Cite this article Research Article Keywords: recycling & reuse of

Godoy VB, Leon HB, da Silva Carretta M and Consoli NC Paper 1700073 materials/strength & testing of materials/
Improving freeze–thaw durability of recycled asphalt-waste pavements with sodium chloride. Received 10/11/2017; sustainability
Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers – Ground Improvement, Accepted 07/11/2018
https://doi.org/10.1680/jgrim.17.00073
ICE Publishing: All rights reserved

Ground Improvement

Improving freeze–thaw durability

of recycled asphalt-waste pavements
with sodium chloride
&
1 Vinícius Batista Godoy MSc &
4 Nilo Cesar Consoli PhD
PhD candidate, PPGEC, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Professor of Civil Engineering, PPGEC, Universidade Federal do Rio
Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil Grande do Sul, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil (corresponding author:
&
2 Helena Batista Leon MSc consoli@ufrgs.br) (Orcid:0000-0002-6408-451X)
PhD candidate, PPGEC, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul,
Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
&
3 Mariana da Silva Carretta MSc
PhD candidate, PPGEC, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul,
Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil

1 2 3 4

The use of industrial wastes such as coal fly ash (CFA) and carbide lime (CL) can enhance the long-term performance
of recycled asphalt pavements under freeze–thaw conditions as well as reduce consumption of natural resources.
Further improvement of the mechanical properties of such blends can be achieved by adding small quantities of
sodium chloride (NaCl). Blends of recycled asphalt, CFA, CL and sodium chloride were therefore assessed in terms of
their durability to freeze–thaw exposure. Additional splitting tensile tests were performed to evaluate strength
improvements after adding sodium chloride. Specimens were moulded with three different dry unit weights and two
different lime percentages, and cured for 7 d. The accumulated loss of mass was evaluated as a function of the
porosity/lime index, which broadens the applicability of this index by demonstrating it, and influences not only
strength but also long-term performance. The improvement in engineering properties provided by sodium chloride
was found to be related to the formation of mineral phase thomsonite and to sodium chloride acting as a catalyser.

Notation huge quantities of resources employed in such applications,

D50 mean particle diameter which end up generating problems regarding their final dispo-
L lime content (expressed in relation to mass sal. These problems often result in residues being deposited in
of reclaimed asphalt pavement + coal fly ash) inappropriate places, allowing rainfall to carry it to rivers and
Liv volumetric lime content (expressed in relation waterlines. For this reason, studies that analyse the employ-
to the total specimen volume) ability of residue materials generated by various construction
qu unconfined compressive strength activities are of key importance today. Among these materials
qt splitting tensile strength coal fly ash (CFA) and reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) are
R2 coefficient of determination widely studied.
w moisture content (ratio of mass of water to mass
of solids) Brazil, in particular, is estimated to have approximately
γd dry unit weight 32 billion tons of coal available for quarrying (Saldanha et al.,
γs unit weight of solids 2016). Several countries employ the generated CFA for other
η porosity industrial purposes. In the USA, 45% of the CFA is reused
η/Civ porosity/cement index whereas the remaining 55% is temporarily stocked or discarded
η/Liv porosity/lime index (ACAA, 2013). In Europe, 52% of the CFA is reused in indus-
trial activities, 36% is employed in mine recovery and only
1. Introduction 12% is discarded (ECOBA, 2010).
The use of natural materials in geotechnical earthworks such
as embankments, sub-bases and bases of pavements causes RAP is a residue material that results from highway pavement
an important impact on the environment. This is due to the restoration. With the passage of time highway pavements start

