MABINI COLLEGES, INC.

Daet, Camarines Norte

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
1st Sem., S.Y.2020-2021

Prof. Ed. 1 – The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles
Title: Human Developmental Theories

Module Overview:

This module provides you of the salient concepts on the developmental theories. The educational trend brought
about by a number of ground breaking researches tells us that you can be an effective facilitator of learning if you have a
good working knowledge of the learners’ development.

Learning Outcomes

After completing this module, students must have:

 explained the salient concepts and principles of the major developmental theories.
 Applied these theories to teaching-learning situations

LECTURE NOTES
READ THIS…
The Developmental Theories

Erikson
Freud
8 Psycho-social Stages of Piaget
3 Components of Personality
Development 4 Stages of Cognitive
5 Psychosexual Stages of
Development
Development

Theories Related To
the Learners’
Development

Vygotsky Bronfenbrenner
Kohlberg Bio- Ecological Systems
On Language
3 Levels and 6 Substages of -
Zone of Proximal
Moral Development
Development -

1|Page
 The ideas of the theorists, Freud, Erikson, Piaget, Vygotsky and Bronfenbrenner remain to be the foundational in
the teacher’s understanding of the learner’s development. Freud said, “The mind is like an iceberg, it floats with one-
seventh of its bulk above water.” This is of course the very famous analogy that Freud referred to when explained the
subconscious mind. He believed that much of what the person is really about is not what we see in the outside and what
is conscious, but what is there hidden in the subconscious mind. As teachers, it is important that we remember not to be
quick in making conclusions about our students’ intentions for their actions. Always consider that there are many factors
that may influence one’s behavior.

Freud, also emphasized the three components that make up one’s personality, the id, ego, and the superego.
The id is pleasure-centered; the ego, reality-centered and the superego, which is related to the ego ideal or conscience.

Freud believed that an individual goes through five psychosexual stages of development. This includes the oral,
anal, phallic, latency and genital stages. Each stage demands satisfaction of needs, and failure to do so results in
fixations.

Freud proposed that psychological development in childhood takes place during five psychosexual stages: oral, anal,
phallic, latency, and genital.

These are called psychosexual stages because each stage represents the fixation of libido (roughly translated as
sexual drives or instincts) on a different area of the body. As a person grows physically certain areas of their body
become important as sources of potential frustration (erogenous zones), pleasure or both. Freud (1905) believed that
life was built round tension and pleasure. Freud also believed that all tension was due to the build-up of libido (sexual
energy) and that all pleasure came from its discharge.

In describing human personality development as psychosexual Freud meant to convey that what develops is the
way in which sexual energy of the id accumulates and is discharged as we mature biologically. Freud stressed that the
first five years of life are crucial to the formation of adult personality. The id must be controlled in order to satisfy social
demands; this sets up a conflict between frustrated wishes and social norms.

The ego and superego develop in order to exercise this control and direct the need for gratification into socially
acceptable channels. Gratification centers in different areas of the body at different stages of growth, making the
conflict at each stage psychosexual.

The Role of Conflict

Each of the psychosexual stages is associated with a particular conflict that must be resolved before the
individual can successfully advance to the next stage.

The resolution of each of these conflicts requires the expenditure of sexual energy and the more energy that is
expended at a particular stage, the more the important characteristics of that stage remain with the individual
as he/she matures psychologically.

To explain this Freud suggested the analogy of military troops on the march. As the troops advance, they are
met by opposition or conflict. If they are highly successful in winning the battle (resolving the conflict), then
most of the troops (libido) will be able to move on to the next battle (stage).

But the greater the difficulty encountered at any particular point, the greater the need for troops to remain
behind to fight and thus the fewer that will be able to go on to the next confrontation.

2|Page
Frustration, Overindulgence, and Fixation
Some people do not seem to be able to leave one stage and proceed on to the next. One reason for this may
be that the needs of the developing individual at any particular stage may not have been adequately met in
which case there is frustration.

Or possibly the person's needs may have been so well satisfied that he/she is reluctant to leave the
psychological benefits of a particular stage in which there is overindulgence.

