Chapter 1

SETS
vIn these days of conflict between ancient and modern studies; there
must surely be something to be said for a study which did not
begin with Pythagoras and will not end with Einstein; but
is the oldest and the youngest. — G.H. HARDY v

1.1 Introduction
The concept of set serves as a fundamental part of the
present day mathematics. Today this concept is being used
in almost every branch of mathematics. Sets are used to
define the concepts of relations and functions. The study of
geometry, sequences, probability, etc. requires the knowledge
of sets.
The theory of sets was developed by German
mathematician Georg Cantor (1845-1918). He first
encountered sets while working on “problems on trigonometric
series”. In this Chapter, we discuss some basic definitions
Georg Cantor
and operations involving sets. (1845-1918)
1.2 Sets and their Representations
In everyday life, we often speak of collections of objects of a particular kind, such as,
a pack of cards, a crowd of people, a cricket team, etc. In mathematics also, we come
across collections, for example, of natural numbers, points, prime numbers, etc. More
specially, we examine the following collections:
(i) Odd natural numbers less than 10, i.e., 1, 3, 5, 7, 9
(ii) The rivers of India
(iii) The vowels in the English alphabet, namely, a, e, i, o, u
(iv) Various kinds of triangles
(v) Prime factors of 210, namely, 2,3,5 and 7
(vi) The solution of the equation: x2 – 5x + 6 = 0, viz, 2 and 3.
We note that each of the above example is a well-defined collection of objects in

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the sense that we can definitely decide whether a given particular object belongs to a
given collection or not. For example, we can say that the river Nile does not belong to
the collection of rivers of India. On the other hand, the river Ganga does belong to this
colleciton.
We give below a few more examples of sets used particularly in mathematics, viz.
N : the set of all natural numbers
Z : the set of all integers
Q : the set of all rational numbers
R : the set of real numbers
Z+ : the set of positive integers
Q+ : the set of positive rational numbers, and
R + : the set of positive real numbers.
The symbols for the special sets given above will be referred to throughout
this text.
Again the collection of five most renowned mathematicians of the world is not
well-defined, because the criterion for determining a mathematician as most renowned
may vary from person to person. Thus, it is not a well-defined collection.
We shall say that a set is a well-defined collection of objects.
The following points may be noted :
(i) Objects, elements and members of a set are synonymous terms.
(ii) Sets are usually denoted by capital letters A, B, C, X, Y, Z, etc.
(iii) The elements of a set are represented by small letters a, b, c, x, y, z, etc.
If a is an element of a set A, we say that “ a belongs to A” the Greek symbol ∈
(epsilon) is used to denote the phrase ‘belongs to’. Thus, we write a ∈ A. If ‘b’ is not
an element of a set A, we write b ∉ A and read “b does not belong to A”.
Thus, in the set V of vowels in the English alphabet, a ∈ V but b ∉ V. In the set
P of prime factors of 30, 3 ∈ P but 15 ∉ P.
There are two methods of representing a set :
(i) Roster or tabular form
(ii) Set-builder form.
(i) In roster form, all the elements of a set are listed, the elements are being separated
by commas and are enclosed within braces { }. For example, the set of all even
positive integers less than 7 is described in roster form as {2, 4, 6}. Some more
examples of representing a set in roster form are given below :
(a) The set of all natural numbers which divide 42 is {1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 14, 21, 42}.

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ANote In roster form, the order in which the elements are listed is immaterial.
Thus, the above set can also be represented as {1, 3, 7, 21, 2, 6, 14, 42}.
(b) The set of all vowels in the English alphabet is {a, e, i, o, u}.
(c) The set of odd natural numbers is represented by {1, 3, 5, . . .}. The dots
tell us that the list of odd numbers continue indefinitely.