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 Ground Improvement
to present defects, such as irregularities on the pavement
surface, holes and cracks. One of the ways to correct these
defects is restoration, which means cutting the old asphalt
pavement and recomposing it with a new asphalt coating. This
operation produces a great amount of residue (FHWA, 2011).
One viable alternative to road maintenance and rehabilitation
is the use of stabilised RAP in the base or subbase layers of a
pavement (Puppala et al., 2011).
Many research studies (Athanasopoulou and Kollaros, 2016;
Beeghly, 2003; Consoli et al., 2011; Kim et al., 2005; Mitchell,
1981; Sharma et al., 2008; Singh and Pani, 2014; TRB, 1987)
highlight that the strength of soil or RAP with addition of fly
ash (FA) is usually not enough to be used as material for
embankments or as the base/sub-base of pavements. For this
reason, the addition of lime in conjunction with FA is usually
employed for better stabilisation.
Despite earlier studies on the strength of FA–lime mixes, few
researchers have studied the effect of salt on soil stabilisation.
Drake and Halliburton (1972) were the first to observe that
the inclusion of salt provoked a catalytic effect on lime–soil
reactions, causing a significant reduction in curing time.
Recently, Saldanha et al. (2016) investigated the addition of
distinct salts (sodium chloride (NaCl), magnesium oxide
(MgO) and potassium permanganate (KMnO4)) in CFA–lime
blends as activators of pozzolanic reactions. Sodium chloride
was found to be the most effective in enhancing unconfined
compressive strength of the aforementioned blends. The
researchers showed that the addition of 1·0% sodium chloride
to the CFA–lime blend provided, after 28 d of curing, higher
unconfined compressive strength than that observed for
CFA–lime with no additives after 90 d of curing. Even though
that study showed the effectiveness of salt in accelerating
pozzolanic reactions and enhancing strength, assessing the
durability of this material is fundamental before employing it
in actual earthworks.
Until now, research involving the improvement of soils with
the materials mentioned above has addressed the mechanical
Table 1. Physical properties of the RAP and CFA samples
Properties
Plasticity index: %
Unit weight of solids: kN/m3
Fine gravel (4·75 mm < diameter < 20 mm): %
Coarse sand (2·00 mm < diameter < 4·75 mm): %
Medium sand (0·425 mm < diameter < 2·00 mm): %
Fine sand (0·075 mm < diameter < 0·425 mm): %
Silt (0·002 mm < diameter < 0·075 mm): %
Clay (diameter < 0·002 mm): %
Mean particle diameter, D50: mm
Unified Soil Classification Systema
a
Standard classification of soils for engineering purposes (ASTM D 2487 (ASTM, 2006))
2
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Improving freeze–thaw durability of
recycled asphalt-waste pavements with
sodium chloride
Godoy, Leon, da Silva Carretta and Consoli
behaviour (unconfined compressive strength, resilient and
dynamic modulus), whereas the durability and long-term per-
formance of compacted RAP-treated industrial wastes has
received less attention. One of the few research studies on this
topic was carried out by Avirneni et al. (2016), who assessed
the loss of mass after wetting–drying cycles on RAPs mixed
with CFA and sodium hydroxide. However, for countries where
the seasons are fairly well defined, such as Brazil with tem-
peratures reaching extremes of about −15°C in winter and over
40°C in summer (INPE, 2017), there is a need to ascertain the
endurance of newly developed blends under severe climate
conditions.
Hence, this research study aims to investigate the performance
of sodium chloride on RAP–CFA –carbide lime (CL) mixtures
under extreme freeze–thaw conditions (cycles reaching −23°C
for 24 h followed by 21°C for 23 h) to assess its potential use
as catalyst in these blends for road embankments and sub-
bases. Additionally, this study seeks to establish possible
relationships between the porosity/lime index (η/Liv) and accu-
mulated loss of mass (ALM) after freeze–thaw cycles for com-
pacted RAP–CFA–lime blends with and without sodium
chloride.
2. Experimental programme
The materials and methods employed in this study are dis-
cussed below.
2.1 Materials
The results of the characterisation tests of the RAP are pre-
sented in Table 1 and its grain-size distribution in Figure 1.
This material was reclaimed from BR 290 highway, which con-
nects the city of Porto Alegre (located in Rio Grande do Sul,
southern Brazil) to the Atlantic Ocean. The bitumen content
(SBS modified – PG 70-22S) found in this recycled aggregate
was about 5·0%, having been determined according to ASTM
(2011a). The unit weight of solids of RAP ( γSRAP ) is
25·1 kN/m3.
RAP CFA
Non-plastic Non-plastic
25·10 20·95
52·0 —
24·0 —
19·0 0·1
5·0 13·5
— 84·1
— 2·3
5·0 0·022
GW (well-graded gravel) ML (silt)
 Ground Improvement
100
RAP
90 CFA
Cumulative percent finer by weight: %
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0 
0·0001 0·001 0·01
Particle size: mm
Figure 1. Grain-size distribution of RAP and CFA
The CFA selected (type F according to ASTM C 618 (ASTM,
2008)) is a residue from thermal power stations. The physical
properties of the CFA are also presented in Table 1 and its
grain-size distribution in Figure 1. The CFA is classified as silt
(ML) according to the Unified Soil Classification System
(ASTM, 2006). X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (XRF) analy-
sis highlighted the main components of the CFA, among
which the following amorphous minerals stand out: silicon
dioxide (SiO2) (64·8%), aluminium oxide (Al2O3) (20·4%),
ferric oxide (Fe2O3) (4·8%) and calcium oxide (CaO) (3·1%).
This FA is classified as non-dangerous, but is also non-inert
(ABNT, 2004) and non-plastic, since some components might
solubilise in water.
The CL, a by-product of the manufacture of acetylene gas,
was used throughout this investigation as the activator and
cementing agent. The determination of calcium oxides estab-
lished 96% of calcium oxide.
The specific gravity of the solids of salt (sodium chloride)
added to the blends is 2·72. Distilled water was employed both
for characterisation tests and moulding specimens for the
mechanical tests.
2.2 Methods
2.2.1 Moulding and curing of specimens
For strength (split tensile) tests, cylindrical specimens measur-
ing 100 mm dia. and 60 mm high were employed. For dura-
bility (freeze–thaw) tests, cylindrical specimens of 100 mm dia.
and 127·5 mm high were utilised. An intended dry unit weight
for each specimen was then defined as a result of the dry com-
pacted RAP–CFA–CL mix divided by the total volume of the
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Improving freeze–thaw durability of
recycled asphalt-waste pavements with
sodium chloride
Godoy, Leon, da Silva Carretta and Consoli
specimen (ASTM, 2009a). The amount of FA used in this
work (25%) falls into the interval suggested by NCHRP (1976)
and was selected taking into account compaction difficulties
found using higher amounts of FA. The amount of 0·5%
sodium chloride used (when appropriate) in the present
research falls into the range determined in a previous study by
Saldanha et al. (2016). As shown in Equation 1 (Consoli et al.,
2018a), porosity (η) is a function of dry unit weight (γd) of all
mix components as well as the salt contents. Each substance
(RAP, CFA, CL and sodium chloride) has a unit weight of
solids (γSRAP , γSFA , γSL , γSNaCl ), which must also be pondered for
calculating porosity.