Both frustration and overindulgence (or any combination of the two) may lead to what psychoanalysts call
fixation at a particular psychosexual stage.

Fixation refers to the theoretical notion that a portion of the individual's libido has been permanently
'invested' in a particular stage of his development.

Psychosexual Stages of Development

Oral Stage (Birth to 1 year)

In the first stage of personality development, the libido is centered in a baby's mouth. It gets much satisfaction from
putting all sorts of things in its mouth to satisfy the libido, and thus its id demands. Which at this stage in life are oral, or
mouth orientated, such as sucking, biting, and breastfeeding.

Freud said oral stimulation could lead to an oral fixation in later life. We see oral personalities all around us such as
smokers, nail-biters, finger-chewers, and thumb suckers. Oral personalities engage in such oral behaviors, particularly
when under stress.

3|Page
Anal Stage (1 to 3 years)
The libido now becomes focused on the anus, and the child derives great pleasure from defecating. The child is now
fully aware that they are a person in their own right and that their wishes can bring them into conflict with the demands
of the outside world (i.e., their ego has developed).

Freud believed that this type of conflict tends to come to a head in toilet training, in which adults impose restrictions on
when and where the child can defecate. The nature of this first conflict with authority can determine the child's future
relationship with all forms of authority.

Early or harsh toilet training can lead to the child becoming an anal-retentive personality who hates mess, is obsessively
tidy, punctual and respectful of authority. They can be stubborn and tight-fisted with their cash and possessions.

Phallic Stage (3 to 6 years)

Sensitivity now becomes concentrated in the genitals and masturbation (in both sexes) becomes a new source of
pleasure.

The child becomes aware of anatomical sex differences, which sets in motion the conflict between erotic attraction,
resentment, rivalry, jealousy and fear which Freud called the Oedipus complex (in boys) and the Electra complex (in
girls).

This is resolved through the process of identification, which involves the child adopting the characteristics of the same
sex parent.

Oedipus Complex
The most important aspect of the phallic stage is the Oedipus complex.  This is one of Freud's most controversial ideas
and one that many people reject outright.
The name of the Oedipus complex derives from the Greek myth where Oedipus, a young man, kills his father and
marries his mother. Upon discovering this, he pokes his eyes out and becomes blind.  This Oedipal is the generic (i.e.,
general) term for both Oedipus and Electra complexes.
In the young boy, the Oedipus complex or more correctly, conflict, arises because the boy develops sexual (pleasurable)
desires for his mother.  He wants to possess his mother exclusively and get rid of his father to enable him to do so.
Irrationally, the boy thinks that if his father were to find out about all this, his father would take away what he loves the
most.  During the phallic stage what the boy loves most is his penis.  Hence the boy develops castration anxiety.
The little boy then sets out to resolve this problem by imitating, copying and joining in masculine dad-type behaviors. 
This is called identification, and is how the three-to-five year old boy resolves his Oedipus complex.
Identification means internally adopting the values, attitudes, and behaviors of another person.  The consequence of this
is that the boy takes on the male gender role, and adopts an ego ideal and values that become the superego.

4|Page
Electra Complex
For girls, the Oedipus or Electra complex is less than satisfactory.  Briefly, the girl desires the father, but realizes that she
does not have a penis.  This leads to the development of penis envy and the wish to be a boy.
The girl resolves this by repressing her desire for her father and substituting the wish for a penis with the wish for a
baby.  The girl blames her mother for her 'castrated state,' and this creates great tension.
The girl then represses her feelings (to remove the tension) and identifies with the mother to take on the female gender
role.

Latency Stage (6 years to puberty)

No further psychosexual development takes place during this stage (latent means hidden). The libido is dormant.

Freud thought that most sexual impulses are repressed during the latent stage, and sexual energy can be sublimated (re:
defense mechanisms) towards school work, hobbies, and friendships.

Much of the child's energy is channeled into developing new skills and acquiring new knowledge, and play becomes
largely confined to other children of the same gender.