A Note It may be noted that while writing the set in roster form an element is not
generally repeated, i.e., all the elements are taken as distinct. For example, the set
of letters forming the word ‘SCHOOL’ is { S, C, H, O, L} or {H, O, L, C, S}. Here,
the order of listing elements has no relevance.
(ii) In set-builder form, all the elements of a set possess a single common property
which is not possessed by any element outside the set. For example, in the set
{a, e, i, o, u}, all the elements possess a common property, namely, each of them
is a vowel in the English alphabet, and no other letter possess this property. Denoting
this set by V, we write
V = {x : x is a vowel in English alphabet}
It may be observed that we describe the element of the set by using a symbol x
(any other symbol like the letters y, z, etc. could be used) which is followed by a colon
“ : ”. After the sign of colon, we write the characteristic property possessed by the
elements of the set and then enclose the whole description within braces. The above
description of the set V is read as “the set of all x such that x is a vowel of the English
alphabet”. In this description the braces stand for “the set of all”, the colon stands for
“such that”. For example, the set
A = {x : x is a natural number and 3 < x < 10} is read as “the set of all x such that
x is a natural number and x lies between 3 and 10.” Hence, the numbers 4, 5, 6,
7, 8 and 9 are the elements of the set A.
If we denote the sets described in (a), (b) and (c) above in roster form by A, B,
C, respectively, then A, B, C can also be represented in set-builder form as follows:
A= {x : x is a natural number which divides 42}
B= {y : y is a vowel in the English alphabet}
C= {z : z is an odd natural number}
Example 1 Write the solution set of the equation x2 + x – 2 = 0 in roster form.
Solution The given equation can be written as
(x – 1) (x + 2) = 0, i. e., x = 1, – 2
Therefore, the solution set of the given equation can be written in roster form as {1, – 2}.
Example 2 Write the set {x : x is a positive integer and x2 < 40} in the roster form.

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Solution The required numbers are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. So, the given set in the roster form
is {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.
Example 3 Write the set A = {1, 4, 9, 16, 25, . . . }in set-builder form.
Solution We may write the set A as
A = {x : x is the square of a natural number}
Alternatively, we can write
A = {x : x = n2, where n ∈ N}

1 2 3 4 5 6
Example 4 Write the set { , , , , , } in the set-builder form.
2 3 4 5 6 7
Solution We see that each member in the given set has the numerator one less than
the denominator. Also, the numerator begin from 1 and do not exceed 6. Hence, in the
set-builder form the given set is
 n 
x : x = , where n is a natural number and 1 ≤ n ≤ 6 
 n +1 
Example 5 Match each of the set on the left described in the roster form with the
same set on the right described in the set-builder form :
(i) {P, R, I, N, C, A, L} (a) { x : x is a positive integer and is a divisor of 18}
(ii) { 0 } (b) { x : x is an integer and x2 – 9 = 0}
(iii) {1, 2, 3, 6, 9, 18} (c) {x : x is an integer and x + 1= 1}
(iv) {3, –3} (d) {x : x is a letter of the word PRINCIPAL}
Solution Since in (d), there are 9 letters in the word PRINCIPAL and two letters P and I
are repeated, so (i) matches (d). Similarly, (ii) matches (c) as x + 1 = 1 implies
x = 0. Also, 1, 2 ,3, 6, 9, 18 are all divisors of 18 and so (iii) matches (a). Finally, x2 – 9 = 0
implies x = 3, –3 and so (iv) matches (b).

EXERCISE 1.1
1. Which of the following are sets ? Justify your answer.
(i) The collection of all the months of a year beginning with the letter J.
(ii) The collection of ten most talented writers of India.
(iii) A team of eleven best-cricket batsmen of the world.
(iv) The collection of all boys in your class.
(v) The collection of all natural numbers less than 100.
(vi) A collection of novels written by the writer Munshi Prem Chand.
(vii) The collection of all even integers.

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(viii) The collection of questions in this Chapter.

