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Cengage - Limits and Introduction To Calculus
Cengage - Limits and Introduction To Calculus
11 to Calculus
6
11.1 Introduction to Limits
11.2 Techniques for Evaluating Limits
11.3 The Tangent Line Problem
11.4 Limits at Infinity and Limits of Sequences
11.5 The Area Problem
0 100,000
0
749
750 Chapter 11 Limits and an Introduction to Calculus
12w w 2. Simplify.
l = 12 − w
Figure 11.1
Using this model for area, you can experiment with different values of w to see how to
obtain the maximum area. After trying several values, it appears that the maximum area
occurs when
w6
as shown in the table.
In limit terminology, you can say that “the limit of A as w approaches 6 is 36.” This is
written as
lim A lim 共12w w2兲 36.
w→6 w→6
Definition of Limit
Definition of Limit
If f 共x兲 becomes arbitrarily close to a unique number L as x approaches c from
either side, then the limit of f 共x兲 as x approaches c is L. This is written as
lim f 共x兲 L.
x→c
1 f(x) = 3x − 2
x 1.9 1.99 1.999 2.0 2.001 2.01 2.1
x
f 共x兲 3.700 3.970 3.997 ? 4.003 4.030 4.300 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5
−1
−2
From the table, it appears that the closer x gets to 2, the closer f 共x兲 gets to 4. So, you
can estimate the limit to be 4. Figure 11.2 adds further support to this conclusion. Figure 11.2
Now try Exercise 7.
In Example 3, note that f 共x兲 has a limit as x → 0 even though the function is not
defined at x 0. This often happens, and it is important to realize that the existence or
nonexistence of f 共x兲 at x c has no bearing on the existence of the limit of f 共x兲 as x
approaches c.
From Figure 11.4, it appears that the closer x gets to 1, Figure 11.5
the closer f 共x兲 gets to 2. So, you can estimate the limit
to be 2. From Figure 11.5, you can estimate the limit to be 2. As you use the
trace feature, notice that there is no value given for y when x 1,
and that there is a hole or break in the graph at x 1.
Now try Exercise 15.
Example 5 Using a Graph to Find a Limit Some students may come to think that a
limit is a quantity that can be approached
Find the limit of f 共x兲 as x approaches 3, where f is defined as but cannot actually be reached, as shown in
Example 4. Remind them that some limits
x3
冦0,
2,
f 共x兲 . are like that, but, as Example 2 shows, many
x3 are not.
Solution
Because f 共x兲 2 for all x other than x 3 and y
lim f 共x兲 2.
x→3
冦2,4, x3 −1
f 共x兲
x3
Figure 11.6
then the limit as x approaches 3 would be the same.
Now try Exercise 29.
Section 11.1 Introduction to Limits 753
ⱍxⱍ 1, x > 0
1
does not exist. What’s wrong?
x f(x) = 1
x
and for negative x-values −2 −1 1 2 5.1
Solution
y
Let f 共x兲 1兾x 2. In Figure 11.8, note that as x approaches 0 from either the right or the
left, f 共x兲 increases without bound. This means that by choosing x close enough to 0, you
can force f 共x兲 to be as large as you want. For instance, f 共x兲 will be larger than 100 when f(x) = 12
1
you choose x that is within 10 of 0. That is, x
3
1 1
0 < x <ⱍⱍ 10
f 共x兲
x2
> 100.
2
1 1 x
0 < x <ⱍⱍ 1000
f 共x兲
x2
> 1,000,000 −3 −2 −1
−1
1 2 3
Because f 共x兲 is not approaching a unique real number L as x approaches 0, you can Figure 11.8
conclude that the limit does not exist.
Now try Exercise 37.
754 Chapter 11 Limits and an Introduction to Calculus
−1
f(x) = sin 1
1.2 x
Figure 11.9
So, the limit does not exist because no matter how close you are to 0, it is possible to
−0.25 0.25
choose values of x1 and x 2 such that
1 1
sin 1 and sin 1
x1 x2 −1.2
2 2 2 2 2 2
x x→0
3 5 7 9 11
1 Limit does
sin 1 1 1 1 1 1
x not exist.
Examples 6, 7, and 8 show three of the most common types of behavior associated
with the nonexistence of a limit.
Properties of Limits
Let b and c be real numbers, let n be a positive integer, and let f and g
be functions with the following limits.
lim f 共 x兲 L
x→c
and lim g共 x兲 K
x→c
f 共x兲 L
4. Quotient: lim , provided K 0
x→c g共x兲 K
5. Power: lim 关 f 共x兲兴n Ln
x→c
Additional Example
Let lim f 共x兲 7 and lim g 共x兲 12.
x→3 x→3
a. lim 关f 共x兲 g共x兲兴 5
x→3
b. lim 关f 共x兲g共x兲兴 84
Technology Tip x→3
c. lim 关g共x兲兴1兾2 2冪3
x→3
When evaluating limits, remember that there are several ways to solve
most problems. Often, a problem can be solved numerically, graphically,
or algebraically. You can use a graphing utility to confirm the limits in
the examples and in the exercise set numerically using the table feature or
graphically using the zoom and trace features.
Aldo Murillo/iStockphoto.com
756 Chapter 11 Limits and an Introduction to Calculus
x3 2x2 x 2
c. h共x兲
x2 3x 2
冤共 lim x兲 共 lim 4兲冥
2
f. lim 共x 4兲2 Sum and Power Properties
x→3 x→3 x→3 Use a graphing utility to graph
each function above. Does the
共3 4兲 2
graphing utility distinguish
72 49 among the three graphs? Write
a short explanation of your
Now try Exercise 51.
findings.
The results of using direct substitution to evaluate limits of polynomial and rational
functions are summarized as follows.
(d) Use the graphing utility to graph the volume function. x 1.1 1.01 1.001 1 0.999
Verify that the volume is maximum when x 4.
f 共x兲 ?
6. Landscape Design A landscaper arranges bricks to
enclose a region shaped like a right triangle with a
hypotenuse of 冪18 meters whose area is as large as x 0.99 0.9
possible. f 共x兲
(a) Draw and label a diagram that shows the base x and
height y of the triangle. sin 2x
10. lim
(b) Verify that the area A of the triangle is given by
x→0 x
1
A 2x冪18 x2. x 0.1 0.01 0.001 0 0.001
(c) The triangle has a maximum area when x 3 meters. f 共x兲 ?
Use a graphing utility to complete the table and observe
the behavior of the function as x approaches 3. Use the x 0.01 0.1
table to find lim A.
x→ 3 f 共x兲
x 2 2.5 2.9 3 3.1 3.5 4
A
−4 −6
x 0.9 0.99 0.999 1 1.001 1.01 1.1
f 共x兲 ? 35. lim ⱍx 2ⱍ 36. lim sin
x
x→2 x2 x→1 2
y y
Using a Graphing Utility to Estimate a Limit In
Exercises 13–28, use the table feature of a graphing 3 2
2
utility to create a table for the function and use the result 1
to estimate the limit numerically. Use the graphing utility x x
to graph the corresponding function to confirm your −1 1 − 3 − 2 −1 1
result graphically. −2
−3 −2
x2 1 4 x2
13. lim 14. lim
x→1 x 1 x→2 x 2
1
x1 x2 37. lim 38. lim tan x
15. lim 2 16. lim x→1 x1 x→ 兾2
x→1 x 2x 3 x→2 x2 5x 6 y y
冪x 5 冪5 冪1 x 2 4
17. lim 18. lim 3
x→ 0 x x→3 x3 2
2
1 1 1
x
2 x x
x2 x2 4 −2 2 4 − π2 π π 3π
19. lim 20. lim −2 2 2
x→4 x4 x→2 x2
sin x cos x 1 −4
21. lim 22. lim
x→0 x x→0 x
sin2 x 2x 39. lim 2 cos 40. lim sec x
x→ 0 x x→ 兾2
23. lim 24. lim
x→0 x x→0 tan 4x y y
2x 1
e 1 e4x 3
25. lim 26. lim
x→0 2x x→0 x
1
ln共2x 3兲 ln共x2兲 x x
27. lim 28. lim −2 − π −1 π π 3π
x→2 x2 x→1 x 1 1 2 3
2 2
−3
Using a Graph to Find a Limit In Exercises 29–32,
graph the function and find the limit (if it exists) as x
Determining Whether a Limit Exists In Exercises 41–48,
approaches 2.
use a graphing utility to graph the function and use the
29. f 共x兲 冦3,1, xx 22 30. f 共x兲 冦x,4, x2
x2
graph to determine whether the limit exists. If the limit
does not exist, explain why.
31. f 共x兲 冦
2x 1, x < 2 5
x 3, x 2 41. f 共x兲 , lim f 共x兲
2 e1兾x x→0
x 2
32. f 共x兲 冦
2x, ex 1
42. f 共x兲 , lim f 共x兲
x 4x 1, x > 2
2
x x→0
Section 11.1 Introduction to Limits 759
1 Conclusions
43. f 共x兲 cos , lim f 共x兲
x x→0
True or False? In Exercises 69 and 70, determine whether
44. f 共x兲 sin x, lim f 共x兲 the statement is true or false. Justify your answer.
x→1
冪x 5 4
3 from the right of c.