Genital Stage (puberty to adult)

This is the last stage of Freud's psychosexual theory of personality development and begins in puberty. It is a time of
adolescent sexual experimentation, the successful resolution of which is settling down in a loving one-to-one
relationship with another person in our 20's.

Sexual instinct is directed to heterosexual pleasure, rather than self-pleasure like during the phallic stage.

For Freud, the proper outlet of the sexual instinct in adults was through heterosexual intercourse. Fixation and conflict
may prevent this with the consequence that sexual perversions may develop.

For example, fixation at the oral stage may result in a person gaining sexual pleasure primarily from kissing and oral sex,
rather than sexual intercourse.

Side from the Psychosexual Stages of Development and The Personality Component, another important concept to note
in the Psychoanalytic Theory is The Conception of The Psyche. A brief discussion of this is provided below.

5|Page
 Freud believed that our feelings, beliefs, impulses, and underlying emotions were buried in our unconscious, and
therefore not available to the waking mind. However, Freud also believed that there were levels of consciousness
beyond just conscious or unconscious. To better understand Freud’s theory, imagine an iceberg.

The water surrounding the iceberg is known as the “nonconscious.” This is everything that has not become part of
our consciousness. These are things we have not experienced and are not aware of, and therefore, they do not become
part of or shape our personalities in any way.

The tip of the iceberg, our conscious is only a very small portion of our personality. Since it is the part of ourselves
that we are most familiar with, we actually know very little of what we know about our personality. The conscious
contains thoughts, perception, and everyday cognition.

The unconscious. Freud said that most what we go through in our lives, emotions, beliefs, feelings, and impulses
deep within are not available to us at a conscious level. He believed that most of what influence us is our unconscious.
The Oedipus and Electra Complex mentioned earlier were both buried down into the unconscious, out of our awareness
due to extreme anxiety they caused. While these complexes are in our unconscious, they still influence our thinking,
feeling and doing in perhaps dramatic ways.

The Subconscious. The last part is the preconscious or subconscious. This is the part of us that we can reach if
prompted, but is not in our active conscious. Its right below the surface, but still “hidden” somewhat unless we search
for it. Information such as our telephone number, some childhood memories, or the name of your best childhood friend
is stored in the preconscious. Because the unconscious is so huge, and because we are only aware of the very small
conscious at any given time, Freud used the analogy of the iceberg to illustrate it. A big part of the iceberg is hidden
beneath the water’s surface.

What is Psychosocial Development?

Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development is one of the best-known theories of personality in
psychology. Much like Sigmund Freud, Erikson believed that personality develops in a series of stages. Unlike Freud’s
theory of psychosexual stages, Erikson’s theory describes the impact of social experience across the whole lifespan. One
of the main elements of Erikson’s psychosocial stage theory is the development of ego identity. 1 Ego identity is the
conscious sense of self that we develop through social interaction. According to Erikson, our ego identity is constantly
changing due to new experience and information we acquire in our daily interactions with others. In addition to ego
identity, Erikson also believed that a sense of competence also motivates behaviors and actions. Each stage in Erikson’s
theory is concerned with becoming competent in an area of life. If the stage is handled well, the person will feel a sense
of mastery, which he sometimes referred to as ego strength or ego quality. 2 If the stage is managed poorly, the person
will emerge with a sense of inadequacy. In each stage, Erikson believed people experience a conflict that serves as a
turning point in development. In Erikson’s view, these conflicts are centered on either developing a psychological quality
or failing to develop that quality. During these times, the potential for personal growth is high, but so is the potential for
failure.

Psychosocial Stage 1 - Trust vs. Mistrust

 The first stage of Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development occurs between birth and one year of age and
is the most fundamental stage in life.

6|Page
  Because an infant is utterly dependent, the development of trust is based on the dependability and quality of
the child’s caregivers.
 If a child successfully develops trust, he or she will feel safe and secure in the world. Caregivers who are
inconsistent, emotionally unavailable, or rejecting contribute to feelings of mistrust in the children they care for.
Failure to develop trust will result in fear and a belief that the world is inconsistent and unpredictable.