(ix) A collection of most dangerous animals of the world.
2. Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}. Insert the appropriate symbol ∈ or ∉ in the blank
spaces:
(i) 5. . .A (ii) 8 . . . A (iii) 0. . .A
(iv) 4. . . A (v) 2. . .A (vi) 10. . .A
3. Write the following sets in roster form:
(i) A = {x : x is an integer and –3 ≤ x < 7}
(ii) B = {x : x is a natural number less than 6}
(iii) C = {x : x is a two-digit natural number such that the sum of its digits is 8}
(iv) D = {x : x is a prime number which is divisor of 60}
(v) E = The set of all letters in the word TRIGONOMETRY
(vi) F = The set of all letters in the word BETTER
4. Write the following sets in the set-builder form :
(i) (3, 6, 9, 12} (ii) {2,4,8,16,32} (iii) {5, 25, 125, 625}
(iv) {2, 4, 6, . . .} (v) {1,4,9, . . .,100}
5. List all the elements of the following sets :
(i) A = {x : x is an odd natural number}
1 9
(ii) B = {x : x is an integer, – <x< }
2 2
(iii) C = {x : x is an integer, x2 ≤ 4}
(iv) D = {x : x is a letter in the word “LOYAL”}
(v) E = {x : x is a month of a year not having 31 days}
(vi) F = {x : x is a consonant in the English alphabet which precedes k }.
6. Match each of the set on the left in the roster form with the same set on the right
described in set-builder form:
(i) {1, 2, 3, 6} (a) {x : x is a prime number and a divisor of 6}
(ii) {2, 3} (b) {x : x is an odd natural number less than 10}
(iii) {M,A,T,H,E,I,C,S} (c) {x : x is natural number and divisor of 6}
(iv) {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} (d) {x : x is a letter of the word MATHEMATICS}.
1.3 The Empty Set
Consider the set
A = { x : x is a student of Class XI presently studying in a school }
We can go to the school and count the number of students presently studying in
Class XI in the school. Thus, the set A contains a finite number of elements.
We now write another set B as follows:

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B = { x : x is a student presently studying in both Classes X and XI }

We observe that a student cannot study simultaneously in both Classes X and XI.
Thus, the set B contains no element at all.
Definition 1 A set which does not contain any element is called the empty set or the
null set or the void set.
According to this definition, B is an empty set while A is not an empty set. The
empty set is denoted by the symbol φ or { }.
We give below a few examples of empty sets.
(i) Let A = {x : 1 < x < 2, x is a natural number}. Then A is the empty set,
because there is no natural number between 1 and 2.
(ii) B = {x : x2 – 2 = 0 and x is rational number}. Then B is the empty set because
the equation x2 – 2 = 0 is not satisfied by any rational value of x.
(iii) C = {x : x is an even prime number greater than 2}.Then C is the empty set,
because 2 is the only even prime number.
(iv) D = { x : x2 = 4, x is odd }. Then D is the empty set, because the equation
x2 = 4 is not satisfied by any odd value of x.
1.4 Finite and Infinite Sets
Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, B = {a, b, c, d, e, g}
and C = { men living presently in different parts of the world}
We observe that A contains 5 elements and B contains 6 elements. How many elements
does C contain? As it is, we do not know the number of elements in C, but it is some
natural number which may be quite a big number. By number of elements of a set S,
we mean the number of distinct elements of the set and we denote it by n (S). If n (S)
is a natural number, then S is non-empty finite set.
Consider the set of natural numbers. We see that the number of elements of this
set is not finite since there are infinite number of natural numbers. We say that the set
of natural numbers is an infinite set. The sets A, B and C given above are finite sets
and n(A) = 5, n(B) = 6 and n(C) = some finite number.
Definition 2 A set which is empty or consists of a definite number of elements is
called finite otherwise, the set is called infinite.
Consider some examples :
(i) Let W be the set of the days of the week. Then W is finite.
(ii) Let S be the set of solutions of the equation x2 –16 = 0. Then S is finite.
(iii) Let G be the set of points on a line. Then G is infinite.
When we represent a set in the roster form, we write all the elements of the set
within braces { }. It is not possible to write all the elements of an infinite set within
braces { } because the numbers of elements of such a set is not finite. So, we represent

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some infinite set in the roster form by writing a few elements which clearly indicate the
structure of the set followed ( or preceded ) by three dots.
For example, {1, 2, 3 . . .} is the set of natural numbers, {1, 3, 5, 7, . . .} is the set
of odd natural numbers, {. . .,–3, –2, –1, 0,1, 2 ,3, . . .} is the set of integers. All these
sets are infinite.