46. f 共x兲 , lim f 共x兲 70. If f is a rational function, then the limit of f 共x兲 as x
x2 x→2
approaches c is f 共c兲.
47. f 共x兲 ln共x 3兲, lim f 共x兲
x→4
71. Think About It From Exercises 7 to 12, select a limit
48. f 共x兲 ln共7 x兲, lim f 共x兲
x→1 that can be reached and one that cannot be reached.
(a) Use a graphing utility to graph the corresponding
Evaluating Limits In Exercises 49 and 50, use the given functions using a standard viewing window. Do the
information to evaluate each limit. graphs reveal whether the limit can be reached?
49. lim f 共x兲 4, lim g共x兲 8 Explain.
x→c x→c
(b) Use the graphing utility to graph the corresponding
(a) lim 关2g共x兲兴 (b) lim 关 f 共x兲 g共x兲兴 functions using a decimal setting. Do the graphs
x→c x→c
reveal whether the limit can be reached? Explain.
f 共x兲
(c) lim (d) lim 冪f 共x兲 72. Think About It Use the results of Exercise 71 to draw
x→c g共x兲 x→c
a conclusion as to whether you can use the graph
50. lim f 共x兲 3, lim g共x兲 1 generated by a graphing utility to determine reliably
x→c x→c
(a) lim 关 f 共x兲 g共x兲兴2 (b) lim 关6f 共x兲 g共x兲兴 when a limit can be reached.
x→c x→c
73. Think About It
5g共x兲 1
(c) lim (d) lim (a) Given f 共2兲 4, can you conclude anything about
x→c 4f 共x兲 x→c 冪f 共x兲
lim f 共x兲? Explain your reasoning.
x→2
Evaluating Limits In Exercises 51 and 52, find (b) Given lim f 共x兲 4, can you conclude anything
x→2
(a) lim f 冇 x冈, (b) lim g冇 x冈, (c) lim [ f 冇 x冈 g冇 x冈], and about f 共2兲? Explain your reasoning.
x→2 x→2 x→2
(d) lim [ g 冇 x冈 ⴚ f 冇 x冈].
x→2 74. C A P S T O N E Use the graph of the function f to
冪x2 5 decide whether the value of the given quantity exists.
51. f 共x兲 x3, g共x兲 If it does, find it. If not, explain why.
2x2
x (a) f 共0兲 y
52. f 共x兲 , g共x兲 sin x
3x (b) lim f 共x兲 5
x→0
(c) f 共2兲 3
Evaluating a Limit by Direct Substitution In Exercises
53–68, find the limit by direct substitution. (d) lim f 共x兲 2
x→2 1
3x x1
57. lim 58. lim Cumulative Mixed Review
x→3 x2 1 x→ 4 x2 2x 3
Simplifying Rational Expressions In Exercises 75–80,
5x 3 x2 1 simplify the rational expression.
59. lim 60. lim
x→2 2x 9 x→3 x
5x x2 81
61. lim 冪x 2 3 x2 1
62. lim 冪 75.
3x 15
76.
9x
x→1 x→3
Solution
Begin by factoring the numerator and dividing out any common factors.
x2 x 6 共x 2兲共x 3兲
lim lim Factor numerator.
x→3 x3 x→3 x3
共x 2兲共x 3兲
lim Divide out common factor.
x→3 x3
lim 共x 2兲 Simplify.
x→3
3 2 Direct substitution
5 Simplify.
This procedure for evaluating a limit is called the dividing out technique.
The validity of this technique stems from the fact that when two functions agree
at all but a single number c, they must have identical limit behavior at x c.
In Example 1, the functions given by
x2 x 6
f 共x兲 and g共x兲 x 2
x3
agree at all values of x other than
x 3.
So, you can use g共x兲 to find the limit of f 共x兲.
Vibrant Image Studio 2010/used under license from Shutterstock.com
Grafissimo/iStockphoto.com
Section 11.2 Techniques for Evaluating Limits 761
The dividing out technique should be applied only when direct substitution
produces 0 in both the numerator and the denominator. An expression such as 00 has no
meaning as a real number. It is called an indeterminate form because you
cannot, from the form alone, determine the limit. When you try to evaluate a limit of a
rational function by direct substitution and encounter this form, you can conclude
that the numerator and denominator must have a common factor. After factoring and
dividing out, you should try direct substitution again.
Because both the numerator and denominator are zero when x 1, direct substitution
will not yield the limit. To find the limit, you should factor the numerator and
denominator, divide out any common factors, and then try direct substitution again.
x1 x1
lim lim Factor denominator.
x→1 x x x 1
3 2 x→1 共x 1兲共x 2 1兲
f(x) = x−1
x3 − x2 + x − 1
f is undefined
when x = 1.
(1, 12 ) x
1 2
Figure 11.11
Rationalizing Technique
Another way to find the limits of some functions is first to rationalize the numerator of
the function. This is called the rationalizing technique. Recall that rationalizing the
numerator means multiplying the numerator and denominator by the conjugate of
the numerator. For instance, the conjugate of 冪x 4 is
冪x 4.
Solution
By direct substitution, you obtain the indeterminate form 00.
冪x 1 1 冪0 1 1 0
lim Indeterminate form
x→ 0 x 0 0
In this case, you can rewrite the fraction by rationalizing the numerator.
冢 冣冢 冣
冪x 1 1 冪x 1 1 冪x 1 1
x x 冪x 1 1
共x 1兲 1
Multiply.
x共冪x 1 1兲
x
Simplify. y
x共冪x 1 1兲
x 3
Divide out common factor.
x 共冪x 1 1兲
1 2
, x0 Simplify. x+1−1
冪x 1 1 f(x) =
x
Now you can evaluate the limit by direct substitution.
冪x 1 1 1 1 1 1
1
(0, 12 ) f is undefined
when x = 0.
lim lim
x→ 0 x x→ 0 冪x 1 1 冪0 1 1 11 2 x
1
−1 1 2
You can reinforce your conclusion that the limit is by constructing a table, as shown
2
below, or by sketching a graph, as shown in Figure 11.12. Figure 11.12
Using Technology
The dividing out and rationalizing techniques may not work well for finding limits of Technology Tip
nonalgebraic functions. You often need to use more sophisticated analytic techniques to
In Example 4, a graph
find limits of these types of functions.
of f 共x兲 共1 x兲1兾x
on a graphing utility
Example 4 Approximating a Limit Numerically would appear continuous at
Approximate the limit: lim 共1 x兲1兾x. x 0 (see below). But when
x→0 you try to use the trace feature
Solution of a graphing utility to determine
Let f 共x兲 共1 x兲1兾x. f 共0兲, no value is given. Some
graphing utilities can show
Create a table that shows values breaks or holes in a graph
of f(x) for several x-values near 0. when an appropriate viewing
window is used. Because the
hole in the graph of f occurs
on the y-axis, the hole is
not visible.
Figure 11.13
Because 0 is halfway between 0.001 and 0.001 (see Figure 11.13), use the average of
the values of f at these two x-coordinates to estimate the limit.
2.7196 2.7169
lim 共1 x兲1兾x ⬇ 2.71825
x→0 2
The actual limit can be found algebraically to be
e ⬇ 2.71828.
Now try Exercise 37.
Solution
Direct substitution produces the indeterminate sin x
f(x) =
form 00. To approximate the limit, begin by using a 2 x
graphing utility to graph f 共x兲 共sin x兲兾x, as shown
in Figure 11.14. Then use the zoom and trace features
of the graphing utility to choose a point on each side −4 4
of 0, such as 共0.0012467, 0.9999997兲 and
共0.0012467, 0.9999997兲. Because 0 is halfway
between 0.0012467 and 0.0012467, use the −2
average of the values of f at these two x-coordinates Figure 11.14
to estimate the limit.
sin x 0.9999997 0.9999997
lim ⬇ 0.9999997
x→0 x 2
It can be shown algebraically that this limit is exactly 1.
Now try Exercise 43.
Andresr 2010/used under license from Shutterstock.com
764 Chapter 11 Limits and an Introduction to Calculus
One-Sided Limits
In Section 11.1, you saw that one way in which a limit can fail to exist is when a
function approaches a different value from the left side of c than it approaches from the
right side of c. This type of behavior can be described more concisely with the concept
of a one-sided limit.
lim f 共x兲 L 1 or f 共x兲 → L 1 as x → c Limit from the left
x→c
lim f 共x兲 L 2 or f 共x兲 → L 2 as x → c Limit from the right
x→c
Example 6 Evaluating One-Sided Limits You might wish to illustrate the concept
of one-sided limits (and why they are
Find the limit as x → 0 from the left and the limit as x → 0 from the right for necessary) with tables or graphs.
f 共x兲 ⱍ2xⱍ.
x
Solution
From the graph of f, shown in Figure 11.15, you can see that f 共x兲 2 for all x < 0.
y
f(x) = 2
2
1 ⏐2x⏐
f(x) =
x
x
−2 −1 1 2
−1
f(x) = − 2
Figure 11.15
In Example 6, note that the function approaches different limits from the left and
from the right. In such cases, the limit of f 共x兲 as x → c does not exist. For the limit of a
function to exist as x → c, it must be true that both one-sided limits exist and are equal.
