and purification can vary widely between manufacturers. But filters have
enough advantages to be used as a mechanism of water treatment or
purification.

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3.1.2 Clarification and Dewatering Process
3.1.2.1 Dewatering (cake filtration) or thickening,
It is disposal of the residual solids, are significant costs of the waste
treatment operation. It is suitable for slurries (typically 1 to 30% solids by
weight). Its concentrate the slurries into paste or solid form (cake) for
disposal or further processing
These steps are especially important if the final disposal option is
incineration. The incinerator will be more efficient if more water is
removed prior to incineration. If the sludge has to be transported to a
landfill, volume reduction owing to dewatering will significantly improve
the overall economics.

3.1.2.2 Clarification/clearing up
Method for removing relatively small quantity of suspended solids from
a dilute suspension to produce a clarified liquid. The key is balancing the
upstream velocity of the liquid and the particle sedimentation velocity.

 Feed or Slurry: The suspension of solid and liquid to be filtered

is known as the slurry or feed.
 Filter Medium: The porous medium used to retain the solids is
described as the filter medium.
 Filter Cake: The accumulation of solids on the filter is referred
to as the filter cake.
 Filtrate: The clear liquid passing through the filter is the filtrate.

3.1.2.3 Driving Forces in Filtration:

1. Pressure gradient
 The actual system pressure drop (difference in pressure
between the inlet and outlet) is due to loss of PSI, resulting from
loss of flow through the cartridge and loss of flow through the
housing and any other component in the system. All losses
contribute to total ∆P. It is important to note that the cartridge
∆P increases throughout the filtration process as the cartridge
collects dirt and the flow becomes restricted
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 2. Gravity
 Hydrostatic Pressure
 A pressure difference could be obtained by maintaining a head of
slurry above the filter medium.
 The pressure developed will depend on the density of the slurry

3. Vacuum (Reducing pressure)

 The pressure below the filter medium may be reduced below

atmospheric pressure by connecting the filtrate receiver to a
vacuum pump and creating a pressure difference across the filter.

4. Pressure
 The simplest method being to pump the slurry into the filter
under pressure.
5. Centrifugal force

 The gravitational force could be replaced by centrifugal force in

particle separation

3.1.3 Cake Filtration

Figure 3.1.2: Cake Filtration

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If the flow is directed perpendicular to the surface, the term cake filtration
is used. A filter cake builds up on the filter medium over time which
reduces the flow rate of the filtrate. This is a disadvantage of this process.
This problem is countered in cross-flow filtration by causing the raw water
to flow parallel to the surface. Deposits on the filter are then largely
removed by the flow. This principle is applied primarily in the membrane
separation processes.

Depth filtration

Figure 3.1.3: Depth Filtration

In depth filtration, the raw water flows through a bed of granular material
(filter bed) such as sand or gravel. As the raw water flows through the
interstices between the grains of the filter medium, suspended solids are
captured and retained. The treated water passes through the filter bed. Over
time, more and more solids collect in the flow channels of the filter bed.
This reduces the cross-sectional area of the flow channels increasing the
hydraulic resistance of the filter to the flow. This resistance is expressed
as a loss of pressure. The flow through the filter decreases, or it can only
be maintained by increasing the pressure on the inflow side of the filter.
The deposited solids can be removed by backwashing them.
Consequently, the pressure loss is reduced by a backwash. This process

101
usually takes place with treated water in the opposite flow direction. The
pressure trend over time in a filter bed can be depicted by filter resistance
diagrams.

3.1.4 FILTER TYPES

Filters may be classed according to the nature of the driving force that
causes filtration (i.e., gravity filters, pressure filters, and vacuum filters).
They also are described according to mechanical characteristics (i.e.,
plate-and-frame filters, leaf filters, rotary-drum filters, top-feed filters,
disk-type filters, sand-bed filters, and precoat filters). Filters may operate
on either a batch or continuous basis.

3.1.4.1 Belt Filter

The belt filter sometimes called a belt press filter, or belt filter press is an
industrial machine, used for solid/liquid separation processes, particularly
the dewatering of sludges in the chemical industry, mining and water
treatment. The process of filtration is primarily obtained by passing a pair
of filtering cloths and belts through a system of rollers. The system takes
a sludge or slurry as a feed, and separates it into a filtrate and a solid cake.

AR
Figure 3.1.4: Diagram of Belt Filter

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Benefits of Belt Filtration
When compared to other compression filters, belt filters use relatively
lower pressures. Although centrifuges have lower moisture content, lower
costs and simpler operations in coal tails processing, belt filters tend to
make less noise and have much quicker startup and shutdown times.
Belt filters are considered simple and reliable, with good availability, low
staffing, easy maintenance and a long life. The belt filter is most
advantageous when installed such that it is open and viewable at floor level
for easier adjustment and monitoring. This is of course subject to what
lighting and ventilation will allow.
The belt filter press is often used in wastewater treatment, and thus the
odour of the feed sludge, volatile emissions and the chemicals used in
treatment, may become a problem. One control method is to use odour-
neutralizing chemicals such as potassium permanganate. However this
only neutralizes odours and doesn’t affect any gases or chemicals
involved.

Limitations of Belt Filtrations

Although all problems can be controlled by enclosing the filter, the
enclosure reduces essential visibility and easy access to the machine for
maintenance and repairs, leading to the expensive automation of the
process.
A belt filter press is also known for its high capacity throughput, as it is
designed to handle excess capacity. It has low initial costs and low energy
running costs, however, if throughput is less than 4 million gallons per
day, the belt filter press may be less cost efficient than liquid transport,
hiring a processing facility, or utilizing non-mechanical dewatering
methods such as drying beds or reed beds.
Belt filters are less effective at processing some feeds. Unless the feed is
well mixed from a digester, the use of belt filters will be more costly when
processing a feed with varying solids content as this requires more
operator attention, raising staffing costs. Feeds with high grease and oil
content can lower the solids percentage in the cake by blinding the belt
filter and all feeds need to be screened to protect the belt from being

103
damaged by sharp objects. The type of feed may also affect the washing
process. The belt filter needs to be washed frequently which consumes
large amount of water and time. Water and time wastage, as well as the
associated costs can be reduced by automating the washing system and
using effluents.

3.1.4.2 Rotary vacuum filter drum

It consists of a drum rotating in a tub of liquid to be filtered. The technique
is well suited to slurries, and liquids with a high solid content, which could
clog other forms of filter. The drum is pre-coated with a filter aid, typically
of diatomaceous earth (DE) or Perlite. After pre-coat has been applied, the
liquid to be filtered is sent to the tub below the drum. The drum rotates
through the liquid and the vacuum sucks liquid and solids onto the drum
pre-coat surface, the liquid portion is "sucked" by the vacuum through the
filter media to the internal portion of the drum, and the filtrate pumped
away. The solids adhere to the outside of the drum, which then passes a
knife, cutting off the solids and a small portion of the filter media to reveal
a fresh media surface that will enter the liquid as the drum rotates. The
knife advances automatically as the surface is removed.

Figure 3.1.5: Rotary Vacuum-Drum Filter.

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Advantages and limitation
The advantages and limitations of rotary vacuum drum filter compared to
other separation methods are:

Figure 3.6: Rotary Vacuum-Drum Filter Scraper Discharge

Advantage

 The rotary vacuum drum filter is a continuous and automatic

operation, so the operating cost is low.
 The variation of the drum speed rotating can be used to control the
cake thickness.
 The process can be easily modified (pre-coating filter process).
 Can produce relatively clean product by adding a showering
device.

Disadvantages

 Due to the structure, the pressure difference is theoretically

limited to atmospheric pressure (1 bar), and in practice somewhat
lower.
 Besides the drum, other accessories, for example, agitators and
vacuum pump, are required.
 The discharge cake contains residual moisture.
 High energy consumption by the vacuum pump.

105
3.1.4.3 Plate and Frame Filter Press
The plate and frame filter press is the most fundamental design and the
oldest type of filter press, it has carbon steel rack that holds and clamps
the filter plates together to form a pressure chamber, the plates are made
of cast iron or plastics, with the most common being PP.

Figure 3.1.7: Plate and Frame Filter Press

Working Principle of Plate and Frame Filter Press:

The plate and frame design is to have a solid plate covered by a filter cloth
and a hollow frame in between each plate, the slurry is pumped into one
or more of the corner holes and it travels into each frame before filtering
through the cloth.

The filtrate travels across the drainage service of the solid plate and into
one or more of the corner holes that are not being used for the slurry feed.

Once these hollow frames are full of solids, no more slurry feed can come
into the filter press and it is time to open the press and discharge the solids.

106
Features of Plate and Frame Filter Press:
1. Compact design, small size and simple structure, easy to operate and
maintain.
2. Manual operation, no need power consumption and zero running cost.
3. The rack of plate and frame filter press is made of carbon steel Q235,
strong and durable, long use life.
4. The filter plate & frame is made of PP, do not contain other filler, not
recycled material, high strength, light weight, corrosion resistance, acid
and alkali, non-toxic and tasteless.
5. Open type outlet, PP faucet, quick opening type, strong acid and
alkaline.

Advantage:
Structure is relatively simple, easy to operate, stable operation, easy
maintenance; the choice of filter area flexible; small footprint;
good adaptability to all kinds of filter media; suitable for small and
medium sized sludge dewatering.

Disadvantages:

Feed inlet easy be blocked, cake difficult to remove, it can’t run

continuously. It also have a small amount of processing, low working
pressure, ordinary plate easy to damage, large cloth consumption, clean
manually. Intermittent filtration, labour-intensive, suitable for small and
medium-sized production and special requirements of the occasion.

107
3.2 CHEMICAL PRECIPITATION

3.2.1 Chemical Precipitation Process

Chemical precipitation, formation of a separable solid substance from a
solution, either by converting the substance into an insoluble form or by
changing the composition of the solvent to diminish the solubility of the
substance in it. The distinction between precipitation and crystallization
lies largely in whether emphasis is placed on the process by which the
solubility is reduced or on that by which the structure of the solid substance
becomes organized.
Precipitation often is used to remove metal ions from aqueous solutions:
silver ions present in a solution of a soluble salt, such as silver nitrate, are
precipitated by addition of chloride ions, provided, for example, by a
solution of sodium chloride; the chloride ions and the silver ions combine
to form silver chloride, a compound that is not soluble in water. Similarly,
barium ions are precipitated by sulfate ions, and calcium by oxalate;
schemes have been developed for analysis of mixtures of metal ions by
successive application of reagents that precipitate specific ions or groups
of related ions.

Figure 3.2.1: Chemical Precipitation Process

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3.2.1.1 Application
Precipitation is the most well known and most commonly used technique
for the removal of metals and some anions from wastewater. Precipitation
applications can be found in every sector where metals are found in the
wastewater. However, it is noticeable that alternative solutions are
currently being selected. The reasons for this include the relatively high
effluent concentrations, the disruptive influence of surface-active
substances and complex formers, and the rising cost of silt removal.
Here are a few typical applications.

 Surface treatments on metals: Milk of lime precipitation or, in

extreme cases, sulphide precipitation for end-of-pipe wastewater
purification. If milk of lime is implemented, then anions, fluoride,
phosphate and sulphate can be removed simultaneously.
 In addition to end-of-pipe purification, precipitation can also be
integrated into the process for, for example, metal recuperation
in rinse water from electrolysis processes or Fe removal from
flux baths in thermal galvanisation.
 Precipitation is a suitable technique for the recuperation of silver
from concentrated solutions (fixing baths) in the graphics sector.
 Precipitation is a contemporary technique for wastewater
purification when processing mineral products, including for the
removal of metals and fluoride.

109
3.2.2 Chemical Precipitation Process Unit Operation

AR
Figure 3.2.2: Chemical Precipitation Unit

Applicable for heavy metal removal.

1. A chemical precipitant is added to the metal containing aqueous
waste in stirred reaction vessel.

2. The dissolved metals are converted to an insoluble form by a

chemical reaction between the soluble metal compounds and the
precipitant.

3. The resultant suspended solids are separated out by settling in

clarifier.

4. Flocculation, with or without a chemical coagulant or settling

aid, may be used to enhance the removal of suspended solids.

110
3.2.3 Types of Chemical Precipitation Process
3.2.3.1 Neutralization of strong acids with lime or limestone
Limestone is an alkaline agent with the ability to neutralize, or partially
neutralize strong acids. The neutralization process occurs when strong
acids, in intimate contact with limestone chips, react with Calcium
Carbonate (CaCO3, the primary constituent of limestone) to form water,
carbon dioxide, and calcium salts. The following depicts the neutralization
of hydrochloric acid by limestone.
CaCO3 + 2HCl → CaCl2 + CO2 + H2O
Due to the presence of other calcium products in the limestone chips
typically used it is quite possible for limestone to exert alkaline influences
on the wastewater stream up to an beyond a pH of 11.0, meaning that an
upper pH limit of 9.0 cannot be guaranteed and can easily be violated.

