Permeability and Seepage

What is permeability?
A measure of how easily a fluid (e.g.,
water) can pass through a porous
medium (e.g., soils)

water

Loose soil Dense soil

- easy to flow - difficult to flow
- high permeability - low permeability
2

1
Soils are permeable due to the existence of interconnected
voids through which water flow from points of high energy
to points of low energy.

• A soil is highly pervious when water can flow through it

easily. (Gravels)
• In an impervious soil, the permeability is very low and water
cannot easily flow through it. (Clays)
• Rocks are impermeable
• The study of the flow of water through permeable soil
media is important in soil mechanics.
The following applications illustrate the importance of
permeability in geotechnical design:

 Permeability influences the rate of settlement of a saturated

soil under load.
 The design of earth dams is very much based upon the
permeability of the soils used.
 The stability of slopes and retaining structures can be greatly
affected by the permeability of the soils involved.
 Filters made of soils are designed based upon their
permeability.
4

2
 Bernoulli’s Equation

The energy of a fluid particle is

composed of:
fluid particle
1. Kinetic energy
- due to velocity
z
2. Strain energy
- due to pressure
datum
3. Potential energy
- due to elevation (z) with respect to a datum

Bernoulli’s Equation

Expressing energy in unit of length:

fluid particle
Velocity head
+
z
Total head = Pressure head

+
datum
Elevation head

3
 Bernoulli’s Equation
For flow through soils, velocity (and thus
velocity head) is very small. Therefore,

0
Velocity head
fluid particle
+
Total head = Pressure head
z
+
Elevation head
datum

Total head = Pressure head + Elevation head

Some Notes
If flow is from A to B, total head is higher at A than at B.

Energy is dissipated in
overcoming the soil resistance
water
and hence is the head loss.

B
A

At any point within the flow regime:

Pressure head = pore water pressure/w

Elevation head = height above the selected

datum

4
 The loss of head between A&B, can be given Hydraulic gradient (i)
by between A and B is
the total head loss per
unit length
Water In
Head Loss or
Head Difference or
Energy Loss

Δh =hA - hB

i = Hydraulic Gradient
PA
hA h Energy is dissipated in
γw i overcoming soil resistance (q)
L Water
out
PB
hB γw

ZA ZB

Datum 9

Water Flow
The water flow is divided into two categories:
1. Laminar flow: indicates that each water particle follows
a definite path and never crosses the path of another
particle.

2. Turbulent flow: indicates a random path of irregular

and twisted movement.

10

5
 In general, the variation of velocity (v) with the hydraulic
gradient (i) will be as shown in the figure below

In most soils, the flow of water through the void spaces

can be considered laminar and thus v is proportional to i

11

Darcy’s Law
Darcy’s Law demonstrated experimentally that for
laminar flow conditions in a saturated soil, the rate of
flow or the discharge per unit time is proportional to
the hydraulic gradient.
In 1856, Darcy published a simple equation for discharge velocity
of water through saturated soils, which may expressed as

Where
v = discharge velocity= quantity of water flowing in unit time
through a unit gross–sectional area of soil at right angles to the
direction of flow
k = coefficient of permeability

12

6
If the flow rate is q then

13

Hydraulic Conductivity or Permeability Coefficient (k)

• It is defined as the rate of flow per unit area of soil under unit
hydraulic gradient, it has the dimensions of velocity (L/T) such
(cm/sec or ft/sec).
• Permeability coefficient is generally used by geotechnical engineers,
geologists prefer the term hydraulic conductivity.
• It depends on several factors as follows:
1. Shape and size of the soil particles.
2. Distribution of soil particles and pore spaces.
3. Void ratio. Permeability increases with increase of void ratio.
4. Degree of saturation. Permeability increases with increase of
degree of saturation.
5. Composition of soil particles.
6. Soil structure.
7. Fluid properties.