Existence of a Limit
If f is a function and c and L are real numbers, then
lim f 共x兲 L
x→c
if and only if both the left and right limits exist and are equal to L.
Section 11.2 Techniques for Evaluating Limits 765
冦44xx,x , x < 1
f 共x兲 2 x > 1
Solution
Remember that you are concerned about the value of f near x 1 rather than at x 1. y
So, for x < 1, f 共x兲 is given by 4 x, and you can use direct substitution to obtain 7
f(x) = 4 − x, x < 1
lim f 共x兲 lim 共4 x兲 6
x→1 x→1
5 f(x) = 4x − x 2, x > 1
41 4
3. 3
2
For x > 1, f 共x兲 is given by 4x x 2, and you can use direct substitution to obtain
1
lim f 共x兲 lim 共4x x2兲 x
x→1 x→1
−2 − 1 1 2 3 5 6
−1
4共1兲 12
3. Figure 11.16
Because the one-sided limits both exist and are equal to 3, it follows that
lim f 共x兲 3.
x→1
冦
17.80, 0 < x ≤ 1
f 共x兲 19.20, 1 < x ≤ 2
20.60, 2 < x ≤ 3
Solution
The graph of f is shown in Figure 11.17. The limit Overnight Delivery
of f 共x兲 as x approaches 2 from the left is y
Solution
Direct substitution produces an indeterminate form. Example 9 previews the derivative that is
introduced in Section 11.3.
f 共3 h兲 f 共3兲 关共3 h兲2 1兴 关共3兲2 1兴
lim lim
h→ 0 h h→ 0 h
lim 9 6h h 1 9 1
2
h→0 Group Activity
h
Write a limit problem (be sure the limit
lim 6h h
2 exists) and exchange it with that of a
h→0 partner. Use a numerical approach to
h
estimate the limit, and use an algebraic
0 approach to verify your estimate. Discuss
your results with your partner.
0
By factoring and dividing out, you obtain the following.
f 共3 h兲 f 共3兲 6h h2
lim lim
h→0 h h→0 h
h共6 h兲
lim
h→0 h
lim 共6 h兲
h→0
60
6
So, the limit is 6.
Now try Exercise 79.
Note that for any x-value, the limit of a difference quotient is an expression of the
form
f 共x h兲 f 共x兲
lim .
h→ 0 h
Direct substitution into the difference quotient always produces the indeterminate
form 00. For instance,
f 共x h兲 f 共x兲 f 共x 0兲 f 共x兲
lim
h→0 h 0
f 共x兲 f 共x兲
0
0
.
0
Section 11.2 Techniques for Evaluating Limits 767
冪x 4 2
3. Which algebraic technique can you use to find lim ?
x→ 0 x
4. Describe in words what is meant by lim f 共x兲 2.
x→0
Approximating a Limit Numerically In Exercises 37–42, Finding a Limit In Exercises 61–66, use a graphing
use the table feature of a graphing utility to create a table utility to graph the function and the equations y ⴝ x and
for the function and use the result to approximate the limit y ⴝ ⴚx in the same viewing window. Use the graph to
numerically. Write an approximation that is accurate to find lim f 冇x冈.
x→0
three decimal places.
61. f 共x兲 x cos x ⱍ
62. f 共x兲 x sin x ⱍ
e2x 1 1 ex
37. lim
x→0 x
38. lim
x→0 x
ⱍⱍ
63. f 共x兲 x sin x ⱍⱍ
64. f 共x兲 x cos x
1 1
冪2x 1 1 3 冪x 65. f 共x兲 x sin 66. f 共x兲 x cos
39. lim 40. lim x x
x→0 x x→9 x9
41. lim 共1 x兲2兾x 42. lim 共1 2x兲1兾x Finding Limits In Exercises 67 and 68, state which limit
x→0 x→0
can be evaluated by using direct substitution. Then
Approximating a Limit Graphically In Exercises 43–48, evaluate or approximate each limit.
use a graphing utility to graph the function and
sin x 2
approximate the limit. Write an approximation that is 67. (a) lim x 2 sin x 2 (b) lim
accurate to three decimal places.
x→ 0 x→ 0 x2
x 1 cos x
sin 2x sin 3x 68. (a) lim (b) lim
43. lim 44. lim x→ 0 cos x x→ 0 x
x→0 x x→0 x
tan x 1 cos 2x (p. 760) In Exercises 69 and
45. lim 46. lim
x→0 x x→ 0 x 70, use the position function
1冪 3 x
冪x x
3
s冇t冈 ⴝ ⴚ16t 2 ⴙ 128
47. lim
x→1 1 x
48. lim
x→1 x 1
which gives the height (in feet) of a
Evaluating One-Sided Limits In Exercises 49–56, free-falling object. The velocity at time
graph the function. Determine the limit (if it exists) by t ⴝ a seconds is given by
evaluating the corresponding one-sided limits. s冇a冈 ⴚ s冇t冈
lim .
49. lim ⱍx 6ⱍ 50. lim ⱍx 2ⱍ t→a aⴚt
x→6 x6 x→2 x2 69. Find the velocity when t 1 second.
1 1 70. Find the velocity when t 2 seconds.
51. lim
x→1 x2 1
52. lim
x→1 x2 1
71. Human Resources A union contract guarantees an
冦 x 1, x 2
53. lim f 共x兲 where f 共x兲 8% salary increase yearly for 3 years. For a current
x→2 2x 3, x > 2 salary of $30,000, the salaries f 共t兲 (in thousands of
54. lim f 共x兲 where f 共x兲 冦
2x 1, x < 1 dollars) for the next 3 years are given by
4x, 2 x 1
冦
x→1
30.000, 0 < t 1
55. lim f 共x兲 where f 共x兲 冦
4x , 2 x 1 f 共t兲 32.400, 1 < t 2
x→1 3 x, x > 1 34.992, 2 < t 3
冦
(c) algebraically evaluate the limit (if it exists) by the 15.00, 0 < x 1
appropriate technique(s). f 共x兲 16.30, 1 < x 2
x1 5x 17.60, 2 < x 3
57. lim 2 58. lim
x→1 x 1 x→5 25 x2
where x represents the weight of the package (in
4 冪x 冪x 2 冪2 pounds). Show that the limit of f as x → 1 does not exist.
59. lim 60. lim
x→16 x 16 x→0 x
Vibrant Image Studio 2010/used under license from Shutterstock.com
Grafissimo/iStockphoto.com
Section 11.2 Techniques for Evaluating Limits 769
x 5 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 6 85. Think About It Sketch the graph of a function for
which f 共2兲 is defined but the limit of f 共x兲 as x approaches
C共x兲 ? 2 does not exist.
86. Think About It Sketch the graph of a function for
(c) Complete the table and observe the behavior of C which the limit of f 共x兲 as x approaches 1 is 4 but f 共1兲 4.
as x approaches 5. Does the limit of C共x兲 as x
approaches 5 exist? Explain. 87. Writing Consider the limit of the rational function
p共x兲兾q共x兲. What conclusion can you make when direct
x 4 4.5 4.9 5 5.1 5.5 6 substitution produces each expression? Write a short
paragraph explaining your reasoning.
C共x兲 ? p共x兲 0 p共x兲 1
(a) lim (b) lim
x→c q共x兲 1 x→c q共x兲 1
p共x兲 1 p共x兲 0
74. MODELING DATA (c) lim (d) lim
x→c q共x兲 0 x→c q共x兲 0
The cost C (in dollars) of making x photocopies at a
copy shop is given by the function 88. C A P S T O N E Given
冦 冦2x,
0.15x, 0 < x 25 x 0
f 共x兲 ,
0.10x, 25 < x 100 x 1,
2
x > 0
C共x兲 .
0.07x, 100 < x 500 find each of the following limits. If the limit does not
0.05x, x > 500 exist, explain why.
(a) Sketch a graph of the function. (a) lim f 共x兲 (b) lim f 共x兲 (c) lim f 共x兲
x→0 x→0 x→0
(b) Find each limit and interpret your result in the
context of the situation.
(i) lim C共x兲 (ii) lim C共x兲 (iii) lim C共x兲 Cumulative Mixed Review
x→15 x→99 x→305
(c) Create a table of values to show numerically that Identifying a Conic from Its Equation In Exercises
each limit does not exist. 89–92, identify the type of conic represented by the
(i) lim C共x兲 (ii) lim C共x兲 (iii) lim C共x兲 equation. Use a graphing utility to confirm your result.
x→25 x→100 x→500
(d) Explain how you can use the graph in part (a) to 3 12
89. r 90. r
verify that the limits in part (c) do not exist. 1 cos 3 2 sin
9 4
91. r 92. r
2 3 cos 4 cos
Evaluating a Limit from Calculus In Exercises 75–82, find
f 冇x ⴙ h冈 ⴚ f 冇x冈 A Relationship of Two Vectors In Exercises 93–96,
lim . determine whether the vectors are orthogonal, parallel,
h→0 h
or neither.