The pH neutralization process occurs as strong acids react with the calcium
carbonate in the limestone through intimate contact with small limestone
chips. A high surface area is important as is sufficiently long contact time.
The reaction is not instantaneous and requires sufficient time. Additionally
the acidic solutions must be in intimate contact with the limestone. This
leads to one of the biggest problems with the use of limestone as an
effective treatment process, the coating of the available limestone surface
area with precipitated debris.
One of the by-products of the neutralization process is calcium salts.
Calcium salts tend to be very insoluble in water. This results in the
precipitation of salts that deposit on the limestone chips forming very
effective coatings. Once coated with precipitated products, the limestone
is rendered useless and must be replaced. Other solids and organic
materials that are suspended in the waste stream will often come out as a
result of mechanical filtration thereby contributing to the coating of the
limestone chips.

111
3.2.3.2 Hydroxide Precipitation
The precipitation of metal hydroxides such as for example Al(OH) 3,
Fe(OH)3 and Zn(OH)2 is the most widely used chemical precipitation
process in hydrometallurgy. The precipitation is achieved by increasing
pH in the solution by the addition of alkaline reagents such as limestone
(CaCO3), slaked lime (Ca (OH)2), sodium hydroxide (NaOH) or ammonia
(NH3).
Examples of reactions
Zn SO4 (aq) + 2NaOH (aq) → Zn (OH)2 (s) + Na2SO4 (aq)

 Hydroxide Precipitation involves the use of:

a) Calcium hydroxide (lime - CaOH)
b) Sodium hydroxide (caustic- NaOH)
 As the precipitant to removal metals as insoluble metal
hydroxides.
 The effluent concentration levels attainable by hydroxides
precipitations are dependent on the:
 metals present
 The precipitant used
 The reaction conditions especially pH
 The presence of other materials which may inhibit
precipitation
 The theoretical solubility of several metal hydroxide are shown
in Fig 7.2.2 as indicated by the solubility curves, the metals
hydroxide are amphoteric ;
 For example, they are increasingly soluble at both low and high
pH, and the point of the minimum solubility (optimum pH for
precipitation) occurs at a different pH value for every metal.

112
 Figure 3.2.3: Solubilities of metal hydroxides as a function of
pH

 At a pH at which the solubility of one metal hydroxide may be

minimized the solubility of another may be relatively high.
 In most cases a pH between 9 and 11, selected on the basis of jar
tests or operating experience with the waste, produces the best
overall effluent quality.
 For a waste containing several metals, however more than one
precipitation stage with different pH control points may be
required.

113
Advantages & disadvantages of Lime and Caustic precipitation.

Table 3.2.1: Advantages & disadvantages of Lime and

Caustic precipitation

Precipitant
Advantages Lime- CaOH Caustic- NaOH
Low chemical cost More reactive

More settleable and Easy to handle

filterable precipitate

Disadvantages More difficult to High chemical cost

handle than caustic
Higher feed- Less settleable and
equipment cost filterable precipitate

Higher maintenance Higher clarification

cost and dewatering cost

More sludge if high Higher dissolved

sulfates are present solids in effluent

114
3.2.3.2 Sulfide Precipitation
When it comes to sludge volume, reusability of the sludge and effluent
quality, precipitation of metals with sulfide is superior to precipitation as
hydroxides. It has many advantages over lime precipitation:
 High reactivity of sulfides with heavy metal ions and very low
solubility of metal sulfides over a broad pH range resulting in
lower effluent concentrations (See Figure 3.2.4).
 Sulfide precipitation, unlike hydroxide precipitation, is relatively
insensitive to the presence of complexes and most chelating
agents.
 Sulfide removes chromates and dichromates without preliminary
reduction of the chromium to the trivalent state.
 A high degree of selective metal precipitation is possible with
sulfide, as opposed to hydroxide precipitation.
 Metal sulfide sludges generally are more dense and stable than
metal hydroxide sludges, exhibiting better thickening and
dewatering characteristics than corresponding metal hydroxide
sludge which facilitates further processing.

M++ + FeS MS + Fe++

Previous objections against the use of sulfide, example that it is toxic and
corrosive, do not hold anymore because adequate safety measures and the
use of modern corrosion-resistant construction materials (plastics)
eliminate these disadvantages. Sulfide precipitation would be the method
of choice, if the high cost of transporting, storing or producing sulfide on
site (as NaSH or H2S) would not have hampered its widespread application
in the metal and mining industry.

115
 Figure 3.2.4: Solubility of Metal Sulfides over a Broad pH

Disadvantages of sulfide precipitation:

i. potential generate toxic hydrogen sulfide gas
ii. Care must take to maintain the pH above 8 to prevent evolution
of hydrogen sulfide.
iii. Potential for release of excessive sulfide in the effluent, which
may then require post treatment.

3.2.3.3 Carbonate Precipitation

 For certain metals like cadmium and lead, carbonate precipitation
may produce effluent metal concentration comparable with those
achievable by hydroxide precipitation, with the benefits of lower
operating pH and denser, more filterable sludge.
 A pH of 10 or greater is required for effective precipitation of
cadmium and lead hydroxide, but these metals can be precipitated
as carbonates at pH of 7.5 to 8.5.
 The precipitation of metals by sodium carbonate (soda ash) is
accomplished as illustrated by the following example; where M
represents a divalent metal:
Na2CO3 + M++ → MCO3 +2Na+

 The process is not effective for all metals.

116
3.2.3 Control Of Heat Generation During Precipitation Process
 Dilution of concentrated wastes, perhaps by bleeding into dilute
metal containing wastes
 Control of neutralization rate, example, and reagent feed rate – to
avoid excessive temperature rise in the reaction tank.
 Addition of lime slurry (dilution water if necessary) to the
reaction tank prior to adding acid waste. This coat the tank and
protects it from strong acid, and allow dissipation of the heat of
reaction throughout the mass of slurry and dilution water in the
tank.
 Cooling of the reaction tank externally or by aeration
 Adequate ventilation of emissions
 Use of a surface impoundment with large surface area for
neutralization

117
3.3 SOLIDIFICATION AND STABILIZATION PROCESS
3.3.1 S/S Techniques
Solidification/stabilization (S/S) techniques are akin to locking
the contaminants in the soil. It is a process that physically encapsulates
the contaminant. This technique can be used alone or combined with other
treatment and disposal methods.
The most common form of S/S is a cement process. It simply involves the
addition of cement or a cement-based mixture, which thereby limits the
solubility or mobility of the waste constituents. These techniques are
accomplished either in situ, by injecting a cement based agent into the
contaminated materials or ex situ, by excavating the materials, machine-
mixing them with a cement-based agent, and depositing the solidified mass
in a designated area. The goal of the S/S process is to limit the spread, via
leaching, of contaminated material. The end product resulting from the
solidification process is a monolithic block of waste with high structural
integrity. Types of solidifying/stabilizing agents include the following:
Portland; gypsum; modified sulfur cement, consisting of elemental sulfur
and hydrocarbon polymers; and grout, consisting of cement and other dry
materials, such as acceptable fly ash or blast furnace slag. Processes
utilizing modified sulfur cement are typically performed ex situ.
Immobilisation is a collective term for a range of treatment processes that
primarily aim to make hazardous waste safe for disposal by reducing the
potential for waste component leaching.
Stabilisation: techniques by which hazardous wastes are converted into a
more stable form.
Solidification: techniques that create a solid mass of either the original
waste, or waste that has been stabilised S/S often used in combination S/S
feedstock is often the residue from other treatment processes

118
 AR
Figure 3.3.1: Solidification/stabilization
3.3.2 S/S technology has the following advantages:
 Low cost because the reagents are widely available and
inexpensive
 Can be used on a large variety of contaminants
 Can be applied to different types of soils
 Equipment is widely available and simple
 High throughput rates
However, it still has the following disadvantages:

 Contaminants are still in the soil, not destroyed or removed

 Volume of the treated wastes usually increases significantly
 Volatile organic compounds and some particulates may come out
during treatment process
 Delivering reagents deep into the wastes and mixing them evenly
is difficult
 In situ S/S site may not be redeveloped
 Long-term efficiency of S/S is still uncertain

119
3.3.3 Stabilisation Process
3.3.4 Stabilisation Technologies
Stabilization is a process employing additives (reagents) to reduce the
hazardous nature of a waste by converting the waste and its hazardous
constituents into a form that minimizes the rate of contaminants migration
into the environment, or reduces the level of toxicity.
The three major areas of application for stabilization technologies
are:

 Land Disposal-the stabilization of wastes prior to secure landfill

disposal
 Site remediation-the remediation of contaminated sites
 Solidification of industrial wastes- the solidification of non-
hazardous, unstable wastes, such as sludges

Land Disposal
The land disposal of liquid waste increases the likelihood of contaminants
migration. Liquid waste, along with wet sludges, must be stabilized prior
to landfilling. To affectively stabilize liquids, the stabilization agents
cannot be absorbents (such as sawdust). The liquids absorbed by agents
could be easily released (desorbed) in the landfill when compressed under
additional loads. That is, as more material is landfilled, the weight of the
overlying material would squeeze the liquids out of the underlying
material. Therefore, the liquids must be chemically and physically bound
by the stabilization reagents so that they are not expelled by the
consolidation stresses or leached out by the downward percolation of
precipitation.

120
Site Remediation
The remediation of contaminated sites having organic wastes, inorganic
wastes, and contaminated soils may be accomplished by employing
stabilization technology. For site remediation, stabilization is used to:

 Improve the handling and physical characteristic of waste

 Decrease the rate of contaminant migration by decreasing the
surface area across which the transfer of pollutants can occur and
by limiting the solubility of pollutants
 Reduce the toxicity of certain contaminants

1. Stabilization may be considered to be a more permanent

remedial solution than other alternatives such as
containment.
2. Stabilization is particularly well suited for sites where the
hazard involves large quantities of soils contaminated at
low levels.
3. Stabilization processes attempt to reduce the solubility or
chemical reactivity of a waste by changing its chemical
state or by physical entrapment. The hazard potential of the
waste is reduced by converting the contaminants to their
least soluble, mobile or toxic form. Solidification refers to
techniques that encapsulate the waste in a monolithic solid
of high structural integrity. Solidification does not
necessarily involve a chemical interaction between the
wastes and the solidifying reagents, but may mechanically
bind the waste into the monolith. Contaminant migration is
restricted by vastly decreasing the surface area exposed to
leaching and/or by isolating the wastes within a relatively
impervious capsule

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3.3.5 Mechanisms of stabilisation processes such as encapsulation,
absorption and absorbents

3.3.5.1 Microencapsulation
S/S additives, such as encapsulators, are available that will not increase
the weight and volume of the wastes so dramatically, but these additives
tend to be more expensive and difficult to use.
In microencapsulation, hazardous waste constituents are entrapped
within the crystalline structure of the solidified matrix at a microscopic
level. As a result, even if the stabilized material degrade into relatively
small particle sizes, most of the stabilized hazardous wastes remains
entrapped. However, as with macroencapsulation, because the waste is
not chemically altered or bound, the rates of contaminant release from the
stabilized mass may increase as the particle size decreases and more
surface area is exposed.
For example, the oily waste that is encapsulated within the small pores of
the light gray matrix of fly ash, lime, and cement binder. The waste in
these very small pores is bound only by physical entrapment in the
stabilized mass, as in macroencapsulation. If the stabilized materials
degrade to very small particles over the long term, the stabilized oily waste
would be released from the matrix.

3.3.5.2 Absorption and Absorbents

The process by which contaminants are taken into the sorbent in very
much the same way a sponge takes on water. As applied, is recognized
that this classification into categories is somewhat arbitrary because more
than one reagent may be employed for any given was stabilization project,
this approach allows examination of the mechanisms by which each of the
reagents act. Where agents are used in conjunction with each other in a
synergistic fashion. The term binder is used to denote a reagent that
contributes to the strength gain associated with stabilization. The term
sorbent is used to denote a reagent that primarily contributes to retaining
contaminants in the stabilized matrix.