A Note All infinite sets cannot be described in the roster form. For example, the
set of real numbers cannot be described in this form, because the elements of this
set do not follow any particular pattern.
Example 6 State which of the following sets are finite or infinite :
(i) {x : x ∈ N and (x – 1) (x –2) = 0}
(ii) {x : x ∈ N and x2 = 4}
(iii) {x : x ∈ N and 2x –1 = 0}
(iv) {x : x ∈ N and x is prime}
(v) {x : x ∈ N and x is odd}
Solution (i) Given set = {1, 2}. Hence, it is finite.
(ii) Given set = {2}. Hence, it is finite.
(iii) Given set = φ. Hence, it is finite.
(iv) The given set is the set of all prime numbers and since set of prime
numbers is infinite. Hence the given set is infinite
(v) Since there are infinite number of odd numbers, hence, the given set is
infinite.
1.5 Equal Sets
Given two sets A and B, if every element of A is also an element of B and if every
element of B is also an element of A, then the sets A and B are said to be equal.
Clearly, the two sets have exactly the same elements.
Definition 3 Two sets A and B are said to be equal if they have exactly the same
elements and we write A = B. Otherwise, the sets are said to be unequal and we write
A ≠ B.
We consider the following examples :
(i) Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {3, 1, 4, 2}. Then A = B.
(ii) Let A be the set of prime numbers less than 6 and P the set of prime factors
of 30. Then A and P are equal, since 2, 3 and 5 are the only prime factors of
30 and also these are less than 6.

ANote A set does not change if one or more elements of the set are repeated.
For example, the sets A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {2, 2, 1, 3, 3} are equal, since each

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element of A is in B and vice-versa. That is why we generally do not repeat any

element in describing a set.
Example 7 Find the pairs of equal sets, if any, give reasons:
A = {0}, B = {x : x > 15 and x < 5},
C = {x : x – 5 = 0 }, D = {x: x2 = 25},
E = {x : x is an integral positive root of the equation x2 – 2x –15 = 0}.
Solution Since 0 ∈ A and 0 does not belong to any of the sets B, C, D and E, it
follows that, A ≠ B, A ≠ C, A ≠ D, A ≠ E.
Since B = φ but none of the other sets are empty. Therefore B ≠ C, B ≠ D
and B ≠ E. Also C = {5} but –5 ∈ D, hence C ≠ D.
Since E = {5}, C = E. Further, D = {–5, 5} and E = {5}, we find that, D ≠ E.
Thus, the only pair of equal sets is C and E.
Example 8 Which of the following pairs of sets are equal? Justify your answer.
(i) X, the set of letters in “ALLOY” and B, the set of letters in “LOYAL”.
(ii) A = {n : n ∈ Z and n2 ≤ 4} and B = {x : x ∈ R and x2 – 3x + 2 = 0}.
Solution (i) We have, X = {A, L, L, O, Y}, B = {L, O, Y, A, L}. Then X and B are
equal sets as repetition of elements in a set do not change a set. Thus,
X = {A, L, O, Y} = B
(ii) A = {–2, –1, 0, 1, 2}, B = {1, 2}. Since 0 ∈ A and 0 ∉ B, A and B are not equal sets.

EXERCISE 1.2
1. Which of the following are examples of the null set
(i) Set of odd natural numbers divisible by 2
(ii) Set of even prime numbers
(iii) { x : x is a natural numbers, x < 5 and x > 7 }
(iv) { y : y is a point common to any two parallel lines}
2. Which of the following sets are finite or infinite
(i) The set of months of a year
(ii) {1, 2, 3, . . .}
(iii) {1, 2, 3, . . .99, 100}
(iv) The set of positive integers greater than 100
(v) The set of prime numbers less than 99
3. State whether each of the following set is finite or infinite:
(i) The set of lines which are parallel to the x-axis
(ii) The set of letters in the English alphabet
(iii) The set of numbers which are multiple of 5

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(iv) The set of animals living on the earth