75. f 共x兲 3x 1 76. f 共x兲 5 6x
93. 具7, 2, 3典, 具1, 4, 5典 94. 具5, 5, 0典, 具0, 5, 1典
77. f 共x兲 冪x 78. f 共x兲 冪x 2
95. 具2, 3, 1典, 具2, 2, 2典 96. 具1, 3, 1典, 具3, 9, 3典
79. f 共x兲 x 2 3x 80. f 共x兲 4 2x x 2
770 Chapter 11 Limits and an Introduction to Calculus
Figure 11.18
To determine the rate at which a graph rises or falls at a single point, you can
find the slope of the tangent line at that point. In simple terms, the tangent line
to the graph of a function f at a point
P共x1, y1兲
is the line that best approximates the slope of the graph at the point. Figure 11.19 shows
other examples of tangent lines.
y y y
P P
x x x
Figure 11.19
y
From geometry, you know that a line is tangent to
a circle when the line intersects the circle at only one point
(see Figure 11.20). Tangent lines to noncircular graphs, P
however, can intersect the graph at more than one point.
For instance, in the first graph in Figure 11.19, if the
tangent line were extended, then it would intersect the
graph at a point other than the point of tangency. x
3dfoto 2010/used under license from Shutterstock.com
STILLFX 2010/used under license from Shutterstock.com
Figure 11.20
Section 11.3 The Tangent Line Problem 771
Slope of a Graph
Because a tangent line approximates the slope of a graph at a point, the problem of
finding the slope of a graph at a point is the same as finding the slope of the tangent line
at the point.
Solution 3
From the graph of f 共x兲 x , you can see that the tangent line at 共1, 1兲 rises
2
2 2
approximately two units for each unit change in x. So, you can estimate the slope of the
1
tangent line at 共1, 1兲 to be 1
x
change in y −3 −2 −1 1 2 3
Slope −1
change in x
2 Figure 11.21
⬇
1
2.
Because the tangent line at the point 共1, 1兲 has a slope of about 2, you can conclude that
the graph of f has a slope of about 2 at the point 共1, 1兲.
Now try Exercise 7.
When you are visually approximating the slope of a graph, remember that the
scales on the horizontal and vertical axes may differ. When this happens (as it
frequently does in applications), the slope of the tangent line is distorted, and you must
be careful to account for the difference in the scales.
Solution 80
16
Temperature (°F)
From the graph, you can see that the tangent line at the given point falls approximately 70
(10, 69)
16 units for each two-unit change in x. So, you can estimate the slope at the given 60
point to be
50
change in y
Slope 40
change in x
30
16
⬇ x
2 2 4 6 8 10 12
Month
8 degrees per month.
Figure 11.22
This means that you can expect the monthly normal temperature in November to be
about 8 degrees lower than the normal temperature in October.
Now try Exercise 9.
772 Chapter 11 Limits and an Introduction to Calculus
y y y y
(x + h, f(x + h)) (x + h, f(x + h)) (x + h, f(x + h))
(x, f(x))
(x, f(x))
f(x + h) − f(x) (x, f(x))
f(x + h) − f(x)
f(x + h) − f(x) Tangent line
(x, f(x))
h x h x h x x
Using the limit process, you can find the exact slope of the tangent line at 共x, f 共x兲兲.
From the definition above and from Section 11.2, you can see that the difference
quotient is used frequently in calculus. Using the difference quotient to find the slope
of a tangent line to a graph is a major concept of calculus.
Section 11.3 The Tangent Line Problem 773
Solution
Find an expression that represents the slope of a secant line at 共2, 4兲.
f 共2 h兲 f 共2兲
msec Set up difference quotient.
h
共2 h兲2 共2兲2
Substitute into f 共x兲 x2.
h
4 4h h 2 4
Expand terms.
h
4h h 2
Simplify.
h
h共4 h兲 y f(x) = x 2
Factor and divide out.
h 5
m lim msec 2
h→ 0
lim 共4 h兲 1
h→ 0 m = −4
4 0 x
−4 −3 −2 1 2
4
The graph has a slope of 4 at the point 共2, 4兲, as shown in Figure 11.25. Figure 11.25
Now try Exercise 11.
Solution
f 共x h兲 f 共x兲
m lim Set up difference quotient.
h→ 0 h
关2(x h兲 4兴 共2x 4兲
lim Substitute into f 共x兲 2x 4.
h→0 h y
2x 2h 4 2x 4
lim Expand terms. f(x) = −2x + 4
h→ 0 h
4
2h
lim Divide out. 3
h→ 0 h
m = −2
2
2 Simplify.
1
You know from your study of linear functions that the line given by
x
f 共x兲 2x 4 −2 −1 1 2 3 4
−1
has a slope of 2, as shown in Figure 11.26. This conclusion is consistent with that
obtained by the limit definition of slope, as shown above. Figure 11.26
It is important that you see the difference between the ways the difference quotients
were set up in Examples 3 and 4. In Example 3, you were finding the slope of a graph
at a specific point 共c, f 共c兲兲. To find the slope in such a case, you can use the following
form of the difference quotient.
f 共c h兲 f 共c兲
m lim Slope at specific point
h→ 0 h
In Example 4, however, you were finding a formula for the slope at any point on the
graph. In such cases, you should use x, rather than c, in the difference quotient.
f 共x h兲 f 共x兲
m lim Formula for slope
h→ 0 h Technology Tip
Example 5 Finding a Formula for the Slope of a Graph Try verifying the result
in Example 5 by using
Find a formula for the slope of the graph of a graphing utility to
f 共x兲 x 2 1. graph the function and the
tangent lines at 共1, 2兲 and
What are the slopes at the points 共1, 2兲 and 共2, 5兲? 共2, 5兲 as
Solution y1 x2 1
f 共x h兲 f 共x兲 y2 2x
msec Set up difference quotient.
h y3 4x 3
关共x h兲2 1兴 共x2 1兲 in the same viewing window.
Substitute into f 共x兲 x2 1.
You can also verify the result
h
using the tangent feature. For
x 2 2xh h 2 1 x 2 1 instructions on how to use the
Expand terms.
h tangent feature, see Appendix
2xh h 2 A; for specific keystrokes, go
Simplify. to this textbook’s Companion
h
Website.
h共2x h兲
Factor and divide out.
h
2x h, h0 Simplify.
(− 1, 2)
and at 共2, 5兲, the slope is x
−4 − 3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4
m 2共2兲 4. −1
lim h共6x 3h 2兲
h→ 0 h
lim 共6x 3h 2兲
h→ 0
6x 3共0兲 2
6x 2
So, the derivative of f 共x兲 3x 2 2x is
f
共x兲 6x 2. Derivative of f at x
Solution
f 共x h兲 f 共x兲
f
共x兲 lim
h→ 0 h
冪x h 冪x
lim
h→0 h
Because direct substitution yields the indeterminate form 00, you should use the
rationalizing technique discussed in Section 11.2 to find the limit.
Study Tip
冢 冣冢 冣
冪x h 冪x 冪x h 冪x
f
共x兲 lim Remember that in order
h→ 0 h 冪x h 冪x
to rationalize the
共x h兲 x numerator of an
lim
h→ 0 h共 冪x h 冪x 兲 expression, you must multiply
the numerator and denominator
h
lim by the conjugate of the
h→ 0 h共冪x h 冪x 兲 numerator.
1
lim
h→ 0 冪x h 冪x
1
冪x 0 冪x
1
2冪x Activity
Ask your students to graph f 共t 兲 3兾t and
At the point 共1, 1兲, the slope is identify the point 共3, 1兲 on the graph to give
some meaning to the task of finding the
11
f
共1兲 . slope at that point. You might also consider
2冪1 2 asking your students to find this limit
numerically, for the sake of comparison.
An equation of the tangent line at the point 共1, 1兲 is
y y1 m共x x1兲 Point-slope form
2 共x 1兲
1
y1 1
Substitute 2 for m, 1 for x1, and 1 for y1.
1 1
y 2 x 2. Tangent line
y
At the point 共4, 2兲, the slope is
4 y = 12 x + 12
11
f
共4兲 . 3
2冪4 4 y = 14 x + 1
An equation of the tangent line at the point 共4, 2兲 is (1, 1) m= 1
4
(4, 2)
y y1 m共x x1兲 Point-slope form m= 1
2
x
y 2 14共x 4兲 Substitute 14 for m, 4 for x1, and 2 for y1. −1 1 2 3 4 5
1 −1
y 4 x 1. Tangent line f(x) = x
−2
The graphs of f and the tangent lines at the points 共1, 1兲 and 共4, 2兲 are shown in
Figure 11.28. Figure 11.28
Now try Exercise 43.
Section 11.3 The Tangent Line Problem 777
5. The slope of the tangent line to the graph of f at the point 共1, 5兲 is 2. What is the
slope of the graph of f at the point 共1, 5兲?
6. Given f 共1兲 2 and f
共1兲 4, what is the slope of the graph of f at the point 共1, 2兲?