7
When the properties of fluid (water) affecting the flow are included,
we can express k by the relation

Typical permeability coefficients are given in the following table

Permeability Values (cm/s)
10-6 10-3 100
clays silts sands gravels

Fines Coarse

For coarse grain soils, k = f(e or D10)

15

k
Soil Type
cm/sec ft/min
Clean Gravel 1-100 2-200
Coarse sand 1-0.01 2-0.2
Fine sand 0.01-0.001 0.02-0.002
Silty clay 0.001-0.0001 0.002-0.0002
Clay < 0.000001 < 0.000002

Note: In clayey soils, microstructure is effective on coefficient of

the permeability. Other factors in clay are ionic concentration and
thickness of water adsorbed by clay particles.

8
The coefficient of permeability of soils is generally expressed at a
temperature of 20°C. At any other temperature T, the coefficient
of permeability can be obtained from eq. as

Where

Laboratory and Field Tests

Laboratory Tests
The four most common laboratory methods for
determining the permeability coefficient of soils are the
following:
 Constant head permeability test
 Falling head permeability test
 Indirect determination from consolidation test
 Indirect determination by horizontal capillary test.
Field Tests
There are many useful methods to determine the
permeability coefficient in field such as
 Pumping from wells
 Bore hole test
 Open – end test
 Packer test
 Variable – head tests by means of piezometer observation
well

9
 Laboratory Tests
o Constant head permeability test

This equipment is used for testing the permeability of

granular soils (sands and gravels).
The specimen is constituted in a permeability cell and water
is permitted to flow through the cell using a constant level
tank. Water infiltrated through the specimen is collected
and its volume is measured, either for a specific quantity or
over a period of time.
The head loss is recorded due the variation of water level in
the manometer tubes.

19

20

10
 Total volume of water ,
Q=Avt=A(ki)t
where
Q= volume of water infiltrated through the
specimen
A= Cross-sectional area of soil specimen
t= Time elapsed during infiltration

h
i (hydraulic gradient) (L= height of specimen).
L
h QL
Q  A k  t or k
L A h t

11
o Falling head permeability test
Permeability of clayey and silty soils are
determined using the falling head
permeameters.
Amount of water infiltrated through the
specimen is recorded by monitoring the
rate of decrease in water level in a tube
located over the specimen.
It is essential that soils of very low
permeability are sealed inside the cylinder
to prevent seepage along the sides of the
specimen. Before testing, the specimen
must be completely saturated with water
as the presence of air will restrict the
flow of water.

12
 h dh
qk A  a
L dt
q= Amount of flow
a= Cross section area of tube
A=Cross section area of soil specimen

If the equation is rearranged:

a  L  dh 
dt   
A k  h 
Integrating two sides of the equation above,
a  L  h1 
t ln  or
A  k  h2 
aL h 
k  2.303 log10  1 
At  h2 

Field Tests
o Pumping from wells

26

13
 Empirical Equations For Permeability Coefficient

For the uniform sand of a low coefficient of uniformity, Hazen

(1930) obtained the following definition:
k  c  D10
2
(cm/sec) where,
c is a coefficient ranging between 1 - 1.5
D10 is the effective size (mm.)
Casagrande proposed an equation for fine to medium sands to
obtain the permeability coefficient:
k  1.4e 2 k0.85 where,
k=permeability cofficient of a soil having a void ratio ‘e’
k0.85=permeability cofficient of a soil having a void ratio ‘0.85’

Equivalent Permeability in Stratified Soils

Depending on the nature of the ground, permeability
coefficient may vary through the direction of the flow line in
a soil layer.
For a multi-layer flow in one direction, given varying
permeability coefficient levels, it is required to obtain an
equivalent permeability coefficient (Terzaghi and Peck, 1967).
In a horizontally layered soil, the relationships for
permeability coefficient is given below in vertical and
horizontal directions.
The flow in horizontal and vertical directions of n layered
soil, and their equivalent permeability coefficients are given
in the following figure.