Psychosocial Stage 2 - Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

 The second stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development takes place during early childhood and is
focused on children developing a greater sense of personal control.
 Like Freud, Erikson believed that toilet training was a vital part of this process. However, Erikson's reasoning
was quite different then that of Freud's. Erikson believe that learning to control one’s body functions leads to a
feeling of control and a sense of independence.
 Other important events include gaining more control over food choices, toy preferences, and clothing
selection.  Children who successfully complete this stage feel secure and confident, while those who do not are
left with a sense of inadequacy and self-doubt.

Psychosocial Stage 3 - Initiative vs. Guilt

 During the preschool years, children begin to assert their power and control over the world through directing
play and other social interaction.
 Children who are successful at this stage feel capable and able to lead others. Those who fail to acquire these
skills are left with a sense of guilt, self-doubt and lack of initiative.

Psychosocial Stage 4 - Industry vs. Inferiority

 This stage covers the early school years from approximately age 5 to 11.
 Through social interactions, children begin to develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments and abilities.
 Children who are encouraged and commended by parents and teachers develop a feeling of competence and belief in
their skills. Those who receive little or no encouragement from parents, teachers, or peers will doubt their ability to be
successful.

Psychosocial Stage 5 - Identity vs. Confusion

 During adolescence, children are exploring their independence and developing a sense of self.
 Those who receive proper encouragement and reinforcement through personal exploration will emerge from this
stage with a strong sense of self and a feeling of independence and control. Those who remain unsure of their beliefs
and desires will insecure and confused about themselves and the future.

Psychosocial Stage 6 - Intimacy vs. Isolation

 This stage covers the period of early adulthood when people are exploring personal relationships.
 Erikson believed it was vital that people develop close, committed relationships with other people. Those who are
successful at this step will develop relationships that are committed and secure.
 Remember that each step builds on skills learned in previous steps. Erikson believed that a strong sense of personal
identity was important to developing intimate relationships. Studies have demonstrated that those with a poor sense of
self tend to have less committed relationships and are more likely to suffer emotional isolation, loneliness, and
depression.

Psychosocial Stage 7 - Generativity vs. Stagnation

 During adulthood, we continue to build our lives, focusing on our career and family.

7|Page
  Those who are successful during this phase will feel that they are contributing to the world by being active in their
home and community. Those who fail to attain this skill will feel unproductive and uninvolved in the world.

Psychosocial Stage 8 - Integrity vs. Despair

 This phase occurs during old age and is focused on reflecting back on life.
 Those who are unsuccessful during this phase will feel that their life has been wasted and will experience many
regrets. The individual will be left with feelings of bitterness and despair.
 Those who feel proud of their accomplishments will feel a sense of integrity. Successfully completing this phase means
looking back with few regrets and a general feeling of satisfaction. These individuals will attain wisdom, even when
confronting death.

Erikson said, “ Healthy children will not fear life if their elders have integrity enough not to fear death.” He
believed in the impact of the significant others in the development of one’s view of himself, life and of the world. He
presented a very comprehensive framework of eight psycho-sexual stages of development. It is Erikson who described
the crisis (expressed in opposite polarities) that a person goes through; the maladaptions and malignancies that result
from failure to effectively resolve the crisis; and the virtue that emerges when balance and resolution of the crisis is
attained.

Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development suggests that children move through four different stages of mental
development. His theory focuses not only on understanding how children acquire knowledge, but also on understanding
the nature of intelligence.1 Piaget's stages are:

Sensorimotor stage: birth to 2 years

Preoperational stage: ages 2 to 7
Concrete operational stage: ages 7 to 11
Formal operational stage: ages 12 and up

The Stages
Through his observations of his children, Piaget developed a stage theory of intellectual development that included four
distinct stages:

The Sensorimotor Stage

Ages: Birth to 2 Years
8|Page
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

The infant knows the world through their movements and sensations
Children learn about the world through basic actions such as sucking, grasping, looking, and listening
Infants learn that things continue to exist even though they cannot be seen (object permanence)
They are separate beings from the people and objects around them
They realize that their actions can cause things to happen in the world around them

The Preoperational Stage

Ages: 2 to 7 Years

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

Children begin to think symbolically and learn to use words and pictures to represent objects.
Children at this stage tend to be egocentric and struggle to see things from the perspective of others.
While they are getting better with language and thinking, they still tend to think about things in very concrete terms.