(b) 共2, 2 兲
1
9. y 10. y
(b) 共3, 1兲
3 3 23. f 共x兲 冪x 1 24. f 共x兲 冪x 4
2 2
(x, y) (a) 共2, 1兲 (a) 共5, 1兲
1 1 (x, y)
x x
(b) 共10, 3兲 (b) 共8, 2兲
−2 − 1 1 2 3 −2 − 1 1 2 3
Approximating the Slope of a Tangent Line In Exercises
−2 −2
25–30, use a graphing utility to graph the function and
the tangent line at the point 冇1, f 冇1冈冈. Use the graph to
Finding the Slope of a Graph In Exercises 11–18, use approximate the slope of the tangent line.
the limit process to find the slope of the graph of the 25. f 共x兲 x 2 3 26. f 共x兲 x 2 2x 1
function at the specified point. Use a graphing utility to
confirm your result. 27. f 共x兲 冪2 x 28. f 共x兲 冪x 3
4 3
11. g共x兲 x 2 4x, 共3, 3兲 29. f 共x兲 30. f 共x兲
x1 2x
12. f 共x兲 10x 2x 2, 共3, 12兲
13. g共x兲 5 2x, 共1, 3兲 Finding a Derivative In Exercises 31– 42, find the
14. h共x兲 2x 5, 共1, 3兲 derivative of the function.
4 31. f 共x兲 4 3x2 32. f 共x兲 x 2 3x 4
15. g共x兲 , 共2, 2兲
x 33. f 共x兲 5 34. f 共x兲 1
冢 冣 35. f 共x兲 9 3x
1
1 1 36. f 共x兲 5x 2
16. g共x兲 , 4,
x2 2 1 1
37. f 共x兲 2 38. f 共x兲 3
17. h共x兲 冪x, 共9, 3兲 x x
18. h共x兲 冪x 10, 共1, 3兲 39. f 共x兲 冪x 4 40. f 共x兲 冪x 1
778 Chapter 11 Limits and an Introduction to Calculus
f
共x兲
68. MODELING DATA
51. f 共x兲 2x 2 52. f 共x兲 4 x3
1 1 The data in the table show the number N (in
x2 4 thousands) of books sold when the price per book is p
53. f 共x兲 冪x 3 54. f 共x兲 (in dollars).
x4
f(x) = x + 1
3 2x
−3 3
−1 1
y=
2
Figure 11.29
and
lim f 共x兲 L 2 Limit as x approaches
x→
denote the limits at infinity. The first statement is read “the limit of f 共x兲 as x
approaches is L1,” and the second is read “the limit of f 共x兲 as x approaches
is L 2.”
Technology Tip
Recall from Section 2.7 that some graphing utilities have difficulty
graphing rational functions. In this text, rational functions are graphed
using the dot mode of a graphing utility, and a blue curve is placed
behind the graphing utility’s display to indicate where the graph should appear.
To help evaluate limits at infinity, you can use the following definition.
1
lim 0. Limit toward the left in the same viewing window.
x→ x r
Why doesn’t y1 appear to the
left of the y-axis? How does
this relate to the statement at
Limits at infinity share many of the properties of limits listed in Section 11.1. Some the left about the infinite limit
of these properties are demonstrated in the next example.
1
lim ?
x→ xr
Example 1 Evaluating a Limit at Infinity
Find the limit.
冢
lim 4
x→
3
x2 冣
Algebraic Solution Graphical Solution
Use the properties of limits listed in Section 11.1. Use a graphing utility to graph
冢4 x3 冣 lim 4 lim x3
3
lim y4 .
x→ 2 x→ x→ 2 x2
冢 冣
1
x→
lim 4 3 x→
lim 5 y=4
x2
Use the trace feature
4 3共0兲 to determine that as
x increases, y gets
4 y = 4 − 32
x closer to 4.
−20 120
So, the limit of
−1
3
f 共x兲 4 Figure 11.30
x2
as x approaches is 4. From Figure 11.30, you can estimate the limit to be 4. Note in the figure
that the line y 4 is a horizontal asymptote to the right.
Now try Exercise 13.
lim
x→ 冢4 x3 冣 4.
2
The graph of a rational function need not have a horizontal asymptote. When it does,
however, its left and right asymptotes must be the same.
When evaluating limits at infinity for more complicated rational functions, divide
the numerator and denominator by the highest-powered term in the denominator. This
enables you to evaluate each limit using the limits at infinity at the top of this page.
782 Chapter 11 Limits and an Introduction to Calculus
0
3
2
2x 3 2
x2
b. lim x→
lim
x→ 3x2 1 1
3 2
x
2 0
30
2
3
3
2x
2x3 3 x2
c. lim
x→ 3x2 1
x→
lim
1
3
x2
In this case, you can conclude that the limit does not exist because the numerator Activity
decreases without bound as the denominator approaches 3. Have students use these observations from
Example 2 to predict the following limits.
Now try Exercise 19.
5x共x 3兲
a. lim
x→ 2x
In Example 2, observe that when the degree of the numerator is less than the degree 4x3 5x
b. lim
of the denominator, as in part (a), the limit is 0. When the degrees of the numerator x→ 8x4 3x2 2
and denominator are equal, as in part (b), the limit is the ratio of the coefficients of the 6x2 1
c. lim
highest-powered terms. When the degree of the numerator is greater than the degree of x→ 3x2 x 2
the denominator, as in part (c), the limit does not exist. Then ask several students to verify the
This result seems reasonable when you realize that for large values of x, the predictions algebraically, several other
highest-powered term of a polynomial is the most “influential” term. That is, a students to verify the predictions numerically,
and several more students to verify the
polynomial tends to behave as its highest-powered term behaves as x approaches predictions graphically. Lead a discussion
positive or negative infinity. comparing the results.
Andresr 2010/used under license from Shutterstock.com
ivanpavlisko 2010/used under license from Shutterstock.com
Section 11.4 Limits at Infinity and Limits of Sequences 783
冦
0, n < m
lim f 共x兲 an
x→ ± , nm
bm
If n > m, then the limit does not exist.
Solution
a. When x 1000, the average cost per card is
0.50共1000兲 5000
C x 1000
1000
$5.50.
b. When x 10,000, the average cost per card is
0.50共10,000兲 5000
C x 10,000
10,000
$1.00.
c. When x 100,000, the average cost per card is 6
0.50共100,000兲 5000
C x 100,000 C=
C 0.50x + 5000
=
100,000 x x
$0.55.
0 100,000
d. As x approaches infinity, the limit of C is 0 y = 0.5
0.50x 5000
lim $0.50. x→ As x → ⴥ, the average cost per
x→ x
card approaches $0.50.
The graph of C is shown in Figure 11.31. Figure 11.31
Limits of Sequences
Limits of sequences have many of the same properties as limits of functions. For
instance, consider the sequence whose nth term is an 1兾2n.
1 1 1 1 1
, , , , ,. . .
2 4 8 16 32
As n increases without bound, the terms of this sequence get closer and closer to 0, and
the sequence is said to converge to 0. Using limit notation, you can write
1
lim 0.
n→ 2n
The following relationship shows how limits of functions of x can be used to evaluate
the limit of a sequence.
Limit of a Sequence
Let L be a real number. Let f be a function of a real variable such that
lim f 共x兲 L.
x→
A sequence that does not converge is said to diverge. For instance, the sequence Another sequence that diverges is
1
1, 1, 1, 1, 1, . . . an 1兾4. You might want your
n
students to discuss why this is true.
diverges because it does not approach a unique number.
Solution
2n 1 3 5 7 9 11 13
a. n→
lim 2 , , , , , ,. . . → 2
n4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Study Tip
2n 1 3 5 7 9 11 13
b. lim 2 0 , , , , , ,. . . → 0 You can use the defini-
n→ n 4 5 8 13 20 29 40
tion of limits at infinity
2n2 1 1 3 9 19 33 51 73 1 for rational functions
c. lim , , , , , ,. . . → on page 783 to verify the limits
n→ 4n2 2 4 16 36 64 100 144 2
of the sequences in Example 4.
Now try Exercise 43.
Section 11.4 Limits at Infinity and Limits of Sequences 785
In the next section, you will encounter limits of sequences such as that shown in
Example 5. A strategy for evaluating such limits is to begin by writing the nth term in
standard rational function form. Then you can determine the limit by comparing the
degrees of the numerator and denominator, as shown on page 783.
The result of Example 5 is supported by Figure 11.33, which shows the graph of
the sequence an and y 8兾3.
10
an
0 8 100
y= 3
0
Figure 11.33
−6 6 t2 4y 4
−6 6 21. lim 22. lim 2
t→ t 3 y→ y 3
−2 −3 4t 2 3t 1 5 6x 3x2
23. lim 2 24. lim
(e) 3 (f) 4 t→ 3t 2t 5 x→ 2x2 x 4
−9 9 3 8y 4y 2 t 2 9t 10
25. lim 26. lim
−6 6 y→ 3 y 2y 2 t→ 2 4t 3t 2
共x 2 3兲 2x 2 6
27. lim 28. lim
−9 −4 x→ 共2 x兲2 x→ 共x 1兲2
冤 冥
2x 2
冤 共x x 1兲 冥
(g) 8 (h) 4
29. lim 4 30. lim 7
x→ 2 x→ 共x 3兲2
−6 12
冤 冥
x 3x 2
冢3t 冣
1 5t
−8 10 lim
31. t→
32. lim
x→ 2x 1 共x 3兲2
2 t2
−4 −8
Algebraic-Graphical-Numerical In Exercises 33 –38,
4x 2 x2 (a) complete the table and numerically estimate the limit
5. f 共x兲 2 6. f 共x兲 2
x 1 x 1 as x approaches infinity, (b) use a graphing utility to
1 1 graph the function and estimate the limit graphically,
7. f 共x兲 4 2 8. f 共x兲 x and (c) find the limit algebraically.
x x
x2 2x 1
9. f 共x兲 2 10. f 共x兲 x 100 101 102 103 104 105 106
x 1 x2
f 共x兲
1 2x 1 4x2
11. f 共x兲 12. f 共x兲 2
x2 x 4 3x x2
33. f 共x兲 34. f 共x兲
1x x2 4
Section 11.4 Limits at Infinity and Limits of Sequences 787
n 61.018t 2 1260.64
10 0 10 1 10 2 10 3 R共t兲 , 2 t 8
0.0578t 2 1
an
where t represents the year, with t 2 corresponding
to 2002.