γd
η ¼100  100
1 þ ðL=100Þ
1: " #)
ðRAP=100Þ ðCFA=100Þ ðL=100Þ ðNaCl=100Þ
þ þ þ
γSRAP γSCFA γSL γSNaCl
0·1 1 10 100
Before testing, specimens were placed underwater for 24 h to
reduce suction (Consoli et al., 2011). The water temperature
was controlled and maintained at 23°C ± 3°C. Specimens con-
taining 25% CFA were moulded with 9% moisture content
(optimum moisture content for modified Proctor compaction
effort (ASTM, 2012)), dry unit weights of 19 kN/m3
(maximum dry unit weight for modified Proctor compaction
effort (ASTM, 2012)), as well as 18 and 17 kN/m3. The type
of compaction has a significant impact on test results (Crispim
et al., 2011). According to Yaghoubi et al. (2018), the influ-
ence of the method of compaction in the laboratory must be
analysed for field applications because there are different tech-
niques for field compaction: static compaction (e.g. smooth-
wheeled rollers), dynamic (e.g. dynamic compaction), vibration
(e.g. vibratory rollers) and kneading (e.g. applying sheep foot)
(Browne, 2006). In this sense, the influence of static compac-
tion applied in this research should be taken into account
when these results are used for field applications.
CL contents of 5 and 7% (determined following international
(Mitchell, 1981) and Brazilian (Consoli et al., 2016a, 2016b)
experience with soil–lime) were used in moulded specimens,
which were cured for 7 d.
The RAP, CFA and CL were weighed and mixed until
the mixture attained visual uniformity. Then, the moisture
content for the blends was supplemented. The amount of
CFA used in this work (25%) falls into the interval suggested
by the National Cooperative Highway Research Program
(NCHRP, 1976) and was selected according to the regional
practice and taking into account compaction difficulties
found using higher amounts of FA. The amount of 0·5%
sodium chloride used (when appropriate) in this research study
falls into the range determined by Saldanha et al. (2016). The
salt added in the mixture was diluted in distilled water.
3
 Ground Improvement Improving freeze–thaw durability of
recycled asphalt-waste pavements with
sodium chloride
Godoy, Leon, da Silva Carretta and Consoli