14
 Horizontal direction
H1

H2

H3

Hn

29

Vertical direction

H1
H2

H3

Hn

30

15
 H1 kh1 kv1 kv(eq)
H2 kh2 kv2

H3 kh3 kv3 kh(eq)

1
kh ( eq )  (kh H1  kh2 H 2  kh3 H 3  ....  khN H N )
H 1

H
k v ( eq ) 
 H1   H2   H3   
     .......   H 3 
 kv   kv   kv   kv 
 1   2   3   3 

Water Types in Soil

The water in the soil spaces is named as ground water or
pore water. This water is seperated into two types:
Free water:
Water circulating freely under gravity. (Moving or
stationary)
Effect of gravity - effective stress, capillarity, seepage
Adsorbed water:
The adsorbed water in or on the soil particles due to a
number of forces.
Mechanisms of water adsorption to clay surfaces: hydrogen
bonds, ion hydration, osmosis, dipole attraction...
Two types: Adsorbed water and capillary water.

16
 Water Types in Soil
Adsorbed (hydroscopic) water:
Adsorbed water is the water surrounding the outer zone
of soil grains. This water can be moved away by drying in
the oven. However, this water is adsorbed again if the soil
is left in moist conditions.

Capillary water:
This water is held in the gaps between the surface tension
forces. Does not flow freely.

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17
 Capillarity Event on the Ground
Increase in elevation of the water level in a thin tube
immersed in a container filled with water due to
surface tension forces is imitated by water between
soil grains.

a
Ts
Capillary
hc GWL Region

Ts Saturated
D Region

36

18
 The amount of capillary rise of water in a thin pipe
4  Ts  Cosa
hc 
w d

Ts: surface tension forces (average for water 0.076gr/cm)

a: contact angle (can be zero for a clean glass)

0.304
hc (cm) 
d (cm)

The tensile stresses occur through the capillary zone.

The thickness of capillary zone for several

types of soils

Soil Types Thickness of

Capillary Zone (cm)
Gravel -
Sand 10-100
Silt 100-1000
Clay >1000

19
 Water Seepage Forces and Pressures
In order to examine the seepage forces applied
by water to soil particles passing through ground
a one-dimensional flow problem can be
considered.
h
z.w z.w
z

L
= +
(h+z+L)w (z+L)w h.w

The net buoyancy of the water : (z+L)w.A-A.z.w=L.A.w=V. w

Water seepage force h  w  A h

per unit volume : J   w  i  w
A L L

Stresses due to Flow

Static Situation (No flow)

hw

z At X,
L
X v = whw + satz
soil

u = w (hw + z)
v ' = ' z
40

20
 Stresses due to Flow
Downward Flow

At X,
v = whw + satz flow

… as for static case

u = w hw
u = w hw + w(L-hL)(z/L) hL hw
= w hw + w(z-iz)
z
L
= w (hw+z) - wiz X
soil
Reduction due to flow

v ' = ' z + wiz

u = w (hw+L-hL)
Increase due to flow

Stresses due to Flow

Upward Flow

At X, flow

v = whw + satz hL
… as for static case

u = w hw + w(L+hL)(z/L)
hw u = w h w
= w hw + w(z+iz)
z
L
= w (hw+z) + wiz X
soil
Increase due to flow

v ' = ' z - wiz u = w (hw+L+hL)

42
Reduction due to flow

21
Quick Sand Condition or Boiling
Quick sand condition is a condition of flow, not a type of soil, in which
a vertical upward seepage flow causes floating condition of a particle
in cohesion less soil such as sand and fine gravel.
Quick sand can not support the weight of man or animal and it behaves
like a liquid with a unit weight about twice that of water. A person can
easily float in it with about one third of his body out of quick sand.

43

Quick Sand Condition

If the seepage force is in the opposite direction and
equal to gravitational force, the stability of sandy soils
is lost. This situation is described as quick sand or sand
boiling. If the sum of the forces acting on a soil
element is zero in the vertical direction,

F v  L  A   h  w  A  0

Hydraulic gradient causing quick sand condition :

h   G 1
ic   
L  w 1 e

This value is the critical hydraulic gradient. This value

should never exceed a critical value in slopes and
hydraulic structures ans excavations exposed to seepage.

22
 Quick Condition in Granular Soils

During upward flow, at X:

flow

v =
' ' z - wiz
hL
' 
  wz  i
 w  hw

Critical hydraulic gradient (ic)

z
L
If i > ic, the effective stresses is
X

negative. soil
i.e., no inter-granular contact
& thus failure.
- Quick condition
45

Why quick sand condition not occurs in

cohesive soil and in gravel soil …?