1 n共n 1兲
冢 冤 冥冣
1
53. an n (a) Use a graphing utility to create a scatter plot of the
n n 2 data and graph the model in the same viewing
4 n共n 1兲
冢 冤 冥冣
4 window. How do they compare?
54. an n
n n 2 (b) Use the model to predict the numbers of reserves
10 n共n 1兲共3n 1兲 in 2009 and 2010.
55. an 3
n 冤 6 冥 (c) Find the limit of the model as t → and interpret
3n共n 1兲 4 n共n 1兲 its meaning in the context of the situation.
冤 冥
2
56. an 2
4
(d) Is this a good model for predicting future numbers
n n 2
of reserves? Explain.
788 Chapter 11 Limits and an Introduction to Calculus
60. (p. 780) The table shows 66. Think About It Use a graphing utility to graph the
the annual payrolls P (in millions of dollars) function f 共x兲 x兾冪x2 1. How many horizontal
of the legislative branch of the United States asymptotes does the function appear to have? What are
government for the years 2001 through the horizontal asymptotes?
2008. (Source: U.S. Office of Personnel
Management) Exploration In Exercises 67–70, use a graphing utility
to create a scatter plot of the terms of the sequence.
Payroll, P Determine whether the sequence converges or diverges.
Year (in millions If it converges, estimate its limit.
67. an 4共 3 兲 68. an 3共 2 兲
of dollars) 2 n 3 n
10
65. Think About It Find functions f and g such that both
f 共x兲 and g共x兲 increase without bound as x approaches
77. 兺 15
k1
8
, but lim 关 f 共x兲 g共x兲兴 . 3
x→ 78. 兺k
k0
2 1
Andresr 2010/used under license from Shutterstock.com
Section 11.5 The Area Problem 789
n n
6. 兺
i1
kai k 兺 a , k is a constant.
i1
i
兺 i 1 2 3 4 . . . 200
i1 Study Tip
Solution Recall from Section 8.3
that the sum of a finite
Using Formula 2 with n 200, you can write
geometric sequence is
n n共n 1兲 given by
兺i 2
冢11 rr 冣.
i1 n n
1 n
n2i1兺共i 2兲 Factor constant 1兾n2 out of sum.
冢 兺 i 兺 2冣
n n
1
Write as two sums.
n2 i1 i1
1 n共n 1兲
n2 冤2
2n 冥 Apply Formulas 1 and 2.
1 n 2 5n
n2 冢2 冣 Add fractions.
n5
Simplify.
2n
Now you can evaluate the sum by substituting the appropriate values of n, as shown in
the following table.
Now try Exercise 15(a) and (b). Point out that finding the sums of
progressively larger numbers of terms—i.e.,
larger values of n—will give better and
In Example 2, note that the sum appears to approach a limit as n increases. To find better approximations of the limit of the
the limit of summation at infinity. For instance, compute
the sum in Example 2 for n 100,000 and
n5 n 1,000,000. What values are these sums
2n approaching?
as n approaches infinity, you can use the techniques from Section 11.4 to write
n5 1
lim .
n→ 2n 2
Andresr 2010/used under license from Shutterstock.com
Section 11.5 The Area Problem 791
Be sure you notice the strategy used in Example 2. Rather than separately evaluating
the sums
10
i2 100
i2 1000
i2 10,000
i2
兺
i1 n
2
, 兺
i1 n
2
, 兺
i1 n2
, 兺
i1 n2
it was more efficient first to convert to rational form using the summation formulas and
properties listed on page 789.
n
i2 n5
S 兺
i1 n
2
2n
Summation Rational
form form
With this rational form, each sum can be evaluated by simply substituting appropriate
values of n.
兺 冢1 n 冣 冢 n 冣
n
i 2 1
S共n兲
i1
Solution
Begin by rewriting the summation in rational form.
兺 冢1 n 冣 冢 n 冣
n 2
i 1 Write original form
S共n兲
i1
of summation.
n 2 2ni i 2
兺冢 冣冢1n冣
n
Square 共1 i兾n兲 and
i1 n2 write as a single fraction.
1 n 2
兺
Factor constant 1兾n3
共n 2ni i 2兲
n3i1 out of the sum.
冢 兺 n 兺 2ni 兺 i 冣
n n n
1
2 2 Write as three sums.
n3 i1 i1 i1
1 3
n3 冦
n 2n
n共n 1兲
2
n共n 1兲共2n 1兲
冤 6 冥 冧 Use summation formulas.
14n3 9n2 n
Simplify.
6n3
In this rational form, you can now find the limit as n → .
14n3 9n2 n 14 7
lim S共n兲 n→
lim
n→ 6n 3 6 3
Study Tip
As you can see from Example 3, there is a lot of algebra involved in
rewriting a summation in rational form. You may want to review simplifying
rational expressions if you are having difficulty with this procedure.
792 Chapter 11 Limits and an Introduction to Calculus
y
The Area Problem
You now have the tools needed to solve the second basic problem of calculus: the area f
problem. The problem is to find the area of the region R bounded by the graph of a
nonnegative, continuous function f, the x-axis, and the vertical lines x a and x b,
as shown in Figure 11.34.
When the region R is a square, a triangle, a trapezoid, or a semicircle, you can find
its area by using a geometric formula. For more general regions, however, you must use
a different approach—one that involves the limit of a summation. The basic strategy
is to use a collection of rectangles of equal width that approximates the region R, as
illustrated in Example 4.
x
a b
Example 4 Approximating the Area of a Region Figure 11.34
Use the five rectangles in Figure 11.35 to approximate the area of the region bounded
by the graph of y
f 共x兲 6 x 2 f(x) = 6 − x 2
Solution 4
Because the length of the interval along the x-axis is 2 and there are five rectangles, 3
the width of each rectangle is 25. The height of each rectangle can be obtained by
evaluating f at the right endpoint of each interval. The five intervals are as follows. 2
x
2 1 2 3
Notice that the right endpoint of each interval is 5i for i 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5. The sum of
the areas of the five rectangles is Figure 11.35
Height Width
兺 冢 5 冣冢5冣 兺 冤6 冢 5 冣 冥冢5冣
5 5 2
2i 2 2i 2
f
i1 i1
冢 兺 6 254 兺 i 冣
5 5
2
2
5 i1 i1
2
5 冢
30
44
5 冣
212
25
8.48.
So, you can approximate the area of R as 8.48 square units.
Now try Exercise 21.
By increasing the number of rectangles used in Example 4, you can obtain closer Consider leading a discussion on why
and closer approximations of the area of the region. For instance, using 25 rectangles increasing the number of rectangles used to
2 approximate the area gives better and better
of width 25 each, you can approximate the area to be
estimates of the true area.
A ⬇ 9.17 square units.
The following table shows even better approximations.
Height Width
Solution
Begin by finding the dimensions of the rectangles.
x
ba 10 1 1
Width:
n n n
Figure 11.36
共b a兲i 共1 0兲i
Height: f a 冢 n 冣
f 0
n冢 f
i
n
i2
2
n 冣 冢冣
Next, approximate the area as the sum of the areas of n rectangles.
共b a兲i
兺 f 冢a 冣冢b n a冣
n
A⬇
i1 n
兺 冢n 冣冢n冣
n 2
i 1
2
i1
n
i2
兺
i1 n
3
1 n 2
n3i1兺i
1 n共n 1兲共2n 1兲
n3 冤 6 冥
2n3 3n2 n
6n3
Finally, find the exact area by taking the limit as n approaches .
2n3 3n2 n 1
A lim
n→ 6n3 3
Now try Exercise 33.