The quantity of CL for each blend was determined based
on the dry mass of RAP–CFA. Specimens were statically
compacted in three strata in the interior of a cylindrical
mould. Subsequently, specimens were removed from the
moulds and their weights, diameters and heights were
measured with precisions of nearly 0·01 g and 0·1 mm,
correspondingly.
Duplicate samples were moulded for each type of blend; a
total of 16 specimens were moulded for durability tests
(freeze–thaw cycles), eight with salt (sodium chloride) and
eight without salt (sodium chloride) and another 16 specimens
were moulded for strength (split tensile) tests. The proportions
of materials and dry unit weights of moulded specimens are
shown in Table 2, it is important to note that the percentage of
CFA was kept constant (25%) in all mixtures. The specimens
were cured in a humid room at 23 ± 2°C and relative moisture
of about 95% (ASTM, 2013).
2.2.2 Splitting tensile tests
Splitting tensile tests followed standard ASTM C 496 (ASTM,
2011b). An automatic loading frame, with a maximum
capacity of 50 kN and proving rings with a capacity of 10 kN
and resolution of 0·005 kN, was used for the splitting tensile
tests. The rate of displacement adopted was 1·14 mm/min,
following ASTM D 5102 (ASTM, 2009b). As acceptance
criteria, it was stipulated that the individual strength of two
specimens, moulded with the same characteristics, should not
deviate by more than 10% from the mean strength.
2.2.3 Durability tests – freeze–thaw
Durability (freeze–thaw cycles) tests of RAP–CFA–CL
mixtures were carried out according to standard ASTM D 560
(ASTM, 2016). Test procedures determine mass losses pro-
duced by repeated (12) freeze–thaw series followed by brushing
strokes. Every cycle begins by placing the specimens in a freez-
ing cabinet with a constant temperature of −23°C or lower for
24 h, after which they are removed. Next, the assembly is
placed in a moist room with a temperature of 21°C and a
relative humidity of 100% for 23 h, after which it is removed.
After this, the specimens are brushed using a force of
approximately 15 N in such a way that all areas of the speci-
mens are covered twice. As an acceptance criterion, it was sti-
pulated that the individual durability of two specimens,
moulded with the same characteristics, should not deviate by
more than 5% from the mean strength.
3. Results and analysis
3.1 Influence of the porosity/lime index on splitting
tensile strength (qt)
Figure 2 displays the results for splitting tensile strength (qt) of
the specimens in terms of the porosity/lime index η/(Liv)0·11
(quantified as porosity (η) divided by the volumetric lime
content (Liv), the latter expressed as a percentage of CL
volume to the total volume of the specimen (Consoli et al.,
2014, 2018b). Figure 2 indicates that the adjusted porosity/lime
index is helpful in normalising strength results for RAP–
CFA–CL mixtures. Very good correlations can be perceived
concerning η/(Liv)0·11 and qt of the RAP–CFA–CL mixtures
without sodium chloride (R 2 = 0·94 – see Equation 2), and
with sodium chloride (R 2 = 0·93 – see Equation 3).
" #25
η
2: qt ðkPaÞ ¼ 102 100
ðLiv Þ011
" #25
η
3: qtðNaClÞ ðkPaÞ ¼ 120 800
ðLiv Þ011
The adjusted porosity/lime index has been shown by Consoli
et al. (2014, 2016a, 2016b) to be capable of normalising the
strength of lime-treated soils. They have shown that rates of
change of strength with porosity (η) and the inverse of the
volumetric lime content (1/Liv) are as a rule not the same.
Hence, the application of a power, as a rule 0·11 (Consoli
et al., 2014), to Liv is necessary for the rates of η and 1/Liv to
be compatible.

Table 2. Characteristics of each of the moulded specimens

Characteristics of specimens

Specimen CFA: % Sodium chloride: % Lime: % γd: kN/m3

17 kN/m3 – 5% CL – 25% CFA 25 0 5 17

17 kN/m3 – 7% CL – 25% CFA 25 0 7 17
18 kN/m3 – 5% CL – 25% CFA 25 0 5 18
19 kN/m3 – 5% CL – 25% CFA 25 0 5 19
17 kN/m3 – 5% CL – 25% CFA – 0·5% sodium chloride 25 0·5 5 17
17 kN/m3 – 7% CL – 25% CFA – 0·5% sodium chloride 25 0·5 7 17
18 kN/m3 – 5% CL – 25% CFA – 0·5% sodium chloride 25 0·5 5 18
19 kN/m3 – 5% CL – 25% CFA – 0·5% sodium chloride 25 0·5 5 19