In clays the shear strength of soil does not get reduced to

zero even when the effective stress becomes zero, due to
its cohesion. Hence, quicksand condition does not occur in
clays.
As the pressure of the escaping water exceeds the weight of
the soil and the sand grains are forced apart. The result is
that the sandy soil has no capability to support the load.
BUT
Pebbles or gravelly soils cannot have because it has to exceed
the self weight than those of escaping water weights.

46

23
 Seepage through Soils

 Introduction

Flow is grown by the total head!

Swimming pool Open Channel Filter

hp1 hp1
hp2
hp2
hz1 hT1 hT2 hT1 hT2
hz1 hp2
hz2 hz2 hp2
Datum Datum Datum

47

Objectives

• To obtain pore pressure (stability analysis)

• To calculate flow
• To verify piping conditions

Retaining wall Cofferdam Hydraulic dam

Sheet pile

Drainage pipe

48

24
Type of seepage flow

Confined seepage

Unconfined seepage

(Atkinson 2007)
49

Seepage Theory
Description of ground water flow is based on:
1. Darcy’s Law
2. Continuity Equation – it states that, in any steady state
process, the rate at which mass enters a system is equal
to the rate at which mass leaves the system.
A1.v1.δ1 = A2.v2.δ2
A: Cross section area.
V: velocity
δ: density (it is constant in non
compressible fluid)

50

25
Laplace equation of Continuity:
Is a combination of the equation of continuity and Darcy’s law.
Used when the flow of water is in two directions.

51

Laplace equation of Continuity:

Flow in = Flow out (Continuity equation)
 v   v 
vx dydz  vz dxdy   vx  x dx dydz   vz  z dz dxdy
 x   z 
v x v z
By simplification, we get  0
x z
dh dh
From Darcy’s Law: vx  k x vz  k z
dx dz

Substitute in continuity equation: k x  h  k z  h  0

2 2

x 2 z 2

If soil is isotropic (i.e. kx = kz = k)

 2h  2h
Laplace equation  0
x 2 z 2

52

26
 Laplace equation of Continuity:

This equation governs the steady flow condition for a

given point in the soil mass.
The solution of Laplace partial differential equation can
be by analytical, graphical (flow nets), electrical analog
or numerical (finite differences) methods.

53

Flow Net and Discharge Calculation

•Flow nets are a graphical solution method of Laplace equation

for 2D flow in a homogeneous, isotropic aquifer.
•In an isotropic medium, the continuity equation represents two
orthogonal families of curves:
1. Flow (stream) lines: the line along which a water particle
will travel from upstream to the downstream side in the
permeable soil medium.
2. Equipotential lines: the line along which the potential
(pressure) head at all points is equal.

54

27
Flownet
A network of selected stream lines and equipotential
lines.

concrete dam

curvilinear
square

90º
soil

impervious strata 55

Flow Net and Discharge Calculation

Flownet drawing are based on the following assumptions;

1. Soil is homogeneous.
2. Soil is Isotropic.
3. Soil is fully saturated.
4. No change in potential head with time.
5. Soil and water are incompressible.
6. Flow is laminar and Darcy’s Law is valid.
7. All Boundary conditions are known.

56

28
 Flow Net and Discharge Calculation
Flow net drawing rules:
1. Draw 2-D scale drawing for the system showing the boundary
conditions.
2. Flow lines and equipotentials are always perpendicular (┴) and form
curvilinear "squares".
3. Equipotentials are always normal to an impermeable boundary
4. Flow lines are always parallel to an impermeable boundary.
5. Equipotentials are always parallel to a constant head boundary
6. Flow lines are always normal to a constant head boundary
7. Flow lines aren't parallel to each other except in one dimensional
flow.
8. Each flow channel transmit the same discharge.
9. A flow line not to intersect with another one and the same for
equipotential line.
10. Lines within the net are smooth curves.
11. Make try and error until reaching the best drawing.