794 Chapter 11 Limits and an Introduction to Calculus
兺 兺i
3
1. i _______ 2. _______ y
i1 i1
2
3. Can you obtain a better approximation of the area of the shaded region using
10 rectangles of equal width or 100 rectangles of equal width? 1
4. Does the limit of the sum of n rectangles as n approaches infinity represent the
x
exact area of a plane region or an approximation of the area? 1 2
兺7 兺3
y y
5. 6.
i1 i1 2 4
20 30
7. 兺i
i1
3
8. 兺i
i1
2
1
3
2
20 50
9. 兺 共k
k1
3
2兲 10. 兺 共2k 1兲
k1 x
1
x
25 10 1 2 1 2 3 4
11. 兺共 j
j1
2
j兲 12. 兺共 j
j1
3
3j 兲 2
n 4 8 20 50
n 100 101 102 103 104
Approximate area
S共n兲
23. f 共x兲 3x 4
1
n n 24. f 共x兲 9 x 2
i3 i
13. 兺
i1 n
4 14. 兺
i1 n 2
y y
10
n
3 n
2i 3
15. 兺
i1 n
3
共1 i 2兲 16. 兺
i1 n2
8
兺冢 冣冢 冣 冢 冣冥冢 冣
n n
兺冤
i2 2 1 i 1
17. 3
18. 32 x
4
i1 n n n i1 n n
4 8 12 2
−4 x
Approximating the Area of a Region In Exercises −4 2 4 6
19–22, approximate the area of the region using the 25. f 共x兲 9x3
1
26. f 共x兲 3 4x3
1
indicated number of rectangles of equal width.
y y
19. f 共x兲 x 4 20. f 共x兲 2 x2
5
y y 3
4
6 2
5
1 2
1
1
x x
1 2 3 −2 −1 1 2 3
x x
− 3 −2 − 1 1 2 3 −1 1
Section 11.5 The Area Problem 795
The Area of a Region In Exercises 27–32, use the given 46. (p. 789) The table shows
expression for the sum of the areas of n rectangles. For the measurements (in feet) of a lot bounded
each finite value of n in the table, approximate the area of by a stream and two straight roads that meet
the region bounded by the graph of f and the x-axis over at right angles (see figure).
the specified interval. Then find the exact area as n → ⴥ.
x 0 50 100 150
n 4 8 20 50 100
y 450 362 305 268
Area
x 200 250 300
Function Interval Sum of areas y 245 156 0
of n rectangles
36n2 16n y
27. f 共x兲 2x 5 关0, 4兴
n2 450
28n2 24n Stream
28. f 共x兲 3x 1 关0, 4兴 360
n2
270
46n3 12n2 4n Road
29. f 共x兲 9 x 2
关0, 2兴 180
3n3
90 Road
158n3 60n2 4n
30. f 共x兲 x 1 2
关4, 6兴 x
3n3 50 100 150 200 250 300
18n2 4n
31. f 共x兲 2x 4
1
关1, 3兴 (a) Use the regression feature of a graphing utility to
n2
find a model of the form y ax3 bx2 cx d.
4n2 4n
32. f 共x兲 2x 1
1
关2, 2兴 (b) Use the graphing utility to plot the data and graph
n2 the model in the same viewing window.
(c) Use the model in part (a) to estimate the area of the lot.
Finding the Area of a Region In Exercises 33–44, use
the limit process to find the area of the region bounded
by the graph of the function and the x-axis over the
Conclusions
specified interval. True or False? In Exercises 47 and 48, determine whether
the statement is true or false. Justify your answer.
Function Interval
33. f 共x兲 4x 1 关0, 1兴 47. The sum of the first n positive integers is n共n 1兲兾2.
34. f 共x兲 3x 2 关0, 2兴 48. The exact area of a region is given by the limit of the
sum of n rectangles as n approaches 0.
35. f 共x兲 x 4 关0, 3兴
36. f 共x兲 3x 6 关2, 5兴 49. Think About It Determine which value best
37. f 共x兲 16 x 2 关0, 4兴 approximates the area of the region shown in the graph.
(Make your selection on the basis of the sketch of the
38. f 共x兲 x 2 2 关0, 1兴
region and not by performing any calculations.)
39. g共x兲 1 x3 关0, 1兴
(a) 2 y
40. g 共x兲 64 x3 关0, 3兴
(b) 1 3
41. g共x兲 2x x3 关0, 1兴
(c) 4
42. g共x兲 4x x3 关0, 2兴 2
(d) 6
43. f 共x兲 x 2 4x 关0, 6兴 1
(e) 9
44. f 共x兲 x 2 x3 关0, 1兴 x
1 3
45. Geometry The boundaries of a parcel of land are two
edges modeled by the coordinate axes and a stream 50. C A P S T O N E Describe the process of finding the
modeled by the equation areas of a region bounded by the graph of a nonnegative,
y 共3.0 106兲 x3 0.002x 2 1.05x 400. continuous function f, the x-axis, and the vertical lines
x a and x b.
Use a graphing utility to graph the equation. Find the
area of the property. (All distances are measured in feet.)
Lukasz Laska/iStockphoto.com
796 Chapter 11 Limits and an Introduction to Calculus
11 Chapter Summary
Use properties of limits and direct Let b and c be real numbers and let n be a positive integer.
substitution to evaluate limits 1. lim b b
11.1 ( p. 755). x→c
2. lim x c
x→c
3. lim x n c n
x→c
n x 冪
4. lim 冪 n c,
for n even and c > 0
x→c
Properties of Limits
9–22
Let b and c be real numbers, let n be a positive integer, and
let f and g be functions where
lim f 共x兲 L and lim g共x兲 K.
x→c x→c
Use the dividing out technique When evaluating a limit of a rational function by direct
to evaluate limits of functions substitution, you may encounter the indeterminate form 0兾0.
23–30
( p. 760). In this case, factor and divide out any common factors, then
try direct substitution again. (See Examples 1 and 2.)
Use the rationalizing technique The rationalizing technique involves rationalizing the
to evaluate limits of functions numerator of the function when finding a limit. (See 31, 32
( p. 762). Example 3.)
Use technology to approximate The table feature or zoom and trace features of a graphing
11.2 limits of functions graphically and utility can be used to approximate limits. (See Examples 4 33–40
numerically ( p. 763). and 5.)
Evaluate limits of difference For any x-value, the limit of a difference quotient is an
quotients from calculus ( p. 766). f 共x h兲 f 共x兲
expression of the form lim . 49, 50
h→0 h
Chapter Summary 797
Evaluate limits of functions at If f is a function and L1 and L2 are real numbers, then the
infinity ( p. 780). statements lim f 共x兲 L1 and lim f 共x兲 L2 denote 79–86
x→ x→
the limits at infinity.
11.5 n n
6. 兺 ka k 兺 a , k is a constant.
i1
i
i1
i
共b a兲i
兺 f 冢a 冣冢b n a冣.
n
A lim
n→ i1 n
798 Chapter 11 Limits and an Introduction to Calculus
x 1.9 1.99 1.999 2 2.001 2.01 2.1 Evaluating Limits by Direct Substitution In Exercises
11–22, find the limit by direct substitution.
f 共x兲 ?
f 共x兲 ? 11.2
Finding Limits In Exercises 23–32, find the limit (if it
exists). Use a graphing utility to confirm your result
Using a Graph to Find a Limit In Exercises 5–8, use the
graphically.
graph to find the limit (if it exists). If the limit does not
exist, explain why. t2 t2 9
23. lim 24. lim
t→2 t 2 4 t→3 t3
1
5. lim 共3 x兲 6. lim x5 x1
x→1 x→2 x2 25. lim 26. lim
y y x→5 x 2 5x 50 x→1 x2 5x 6
3 x2 7x 8 x2 8x 12
27. lim 28. lim
3 2 x→1 x2 3x 2 x→2 x 2 3x 10
2 1
x 1 1
1 1 1
x −1 2 3 4 5 x2 x1
−1 1 2 3 −2 lim
29. x→1 30. lim
x1 x→ 0 x
−2 −3
冪4 u 2 冪v 9 3
7. lim
x3 ⱍ ⱍ 8. lim
x2 1
31. lim
u→ 0 u
32. lim
v→0 v
x→3 x 3 x→1 x 1
y y Approximating a Limit In Exercises 33–40, (a) graphically
3 4 approximate the limit (if it exists) by using a
2 3 graphing utility to graph the function and (b) numerically
2 approximate the limit (if it exists) by using the table
x 1
−2 −1 1
feature of the graphing utility to create a table.
x
−2 −1 1 2 3 4 x3 4x
33. lim lim
34. x→4
−3 −2 x→3 x2 9 16 x2
Review Exercises 799
Finding the Limit of a Sequence In Exercises 87–92, Finding the Area of a Region In Exercises 99–104, use
write the first five terms of the sequence and find the the limit process to find the area of the region bounded
limit of the sequence (if it exists). If the limit does not by the graph of the function and the x-axis over the
exist, explain why. Assume n begins with 1. specified interval.
2n 3 2n Function Interval
87. an 88. an
5n 4 n2 1 99. f 共x兲 10 x 关0, 10兴
共1兲n 共1兲n1 100. f 共x兲 2x 6 关3, 6兴
89. an 3 90. an
n n 101. f 共x兲 x 2 4 关0, 3兴
1 f 共x兲 6共x x 2兲 关0, 1兴
91. an 2 关3 2n共n 1兲兴 102.
2n
103. f 共x兲 x3 1 关0, 4兴
2 n共n 1兲
冢 冣冦 冤 冥冧
2
92. an n n 104. f 共x兲 8 x3 关0, 2兴
n n 2
105. Civil Engineering The table shows the measurements
11.5
(in feet) of a lot bounded by a stream and two straight
Finding the Limit of a Summation In Exercises 93 and roads that meet at right angles (see figure).
