PHRASEOLOGY studies different types of set expressions (phraseological units, phrasal verbs and

other types of multi-word lexical units) which - like words- name various objects and phenomena. The
object (and the key concept) of phraseology is the notion of idioms, or phraseological unit.

Idioms are words, phrases, or expressions that are either grammatically unusual, as in “Long time, no
see!”, or their meaning cannot be taken literally, as in “It's raining cats and dogs!” (this expression does
not mean that cats and dogs are falling from the sky, but it is a metaphorical expression that means that
it is raining very heavily). Idioms are fixed combinations of words whose meaning is often difficult to
guess from the meaning of each individual word.
Features of Idioms
• Idioms may be completely or partially fixed (unchangeable or changeable)- it is important when
using idioms to know just how flexible their grammar is. Some are more fixed than others. For
instance, barking up the wrong tree [be mistaken] is always used in continuous, not simple
form, e.g. I think you're barking up the wrong tree.
• They are rather informal; however, idioms are also used in more formal contexts, such as
lectures, academic essays and business reports, e.g. It is hoped the rules will open the door to
better management. [let something new start]
• They include an element of personal comment on people or on a situation,
e.g. Did you hear Tom has been invited for dinner with the prime minister? He’s certainly gone up in
the world! [gained a better social position – or more money – than before];
The new finance minister wants to knock the economy into shape. [take action to get something
into a good condition]
• They are used for emphasis: e.g. The singer’s second album sank like a stone. [failed
completely; or to catch the reader’s eye. Idioms – particularly those with strong images – are
often used in headlines, advertising slogans and the names of small businesses. The writer may
play with the idiom or make a pun (a joke involving a play on words) in order to create a special
effect, e.g. a debt of dishonour instead of the usual debt of honour. [a debt that you owe
someone for moral rather than financial reasons]
• They are sometimes humorous or ironic
• They can be motivated or non-motivated
• They may be based on alliteration and contrast (now or never, to kill or to care), on
synonymy (by leaps and bounds), on rhyme (fair and square)

Classification of Idioms

A. Classification based on motivation

B. Classification based on function
C. Classification under various domains/ fields of activity
A. Classification based on motivation*
*Motivation is the association between form and meaning; it refers to the existence or not of
motivational links - information that motivate the meaning of a lexical item (to motivate = “to make
sense of something” or “to explain something”)
Form: halcyon days
Meaning:"calm days"
Motivational link: Referring to the ancient belief that a kingfisher (a waterbird whose Greek name
is halcyon) laid its eggs on the sea during а 14-day period of calm and good weather
1. Completely non-motivated idioms/phraseological units (completely idiomatic) - the meaning of the
phraseological unit is NOT the sum of the meanings of its component elements => cannot be literally
translated: to beat about the bush
2. Partially non-motivated (partially idiomatic) - the meaning of the phraseological unit is not a sum
of the meanings of its components but it is based on them => we can guess the general meaning: to fish
in troubled waters, all of a sudden
3. Clearly motivated - words retain their complete semantic independence although they are limited in
combinative power: as sweet as honey, to run a risk
B. Classification based on function
• Phraseological units may function as:
nouns: skeleton in the cupboard;
verbs: to make eyes at...;
adjectives: as meek as a lamb;
adverbs: once in a blue moon;
prepositions: in spite of

C.Classification under various semantic fields (this kind of classification takes into account the field
from which the headword is taken)
e.g.:
• Banking: open/close a bank account; take out a loan; pay in cash
• Business: a business runs at a profit or runs at a loss; a single person who runs a business is a
sole trader
• Buying and selling: shop around =compare prices at different shops; go window-shopping =
you only look at the goods in the shop window; buy in bulk = you buy in large quantities at a
cheaper price
• Politics and Law: be in power; hold office; be defeated/ rejected/ thrown out;win/lose a seat
• Telephoning: give someone a ring; make a business call; get through; hold the line
• Health, Illness: catch a cold; catch a disease
• Animals: a dog's life; (as) blind as a bat; crocodile tears; look a gift horse in the mouth
• Parts of the body: keep a straight face; live from hand to mouth; mind your eye; save one’s neck
• Colours: in black and white; green with envy; have green fingers; as white as a sheet; a white lie
• Clothes: fit someone like a glove; cap in hand
• Time: day by day; be on time; kill time; keep up with the times

Proverbs are ‘special, fixed, unchanged phrases which have special, fixed, unchanged meanings’.
They differ from idioms in that they display shared cultural wisdom
Features:
• brevity, orality, traditionality
• ambiguity and generalization
• anonymous, collective creations
• fixed form, didactic value
• humorous and amusing
Speakers tend to use proverbs to comment on a situation, often at the end of a true story someone has
told, or in response to some event. As with all idiomatic expressions, they are useful and enjoyable to
know and understand, but should be used with care.

Examples:
• A watched pot never boils. (things you look forward to seem to take a long time to happen)
• You live, and you learn. (mistakes can teach useful lessons)
• Don’t bite the hand that feeds you. (don’t hurt those who take care of you, or they may not want
to take care of you anymore)
• Nothing ventured, nothing gained (you can’t expect to achieve something if you never even try
to do it)
• The early bird catches the worm (if you start something early, you have a better chance of
succeeding at it)