Piaget believed that children take an active role in the learning process, acting much like little scientists as they perform
experiments, make observations, and learn about the world. As kids interact with the world around them, they
continually add new knowledge, build upon existing knowledge, and adapt previously held ideas to accommodate new
information.

The Concrete Operational Stage

Ages: 7 to 11 Years

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes

During this stage, children begin to thinking logically about concrete events
They begin to understand the concept of conservation; that the amount of liquid in a short, wide cup is equal to that in a
tall, skinny glass, for example
Their thinking becomes more logical and organized, but still very concrete
Children begin using inductive logic, or reasoning from specific information to a general principle

The Formal Operational Stage

Ages: 12 and Up

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

At this stage, the adolescent or young adult begins to think abstractly and reason about hypothetical problems
Abstract thought emerges
Teens begin to think more about moral, philosophical, ethical, social, and political issues that require theoretical and
abstract reasoning
Begin to use deductive logic, or reasoning from a general principle to specific information

Piaget said, “ The principal goal of education in the schools should be creating men and women who are capable
of doing new things , not simply repeating what other generations have done.

9|Page
 Piaget’s theory centered on the stages of cognitive development. He described four stages of cognitive
development, namely, the sensory-motor, pre-operational, concrete-operational, and formal operational stages. Each
has characteristic ways of thinking and perceiving that shows how one’s cognitive abilities develop.

The framework of Kohlberg’s theory consists of six stages arranged sequentially in successive tiers of complexity.
He organized his six stages into three general levels of moral development.

Level 1: Preconventional level

At the preconventional level, morality is externally controlled. Rules imposed by authority figures are conformed
to in order to avoid punishment or receive rewards. This perspective involves the idea that what is right is what one can
get away with or what is personally satisfying. Level 1 has two stages.
Stage 1: Punishment/obedience orientation
Behaviour is determined by consequences. The individual will obey in order to avoid punishment.

Stage 2: Instrumental purpose orientation

Behaviour is determined again by consequences. The individual focuses on receiving rewards or satisfying
personal needs.

Level 2: Conventional level

At the conventional level, conformity to social rules remains important to the individual. However, the emphasis
shifts from self-interest to relationships with other people and social systems. The individual strives to support
rules that are set forth by others such as parents, peers, and the government in order to win their approval or to
maintain social order.

Stage 3: Good Boy/Nice Girl orientation

10 | P a g e
 Behaviour is determined by social approval. The individual wants to maintain or win the affection and approval
of others by being a “good person.”

Stage 4: Law and order orientation

Social rules and laws determine behaviour. The individual now takes into consideration a larger perspective, that
of societal laws. Moral decision making becomes more than consideration of close ties to others. The individual
believes that rules and laws maintain social order that is worth preserving.

Level 3: Postconventional or principled level

At the postconventional level, the individual moves beyond the perspective of his or her own society. Morality is
defined in terms of abstract principles and values that apply to all situations and societies. The individual attempts to
take the perspective of all individuals.

Stage 5: Social contract orientation

Individual rights determine behaviour. The individual views laws and rules as flexible tools for improving human
purposes. That is, given the right situation, there are exceptions to rules. When laws are not consistent with
individual rights and the interests of the majority, they do not bring about good for people and alternatives
should be considered.

Stage 6: Universal ethical principle orientation

According to Kohlberg, this is the highest stage of functioning. However, he claimed that some individuals will
never reach this level. At this stage, the appropriate action is determined by one’s self-chosen ethical principles
of conscience. These principles are abstract and universal in application. This type of reasoning involves taking
the perspective of every person or group that could potentially be affected by the decision.