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 Ground Improvement Improving freeze–thaw durability of
recycled asphalt-waste pavements with
sodium chloride
Godoy, Leon, da Silva Carretta and Consoli

qt (0·5% Sodium chloride) = 12·08 × 104 [η/(L0·110

iv )]–2·5 → R2 = 0·93 Freeze–thaw cycle
17 kN/m3 – 3% CL – 25% CFA – 0·5% sodium chloride
17 kN/m3 – 5% CL – 25% CFA – 0·5% sodium chloride 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
17 kN/m3 – 7% CL – 25% CFA – 0·5% sodium chloride
0
18 kN/m3 – 5% CL – 25% CFA – 0·5% sodium chloride
19 kN/m3 – 5% C L– 25% CFA – 0·5% sodium chloride
qt (0% Sodium chloride) = 10·21 × 104 [η/(L 0·110
iv )]–2·5 → R2 = 0·94
17 kN/m3 – 3% CL – 25% CFA – 0% sodium chloride 5
140 17 kN/m3 – 5% CL – 25% CFA – 0% sodium chloride
17 kN/m3 – 7% CL – 25% CFA – 0% sodium chloride
18 kN/m3 – 5% CL – 25% CFA – 0% sodium chloride
19 kN/m3 – 5% CL – 25% CFA – 0% sodium chloride
120 10
Split tensile strength, qt : kPa

ALM: %
100
15

80
20
60

25
40 17 kN/m3 – 5% CL – 25% CFA – 0·5% sodium chloride
17 kN/m3 – 7% C L– 25% CFA – 0·5% sodium chloride
30 18 kN/m3 – 5% CL – 25% CFA – 0·5% sodium chloride
20
19 kN/m3 – 5% C L– 25% CFA – 0·5% sodium chloride
14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
17 kN/m3 – 5% CL – 25% CFA – 0% sodium chloride
η/(L 0·11
iv ) 17 kN/m3 – 7% C L– 25% CFA – 0% sodium chloride
Figure 2. Variation of splitting tensile strength (qt) with 18 kN/m3 – 5% CL – 25% CFA – 0% sodium chloride
porosity/lime index for RAP–CFA–CL blends, with and without 19 kN/m3 – 5% C L– 25% CFA – 0% sodium chloride
sodium chloride for 7 d of curing Figure 3. ALM after freeze–thaw cycles considering RAP–CFA–CL
specimens, with and without sodium chloride, moulded with dry
unit weights of 17, 18 and 19 kN/m3, CL contents of 5 and 7%
In Figure 2 it can be observed that insertion of sodium chlor- specimens and 7 d as curing period
ide is effective in enhancing the splitting tensile strength of
RAP–CFA–lime mixtures by 19%. This aspect will be further
explained in the following sections. (18 kN/m3 – 5% CL and 19 kN/m3 – 5% CL), whose improve-
ments were 2·4 and 0·1%, respectively. These findings reveal
3.2 Sensitivity analysis in freeze–thaw durability tests that the addition of a small quantity of salt is highly effective
Performing a sensitivity analysis can help researchers to assess in enhancing the durability of RAP–CFA–CL blends subjected
the individual influence of sodium chloride added to to freeze–thaw exposure.
RAP–CFA–CL blends as well as the influence of compaction
and lime contents. Therefore, this section aims to evaluate how Concerning the increase in compaction energy (and conse-
these components affect the durability of the studied mixtures quently increase in γd), a gain in durability was generally
and which of them play the most important roles. perceived. For the specimens with 5% lime and without
sodium chloride, a relevant increase of 20·6% in durability
Figure 3 presents relations of the mean of duplicate specimens’ caused by compaction can be noticed for the specimen
ALM against the number of freeze–thaw cycles for compacted with γd = 17 kN/m3 when compared to the specimen with
RAP–CFA–lime blends (for a curing period of 7 d) in view of γd = 19 kN/m3. Comparing the specimen γd = 18 kN/m3 with
distinctive dry unit weights (17, 18 and 19 kN/m3) and CL γd = 17 kN/m3, a gain of 18·4% can be observed, while com-
contents (5% and 7%). It can be seen in Figure 3 that the paring γd = 19 kN/m3 with γd = 18 kN/m3 results in a gain
ALM of each specimen is reduced with the increase of CL of 2·2%.
content and with increase in dry unit weight.
The effects of increasing the lime content were also verified.
Comparing the behaviour of specimens without salt to those The increase in durability was observed for specimen
with salt, it can be observed that the most significant gain in γd = 17 kN/m3 – 5% CL without sodium chloride with respect
durability occurs for the specimens with the lowest dry unit to specimen γd = 17 kN/m3 – 7% CL with sodium chloride.
weights 17 kN/m3 – 5% CL and 17 kN/m3 – 7% CL, whose Further research is necessary, extending the study to other lime
improvement is 11·8 and 10·9%, respectively, in durability contents.
after the addition of a small quantity of sodium chloride
(0·5%). It is worth noting that there is no considerable gain The analysis of the aforementioned findings suggests that
in freeze–thaw durability for the more compacted blends increase of compaction is the most effective way of enhancing