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3.3.6 Stabilisation reagent (binder) such as cement, pozzolans, lime
soluble silicates, clay and polymers.
Examples of inorganic binders which are often used in various
combinations include cements, lime, pozzolans, which react with lime and
moisture to form a cement such as fly ash, and silicates. Among the
organic types generally used are epoxies, polyesters, asphalt, and
polyolefins (e.g. polyethylene). Organic binders have also been mixed
with inorganic types, e.g., polyurethane and cement. The performance of
a binder system for a given waste is evaluated on a case-by-case basis;
however, much has been learned in recent years about the compatibility
and performance of binders with certain wastes, which allows for some
intelligent initial decisions related to binder selection and processing
requirements.
Cements
Stabilization of hazardous waste frequently employs cement as the
principal reagent.the most common cement is Portland cement, which is
made by firing a mixture of limestone and clay or other silicate in a kiln at
high temperature. The kiln produces a clinker, which is ground to a powder
that is a mixture of Calcium, Silicate, Aluminium and Iron Oxides. For
cement based stabilization, waste materials are mixed with cement
followed by the addition of water for hydration, if necessary because the
waste does not have enough water. The hydration of the cement forms a
crystalline structure, consisting of Calcium Aluminosilicate. This result in
a rock-like, hardened mass. Concrete by definition is a particulate
composite consisting of hydrated cement and aggregate.
Pozzolanic
It include fly ash, ground blast furnace slag, and cement kiln dust. The
resulting pozzolanic structures are termed amorphous aluminosilicates.
Fly ash, the most commonly employed pozzolan, is typically about 45%
SiO2, 25% Al2O3, 15% Fe2O3, 10% CaO. In addition the amount of
unburned carbon may vary from sources to source. Like cement based
stabilization, most stabilization application involving the untreated sludge
from an Imhoff digester tank was treated with fly ash and lime reagents to
stabilized elevated levels of Cadmium, Chromium, Copper,Iron, Lead,
Magnesium,Manganese,Selenium Silver andZinc. Although the stabilized
material had a soil-like consistency, the leaching test indicated that the

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stabilization process significantly slowed leaching of several of these
components. Unburned carbon in fly ash may adsorb organics from the
waste. As a result, a pozzolan such as fly ash may have beneficial effects
in the stabilization of both organic and inorganic species. It should be
noted that when fly ash is used, quicklime (CaO) is needed to achieve
satisfactory stabilization.
Lime
Stabilization of sludges is frequently accomplished through the addition
of Calcium Hydroxide (CaOH) or lime. The resulting reaction with
materials included in the waste result in hydrates of calcium silicate,
Calcium alumina, or calcium aluminosilicate. These materials are formed
from the reaction of calcium in the lime and aluminosilicates in the waste.
As with all additives, additional stabilization can be accomplished through
the use of other ingredients in smaller quantities. Note that lime may also
be added to raise the Ph of acidic sludges with other reagents that provide
the main stabilization reactions, such as fly ash. Lime-based stabilization
is typically best suited for inorganic contaminants and has been widely
employed for metal sludges.
Soluble silicates
Numerous metals can be treated using silicates. Soluble silicates especially
effective at precipitating the following metals: copper, zinc, manganese,
cadmium, lead, nickel, silver, magnesium and calcium. Metal silicates
exhibit low solubility over a wide pH range of 2 to 11 or greater. In
addition, soluble silicates are also effective at reducing the permeability of
the stabilized sealant. By forming precipitates in the matrix that block
pores, the movement of any mobile species through the matrix into the
environment is slowed. If the metals be pretreated by reducing the pH to
resolubilize the metal hydroxide or silicate must be slowly released or
produced over a period of time to react with metal hydroxide that is slowly
dissolving and being re-speciated.
Clay
Has proven to be an effective additive in cementious waste forms for
retarding the release of the soluble radioisotope. Illite clay was shown to
be an effective selective sorbent for Cs in the early 1960s. Illite has a
relatively low equivalent exchange capacity among clays. Gel clays have
been used for decades in geotechnical applications, example construction
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and drilling to resist segregation (suspended aid). Prevent bleed water, and
act as an engineered hydraulic barrier to water penetration (into a
construction zone, waste disposal site and etc. the most commonly used
clay for these purposes is bentonite, sodium montmorillonite.
Sulphur Polymer
Sulfur polymer cement (SPC) was developed employing readily available
and relatively
Inexpensive chemical modifiers which significantly improve product
durability. Elemental sulfur is reacted with 5-wt% dicyclopentadiene,
which suppresses a solid phase transition responsible for the instability.
SPC is a thermoplastic material, not a hydraulic cement. It has a relatively
low melting point (120°C) and melt viscosity (about 25 centipoise), and
thus can be processed easily by a simple heated stirred mixer. Compared
with hydraulic Portland cements, sulfur cement has a number of
advantages. Sulfur concrete compressive and tensile strengths twice those
of comparable Portland cement concretes have been attained. Full strength
is reached in a matter of hours rather than several weeks. Concretes
prepared using sulfur cements are extremely resistant to most acids and
salts. Sulfates, for example, which are known to attack hydraulic cements
have little or no effect on the integrity of sulfur cement. Because of these
properties, modified sulfur cement has been proposed for use as a paving
material, and for the production of tanks, pipes, and other structures where
durable concretes are required.

Based on its superior properties for construction applications, a process

using sulfur polymer for treating radioactive, hazardous, and mixed wastes
was developed at BNL and it has been applied to a wide range of waste
types including evaporator concentrates, ash, and sludges. Improved waste
loadings have been achieved while still exceeding waste form performance
standards specified by the NRC and EPA.

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3.3.7 Implementation of S/S Technologies Such As In-Drum Mixing,
In-Situ Mixing And Plant Mixing Alternatives
When radioactive contamination is present, other types of hazardous waste
(e.g., organic chemicals) may interfere with solidification. Treatability
studies are needed to demonstrate that the S/S process works.
Given the long period of time that radioactive waste will be a hazard, the
S/S facility must be particularly careful about the degradation of
construction materials.
For radioactive waste, there is concern about the likelihood of liner
deterioration, liner penetration, and leaching over the long-term, as well
as risks associated with the possible excavation, handling, and
transportation of radioactive waste.
In situ S/S may not be suitable for some sites because gamma radiation
might not be reduced sufficiently. With in situ S/S, consideration must be
given to any debris such as barrels, metal scrap, and wood pieces that may
interfere with the solidification process. Soil characteristics influence
whether the technology will contain the waste effectively. These
characteristics include void volume, which determines how much grout
can be injected into the site; soil pore size, which determines the size of
the cement particles that can be injected; and permeability of the
surrounding area, which determines whether water will flow preferentially
around the solidified mass. Some cement processes result in significant
increases in volume— up to double the original quantity.

Figure 3.3.1: In-Situ mixing with tractor-mounted disk harrow

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Ex-situ S/S system are assemblies of mixers, chemical storage and feeding
devices, pumps, conveyors, and ancillary equipment. The actual treatment
and disposal scenario determines which combination to use. Mixer-based
methods use the most complex equipment, while pit mixing and spray-on
methods are the simplest. All three tehcniques are used at fixed treatment
sites such as TSDFs and waste generator facilities.

Figure 3.3.2: Ex-Situ pit mixing at TSDF

The pit is generally a steel-or concrete lined basin with secondary
containment. Because it is relatively small, 38m3 or less, and configured
to eliminate dead areas that the backhoe bucket can’t get into, it can do a
good mixing job with most waste streams. The nature of the backhoe
allows the method to work well in debris and other large particles that
could not be handled with mechanical mixer-based system. Pit mixing is
a large –batch process that is an efficient method for TSDFs where each
waste load, typically 20 tons coming to the stabilization plant may require
a different formulation.
Ex-situ S/S has the advantage that both liquid and solid reagents can be
used to treat the contaminated media, using commonly available mixing
equipment. Furthermore, water, which is often critical for thorough
mixing, can be easily added where necessary to maintain mix properties.
An additional advantage is that samples of the treated material are also
easily obtained during processing, such as at the mixer discharge point (see
Figure 3.3.3), enabling rapid evaluation of S/S product as it is being
formed.

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 Figure 3.3.3: Ex-Situ treatment in a roll-off box
Furthermore, the application of ex-situ S/S involves more commonly
available equipment, and there are more ‘vendors’ available that can apply
this method of S/S. In addition, it is possible to identify more quickly any
inadequate treatment and to re-route this material back into the ‘system’
to ensure the maintenance of treatment goals, or disposal by another
method.
Ex-situ treatment also has the advantage of being suitable for shallow
soils, located above the water table, and this facilitates selective materials
removal, and a lower-cost treatment option.
The major technical disadvantages for ex-situ S/S include primarily space
requirements and ease of materials handling. However, there must be
space available to stockpile materials to be treated and to apply S/S and to
hold the treated product until verification of performance criteria is
received. It should be noted that ex-situ S/S involves significant logistical
issues, related to the transport of the contaminated media to the site of S/S
treatment and then onto the location of final disposition (which may be
off- or on-site.
In drum mixing may be preferred for treatment of small volumes of waste
or for toxic wastes. It is common practice to dispose of drums (typically,
55 gallon drums) containing hazardous liquids and sludges in open storage
areas and landfills. If the drum integrity is good, the
stabilization/solidification reagent is added directly to the drum, thus
eliminating drum crushing and drum diposal problems. However,
generally poor condition of the drums or lack of necessary headspace in

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the drum for reagent addition and resulting volume expansion may
preclude in-drum mixing.
Experience shows that in-drum mixing has the highest per-unit cost
because of high labor content and equipment, such as on-site chemical
storage system. Chemical-batching system, mixing system and drum
handling system costs. However, if properly handled, in-drum mixing can
provide the safest and most controlled work environment.

Mobile Plant mixing

In this process the wastes are physically removed from their location,
mechanically mixed with reagents, and then deposited in a prepared site.
Mobile plant mixing is generally used for treating sludges with a high
liquid content that can be pumped. In some cases, however special
equipment has been designed to handle sludges with high solid contents.
Typically, the operation system consists of preparing a site for installation
of the mobile system, installing a raw and treated waste handling system
such as pumps or simple construction equipment for handling high solid
wastes, transporting and erecting portable system at the site, preparing the
final disposal site, and initiating, monitoring and performing the
stabilization/solidification operation.

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 3.3 THERMAL METHODS
Incineration plant means any stationary or mobile technical unit and
equipment dedicated to the thermal treatment of wastes with or without
recovery of the combustion heat generated. This includes the incineration
by oxidation of waste as well as other thermal treatment processes such as
pyrolysis, gasification or plasma processes in so far as the substances
resulting from the treatment are subsequently incinerated.
This definition covers the site and the entire incineration plant including
all incineration lines, waste reception, storage, on site pre-treatment
facilities, waste-fuel and air supply systems, boiler, facilities for the
treatment of exhaust gases, on-site facilities for treatment or storage of
residues and waste water, stack, devices and systems for controlling
incineration operations, recording and monitoring incineration conditions.

Myths Reality
Incinerators cause It is true that emissions from waste incinerators need
pollution and raise risk to be monitored continuously. But all waste
to health and incineration processes are now designed and operated
contamination of so that residual emissions of pollutants comply with
surrounding land. the emission limits set out in the Waste Incineration
Directive (2000/76/EC).
All emissions are measured continuously and online
reported to the authority. Additionally the input and
the environment are checked by bioindication
(sampling of soil, water, plants, animals- showing
measurable damages to flora, soil and water fauna)

Thus, emissions from modern incinerators are not

likely to put our health at risk, and in reality there
are many other far worse emissions from
factories, road traffic on motorways, and even
home coal and wood fires.

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Incinerators are the In the 80´s incineration was considered to be a great
largest producers of producer of dioxins. Technology meantime has
dioxins. It is the dioxins improved so emissions are negligible.
contained in the gases
from the chimneys that
Dioxins are unwanted by products of a wide range of
attract most concern
manufacturing processes including smelting, chlorine
because they are
bleaching of paper pulp and the manufacturing of
suspected of causing
some herbicides and pesticides. Some of these
cancer.
processes produce much more dioxins than
incineration.

Incineration encourages Beside a profitable recycling and composting of

more waste because waste from separate collection there is still residual
operators need to have a waste left that is for incineration of value but not for
constant level of waste to any other kind of treatment. When using central
keep the fires burning. To heating and power generation, waste substitutes more
meet this demand, valuable resources like coal, oil and so on…
campaigners say, local
authorities abandon
recycling and waste
reduction plans.

The ash from the Bottom ash from incinerators can be used in the
incineration process road building industry.
cannot be used for any
purpose. It is
contaminated and must be
disposed only.

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The operation of Incineration plants can be located close to residential
incineration causes more areas, which are the centers of production of waste,
pollution to the air and and this helps to reduce the volume of traffic,
annoyance due to noise pollution, noise and of course the costs for the waste
by the traffic (transport transportation. Many incinerators have their own rail
of waste to incinerator) connection (siding). In the .A.S.A. Incinerator in
Zistersdorf 70% of input material is transported
by railway transport resulting in less impact to the
environment.

The underground water Incineration respecting the EU directive causes no

is polluted pollution to any source of water.