Kohlberg said, “Right action tends to be defined in terms of general individual rights and standards that have
been critically examined and agreed upon by the whole society”. Kohlberg proposed three levels of moral development
(pre-conventional, conventional, and post-conventional) which are further subdivided into the stages. Influenced by
Piaget, Kohlberg believed that one’s cognitive development influenced the development of one’s reasoning.

The Key theme of Vygotsky’s theory is that social interaction plays a very important role in cognitive development. He
believed that individual development could not be understood without looking into the social and cultural context
within which development happens. Scaffolding is Vygotsky’s term for the appropriate assistance given by the teacher
to assist the learner accomplish a task.

When Vygotsky was a young boy he was educated under a teacher who used the Socratic Method. This method
was a systematic question and answer approach that allowed Vygotsky to examine current thinking and practice higher
levels of understanding. This experience, together with his interest in literature and his work as a teacher, led him to
recognize social interaction and language as two central factors in cognitive development. His theory became know as
Socio-Cultural Theory of Development.

Social Interaction. Piaget’s theory was more individual, while Vygotsky was more social. Piaget’s work on
Piagetian’s tasks focused heavily on how an individual’s own processing of the tasks. Vygotsky, on the other hand gave
more weight on the social interactions that contributed to the cognitive development of individuals. For him, the social
environment or the community takes on a major role in one’s development.

11 | P a g e
 Vygotsky emphasized that effective learning happens through participation in social activities, making the social
context of learning crucial. Parents, teachers, other adults in the learner’s environment all contribute to the process.

Cultural Factors. Vygotsky believed in the crucial role that culture played on the cognitive development of
children. Piaget believed that as the child develops and matures, he goes through universal stages of the cognitive
development that allows him to move from simple explorations with senses and muscles to complex reasoning.
Vygotsky, on the other hand, looks into the wide range of experiences that a culture would give to a child. For instance,
one culture’s view about education, how children are trained early in life all can contribute to the cognitive development
of the child.

Language. Language opens the door for learners to acquire knowledge that others already have. Learners can
use language to know and understand the world and solve problems. Language serves a social function but it also have
an individual function. It helps the learner regulate and reflect on his own thinking. Children talk to themselves. Observe
preschools play and you may hear, “Gagawin ko tong airplane (holding a rectangular block), tapos ito ang airport
(holding two long blocks).” For Vygotsky, this “talking-to-oneself” is an indication of the thinking that goes on in the
mind of the child. This will eventually lead to private speech. Private speech is a form of self-talk that guides the child’s
thinking and action.

Zone of Proximal Development

The zone of proximal development (ZPD) has been defined as:

"the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of
potential development as determined through problem-solving under adult guidance, or in collaboration with more
capable peers" (Vygotsky, 1978, p. 86).

Vygotsky said, “The teacher must orient his work not on yesterday’s development in the child but on
tomorrow’s.” Vygotsky emphasized the role of social interaction in learning and development. Scaffolding is the
systematic manner of providing assistance to the learner that helps the learner to effectively acquire a skill.

Vygotsky believed that when a student is in the zone of proximal development for a particular task, providing
the appropriate assistance will give the student enough of a "boost" to achieve the task.To assist a person to move
through the zone of proximal development, educators are encouraged to focus on three important components which
aid the learning process:
12 | P a g e
 1.The presence of someone with knowledge and skills beyond that of the learner (a more knowledgeable other).

2.Social interactions with a skillful tutor that allow the learner to observe and practice their skills.
3.Scaffolding, or supportive activities provided by the educator, or more competent peer, to support the student
as he or she is led through the ZPD.

More Knowledgeable Other

The more knowledgeable other (MKO) is somewhat self-explanatory; it refers to someone who has a better
understanding or a higher ability level than the learner, with respect to a particular task, process, or concept.
Although the implication is that the MKO is a teacher or an older adult, this is not necessarily the case. Many times, a
child's peers or an adult's children may be the individuals with more knowledge or experience.