5
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 Ground Improvement Improving freeze–thaw durability of
recycled asphalt-waste pavements with
sodium chloride
Godoy, Leon, da Silva Carretta and Consoli

durability of the analysed RAP–CFA–CL mixtures. Sodium ALM (cycle 12) = 1·71 × 10–9 [η/(L iv)0·11]7·5 → R2 = 0·98
chloride inclusions seem to be the second most helpful tech- ALM (cycle 09) = 1·46 × 10–9 [η/(L iv)0·11]7·5 → R2 = 0·99
nique to reduce ALM and therefore to improve durability. The ALM (cycle 06) = 1·30 × 10–9 [η/(L iv)0·11]7·5 → R2 = 0·99
increment of lime content, in turn, caused a less effective ALM (cycle 03) = 1·03 × 10–9 [η/(L iv)0·11]7·5 → R2 = 0·98
increase in specimens’ durability. Although the lime contents Cycle 12
25 Cycle 09
employed were much higher than salt (sodium chloride) con- Cycle 06
tents, the decrease in ALM observed was not as significant as Cycle 03
the decrease verified for the other mixtures. 20

Hence, for the materials’ proportions analysed in this research, 15

ALM: %
the following order of effectiveness in terms of increasing
durability can be stated: compaction > sodium chloride > lime.
10

3.3 Influence of porosity/lime index 5

on freeze–thaw durability
Figure 4(a) exhibits compacted RAP–CFA–CL (without
0
sodium chloride) blends’ ALM against adjusted porosity/lime
14 16 18 20 22 24
index (η/(Liv)0·11) after three (R 2 = 0·98 – see Equation 4), six
η/(L iv)0·11
(R 2 = 0·99 – see Equation 5), nine (R 2 = 0·99 – see Equation 6)
and 12 (R 2 = 0·98 – see Equation 7) freeze–thaw cycles (during (a)
durability tests).
ALM (cycle 12) = 3·66 × 10–7 [η/(L iv)0·11]5·5 → R2 = 0·88
25
" #75 ALM (cycle 09) = 2·91 × 10–7 [η/(L iv)0·11]5·5 → R2 = 0·95
η ALM (cycle 06) = 2·43 × 10–7 [η/(L iv)0·11]5·5 → R2 = 0·96
4: ALMð%Þ ¼ 103  109
ðLiv Þ 011
20 ALM (cycle 03) = 1·84 × 10–7 [η/(L iv)0·11]5·5 → R2 = 0·95
Cycle 12
Cycle 09
Cycle 06
15 Cycle 03
" #75
ALM: %

η
5: ALMð%Þ ¼ 130  109
ðLiv Þ011 10

" #75 5
9 η
6: ALMð%Þ ¼ 146  10
ðLiv Þ011
0
14 16 18 20 22 24
η/(L iv)0·11
" #75
9 η (b)
7: ALMð%Þ ¼ 171  10
ðLiv Þ011 Figure 4. ALM for three, six, nine and 12 cycles against η/(Liv)0·11
of RAP–CFA–CL blends, (a) without and (b) with sodium chloride,
considering distinct dry unit weight (17, 18 and 19 kN/m3) and
CL content (5% and 7%) specimens and 7 d curing period,
subject to freeze–thaw conditions
Similarly, Figure 4(b) exhibits compacted RAP–CFA–CL
(with sodium chloride) blends’ ALM against adjusted
" #55
porosity/lime index (η/(Liv)0·11) after three (R 2 = 0·95 – see η
7
Equation 8), six (R 2 = 0·96 – see Equation 9), nine (R 2 = 0·95 – 9: ALMð%Þ ¼ 243  10
ðLiv Þ011
see Equation 10) and 12 (R 2 = 0·88 – see Equation 11) freeze–
thaw cycles.