Incineration is a waste treatment process that involves the combustion of

organic substances contained in waste materials. Incineration and other
high-temperature waste treatment systems are described as "thermal
treatment". Incineration of waste materials converts the waste into ash,
flue gas and heat. The ash is mostly formed by the inorganic constituents
of the waste and may take the form of solid lumps or particulates carried
by the flue gas. The flue gases must be cleaned of gaseous and particulate
pollutants before they are dispersed into the atmosphere. In some cases,
the heat generated by incineration can be used to generate electric power.
Incineration with energy recovery is one of several waste-to-energy
technologies such as gasification, pyrolysis and anaerobic digestion.
While incineration and gasification technologies are similar in principle,
the energy produced from incineration is high-temperature heat whereas
combustible gas is often the main energy product from gasification.
Incineration and gasification may also be implemented without energy and
materials recovery.

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3.4.2 Regulation specific for incineration process
Incinerators and other combustors (e.g., light-weight aggregate kilns and
cement kilns) that use hazardous wastes as fuels are regulated principally
under RCRA and CAA. A hazardous waste is one that either exhibits
specific characteristics of ignitability, corrosivity, reactivity, and toxicity
or is specifically listed in 40 CFR §§ 261.31 through 261.33. Facilities that
treat, store, and dispose of hazardous wastes are comprehensively
regulated under RCRA. Operators of hazardous-waste incinerators must
obtain an operating permit from either federal or state regulators under
standards promulgated by EPA. The permitting process for a new
hazardous-waste incinerator generally takes at least 3 years and entails the
investment of $5-10 million.
Incinerators burning waste contaminated with PCBs, which fall under the
Toxic Substances Control Act, must obtain a federal permit. Under
Section 112 (d) of the CAA, EPA is required to develop national emission
standards for hazardous air pollutants (NESHAP) for major source
categories. EPA has determined that industrial/commercial/institutional
boilers may be a major source of emissions of one or more HAPs. To the
extent that an incinerator discharges pollutants into navigable waters, the
operator must also obtain a permit under the Clean Water Act.

The Clean Air Act (CAA) and Waste Incineration

The CAA requires EPA to establish new source performance standards
(NSPS) for new incineration facilities and emission guidelines for existing
facilities. Emission guidelines require states to develop plans for
controlling emissions from facilities within their jurisdictions. Once EPA
has approved the states' plans, they become federally enforceable.
Standards and regulations are developed by EPA's Office of Air and
Radiation for incinerators that burn municipal solid waste or medical
waste. Regulations for hazardous-waste incinerators and cement kilns are
developed by EPA's Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response
under the CAA and RCRA.
Regulations developed under the CAA are intended to limit atmospheric
concentrations of the six criteria pollutants (i.e., carbon monoxide, lead,
nitrogen dioxide, ozone, particulate matter, and sulfur dioxide) and control

133
emissions of 188 air toxics (also known as hazardous air pollutants
(HAPs).
Prior to 1990, EPA's efforts to regulate HAPs on the basis of health risk
were slowed by conflicts and litigation by interested or affected parties.
As a result, EPA had developed standards for only seven of the original
189 HAPs. In response to the lack of progress, the 1990 amendments to
the CAA shifted the regulatory tool from a risk-based emissions standard
to a technology-based standard for the sources of air toxic emissions. The
so called “MACT” (Maximum Achievable Control Technology) standards
establish control requirements which assure that all major sources of toxic
emissions (including waste incineration facilities) have the same level of
control already attained by an average of the best performing (top 12%)
sources in each pollutant category. The “residual risk” (i.e., the risk
remaining) is to be determined in order to assess the risk remaining after
the technology-based standard has been met. Section 122(f) stipulates that
if an “ample margin of safety” is not reached, then taking into
consideration “costs, energy, safety, and other relevant factors,” a standard
more stringent than the MACT standards alone may be implemented. It is
important to clarify that several of the requirements will not be in effect
until several years later. In the meantime, for existing municipal solid-
waste incinerators, there is a variety of permits of widely varied stringency
governing emissions (for example, ranging from uncontrolled for some
pollutants to state-of-the-art controls for others).
EPA is charged with measuring the risks that remain after MACT
standards are implemented and reporting its measurements to Congress
along with data on the methods used to calculate such risks, their health
implications, commercially available methods for reducing them, and
recommendations as to legislation regarding them (Steverson 1994). EPA
has completed a residual risk report to Congress on the methods to be used
to assess the residual risk after MACT standards have been promulgated
and applied (EPA 1999). As discussed later in this chapter, EPA has
developed NSPS and emission guidelines for large municipal-waste
incinerators (units with great than 250 tons per day capacity) of medical-
waste incinerators as well as hazardous-waste incinerators, lightweight
aggregate kilns, and cement kilns that burn hazardous waste.
National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) are in place for the six
criteria pollutants mentioned above. The NAAQS set nationwide limits on

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the atmospheric (ambient) concentrations. If it is determined that an area
is not in attainment of any of the NAAQS, that state is expected to develop
a State Implementation Plan (SIP) for achieving attainment of the NAAQS
through state-selected and enforced controls on emissions. The state must
satisfy the EPA that its SIP is adequate. Depending on location, it is
possible that some incineration facilities may face additional, more-
stringent controls as part of SIP requirements.

The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) and Waste

Incineration
RCRA gave EPA the authority to control hazardous waste with respect to
generation, transportation, treatment, storage, and disposal. RCRA focuses
only on active and future facilities and does not address abandoned or
historical sites (those are covered by CERCLA). RCRA requires EPA to
establish performance, design, and operating standards for all hazardous-
waste treatment, storage, and disposal facilities. The regulations
developed in response apply to facilities that incinerate hazardous waste.
The regulations restrict the emissions of organics, hydrogen chloride, and
particulate matter, as well as fugitive emissions.

REGULATIONS APPLICABLE TO MUNICIPAL SOLID-WASTE

INCINERATORS
Federal Regulations
Section 111 of the CAA sets national emission standards for municipal
solid-waste incinerators. It requires promulgation of performance
standards for categories of new and existing stationary sources that might
contribute to air pollution reasonably anticipated to endanger public health
or welfare (Reitze and Davis 1993).
On December 20, 1989, EPA proposed new source performance standards
for new municipal solid-waste incinerators and emission guidelines for
existing ones on the basis of best demonstrated technology
(BDT)(Subparts Ea and Ca of 40 CFR 60). On February 11, 1991, EPA
promulgated those subparts as regulations applicable to municipal-waste
incinerators reflecting BDT as determined by the EPA administrator at the

135
time the guidelines were issued. Plants were divided into 3 categories:
small (units burning up to 250 tons or Mg/day), large (units burning up to
2,200 Mg/day), and very large (units burning more than 2,200 Mg/day).
The regulations included maximum levels that varied with the size of the
unit for the following emissions: hydrochloric acid (HCl), oxides of
nitrogen (NOx), opacity for particles, carbon monoxide (CO), sulfur
dioxide (SO 2), and dioxins and furans. They also include process
parameters, such as load, and flue-gas temperature at the particulate-matter
control-device inlet. The regulations also require provisional certification
of the chief facility operator and shift supervisors by the American Society
of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) or through a state certification program.
A site-specific training manual to be used for training other incinerator
personnel was required. Reporting is not required for emissions during
process upsets, including startup and shutdown. Also, such data are not
used to evaluate compliance with standards.
On November 15, 1990, as EPA was preparing final versions of the
standards for new and existing municipal solid-waste incinerators,
Congress passed the 1990 CAA Amendments; a new provision, section
129 (a), required that emission standards for new incinerators and
guidelines for existing ones reflect the maximal achievable degree of
emission reduction, taking into consideration the cost and any non-air-
quality health and environmental effects and energy requirements of the
technology. The level of control was to be based on MACT. Section 129
also effectively added mercury, cadmium, lead, and fly-ash or bottom-ash
fugitive emissions to the list of regulated pollutants, expanded the
applicability of the standards to some of the smaller plants, and required
recalculation of previously promulgated limits for the other pollutants
according to a new method.
Municipal solid-waste incinerator “Standards of Performance for New
Stationary Sources and Emission Guidelines for Existing Sources,”
implementing sections 111 and 129 of the CAA, were promulgated on
December 19, 1995, Fed. Regist. 60(243):65387-65436.
With regard to new sources, MACT emission standards (the so-called
MACT floor) may not be less stringent than the emission control achieved
in practice by the best-controlled similar units. As applied to existing
incinerators, MACT emission standards may not be less stringent than the
average emission limitation achieved in practice by the best-performing

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12% of units. EPA has interpreted the former definition to mean the
average performance level achieved at the uppermost 12th percentile of
existing municipal solid-waste incinerators in the United States for which
data were available, and the latter to mean the level corresponding to the
average permit level for the uppermost 12th percentile of existing
incinerators for each pollutant.
The data with which MACT floors were to be determined were the subject
of some dispute. The MACT floor could have been based on permitted
emission levels, levels achieved in practice by currently used technologies,
or levels achievable with available technology. Some environmental
groups interpreted MACT to mean, in the case of new plants, emission
levels equivalent to the best performing plant's emission levels, and for
existing plants, the average performance level achieved at the uppermost
12th percentile of existing municipal solid-waste incinerators both from a
worldwide database of facilities. The difference between this
interpretation and the permitted-emission-level interpretation is
considerable, particularly in the case of existing incinerators, in that permit
levels are usually considerably less stringent than the current state-of-the-
art performance levels.
Section 129 also requires the setting of numerical emission limits based
on MACT. That has been done for all required pollutants except mercury,
HCl, and SO2, for which a dual standard—the less stringent of a numerical
limit and a percentage reduction —is proposed. In practice, the percentage
reduction usually applies.
Besides the MACT emission limitations, the December 1995 standards
and guidelines required that all municipal solid-waste incinerators
handling waste at over 35 Mg/day adhere to good combustion practices,
which include the following requirements:

 The incinerator load level and the flue-gas temperature at the

particulate matter control-device inlet must be measured and not
exceed the levels demonstrated during the most-recent dioxin or
furan performance test. EPA did not propose any specific flue-
gas temperature requirement for either new or existing plants.
Each incinerator is to establish a site specific maximal flue-gas
temperature based on the maximal 4-hr block average
temperature measured during the most-recent dioxin and furan
compliance test. The incinerator must then be operated in such a
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 way that the flue-gas temperature does not exceed that maximum
by more than 17 °C (31°F).
 The chief facility operator and shift supervisor must obtain
provisional and then full operator certification from ASME, and
a provisionally certified control-room operator may “stand in”
for the chief facility operator or shift supervisor for an
unspecified period.
 All chief facility operators, shift supervisors, and control-room
operators are required to complete an EPA or municipal solid-
waste incinerator operator-training course. However, uniform
course curricula or criteria are not specified in the law.
The rule requires control of flue-gas temperature and load level at the inlet
of the particulate-matter control device. Flue-gas temperature at the inlet
to the particulate-matter control device, activated-carbon and alkaline-
reagent sorbent injection rates, waste-feed rates, and other characteristics
are considered surrogates for continuous monitoring of mercury, HCl, and
dioxins or furans; and EPA mandates measurement and monitoring of
these pollutants under the standards and guidelines.
The CAA amendments of 1990 are being implemented to require the
updating of antiquated technologies with more-modern control devices
that are not, in the view of EPA, too expensive for both new and large old
incinerators. For control of dioxins and furans and mercury, which are the
types of the municipal solid-waste incinerator emissions that are most
toxic and difficult to remove, and control of acid gases, such as SO2, NOx,
and HCl, the MACT floors in both the NSPS and the guidelines for large
plants are based on use of activated-carbon injection, spray-dryer
absorbers with alkaline-reagent injection, fabric-filter particle-control
devices, and selective non-catalytic reduction for NOx control.
Because of concerns about the bioaccumulation of mercury in the
environment, EPA considers the incremental costs associated with adding
activated carbon injection to control mercury emission reasonable for new
and existing small plants, and it therefore requires the same mercury-
emission standards for all municipal solid-waste incinerators—new and
old, large and small. EPA considered activated-carbon injection to be the
best of three mercury-control technologies but did not evaluate fixed
activated-carbon filtration which is a technology that is used at a number
of European facilities.

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A siting analysis is required for new plants, as is a material-separation
plan. The siting analysis is performed to consider “the impact of the
affected facility on ambient air quality, visibility, soils and vegetation” and
“air pollution control alternatives that minimize, on a site-specific basis,
to the maximum extent practicable, potential risks to the public health or
the environment” (40 CFR § 60.57b (b)(1), (2)). No other substantive
requirements are stated. The requirements for the material-separation
plans are largely procedural; EPA has not specified any particular
minimum performance levels, separation-system design, or materials to be
separated. To ensure proper siting of a landfill or incinerator, it is
important to consider current and projected prevention, recycling, and
composting levels and the effect of diversion on the character of the
resulting waste stream that serves as the incinerator feedstock.
On April 8, 1997, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia
Circuit vacated the emission guidelines and new source performance
standards as they apply to municipal solid-waste incinerator units with the
capacity to combust less than or equal to 250 tons per day of municipal
solid waste, and all cement kilns combusting municipal solid waste. As a
result the requirements described above apply only to municipal-waste
combustor units with the capacity to burn more than 250 tons per day.
On August 25, 1997, EPA amended the emission guidelines and standards
that were promulgated on December 19, 1995 (Fed. Regist.
62(164):4511645127) to make them consistent with the court decision.
That amendment document also added supplemental emission guideline
limits for four pollutants: hydrogen chloride, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen
oxides, and lead. The amendments did not add any additional emission
limits to the standards for new facilities.