Example of the Zone of Proximal Development

Maria just entered college this semester and decided to take an introductory tennis course. Her class spends
each week learning and practicing a different shot. Weeks go by, and they learn how to properly serve and hit a
backhand.

During the week of learning the forehand, the instructor notices that Maria is very frustrated because she keeps
hitting her forehand shots either into the net or far past the baseline. He examines her preparation and swing. He
notices that her stance is perfect, she prepares early, she turns her torso appropriately, and she hits the ball at precisely
the right height.

However, he notices that she is still gripping her racquet the same way she hits her backhand, so he goes over to
her and shows her how to reposition her hand to hit a proper forehand, stressing that she should keep her index finger
parallel to the racquet. He models a good forehand for her, and then assists her in changing her grip. With a little
practice, Maria's forehand turns into a formidable weapon for her!
In this case, Maria was in the zone of proximal development for successfully hitting a forehand shot. She was doing
everything else correctly, but just needed a little coaching and scaffolding from a "More Knowledgeable Other" to help
her succeed in this task.When that assistance was given, she became able to achieve her goal.

Vygotsky believed in the essential role of activities in learning. Children learn best through hands-on activities
than when listening passively. Learning by doing is even made more fruitful when children interact with knowledgeable
adults and peers.

American psychologist, Urie Bronfenbrenner, formulated the Ecological Systems Theory to explain how the
inherent qualities of children and their environments interact to influence how they grow and develop. The
Bronfenbrenner theory emphasizes the importance of studying children in multiple environments, also known as
ecological systems, in the attempt to understand their development.

According to Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory, children typically find themselves enmeshed in
various ecosystems, from the most intimate home ecological system to the larger school system, and then to the most
expansive system which includes society and culture. Each of these ecological systems inevitably interact with and
influence each other in all aspects of the children’s lives.

Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model organizes contexts of development into five levels of external influence.
These levels are categorized from the most intimate level to the broadest.

13 | P a g e
The Bronfenbrenner Ecological Model: Microsystem
The Bronfenbrenner theory suggests that the microsystem is the smallest and most immediate environment in
which children live. As such, the microsystem comprises the daily home, school or daycare, peer group and community
environment of the children. Interactions within the microsystem typically involve personal relationships with family
members, classmates, teachers and caregivers. How these groups or individuals interact with the children will affect how
they grow.
Similarly, how children react to people in their microsystem will also influence how they treat the children in
return. More nurturing and more supportive interactions and relationships will understandably foster they children’s
improved development.One of the most significant findings that Urie Bronfenbrenner unearthed in his study of
ecological systems is that it is possible for siblings who find themselves in the same ecological system to experience very
different environments. Therefore, given two siblings experiencing the same microsystem, it is not impossible for the
development of them to progress in different manners. Each child’s particular personality traits, such as temperament,
which is influenced by unique genetic and biological factors, ultimately have a hand in how he/she is treated by others.

The Bronfenbrenner Ecological Model: Mesosystem

The mesosystem encompasses the interaction of the different microsystems which children find themselves in.
It is, in essence, a system of microsystems and as such, involves linkages between home and school, between peer group
and family, and between family and community.
According to Bronfenbrenner’s theory, if a child’s parents are actively involved in the friendships of their child,
for example they invite their child’s friends over to their house from time to time and spend time with them, then the
child’s development is affected positively through harmony and like-mindedness.
However, if the child’s parents dislike their child’s peers and openly criticize them, then the child experiences
disequilibrium and conflicting emotions, which will likely lead to negative development.

The Bronfenbrenner Ecological Model: Exosystem

The exosystem pertains to the linkages that may exist between two or more settings, one of which may not
contain the developing children but affect them indirectly nonetheless.Based on the findings of Bronfenbrenner, people
and places that children may not directly interact with may still have an impact on their lives. Such places and people
may include the parents’ workplaces, extended family members, and the neighborhood the children live in. For example,
a father who is continually passed up for promotion by an indifferent boss at the workplace may take it out on his
children and mistreat them at home.