" #55 " #55

7 η 7 η
8: ALMð%Þ ¼ 184  10 10: ALMð%Þ ¼ 291  10
ðLiv Þ011 ðLiv Þ011

6
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 Ground Improvement Improving freeze–thaw durability of
recycled asphalt-waste pavements with
sodium chloride
Godoy, Leon, da Silva Carretta and Consoli

" #55 5
7 η ALM/NC (0% sodium chloride) = 3·71 × 10–11 [η/(Liv)0·11]8·00 → R2 = 0·90
11: ALMð%Þ ¼ 366  10
ðLiv Þ011 ALM/NC (0·5% sodium chloride) = 3·44 × 10–8 [η/(Liv)0·11]5·50 → R2 = 0·89
0% sodium chloride
4 0·5% sodium chloride

It is clear in Figures 4(a) and 4(b) that the ALM is controlled

by η/(Liv)0·11 for all cycles in freezing–thawing tests. The exist- 3

ALM/NC: %
ence of such relationships is shown for the first time ever for
compacted RAP–CFA–CL blends, with and without sodium
chloride. Looking at such figures, it can be observed that 2
for the specimens with η/(Liv)0·11 between about 16 and 18
(smaller studied values) the ALM under freezing–thawing con-
1
ditions is practically the same (about 0·1% to 4%) for mixtures
with and without salt after three and 12 cycles. However, for
specimens in which η/(Liv)0·11 is between about 18 and 23·5
0
(larger studied values) the ALM under freezing–thawing con-
14 16 18 20 22 24
ditions varies, from about 15·5 to 24·7%, after three and
η/(Liv)0·11
12 cycles for mixtures without sodium chloride, while it varies
only from about 6·8 to 12·8% for mixtures with sodium Figure 5. ALM divided by the number of durability cycles against
chloride. These results also show that the long-term perform- η/(Liv)0·11 for six, nine and 12 cycles of RAP–CFA–CL blends with
and without sodium chloride
ance compacted RAP–CFA–lime blends is a function of
η/(Liv)0·11 and that such material is more durable with 0·5%
sodium chloride under freezing–thawing conditions.
3500 To
Q
Consoli et al. (2017a) were the first to reveal a power relation- 3000
H
Th: Thomsonite - NaCa2Al5Si4O20(6H2O)
ship between ALM and η/(Civ)0·28 for fibre-reinforced H: Hillebrandite - Ca2(SiO3)(OH)2

cemented gold tailings subjected to wet–dry cycles. The 2500 Q: Quartz

To: Tobermorite
- SiO2
- Ca5Si6O16

researchers also showed that, due to the roughly linear loss 2000
Counts

of mass with the number of cycles (NC), a normalisation

1500
ALM/NC also resulted in a power relation with porosity/
To
cement index. Further research conducted by Consoli et al. 1000 Q Q
Th H Th Th Th
Th
(2017b) confirmed that this normalisation can also be applied H
To Th To To
To To H To Q
To To
Q
To
Q
To
Q
500 Th
H H H To H
to CFA–lime blends subjected to both freeze–thaw and H
H