94, (a) use the summation formulas and properties to
rewrite the sum as a rational function S冇n冈. (b) Use S冇n冈 x 0 100 200 300 400 500
to complete the table. (c) Find lim S冇n冈.
n→ y 125 125 120 112 90 90
n 10 0 101 10 2 10 3 10 4
x 600 700 800 900 1000
S共n兲
y 95 88 75 35 0
兺冢 冣冢 冣 兺 冤 4 冢 n 冣 冥冢 n 冣
n n
4i 2 i 1 3i 2 3i
93. 2
94. 2
y
i1 n n n i1
125 Stream
100
Approximating the Area of a Region In Exercises 95 75
and 96, approximate the area of the region using the Road
50
indicated number of rectangles of equal width. 25 Road
95. f 共x兲 4 x 96. f 共x兲 4 x 2
200 400 600 800 1000
x
y y
4
(a) Use the regression feature of a graphing utility to
3 3 find a model of the form
2 2 y ax3 bx2 cx d.
1 1
x x (b) Use the graphing utility to plot the data and graph
1 2 3 4 −1 1 the model in the same viewing window.
(c) Use the model in part (a) to estimate the area of the
Approximating the Area of a Region In Exercises 97 lot.
and 98, complete the table to show the approximate area
of the region using the indicated numbers n of rectangles Conclusions
of equal width.
True or False? In Exercises 106 and 107, determine
n 4 8 20 50 whether the statement is true or false. Justify your answer.
Approximate area 106. If the degree of the numerator N共x兲 of a rational
function f 共x兲 N共x兲兾D共x兲 is greater than the degree
of its denominator D共x兲, then the limit of the rational
97. f 共x兲 4x2
1
98. f 共x兲 4x x 2 function as x approaches is 0.
y y
107. The expression f
共z兲 gives the slope of the tangent line
4 4 to the graph of f at the point 共z, f 共z兲兲.
3 3
2 2 108. Writing Write a short paragraph explaining several
1 1 reasons why the limit of a function may not exist.
x x
1 2 3 4 1 2 3
Chapter Test 801
Take this test as you would take a test in class. After you are finished, check your
work against the answers in the back of the book.
In Exercises 1–3, use a graphing utility to graph the function and approximate
the limit (if it exists). Then find the limit (if it exists) algebraically by using
appropriate techniques.
x2 1 x2 5x 3 冪x 2
1. lim 2. lim 3. lim
x→2 2x x→1 1x x→5 x5
In Exercises 4 and 5, use a graphing utility to graph the function and approximate
the limit. Write an approximation that is accurate to four decimal places. Then
create a table to verify your limit numerically.
sin 3x e2x 1
4. lim 5. lim
x→0 x x→0 x
6. Find a formula for the slope of the graph of f at the point 共x, f 共x兲兲. Then use it to
find the slope at the specified point.
(a) f 共x兲 3x2 5x 2, 共2, 0兲 (b) f 共x兲 2x3 6x, 共1, 8兲
In Exercises 10–12, find the limit (if it exists). If the limit does not exist, explain
why. Use a graphing utility to verify your result graphically.
y
6 1 3x2 x2
10. lim 11. lim 12. lim
x→ 5x 1 x→ x2 5 x→ 3x 2 10
In Exercises 13 and 14, write the first five terms of the sequence and find the limit
6
of the sequence (if it exists). If the limit does not exist, explain why. Assume n
begins with 1. 4
n2 3n 4 1 共1兲n 2
13. an 14. an
2n2 n 2 n x
1 2
−2
15. Approximate the area of the region bounded by the graph of f 共x兲 8 2x2 shown
at the right using the indicated number of rectangles of equal width. Figure for 15
In Exercises 16 and 17, use the limit process to find the area of the region bounded
by the graph of the function and the x-axis over the specified interval.
Time Height
16. f 共x兲 x 2; interval: 关2, 2兴
(seconds), x (feet), y
17. f 共x兲 7 x2; interval: 关0, 2兴
0 0
18. The table shows the height of a space shuttle during its first 5 seconds of motion. 1 1
(a) Use the regression feature of a graphing utility to find a quadratic model 2 23
y ax2 bx c for the data. 3 60
4 115
(b) The value of the derivative of the model is the rate of change of height with
respect to time, or the velocity, at that instant. Find the velocity of the shuttle 5 188
after 5 seconds. Table for 18
802 Chapter 11 Limits and an Introduction to Calculus
Take this test to review the material in Chapters 10 and 11. After you are finished,
check your work against the answers in the back of the book.
In Exercises 1 and 2, find the coordinates of the point.
z
1. The point is located six units behind the yz-plane, one unit to the right of the
xz-plane, and two units above the xy-plane.
4
2. The point is located on the y-axis, five units to the left of the xz-plane. (0, 0, 3) (0, 4, 3)
3. Find the distance between the points 共2, 3, 6兲 and 共4, 5, 1兲. 2
4. Find the lengths of the sides of the right triangle at the right. Show that these
lengths satisfy the Pythagorean Theorem. (0, 0, 0)
y
5. Find the coordinates of the midpoint of the line segment joining 共3, 4, 1兲 and 2
4
2
共5, 0, 2兲.
6. Find an equation of the sphere for which the endpoints of a diameter are 共0, 0, 0兲 4
and 共4, 4, 8兲. x
7. Sketch the graph of the equation 共x 2兲2 共 y 1兲2 z2 4, and then sketch Figure for 4
the xy-trace and the yz-trace.
8. For the vectors u 具2, 6, 0典 and v 具4, 5, 3典, find u
v and u v.
12. Find the volume of the parallelepiped with the vertices A共1, 3, 2兲, B共3, 4, 2兲,
C共3, 2, 2兲, D共1, 1, 2兲, E共1, 3, 5兲, F共3, 4, 5兲, G共3, 2, 5兲, and H共1, 1, 5兲.
13. Find sets of (a) parametric equations and (b) symmetric equations for the line
passing through the points 共2, 3, 0兲 and 共5, 8, 25兲. z
14. Find the parametric form of the equation of the line passing through the point
共1, 2, 0兲 and perpendicular to 2x 4y z 8. 6
(− 1, − 1, 3) (− 1, 3, 3)
15. Find an equation of the plane passing through the points 共0, 0, 0兲, 共2, 3, 0兲, and (0, 0, 0)
共5, 8, 25兲.
(3, − 1, 3) (3, 3, 3)
16. Label the intercepts and sketch the graph of the plane given by 3x 6y 12z 24.
−4
y
17. Find the distance between the point 共0, 0, 25兲 and the plane 2x 5y z 10. (2, 0, 0) 4
18. A plastic wastebasket has the shape and dimensions shown in the figure. In 4 (2, 2, 0) (0, 2, 0)
fabricating a mold for making the wastebasket, it is necessary to know the angle x
between two adjacent sides. Find the angle. Figure for 18
In Exercises 19–27, find the limit (if it exists). If the limit does not exist, explain
why. Use a graphing utility to verify your result graphically.
x2 x7
19. lim 共5x x 2兲 20. lim 21. lim
x→4 x2 x 2
x→2 x→7 x2 49
22. lim
冪x 4 2
23. lim
x4 ⱍ ⱍ 24. lim sin 冢x 冣
x→0 x x→4 x4 x→0
1 1
x3 3 冪x 16 4 x2
25. lim 26. lim 27. lim
x→0 x x→0 x x→2 x2 4
Cumulative Test for Chapters 10–11 803
In Exercises 28–31, find a formula for the slope of the graph of f at the point
冇x, f 冇x冈冈. Then use it to find the slope at the specified point.
28. f 共x兲 4 x 2, 共2, 0兲
29. f 共x兲 冪x 3, 共2, 1兲
冢 冣
1 1
30. f 共x兲 , 1,
x3 4
In Exercises 32–37, find the limit (if it exists). If the limit does not exist, explain
why. Use a graphing utility to verify your result graphically.
x3 3 7x
32. lim 33. lim
x→
x2 9 x→ x 4
3x2 1 2x
34. lim 2 35. lim 2
x→ x 4 x→ x 3x 2
3x 3 4x x3
36. lim 37. lim
x→ x2 1 x→ 2x2 3
In Exercises 38– 40, evaluate the sum using the summation formulas and properties.
50 20 40
38. 兺
i1
共1 i2兲 39. 兺
k1
共3k 2 2k兲 40. 兺 共12 i 兲
i1
3
In Exercises 41– 44, approximate the area of the region using the indicated
number of rectangles of equal width.
41. y 42. y
7 y = 5 − 12 x 2
6
4
5 y = 2x
4 3
3 2
2
1 1
x x
1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5
43. y 44. y
2 2 1
y=
y= 1
(x + 1)2 x2 + 1
4
1
x
x
1 2
−1 1
In Exercises 45–48, use the limit process to find the area of the region bounded by
the graph of the function and the x-axis over the specified interval.
45. f 共x兲 x 2 46. f 共x兲 x2 1
Interval: 关0, 1兴 Interval: 关0, 4兴
47. f 共x兲 4 x2 48. f 共x兲 1 x3
Interval: 关0, 2兴 Interval: 关0, 1兴
804 Chapter 11 Limits and an Introduction to Calculus
Proofs in Mathematics
Many of the proofs of the definitions and properties presented in this chapter are beyond
the scope of this text. Included below are simple proofs for the limit of a power
function and the limit of a polynomial function.
n factors
cn Exponential form
Proof
Let p be a polynomial function such that
p共x兲 an x n an1 x n1 . . . a2 x 2 a1x a0.
Because a polynomial function is the sum of monomial functions, you can write the
following.
lim p共x兲 lim 共an x n an1 x n1 . . . a2 x 2 a1x a0兲
x→c x→c