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3.4.3 The combustion principles such as excess air, fuels, wastes
containing sulphur, halogens, nitrogen and inorganic; metals.
Use of heat
The heat produced by an incinerator can be used to generate steam which
may then be used to drive a turbine in order to produce electricity. The
typical amount of net energy that can be produced per tonne municipal
waste is about 2/3 MWh of electricity and 2 MWh of district heating. Thus,
incinerating about 600 metric tons (660 short tons) per day of waste will
produce about 400 MWh of electrical energy per day (17 MW of electrical
power continuously for 24 hours) and 1200 MWh of district heating
energy each day.

Pollution
Incineration has a number of outputs such as the ash and the emission to
the atmosphere of flue gas. Before the flue gas cleaning system, if
installed, the flue gases may contain particulate matter, heavy metals,
dioxins, furans, sulfur dioxide, and hydrochloric acid. If plants have
inadequate flue gas cleaning, these outputs may add a significant pollution
component to stack emissions.
In a study from 1997, Delaware Solid Waste Authority found that, for
same amount of produced energy, incineration plants emitted fewer
particles, hydrocarbons and less SO2, HCl, CO and NOx than coal-fired
power plants, but more than natural gas–fired power plants. According to
Germany's Ministry of the Environment, waste incinerators reduce the
amount of some atmospheric pollutants by substituting power produced
by coal-fired plants with power from waste-fired plants.

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Gaseous emissions
Dioxin and furans
The most publicized concerns from environmentalists about the
incineration of municipal solid wastes (MSW) involve the fear that it
produces significant amounts of dioxin and furan emissions. Dioxins and
furans are considered by many to be serious health hazards. The EPA
announced in 2012 that the safe limit for human oral consumption is 0.7
picograms Toxic Equivalence (TEQ) per kilogram bodyweight per day,
which works out to 17 billionths of a gram for a 150 lb person per year.
According to the United States Environmental Protection Agency, the
combustion percentages of the total dioxin and furan inventory from all
known and estimated sources in the U.S. (not only incineration) for each
type of incineration are as follows: 35.1% backyard barrels; 26.6%
medical waste; 6.3% municipal wastewater treatment sludge; 5.9%
municipal waste combustion; 2.9% industrial wood combustion. Thus, the
controlled combustion of waste accounted for 41.7% of the total dioxin
inventory.
Backyard barrel burning of household and garden wastes, still allowed in
some rural areas, generates 580 grams (20 oz) of dioxins annually. Studies
conducted by the US-EPA demonstrated that the emissions from just one
family using a burn barrel produced more emissions than an incineration
plant disposing of 200 metric tons (220 short tons) of waste per day by
1997 and five times that by 2007 due to increased chemicals in household
trash and decreased emissions by municipal incinerators using better
technology.
However, the same researchers found that their original estimates for the
burn barrel were high, and that the incineration plant used for comparison
represented a theoretical 'clean' plant rather than any existing facility.
Their later studies found that burn barrels produced a median of 24.95
nanograms TEQ per lb garbage burned, so that a family burning 5 lbs of
trash per day, or 1825 lbs per year, produces a total of 0.0455 mg TEQ per
year, and that the equivalent number of burn barrels for the 83.8 grams
(2.96 oz) of the 251 municipal waste combustors inventoried by the EPA
in the U.S. in 2000, is 1,841,700, or on average, 7337 family burn barrels
per municipal waste incinerator.

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Most of the improvement in U.S. dioxin emissions has been for large-scale
municipal waste incinerators. As of the year 2000, although small-scale
incinerators (those with a daily capacity of less than 250 tons) processed
only 9% of the total waste combusted, these produced 83% of the dioxins
and furans emitted by municipal waste combustion.
CO2
As for other complete combustion processes, nearly all of the carbon
content in the waste is emitted as CO2 to the atmosphere. MSW contains
approximately the same mass fraction of carbon as CO2 itself (27%), so
incineration of 1 ton of MSW produces approximately 1 ton of CO2.
If the waste was landfilled, 1 ton of MSW would produce approximately
62 cubic metres (2,200 cu ft) methane via the anaerobic decomposition of
the biodegradable part of the waste. Since the global warming potential of
methane is 34 and the weight of 62 cubic meters of methane at 25 degrees
Celsius is 40.7 kg, this is equivalent to 1.38 ton of CO2, which is more than
the 1 ton of CO2 which would have been produced by incineration. In some
countries, large amounts of landfill gas are collected. Still the global
warming potential of the landfill gas emitted to atmosphere is significant.
In the US it was estimated that the global warming potential of the emitted
landfill gas in 1999 was approximately 32% higher than the amount of
CO2 that would have been emitted by incineration. Since this study, the
global warming potential estimate for methane has been increased from 21
to 35, which alone would increase this estimate to almost the triple GWP
effect compared to incineration of the same waste.
In addition, nearly all biodegradable waste has biological origin. This
material has been formed by plants using atmospheric CO2 typically
within the last growing season. If these plants are regrown the CO2 emitted
from their combustion will be taken out from the atmosphere once more.
Such considerations are the main reason why several countries
administrate incineration of biodegradable waste as renewable energy. The
rest, mainly plastics and other oil and gas derived products – is generally
treated as non-renewables.
Different results for the CO2 footprint of incineration can be reached with
different assumptions. Local conditions (such as limited local district
heating demand, no fossil fuel generated electricity to replace or high
levels of aluminium in the waste stream) can decrease the CO2 benefits of
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incineration. The methodology and other assumptions may also influence
the results significantly. For example, the methane emissions from
landfills occurring at a later date may be neglected or given less weight, or
biodegradable waste may not be considered CO2 neutral. A study by
Eunomia Research and Consulting in 2008 on potential waste treatment
technologies in London demonstrated that by applying several of these
(according to the authors) unusual assumptions the average existing
incineration plants performed poorly for CO2 balance compared to the
theoretical potential of other emerging waste treatment technologies.
Other emissions
Other gaseous emissions in the flue gas from incinerator furnaces include
nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, hydrochloric acid, heavy metals, and fine
particles. Of the heavy metals, mercury is a major concern due to its
toxicity and high volatility, as essentially all mercury in the municipal
waste stream may exit in emissions if not removed by emission controls.
The steam content in the flue may produce visible fume from the stack,
which can be perceived as a visual pollution. It may be avoided by
decreasing the steam content by flue-gas condensation and reheating, or
by increasing the flue gas exit temperature well above its dew point. Flue-
gas condensation allows the latent heat of vaporization of the water to be
recovered, subsequently increasing the thermal efficiency of the plant.
Flue-gas cleaning
The quantity of pollutants in the flue gas from incineration plants may or
may not be reduced by several processes, depending on the plant.
Particulate is collected by particle filtration, most often electrostatic
precipitators (ESP) and/or baghouse filters. The latter are generally very
efficient for collecting fine particles. In an investigation by the Ministry of
the Environment of Denmark in 2006, the average particulate emissions
per energy content of incinerated waste from 16 Danish incinerators were
below 2.02 g/GJ (grams per energy content of the incinerated waste).
Detailed measurements of fine particles with sizes below 2.5 micrometres
(PM2.5) were performed on three of the incinerators: One incinerator
equipped with an ESP for particle filtration emitted 5.3 g/GJ fine particles,
while two incinerators equipped with baghouse filters emitted 0.002 and
0.013 g/GJ PM2.5. For ultra-fine particles (PM1.0), the numbers were
4.889 g/GJ PM1.0 from the ESP plant, while emissions of 0.000 and
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0.008 g/GJ PM1.0 were measured from the plants equipped with baghouse
filters.
Acid gas scrubbers are used to remove hydrochloric acid, nitric acid,
hydrofluoric acid, mercury, lead and other heavy metals. The efficiency of
removal will depend on the specific equipment, the chemical composition
of the waste, the design of the plant, the chemistry of reagents, and the
ability of engineers to optimize these conditions, which may conflict for
different pollutants. For example, mercury removal by wet scrubbers is
considered coincidental and may be less than 50%. Basic scrubbers
remove sulfur dioxide, forming gypsum by reaction with lime.
Waste water from scrubbers must subsequently pass through a waste water
treatment plant.
Sulfur dioxide may also be removed by dry desulfurization by injection
limestone slurry into the flue gas before the particle filtration.
NOx is either reduced by catalytic reduction with ammonia in a catalytic
converter (selective catalytic reduction, SCR) or by a high-temperature
reaction with ammonia in the furnace (selective non-catalytic reduction,
SNCR). Urea may be substituted for ammonia as the reducing reagent but
must be supplied earlier in the process so that it can hydrolyze into
ammonia. Substitution of urea can reduce costs and potential hazards
associated with storage of anhydrous ammonia.
Heavy metals are often adsorbed on injected active carbon powder, which
is collected by particle filtration.
Solid outputs
Incineration produces fly ash and bottom ash just as is the case when coal
is combusted. The total amount of ash produced by municipal solid waste
incineration ranges from 4 to 10% by volume and 15–20% by weight of
the original quantity of waste, and the fly ash amounts to about 10–20%
of the total ash. The fly ash, by far, constitutes more of a potential health
hazard than does the bottom ash because the fly ash often contain high
concentrations of heavy metals such as lead, cadmium, copper and zinc
as well as small amounts of dioxins and furans. The bottom ash seldom
contain significant levels of heavy metals. At present although some
historic samples tested by the incinerator operators' group would meet the
being ecotoxic criteria at present the EA say "we have agreed" to regard

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incinerator bottom ash as "non-hazardous" until the testing programme is
complete.
Other pollution issues
Odor pollution can be a problem with old-style incinerators, but odors and
dust are extremely well controlled in newer incineration plants. They
receive and store the waste in an enclosed area with a negative pressure
with the airflow being routed through the boiler which prevents unpleasant
odors from escaping into the atmosphere. However, not all plants are
implemented this way, resulting in inconveniences in the locality.
An issue that affects community relationships is the increased road traffic
of waste collection vehicles to transport municipal waste to the incinerator.
Due to this reason, most incinerators are located in industrial areas. This
problem can be avoided to an extent through the transport of waste by rail
from transfer stations.
3.4.4 Gases, vapours and flares
3.4.7 Incinerator for Solid Waste Hearth-Type Such As Rotary Kiln
& Fluidized Bed

Rotary-kiln
The rotary-kiln incinerator is used by municipalities and by large industrial
plants. This design of incinerator has two chambers: a primary chamber
and secondary chamber. The primary chamber in a rotary kiln incinerator
consists of an inclined refractory lined cylindrical tube. The inner
refractory lining serves as sacrificial layer to protect the kiln structure.
This refractory layer needs to be replaced from time to time. Movement of
the cylinder on its axis facilitates movement of waste. In the primary
chamber, there is conversion of solid fraction to gases, through
volatilization, destructive distillation and partial combustion reactions.
The secondary chamber is necessary to complete gas phase combustion
reactions.
The clinkers spill out at the end of the cylinder. A tall flue-gas stack, fan,
or steam jet supplies the needed draft. Ash drops through the grate, but
many particles are carried along with the hot gases. The particles and any
combustible gases may be combusted in an "afterburner".
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 AR
Figure 3.4.2: Rotary Kiln Incinerator

Advance of rotary kiln

1). Stable function, low energy consumption, high output, easy to operate.
Rotary kiln's structure is simple, production process control conveniently
and reliably and it is less wearing parts and high operation rate.
2). One hand, rotary kiln is the combustion equipment, in which coal
powder burns to produce heat; Another hand, rotary kiln is the heat transfer
equipment, raw materials absorb the gas heat to burn. Fuel combustion,
heat transfer and material movement must be reasonable co-ordination to
make the heat produced by material burn transfer to raw material timely
when raw material go through the rotary kiln. This can reach the high-
yield, high-quality and low consumption of purpose.
3). The rotary kiln firing system is equipment with technological
innovation, This system adopts the domestic advanced technology, such
as the most advanced hydraulic block wheel device, a high measurement
accuracy of measurement piston pump, high-precision control valve and
contact-type graphite block sealing device.
4). Easy to operate, reliable use. Stabilize the thermal system, and improve
the equipment operation rate, increase 10% operation rate compared with
the same specifications equipment, production increased by 5% -10%,
reduction 15% heat loss.
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Fluidized bed
A strong airflow is forced through a sandbed. The air seeps through the
sand until a point is reached where the sand particles separate to let the air
through and mixing and churning occurs, thus a fluidized bed is created
and fuel and waste can now be introduced. The sand with the pre-treated
waste and/or fuel is kept suspended on pumped air currents and takes on a
fluid-like character. The bed is thereby violently mixed and agitated
keeping small inert particles and air in a fluid-like state. This allows all of
the mass of waste, fuel and sand to be fully circulated through the furnace.[
Many metallic oxides, catalysts, hydroxides, silicates, salts, sulfates,
carbon blacks, pigments and graphites are roasted, calcined, reduced,
oxidized, activated, passivated, chlorinated, dried, tempered, etc. using
fluidized bed processing systems but gases can also be changed on
powders through the fluidized bed.