wet–dry exposure by relating ALM/NC to (η/(Liv)0·11). 0

Figure 5 portrays the aforementioned normalisation for distinct
materials studied here. Good correlations (with R 2 varying
between 0·89 and 0·90) can be perceived for RAP–CFA–CL
blends, with or without sodium chloride. The plots confirm
that addition of salt enhances durability for this kind of
mixture. Furthermore, it can be inferred that the reduction in
ALM due to salt addition is more pronounced for higher
values of η/Liv – that is, for mixtures with higher porosities
(less compaction) and smaller lime contents.
3.4 X-ray diffractometry of CFA–carbide lime blend
To assess the influence of sodium chloride incorporation on
the durability of CFA–lime blends, X-ray diffractometry
(XRD) analyses were carried out in CFA–CL blends with
and without salt. XRD tests without salt detected the
following phases: Ca5Si6O16 (tobermorite), Ca2(SiO3)(OH)2
(hillebrandite) and silicon dioxide (quartz). XRD of CFA–
CL–sodium chloride blends (Figure 6), in turn, indicated the
formation of the following phases: Ca5Si6O16 (tobermorite),
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
2θ : degrees
Figure 6. XRD of CFA–CL blend with sodium chloride
Ca2(SiO3)(OH)2 (hillebrandite) and silicon dioxide (quartz),
as found in blends without sodium chloride, and also
NaCa2Al5Si4O20(6H2O) (thomsonite), a mineral whose hard-
ness is comparable with that of feldspar, glass and cobalt
(Schumann, 2008). It can be inferred, however, that thomsonite
is responsible for the gain in strength, which is directly related
to the gain of durability caused by the addition of sodium
chloride.
Additionally, differential thermal analysis (DTA) was per-
formed in order to identify the presence of further compounds.
Figure 7 depicts DTA curves for the CFA–lime blends (with
and without salt) after 7 d of curing. The DTA thermograms
show endothermic peaks at about 400°C for both mixtures
with and without sodium chloride. These peaks can be attribu-
ted to the decomposition of calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2)

7
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 Ground Improvement
0·05
Without sodium cloride – 7 d
Derivative weight: %/°C
0·04 With sodium cloride – 7 d
0·03
0·02
0·01
0 &
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650
Temperature: °C
Figure 7. Derivative weight thermogravimetry (DTA) of CFA–CL
(with and without sodium chloride) blends for 7 d of curing
(Rojas and Cabrera, 2002). The curves also show the formation
of calcium silicates and aluminates at around 100°C as well as
calcium carbonate at around 600°C (Rojas and Cabrera,
2002). It can be perceived that for the blend containing
sodium chloride the amount of calcium hydroxide is much
smaller, while the formation of calcium silicates and alumi-
nates, as well as calcium carbonate are much more pro-
nounced, suggesting that sodium chloride is acting as a
catalyser. Indeed, it can be inferred that the strength increases
as the effect of sodium chloride incorporation on RAP–CFA–
CL blends is caused by its function as a catalyser and by the
development of the phase thomsonite. Since strength and dura-
bility were shown to be closely related (i.e. specimens with
higher qt presented lower ALM – therefore higher durability),
both the catalytic effect and the formation of the phase thom-
sonite attributed to sodium chloride can be indicated as
responsible for the gain in freeze–thaw durability.
4. Concluding remarks
From the studies described in this paper, the following con-
clusions can be drawn.
& The ALM (long-term performance) of freeze–thaw
cycles of compacted RAP–CFA–CL blends was
observed to be directly associated with the adjusted
porosity/lime index.
& The porosity/lime index is an important factor governing
strength and endurance of the compacted RAP–CFA–CL
blends.
& The inclusion of sodium chloride enhanced splitting tensile
strength (qt) in relation to RAP–CFA–CL mixtures by
about 20%.
& The addition of 0·5% sodium chloride in RAP–CFA–CL
mixtures increased durability to freeze–thaw exposure by
up to 11·8%. The enhancement caused by sodium chloride
was observed for distinct dry unit weights and lime
contents.
8
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Improving freeze–thaw durability of
recycled asphalt-waste pavements with
sodium chloride
Godoy, Leon, da Silva Carretta and Consoli
& For the specimens studied with η/(Liv)0·11 between about
16 and 18 (smaller studied values) the ALM is practically
the same for mixtures with and without salt under
freezing–thawing conditions. However, for specimens in
which η/(Liv)0·11 is between about 18 and 23·5 (larger
studied values), the ALM of specimens containing sodium
chloride significantly decreased.
& A sensitivity analysis showed the following order of
effectiveness in boosting durability of RAP–FA–lime
blends: compaction > sodium chloride > lime.
The gain in strength and durability provided by sodium
chloride inclusion can be attributed to the formation of the
phase thomsonite (NaCa2Al5Si4O20(6H2O)) as well as the
sodium chloride acting as a catalyser.
& The ALM (long-term performance) normalised by
the number of freeze–thaw cycles (NC) of compacted
RAP–CFA–CL blends with or without salt was originally
perceived to be directly associated with the adjusted
porosity/lime index (η/(Liv)0·11).
Acknowledgements
The authors express their gratitude to Edital 12/2014
FAPERGS/CNPq – PRONEX (project 16/2551-0000469-2)
and CNPq (INCT-REAGEO and Produtividade em Pesquisa)
and CAPES for funding the research group.
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