The Bronfenbrenner Ecological Model: Macrosystem

The macrosystem is the largest and most distant collection of people and places to the children that still have
significant influences on them. This ecological system is composed of the children’s cultural patterns and values,
specifically their dominant beliefs and ideas, as well as political and economic systems. For example, children in war-torn
areas will experience a different kind of development than children in peaceful environments.

The Bronfenbrenner Ecological Model: Chronosystem

14 | P a g e
The Bronfenbrenner theory suggests that the chronosystem adds the useful dimension of time, which demonstrates the
influence of both change and constancy in the children’s environments. The chronosystem may include a change in
family structure, address, parents’ employment status, as well as immense society changes such as economic cycles and
wars.

By studying the various ecological systems, Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory is able to demonstrate the
diversity of interrelated influences on children’s development. Awareness of the contexts that children are in can
sensitize us to variations in the way children may act in different settings.

For example, a child who frequently bullies smaller children at school may portray the role of a terrified victim at home.
Due to these variations, adults who are concerned with the care of a particular child should pay close attention to
his/her behavior in different settings, as well as to the quality and type of connections that exist between these settings.

Focus Questions
Thinking to learning thoroughly…

1. What are the universal stages of development by Jean Piaget? Provide a brief description per stage.
2. Erikson said, “ Healthy children will not fear life if their elders have integrity enough not to fear death.”
Give descriptions of a healthy child taking into account Erikson’s Psycho-Social Theory of Development.
3. What is the principle behind Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory? Why did he said “ The ego is not master in its own
house”?
4. From Vygotsky’s point of view, what factors in the environment influenced you to learn a certain skill?
5. What are the different stages of moral development according to Kohlberg? To what principle each level
operates? What drives or motivates a person’s actions and decisions per stage?
6. For Bronfenbrenner, how do the bio ecological systems affect learners development?
7. How does your learning of these theories better assist you as an educator?

Learning Activities
Enriching what have you learned...

A. Matching Type. Match these quoted statements in Column A with the name of educational psychologists in
Column B.
Write the letter of the correct answer on the space provided before the number. (Use capital letter.)

_____1. “The teacher must orient his work not on yesterday’s A. Sigmund Freud
Development in the child but on tomorrow’s.”
_____2. “ Healthy children will not fear life but if their elders B. Urie Bronfenbrenner
have integrity enough not to fear death.”
_____3. “Right action tends to be defined in terms of general C. Jean Piaget
individual rights and standards that have been critically
examined and agreed upon by the whole society.”
_____4. “ The principal goal of education in the schools should be D. Lev Vygotsky
creating men and women who are capable of doing new
things, not simply repeating what other generations E. Lawrence Kohlberg
have done.”
_____5. “The mind is like an iceberg, it floats with one-seventh F. Erik Erikson
of its bulk above water.”
G. Robert Havighurst
15 | P a g e
_____6. “ We as a nation need to be reeducated about the ne-
cessary and sufficient conditions for making human beings
human. We need to be reeducated not as parents – but
as workers, neighbors, and friends; and as members of
the organizations, committees, boards – and, especially,
the informal networks that control our institutions and
thereby determine the conditions of life for our families
and their children.”

Assessment
Testing how far have you learned…

1. Identify one concept from the theories reviewed and describe how this can be applied in teaching and learning.

Theory/ Concept Application

Reference:
Lucas, M. & Corpuz B. (2014). Facilitating Learning:Metacognitive Process. 4 th Edition OBE and K to 12
Outcpomes- Based and K to 12 -based. Lorimar Publishing, Inc. Cubao, Quezon City, Metro Manila

https://www.simplypsychology.org/psychosexual.html

https://www.britannica.com/science/Lawrence-Kohlbergs-stages-of-moral-development

https://www.simplypsychology.org/Sigmund-Freud.html

16 | P a g e
 https://info.psu.edu.sa/psu/maths/Erikson's%20Theory%20of%20Psychosocial%20Development
%20(2).pdf

https://www.simplypsychology.org/Zone-of-Proximal-Development.html

https://www.psychologynoteshq.com/bronfenbrenner-ecological-theory/

17 | P a g e