Figure 3.4.2: Fluid Bed Incinerator

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 Figure 3.4.3: Liquid Injection Incinerator

Beneficial and versatile

Fluidized bed process technology is a very versatile technology that can
be used to implement and optimize many chemical and physical processes
with powdery materials. Fluidized bed technology offers especially many
potential process benefits when a good gas/solids contact is desired. The
following are required:
 a stable, well fluidized layer is present,
 the product flows well in continuous or batch operation thus
enabling the discharge of the product,
 in a compact system the separation (retention) of the solid
particles from the waste gas works well and the waste gas is
recirculated or can be discharged to the atmosphere.

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Table 3.4.1: Comparison between Fluidized Bed Reactor with
Rotary Kiln

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 CHAPTER FOUR
HAZARDOUS WASTE DISPOSAL

5.1 Disposal Method by Secured Landfill

Definition of Secured Landfill

A hazardous landfill contains and isolates hazardous wastes that presently

are not recoverable to meet environmental protection standard.

Landfilling of hazardous solid or containerized waste is regulated more

stringently than landfilling of municipal solid waste. Hazardous wastes
must be deposited in so-called secure landfills, which provide at least 3
metres (10 feet) of separation between the bottom of the landfill and the
underlying bedrock or groundwater table. A secure hazardous-waste
landfill must have two impermeable liners and leachate collection
systems. The double leachate collection system consists of a network of
perforated pipes placed above each liner. The upper system prevents the
accumulation of leachate trapped in the fill, and the lower serves as a
backup. Collected leachate is pumped to a treatment plant. In order to
reduce the amount of leachate in the fill and minimize the potential for
environmental damage, an impermeable cap or cover is placed over a
finished landfill.

A groundwater monitoring system that includes a series of deep wells

drilled in and around the site is also required. The wells allow a routine
program of sampling and testing to detect any leaks or groundwater
contamination. If a leak does occur, the wells can be pumped to intercept
the polluted water and bring it to the surface for treatment.
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One option for the disposal of liquid hazardous waste is deep-well
injection, a procedure that involves pumping liquid waste through a steel
casing into a porous layer of limestone or sandstone. High pressures are
applied to force the liquid into the pores and fissures of the rock, where it
is to be permanently stored. The injection zone must lie below a layer of
impervious rock or clay, and it may extend more than 0.8 km (0.5 mile)
below the surface. Deep-well injection is relatively inexpensive and
requires little or no pre-treatment of the waste, but it poses a danger of
leaking hazardous waste and eventually polluting subsurface
water supplies.

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5.2 Essential Components of a Landfill

AR
Components of a Landfill

a) A liner system at the base and sides of the landfill which

prevents migration of leachate or gas to the surrounding soil.
b) A leachate collection and control facility which collects and
extracts leachate from within and from the base of the landfill
and then treats the leachate.
c) A gas collection and control facility (optional for small landfills)
which collects and extracts gas from within and from the top of
the landfill and then treats it or uses it for energy recovery.
d) A final cover system at the top of the landfill which enhances
surface drainage, prevents infiltrating water and supports surface
vegetation.

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 e) A surface water drainage system which collects and removes all
surface runoff from the landfill site.
f) An environmental monitoring system which periodically collects
and analyses air, surface water, soil-gas and ground water
samples around the landfill site.
g) A closure and post-closure plan which lists the steps that must be
taken to close and secure a landfill site once the filling operation
has been completed and the activities for long-term monitoring,
operation and maintenance of the completed landfill.

Landfill Planning and Design

A landfill design life will comprise of an ‘active’ period and an ‘closure

and post-closure’ period. The ‘active’ period may typically range from 10
to25 years depending on the availability of land area. The ‘closure and
post-closure’ period for which a landfill will be monitored and maintained
will be 25 years after the ‘active period’ is completed.

Waste Volume and Landfill Capacity

The volume of waste to be placed in a landfill will be computed for the

‘active’ period of the landfill taking into account (a) the current generation
of water per annum and (b) the anticipated increase in rate of waste
generation on the basis of past records or population growth rate. The
required landfill capacity is significantly greater than the waste volume it
accommodates. The actual capacity of the landfill will depend upon the
volume occupied by the liner system and the cover material (daily,
intermediate and final cover) as well as the compacted density of the

153
waste. In addition, the amount of settlement a waste will undergo due to
overburden stress and due to biodegradation should also be taken into
account.

Liner System

Leachate control within a landfill involves the following steps: (a)

prevention of migration of leachate from landfill sides and landfill base to
the subsoil by a suitable liner system; and (b) drainage of leachate
collected at the base of a landfill to the sides of the landfill and removal of
the leachate from within the landfill.

Liner systems comprise of a combination of leachate drainage and

collection layer(s) and barrier layers. A competent liner system should
have low permeability, should be robust and durable and should be
resistant to chemical attack, puncture and rupture. A liner system may
comprise of a combination of barrier materials such as natural clays,
amended soils and flexible geomembranes.

Three types of liner systems are usually adopted and these are described
hereafter:

(a) Single Liner System: Such a system comprises of a single primary

barrier overlain by a leachate collection system with an appropriate
separation/protection layer. A system of this type is used for a low
vulnerability landfill.

(b) Single Composite Liner System: A composite liner comprises of two

barriers, made of different materials, placed in intimate contact with each
other to provide a beneficial combined effect of both the barriers. Usually

154
a flexible geomembrane is placed over a clay or amended soil barrier. A
leachate collection system is placed over the composite barrier. Single
composite liner system are often the minimum specified liner system for
non-hazardous wastes such as MSW.

(c) Double Liner System: In a double liner system a single liner system
is placed twice, one beneath the other. The top barrier (called the primary
barrier) is overlaid by a leachate collection system. Beneath the primary
barrier, another leachate collection system (often called the leak detection
layer) is placed followed by a second barrier (the secondary barrier). This
type of system offers double safety and is often used beneath industrial
waste landfills. It allows the monitoring of any seepage which may escape
the primary barrier layer.

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5.3 Leachate Collection Systems

Integrated into all liner systems is a leachate collection system. This

collection system is composed of sand and gravel or a geonet. A geonet is
a plastic net-like drainage blanket. In this layer is a series of leachate
collection pipes to drain the leachate from the landfill to holding tanks for
storage and eventual treatment. In double-liner systems, the upper
drainage layer is the leachate collection system, and the lower drainage
layer is the leak detection system. The leak detection layer contains a
second set of drainage pipes. The presence of leachate in these pipes serves
to alert landfill management if the primary liner has a leak.

Components of the liner system are protected by a layer that minimizes

the potential for materials in the landfill to puncture the liner. This
protective layer was traditionally composed of soil, sand, and gravel, but
many landfills now use a layer of soft refuse instead of soil. Soft refuse
consists of paper, organic refuse, shredded tires, and rubber.

Liner Components

Clay: To protect the ground water from landfill contaminants, clay liners
are constructed as a simple liner that is two- to five-feet thick. In composite
and double liners, the compacted clay layers are usually between two- and
five-feet thick, depending on the characteristics of the underlying geology
and the type of liner to be installed. Regulations specify that the clay used
can only allow water to penetrate at a rate of less than 1.2 inches per year.
The effectiveness of clay liners can be reduced by fractures induced by
freeze-thaw cycles, drying out, and the presence of some chemicals.

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In theory, one foot of clay is enough to contain the leachate. The reason
for the additional clay is to safeguard the environment in the event of some
loss of effectiveness in part of the clay layer. The efficiency of clay liners
can be maximized by laying the clay down in four- to six-inch layers and
then compacting each layer with a heavy roller.

The efficiency of clay liners is impaired if they are allowed to dry out
during placement. Desiccation of the clay during construction results in
cracks that reduce the liner efficiency. In addition, clays compacted at low
moisture contents are less effective barriers to contaminants than clays
compacted at higher moisture contents. Liners that are made of a single
type of clay perform better than liners constructed using several different
types.

Geomembranes: Geomembranes are also called flexible membrane liners

(FML). These liners are constructed from various plastic materials,
including polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and high-density polyethylene
(HDPE). The preferred material for use in MSW and secure landfills is
HDPE. This material is strong, resistant to most chemicals, and is
considered to be impermeable to water. Therefore, HDPE minimizes the
transfer of leachate from the landfill to the environment. The thickness of
geomembranes used in landfill liner construction is regulated by federal
and state laws. In Ohio, HDPE geomembranes must have a minimum
thickness of 0.060 inches for use in MSW landfills

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Geotextiles: In landfill liners, geotextiles are used to prevent the
movement of small soil and refuse particles into the leachate collection
layers and to protect geomembranes from punctures. These materials
allow the movement of water but trap particles to reduce clogging in the
leachate collection system.

Geosynthetic Clay Liner (GCL): Geosynthetic clay liners are becoming

more common in landfill liner designs. These liners consist of a thin clay
layer (four to six millimeters) between two layers of a geotextile. These
liners can be installed more quickly than traditional compacted clay liners,
and the efficiency of these liners is impacted less by freeze-thaw cycles.

Geonet: A geonet is a plastic net-like drainage blanket which may be used

in landfill liners in place of sand or gravel for the leachate collection layer.
Sand and gravel are usually used due to cost considerations, and because
geonets are more susceptible to clogging by small particles. This clogging
would impair the performance of the leachate collection system. Geonets
do, however, convey liquid more rapidly than sand and gravel.

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5.4 Environmental Protection Features
 Leachate - the landfill must provide a system to collect, contain
and possibly treat the leachate. Double-liner is used to control
the emissions.
 Landfill gas control - gases are expected as a byproduct of a
landfill such as methane. Landfill gas typically is either vented or
collected and flared or incinerator.
 Surface water control - Surface water from offsite upstream
location is often directed around or away from the landfill. On-
site run-off is diverted directly off-site.

5.4.1 Control of Leachate Emissions

Hazardous landfill must provided with the system to Collect, Contain and
Possibly Treat Leachate. A minimum of double-liner system is placed at
the bottom and side slopes of the facility prior to initial placement of
hazardous waste. This liner system will contain leachate that later may be
generated in the deposited waste and then flow downward by gravity.
Leachate that accumulates above the liner is directed to one or more
central collection sumps through a series or perforated plastic collection
pipes. From these sumps leachate is pumped out for treatment on-site or
ttreatment Off-site and ultimate disposal.
According to EPA regulations, the bottom liner was,
 Layer Of Recompacted Clay or
 other Natural Material with a minimum thickness of 0.91m (3ft)
and a permeability of no more than 1x10ˉ7 cm/s or
 Flexible-membrane Liner (FML)

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The upper layer must be an FML to avoid migration of leachate into the
top liner. To facilitate removal of leachate from the liner, the landfill
bottom is sloped and sufficient number of drainage pipes are provided so
that the leachate depth over the liner does not exceed 0.3m (1ft).
Leachate generation is also reduced through the placement of a low-
permeability cap over completed portions of the landfillThis cap must
have a permeability less than or equal to the permeability of the bottom
liner system. The hydrogeologic setting would preclude leachate
migration to ground or sufrace water. Hydrogeologic factors at the site
could provide a degree protection, these include:
 on-site soils with significant attenuative capacity
(e.g:certain clays) and/or
 a substantial thickness of soil situated between the
landfill and ground and surface water

5.4.2 Landfill Gas

Landfill gas is generated as a product of waste biodegradation. Biological

degradation of the waste may occur in the presence of oxygen (aerobic
bacteria), in an environment devoid of oxygen (anaerobic bacteria), or
with very little oxygen (facultative anaerobic bacteria).

In all cases, organic waste is broken down by enzymes produced by

bacteria in a manner comparable to food digestion. Considerable heat is
generated by these reactions with methane, carbon dioxide, and other
gases as the by-products. Methane and carbon dioxide are the principal
gases produced from the anaerobic decomposition of the biodegradable
organic waste components in MSW. When methane is present in the air in
concentrations between 5 and 15 percent, it is explosive. Because only

160
limited amounts of oxygen are present in a landfill when methane
concentrations reach this critical level, there is little danger that the landfill
will explode. However, methane mixtures in the explosive range can form
if landfill gas migrates off-site and mixes with air.