57

Flow Net and Discharge Calculation

If the ratio of the sides of the flow element are the same along the
flow channel, then:
1. Rate of flow through the flow channel per unit width perpendicular
to the flow direction is the same.
Δq1 = Δq2 = Δq3 = Δq

2. The potential drop is the same and equal to:

H
h1  h2  h2  h3  h3  h4 
Nd
From Darcy’s Equation, the rate of flow per channel is equal to:
 h  h2   h  h3   h  h4   1 
q   1 l1   2 l2   3 l3  ... 
 q  k H  
 l1   l2   l3   Nd 

If No. of channels is Nf, the total rate of flow through all channels
per unit length will be;
N  Unit: (volume)3/time/length
Q  k H  f  m3 hr, day, m’,50 m,
 Nd  month, year 100m…
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29
 Quantity of Seepage (Q)
# of flow channels
Nf
Q  khL ….per unit length normal to the plane
Nd
# of equipotential drops

head loss from upstream

to downstream
hL

concrete
dam

impervious strata

Heads at a Point X
Total head = hL - # of drops from upstream x h
hL
Elevation head = -z

Pressure head = Total head – Elevation head Nd

hL
datum
TH = hL concrete TH = 0
dam
z

h X

impervious strata

30
 Flow Net and Discharge Calculation
Flow Lines;
No. of flow lines = 4 N.B; ∆q1=∆q2=∆q3 = ∆q
No. of flow
channels= 3 US
Q=∆q1+∆q2+∆q3 = 3∆q

DS

∆q1
• Water head is lost ∆q2
∆q3
along the length of Channel 3
flow line.
• Each two flow lines
form a flow channel.

61

Flow Net and Discharge Calculation

No. of Equipotential
lines = 7
No. of drops (ND) = 6
∆H= H / (ND)
US
H=H1-H2
DS
∆H :The drop H ZER0
in the total
head
between any
∆H :The drop in
two adjacent
the total head
0.5H

between any two

equipotential
adjacent
lines is called
equipotential lines
the potential
is called the
drop.
potential drop.
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31
 Piping in Granular Soils
At the downstream, near the dam,
h
the exit hydraulic gradient iexit 
l

hL

concrete datum
dam l
h = total head drop

soil
impervious strata

Piping in Granular Soils

If iexit exceeds the critical hydraulic gradient (ic), firstly
the soil grains at exit get washed away.
This phenomenon progresses towards the upstream, forming
a free passage of water (“pipe”).

hL

concrete datum
dam

no soil; all water

soil
impervious strata

32
 Piping in Granular Soils
Piping is a very serious problem. It leads to downstream
flooding which can result in loss of lives.

Therefore, provide adequate safety factor against piping.

ic
Fpiping 
iexit
concrete
typically 5-6
dam

soil
impervious strata

Piping Failures
Baldwin Hills Dam after it failed by
piping in 1963. The failure occurred
when a concentrated leak developed
along a crack in the embankment,
eroding the embankment fill and
forming this crevasse. An alarm was
raised about four hours before the
failure and thousands of people were
evacuated from the area below the
dam. The flood that resulted when
the dam failed and the emptied
reservoir caused several millions of
dollars in damage.

66

33
 Piping Failures

Fontenelle Dam, USA (1965)

67

Filters
Used for:
 facilitating drainage
 preventing fines from being washed away

Used in: Filter Materials:

 earth dams  granular soils
 retaining walls  geotextiles

68

34
 Granular Filter Design

granular filter
Two major criteria:
(a) Retention Criteria
- to prevent washing out of fines

 Filter grains must not be too coarse

(b) Permeability Criteria

- to facilitate drainage and thus avoid build-up of

pore pressures

 Filter grains must not be too fine

69

Granular Filter Design

Retention criteria: Permeability criteria:

D15, filter < 5 D85, soil D15, filter > 4 D15, soil

average filter pore size

- after Terzaghi & Peck (1967)

D15, filter < 20 D15, soil

- after US Navy (1971)
D50, filter < 25 D50, soil

GSD Curves for the soil and filter must be parallel

70

35
 Earth Dams

71

Drainage Provisions in Retaining Walls

weep hole

geosynthetics

granular soil

drain pipe

36
73

37