Appropriate measures shall be taken in order to control the accumulation

and migration of landfill gas. Landfill gas (LFG) shall be collected from
all landfills receiving biodegradable waste and the landfill gas must be
treated and used. If the gas collected cannot be used to produce energy, it
must be flared. The collection, treatment and use of landfill gas shall be
carried on in a manner which minimises damage to or deterioration of the
environment and risk to human health.

If organic hazardous or nonhazardous waste is deposited at the landfill,

landfill gas (LFG) production can be expected. LFG produced as a by-
product of anaerobic decomposition of organic material and consist
primarily of methane, carbon dioxide and volatile organic compounds.

Menthane gas is odorless, nontoxic, and explosive when present in air at

concentration between 5% and 15%, but flammable at higher
concentrations in air. LFG can move vertically and laterally through soils
from a landfill under a pressure gradient or a concentration gradient via
diffusion. LFG from hazardous waste sites typically is either vented into
the atmosphere, collected and flared, or incinerated. Atmospheric vents
system usually consists of a series of horizontal perforated collection pipes
located a top the landfilled material and under the final cap. The LFG is
vented to the atmosphere via vertical riser pipes. The LFG can be collected
via an extraction blower and flared. The LFG is incinerated if it too toxic
or odiferous for direct ventilation. By EPA, the passive vent system may
not be feasible if the landfill emit more than 50 Mg (55 tons) per year of

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non-methane organic compounds (NMOC). The landfill is required to
have an active LFG control and collection system.

Figure 5.4.2(i) : Conceptual Layout for Landfill-gas Vent System

Figure 5.4.2(ii) : Conceptual Landfill Gas Vent System

(Section A-A) View)

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5.4.3 Surface Water Control ( RUN-OFF)

Surface water originating from off-site upstream is often directed around

or away from landfill via half-round corrugated metal pipe (CMP) or
ditches lined with asphaltic concrete (AC). These ditches are designed
such that off-site peak runoff from at least a 25-year storm can be diverted.

On-site surface water is generally handled as follows:

 Runoff from non-landfilled areas is diverted directly off-site

 Runoff from exposed excavation areas is directed to siltation
basins and then discharged off-site
 Runoff from active landfill area is directed to holding sumps
where it is sampled for contamination. Uncontaminated water is
direct off-site, contaminated water is treated on-site/off-site
 Runoff from completed landfill surfaces is directed to holding
sumps (different sumps than active landfill) where sampled for
contaminated. Uncontaminated water is direct off-site,
contaminated water is treated on-site/off-site

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5.4.4 Other Protection Features

5.4.4.1 Cover Soil

Cover soil handling is an important part of hazardous waste landfilling

because good soil quality helps isolate deposited wastes. This activity is
well-planned and involves the following basic elements:

 soil that is determined to be readily excavatable and suitable for

use as cover is removed and stockpiled for later use before waste
filling buries it
 soil stockpiles are generally located away from waste-delivery
vehicles but convenient for daily placement cover
 soil stockpiles are generally laid out and maintained to minimize
erosion due to rainfall runoff

Basic Soil Cover installed for municipal solid waste landfills (MSWL) to
be closed using engineered covers and are designed with intent to meet the
following performance objectives:
 cover permeability less than or equal to the permeability of the
bottom liner/subsoil or no greater than 10-5 cm/sec;
 minimize infiltration using no less than 45 cm of soil; and
 minimize erosion using no less than 15 cm of topsoil for plant
growth.
 The installed test cover is 60 cm thick. It is constructed of two
principal layers. The top vegetation layer is 15 cm of loosely laid
topsoil. The bottom layer is a 45 cm thick compacted soil barrier
layer.

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Functions of cover soil is to impede rainfall infiltration and control the
odor and airborne emissions from deposited waste.

A top vegetation/soil layer consisting of a minimum 60-cm of soil graded

at a slope between 3 and 5 percent with vegetation or an armored top
surface.

The installed Compacted Clay Cover is 1.5 m thick which basically

matches the recommended EPA design described above. The profile for
this cover consists of three layers.

Figure 5.4.4.1 : Profile For Soil Cover

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5.4.4.2 Geo-membrane

Geo-membrane used in the construction of liners or final cover systems at

hazardous waste landfills They are typically are made of high-density
polyethylene (HDPE), very-low-density polyethylene (VLDPE),
polyvinyl chloride (PVC), chlorosulfonated polyethylene (CSPE). The
selection of a particular type of geomembrane usually depends on
chemical compatibility of the waste, liner material, engineering properties
desired and cost. Geomembranes, are used to provide a barrier between
mobile polluting substances released from wastes, and the groundwater.
In the closing of landfills, geomembranes are used to provide a low-
permeability cover barrier to prevent the intrusion of rain water.

5.5 Closure and Post-Closure Care Requirements for Hazardous

Waste Treatment, Storage and Disposal Facilities.

When a hazardous waste management unit stops receiving waste at the end
of its active life, it must be cleaned up, closed, monitored, and maintained
in accordance with the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA)
closure and post-closure care requirements. All hazardous waste
management units, and the treatment, storage and disposal facilities
(TSDFs) where they are located, are subject to closure and post-closure
care requirements.

These requirements are found in title 40 of the Code of Federal

Regulations (CFR) in part 264 or part 265, subpart G Closure and Post-
Closure. Part 264 applies to permitted facilities and part 265 applies to
facilities in operation before these rules became effective, referred to as

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“interim status facilities”. The various types of hazardous waste
management units (e.g., containers, tanks, drip pads, containment
buildings, waste piles and surface impoundments) are also subject to unit
specific closure requirements.

5.5.1 Closure

At TSDFs where multiple hazardous waste management units are in

operation, one unit may cease operation while the remaining units continue
operating. This is known as partial closure. The closed units, or inactive
portion of the facility, are subject to all applicable closure standards. Final
closure occurs when all hazardous waste management units cease
operation and close according to the regulations.

When closing units or facilities, two approaches are possible — clean

closure or closure with the waste in place:

 In clean closure, owners remove all wastes from the unit and
decontaminate or remove all equipment, structures, and
surrounding soils. Regulations require this approach for
containers, tanks, waste piles, incinerators, drip pads, and
containment buildings.
 Closing with the waste in place, sometimes referred to as “closure
as a landfill,” is the required closure method for landfills, land
treatment units, and any other hazardous waste management unit
that cannot meet the clean closure requirements. This also
includes when owners cannot remove all waste and contamination
from tanks, waste piles, drip pads, and containment buildings.

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5.5.2 Closure Plan

All TSDFs are required to prepare and submit written closure plans. A
permitted facility submits this plan as part of its permit application. Once
the plan is approved by the permitting agency, it becomes part of the
facility’s operating permit. Interim status facilities must have written
closure plans within six months of becoming subject to the closure
regulations.

All closure plans must include:

 A description of how each hazardous waste management unit

will be closed.

 A description of how final closure of the facility will be achieved.

 An estimate of the maximum amount of hazardous waste kept on

site during the facility’s operating life.

 A detailed description of closure methods, including waste

removal and site decontamination.

 A description of any other required steps, such as groundwater

monitoring and leachate management.

 A schedule of closure dates, including closure dates for each unit

and the entire facility

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5.5.3 Closure Timetables

The regulations specify a strict timeline for completing closure. This

process actually begins before the final shipment of waste is received by a
unit or facility with a notification of intent to close. Facilities with
landfills, surface impoundments, land treatment units, and waste piles are
required to notify the EPA Regional Administrator 60 days prior to the
date on which they intend to begin partial or final closure. Facilities with
containers, tanks, incinerators or boilers and industrial furnaces must make
the notification 45 days in advance.

After a unit receives its last shipment of hazardous waste, it has 30 days to
commence closure operations. Within 90 days of receipt of the last
shipment, all waste must be removed (if clean closing) or disposed on site
(if closing with waste in place). All closure operations must be completed
within 180 days of receiving the final waste shipment. In some cases, it
may be possible for the facility to receive extensions on the 90- and 180-
day deadlines from the EPA Regional Administrator.

After closure operations are complete, the facility has 60 days to certify
closure completion by submitting a written certification via registered mail
to the EPA Regional Administrator. This certification must be signed by
an independent, registered, professional engineer. At the same time (i.e.,
within 60 days of completing closure), a survey plat indicating the location
and dimensions of the closed hazardous waste management unit(s) or
facility must be submitted to the EPA Regional Administrator or local
zoning authority.

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5.5.4 Post Closure Care

Post-closure care is required for land disposal units that leave waste in
place upon closure (i.e., landfills, land treatment units, surface
impoundments, or any other hazardous waste management unit that cannot
achieve the clean closure standards). These sites must monitor and
maintain liners, final covers, leachate collection and removal systems, leak
detection systems, and gas collection systems to protect the surrounding
environment and population from releases of hazardous constituents.
The standard post-closure care period is 30 years, but this can be shortened
or extended on a case-by-case basis by the permitting authority (i.e., the
EPA Region or the authorized state regulatory agency).
Each unit is also subject to unit specific post-closure care requirements
found in 40 CFR part 264 or 265 subparts:
 K (Surface Impoundments)
 L (Waste Piles)
 M (Land Treatment)
 N (Landfills)
 X (Miscellaneous Units)
All facilities required to provide post-closure care need to obtain a post-
closure care permit. In applying for a permit, the facility must complete
and submit a post-closure care plan. This plan includes:
 A description of the planned groundwater monitoring program.
 A description of planned maintenance activities for the waste
containment systems (e.g., liners, final covers, leachate
management systems).
 Contact information during the required post-closure care period.
Once the post-closure care period ends, the facility owner/operator must
provide (via registered mail) a certification of post-closure care
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completion to the EPA Regional Administrator. This certification is due
within 60 days of completing post-closure care and must be signed by the
facility owner/operator and an independent, registered professional
engineer.

---- Post-Closure Care Guidance

EPA has issued the Guidelines for Evaluating and Adjusting the Post-
Closure Care Period for Hazardous Waste Disposal Facilities under
Subtitle C of RCRA. This guidance assists regulators in evaluating
conditions at hazardous waste disposal facilities subject to Subtitle C of
the RCRA that are approaching the end of the original 30-year post-closure
care period, and in determining whether the post-closure care period
should be adjusted or allowed to end. It also provides information to assist
facility owners and operators in preparing documentation to inform the
regulators’ evaluations. This guidance increases transparency and
efficiency to the decision making process.

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 CHAPTER FIVE
CLINICAL WASTE MANAGEMENT

5.1 Definition of Clinical Waste

Clinical waste is the term used to describe waste produced from healthcare
and similar activities that may pose a risk of infection, for example, swabs,
bandages, dressings etc. or may prove hazardous, for example
medicines. Other than that, it is also infectious / medical or Clinical Waste
not only that from hospitals, but also waste from biological research
facilities and water analysis laboratories. Medical waste includes human
tissues.

Infectious waste is classified as Hazard Rating 1 or Extreme Hazard waste.

Methods for its disposal are incineration or, if no incineration facility is
available, pre-treatment by sterilisation, direct irradiation or micro-waving
before landfilling at an H:H or H:h site. Medical waste must be
incinerated, since the National Health Act, 2003 (Act 61 of 2003), requires
that all human parts be incinerated. All infectious waste must be sterilised
prior to landfilling at Hazardous Waste sites or alternatively incinerated at
approved incineration facilities.

Wastes from hospitals and healthcare establishments can be categorized

into the following types:-
 Clinical waste;
 Radioactive waste;
 Chemical waste;
 Pressurized containers; and
 General waste.

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Clinical wastes are wastes containing:-
 Human or animal tissue;
 Blood or body fluids;
 Excretions;
 Drugs;
 Pharmaceutical products;
 Soiled swabs or dressings;
 Syringes, needles, sharps;
 Any waste that has come into contact or been mixed with any of
the above types of wastes;
 Waste unless rendered safe may prove hazardous to any person
coming into contact with it.

In Malaysia, clinical waste is classified as scheduled waste under the

Environmental Quality (Scheduled Wastes) Regulation s, 2005 which
includes:-
i. SW403 - Discarded drugs containing psychotropic substances or
containing substances that are toxic, harmful, carsinogenic,
mutagenic or teratogenic;
ii. SW404 - Pathogenic and clinical wastes and quarantined 9
materials;
iii. SW421 - A mixture of scheduled wastes;
iv. SW422 - A mixture of scheduled and non scheduled wastes.
Presently, the following wastes have been included as scheduled
wastes in the above regulations:
 Discarded drugs containing psychotropic substances
or dangerous drugs;
 Waste from the preparation and production of
pharmaceutical product and discarded drugs
containing substances that are toxic, harmful,
carcinogenic, mutagenic or teratogenic; and

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  Waste containing one or more hazardous substances
or products that are explosive, oxidising, flammable,
toxic, harmful, corrosive, irritant, carcinogenic,
teratogenic or mutagenic.

To further define clinical wastes, the Ministry of Health has included these
definitions in its guidelines:-
 Any waste which consists wholly or partly of human or animal
tissue, blood or other body fluids, excretions, drugs or other
pharmaceutical products, swabs or dressings, syringes, needles or
other sharp instruments, being waste which unless rendered safe
may prove hazardous to any person coming into contact with it;
and
 Any other waste arising from medical, nursing, dental, veterinary,
pharmaceutical or similar practices, investigation, treatment, care,
teaching or research, or the collection of blood for transfusion,
being waste which may cause infection to any person coming into
contact with it.

Medical waste arising from:

LARGE SOURCE
 University hospitals and clinics
 Maternity hospitals and clinics
 General hospitals

MEDIUM SOURCE
 Medical centres
 Out-patient clinics
 Mortuary/autopsy facilities
 Farm and equine centers
 Hospitals
 Medical laboratories

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  Medical research facilities
 Animal hospitals
 Blood banks and transfusion centres
 Emergency services

SMALL SOURCE
 General medical practitioners
 Convalescent homes
 Nursing and remedial homes
 Medical consulting rooms
 Dental practitioners
 Animal boarding and hunt kennels
 Tattooists
 Acupuncturist
 Veterinary Practitioners
 Pharmacies
 Cosmetic piercers

Table 5.1: CATEGORIES OF CLINICAL WASTE

(ENGINEERING DIVISION,MINISTRY OF
HEALTH,MALAYSIA)

GROUP CLASSIFICATION
A Human tissues/animal carcasses/infections waste materials
 identifiable human tissue,
 blood,
 animal carcasses and tissue from veterinary
centres, hospitals or laboratories.
 Soiled surgical dressings,
 swabs and other similar soiled waste.
 Other waste materials, for example from
infectious disease cases,
 excluding any in Groups B-E.

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B Sharp
 Discarded syringe needles,
 cartridges,
 broken glass and
 any other contaminated disposable sharp
instruments or items.

C Microbial Cultures
 Microbiological cultures and potentially infected
waste from pathology departments and other
clinical or research laboratories

D Pharmaceutical and Chemical Waste

 Drugs or other pharmaceutical products

E Containers used for waste. (Urine, Blood, Tissues)

 Items used to dispose of urine,
 faeces and other bodily secretions or excretions
which do not fall within Group A.
 This includes used disposable bed pans or bed pan
liners,
 incontinence pads,
 stoma bags,
 and urine containers.

AR

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5.4 The Methods Of Disposing Clinical Waste.

5.4.1 Waste Segregation

 It is the responsibility of nursing and clinical staff to ensure that

segregation of clinical waste is carried out at source and that all
clinical wastes are deposited only in yellow bags and sharps in
sharp bins only.
 All healthcare establishments in Malaysia shall adopt the
following standard colour coding which is widely accepted:-
- Black : General wastes
- Yellow : Clinical wastes for incineration only
- Light blue : Wastes for autoclaving or equivalent
treatment before ultimate disposal

 Clinical waste requiring autoclaving, or other equivalent

treatment, before disposal shall be stored in light blue autoclave
bags before such treatment but should be placed in yellow plastics
bags after treatment.
 Containers/bags in these colours shall only be used for the
disposal of clinical waste and not for the transportation of other
items, such as heavily contaminated linen to the laundry. Care
should be taken to avoid confusion with other sorting systems
which may use colour coding or identification, such as a laundry
system.

5.4.2 Labelling and Marking

 All bags and drum containers must be identified at the point of
production and should be indelibly and clearly marked with
biohazard symbol.
 For storing of waste in container, appropriate label as shown in
Annex 6 should be pasted onto the container. The date when the
scheduled wastes are first generated, name, address and telephone
number of the waste generator shall be included in the label.

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  Labelling can be done in a number of ways: -
- writing the information on the bag or container;
- using pre-printed tape;
- using pre-printed self-adhesive address labels supplied on
a peel-off roll;
- Tie-on tag label, with information written on them;
- Self-locking plastic tags, pre-printed with all the required
information.

5.4.3 Handling, Storage And Internal Transportation

 At all times where manual handling of yellow clinical waste bags
is required, the necks of the bags should be positioned to allow
access for further movement of the bags when necessary. Manual
handling of waste bags should be minimized wherever possible.
 All clinical waste bags should be handled by the neck only.
 Specific areas for the initial storage of clinical wastes, in the wards
and departments shall be made available and located adjacent to
the source of the waste. The bags and containers containing
clinical wastes from the initial storage area shall be removed
regularly.
 Double yellow bags shall be used for clinical wastes from high
risk areas such as infectious disease and isolation nursing units
and f or heavy clinical wastes such as placenta front labour rooms
and human tissues from operating theatres.
 Syringes with attached needles shall be discarded into sharps
containers as one unit.
 Internal transport routes (from wards / departments to central
storage area) shall be designed to minimize the passage of waste
through patient care areas and other clean areas.
 Dedicated wheeled containers, trolleys or carts shall be used to
transport the waste containers to the main storage area. These
vehicles shall be reserved only for the transportation of clinical
waste. They should be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected
immediately following any spillage or accidental discharge.
 Wheeled containers, trolleys or carts for transferring clinical
wastes within hospitals shall be designed and constructed so that:-
- The surfaces of the wheeled containers, trolleys or carts
are smooth and impermeable;
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 - They do not offer harbourage to insects and vermin;
- Particles of waste are not easily trapped on edges or
crevices;
- They should contain any leakage from damaged
containers;
- They can easily be cleaned, disinfected and drained;
- The waste may be easily loaded, secured and unloaded.

5.4.4 Central Storage

 Central clinical waste storage areas should be covered and located
at a site so as to minimize the movement of waste in the open from
initial storage areas.
 The central storage area must be:-
i. Located separately from the general waste storage areas and
should be clearly identifiable (with clear warning signs) as for
clinical wastes only and away from food preparation, public
access and egress route. Landfill and incinerable wastes should
not be mixed;
ii. Locked when access is not required and should be accessible only
to authorized persons;
iii. Well ventilated and well lit;
iv. Located on well drained, impervious hard-standing.

 Facilities for washing down and disinfection of the central clinical

wastes storage area, waste containers and trolleys used for
transporting waste, should be provided adjacent to the central
storage area. All waste from cleaning process should be
discharged to the foul sewer.
 Sufficient storage capacity should be provided to allow for the
proposed frequency of collection. Wherever possible, clinical
wastes should be removed daily from the central storage area for
disposal.
 Refrigerated storage areas/units for clinical wastes should be
considered where wastes have to be stored in bulk up to 48 hours
prior to collection for disposal. The temperature of the refrigerated
storage areas/unit should be kept at 4oC to 6oC.

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5.4.4 Transportation of Clinical Waste
 The transportation of clinical waste from a central storage area to
an approved facility requires the use of dedicated vehicles.
 The vehicle shall be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected
immediately following any internal spillage. The cleaning should
be carried out on a proper surfaced area with the drainage running
to the foul sewer.

5.5 On-Site Treatment

There are several methods that have been successful in the treatment of
infectious waste. The following slides will discuss treatment that may be
available at your facility. The methods discussed are:
1. Autoclaving (steam sterilization)
2. Incineration
3. Thermal inactivation
4. Gas/Vapor Sterilization
5. Chemical Disinfection
6. Sterilization by irradiation (radiofrequency and microwave)

5.5. Autoclaving
 Autoclaving (heating under high pressure) is widely accepted as
an effective medical waste treatment technology.
 Steam sterilization, autoclaving, involves the use of saturated
steam within a pressure vessel at temperatures high enough to kill
infectious agents in the waste. Sterilization is accomplished
primarily by steam penetration.
 Steam sterilization is most effective with low-density material
such as plastics, metal pans, bottles, and flasks. High-density
polyethylene and polypropylene plastic should not be used in this
process because they do not facilitate steam penetration to the
waste load.
 Plastic bags should be placed in a rigid container before steam
treatment to prevent spillage and drain clogging.
 Bags should be opened and caps and stoppers should be loosened
immediately before they are place in the steam sterilizer.

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  Care should be taken to separate infectious wastes from other
hazardous wastes.
 Infectious waste that contains non infectious hazards should not
be steam-sterilized.
 Waste that contains antineoplastic drugs, toxic chemicals, or
chemicals that would be volatilized by steam should not be steam-
sterilized.
 Persons involved in steam sterilizing should be trained in handling
techniques to minimize exposure to hazards from these wastes.
These should include:
 Use of protective equipment
 Minimization of aerosol formation
 Prevention of spillage during autoclave loading/unloading
 Prevention of burns from handling hot containers
 Management of spills
 Check autoclave temperature to ensure that the proper temperature
is being maintained for a long enough period during the cycle.
 Steam sterilizers should be routinely inspected.

5.5.2 Incineration
 Medical waste incineration involves the burning of wastes
produced by hospitals, veterinary facilities, and medical research
facilities. These wastes include both infectious ("red bag")
medical wastes as well as non-infectious, general housekeeping
wastes. The emission factors presented here represent emissions
when both types of these wastes are combusted rather than just
infectious wastes.
 In the world of generated medical waste, two of the most
common disposal methods are incineration and autoclaving.
 Whereas a medical waste autoclave runs at about 300 degrees
(Fahrenheit) and sterilizes items through heated steam, an
incinerator runs at 1,800 degrees.
 When waste material emerges from an incinerator, all that is left
is a bit of residue—also sometimes referred to as “ash” or “dust.”
In medical waste autoclaves, however, the items are still
generally intact after the sterilization process.

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5.5.3 Thermal Inactivation
 Thermal inactivation involves the treatment of waste with high
temperatures to eliminate infectious agents.
 This method is usually used for large volumes.
 Liquid waste is collected in a vessel and heated by heat
exchangers or a steam jacket surround the vessel.
 The types of pathogens in the waste determine the temperature
and duration of treatment.
 After treatment, the contents can be discharged into the sanitary
sewer in a manner that complies with State, Federal, and local
requirements.
 This method requires higher temperatures and longer treatment
cycles than steam treatment.

5.5.4 Gas/Vapor Sterilization

 Gas/vapor sterilization uses gaseous or vaporized chemicals as the
sterilizing agents.
 Ethylene oxide is the most commonly used agent, but should be
used with caution since it is a suspected human carcinogen.
 Because ethylene oxide may be adsorbed on the surface of treated
materials, the potential exists for worker exposure when sterilized
materials are handled.

5.5.5 Chemical Disinfection

 Chemical disinfection is the preferred treatment for liquid
infectious wastes. Consider the following:
- Type of microorganism
- Degree of contamination
- Amount of proteinaceous material present
- Type of disinfectant
- Contact time
- Other relevant factors such as temperature, pH, mixing
requirements, and the biology of the microorganism
 Ultimate disposal of chemically treated waste should be in
accordance with State and local requirements.

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5.5.6 Sterilization by Irradiation
 Advantages of irradiation:
- Electricity requirements are nominal.
- Steam is not required.
- No heat or chemicals remain the treated waste.
- The principal disadvantages are as follows:
- Capital costs are high.
- Highly trained personnel are required.
- Space requirements are great.
- Worker exposure as a result of leaks in seals or poor work
practices.
- Disposal of the radiation source may pose problems.

5.5.7 Radiofrequency Irradiation

 Large radiofrequency irradiation medical waste treatment units
include an initial destruction phase.
 The waste is automatically fed into a waste grinding device where
it is shredded and sprayed with steam to increase the moisture
content of the waste to approximately 10 percent. The moist
ground waste is then heated by exposure to radiofrequency
irradiation. This process heats the waste to >90oC.
 The factors which affect radiofrequency irradiation treatment of
medical waste include the frequency and wavelength of the
irradiation, the duration of the exposure, destruction and moisture
content of the waste material, temperature achieved throughout
the waste load during treatment, and waste storage duration.

5.5.8 Microwave Irradiation

 Large microwave irradiation medical waste treatment units
include an initial destruction phase.
 The waste is automatically fed into a waste grinding device where
it is shredded and sprayed with steam to increase the moisture
content of the waste to approximately 10 percent. The moist
ground waste is then heated by exposure to six microwave
irradiation units over a 2 hour period. This process heats the waste
to > 90oC.

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 The factors which affect microwave treatment of medical waste
include the frequency and wavelength of the irradiation, the
duration of the exposure, destruction and moisture content of the
waste material, process temperature, and the mixing of waste
during treatment.

 To manage clinical wastes effectively, consideration needs to be

given to:-

- generation and minimisation;

- source separation and segregation;
- identification and labeling;
- handling and storage;
- safe transportation;
- treatment;
- disposal of residues (including emissions);
- occupational safety and health;
- public and environmental health; and
- research and development into improved technologies
- and environmentally friendly practices.

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