(v) The set of circles passing through the origin (0,0)
4. In the following, state whether A = B or not:
(i) A = { a, b, c, d } B = { d, c, b, a }
(ii) A = { 4, 8, 12, 16 } B = { 8, 4, 16, 18}
(iii) A = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10} B = { x : x is positive even integer and x ≤ 10}
(iv) A = { x : x is a multiple of 10}, B = { 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, . . . }
5. Are the following pair of sets equal ? Give reasons.
(i) A = {2, 3}, B = {x : x is solution of x2 + 5x + 6 = 0}
(ii) A = { x : x is a letter in the word FOLLOW}
B = { y : y is a letter in the word WOLF}
6. From the sets given below, select equal sets :
A = { 2, 4, 8, 12}, B = { 1, 2, 3, 4}, C = { 4, 8, 12, 14}, D = { 3, 1, 4, 2}
E = {–1, 1}, F = { 0, a}, G = {1, –1}, H = { 0, 1}
1.6 Subsets
Consider the sets : X = set of all students in your school, Y = set of all students in your
class.
We note that every element of Y is also an element of X; we say that Y is a subset
of X. The fact that Y is subset of X is expressed in symbols as Y ⊂ X. The symbol ⊂
stands for ‘is a subset of’ or ‘is contained in’.
Definition 4 A set A is said to be a subset of a set B if every element of A is also an
element of B.
In other words, A ⊂ B if whenever a ∈ A, then a ∈ B. It is often convenient to
use the symbol “⇒” which means implies. Using this symbol, we can write the definiton
of subset as follows:
A ⊂ B if a ∈ A ⇒ a ∈ B
We read the above statement as “A is a subset of B if a is an element of A
implies that a is also an element of B”. If A is not a subset of B, we write A ⊄ B.
We may note that for A to be a subset of B, all that is needed is that every
element of A is in B. It is possible that every element of B may or may not be in A. If
it so happens that every element of B is also in A, then we shall also have B ⊂ A. In this
case, A and B are the same sets so that we have A ⊂ B and B ⊂ A ⇔ A = B, where
“⇔” is a symbol for two way implications, and is usually read as if and only if (briefly
written as “iff”).
It follows from the above definition that every set A is a subset of itself, i.e.,
A ⊂ A. Since the empty set φ has no elements, we agree to say that φ is a subset of
every set. We now consider some examples :

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(i) The set Q of rational numbers is a subset of the set R of real numbes, and
we write Q ⊂ R.
(ii) If A is the set of all divisors of 56 and B the set of all prime divisors of 56,
then B is a subset of A and we write B ⊂ A.
(iii) Let A = {1, 3, 5} and B = {x : x is an odd natural number less than 6}. Then
A ⊂ B and B ⊂ A and hence A = B.
(iv) Let A = { a, e, i, o, u} and B = { a, b, c, d}. Then A is not a subset of B,
also B is not a subset of A.
Let A and B be two sets. If A ⊂ B and A ≠ B , then A is called a proper subset
of B and B is called superset of A. For example,
A = {1, 2, 3} is a proper subset of B = {1, 2, 3, 4}.
If a set A has only one element, we call it a singleton set. Thus,{ a } is a
singleton set.
Example 9 Consider the sets
φ, A = { 1, 3 }, B = {1, 5, 9}, C = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}.
Insert the symbol ⊂ or ⊄ between each of the following pair of sets:
(i) φ . . . B (ii) A . . . B (iii) A . . . C (iv) B . . . C
Solution (i) φ ⊂ B as φ is a subset of every set.
(ii) A ⊄ B as 3 ∈ A and 3 ∉ B
(iii) A ⊂ C as 1, 3 ∈ A also belongs to C
(iv) B ⊂ C as each element of B is also an element of C.
Example 10 Let A = { a, e, i, o, u} and B = { a, b, c, d}. Is A a subset of B ? No.
(Why?). Is B a subset of A? No. (Why?)
Example 11 Let A, B and C be three sets. If A ∈ B and B ⊂ C, is it true that
A ⊂ C?. If not, give an example.
Solution No. Let A = {1}, B = {{1}, 2} and C = {{1}, 2, 3}. Here A ∈ B as A = {1}
and B ⊂ C. But A ⊄ C as 1 ∈ A and 1 ∉ C.
Note that an element of a set can never be a subset of itself.
1.6.1 Subsets of set of real numbers
As noted in Section 1.6, there are many important subsets of R. We give below the
names of some of these subsets.
The set of natural numbers N = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, . . .}
The set of integers Z = {. . ., –3, –2, –1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .}
p
The set of rational numbers Q = { x : x = , p, q ∈ Z and q ≠ 0}
q

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p
which is read “ Q is the set of all numbers x such that x equals the quotient
q , where
p and q are integers and q is not zero”. Members of Q include –5 (which can be
5 5 1 7 11
expressed as – ) , , 3 (which can be expressed as ) and – .
1 7 2 2 3
The set of irrational numbers, denoted by T, is composed of all other real numbers.
Thus T = {x : x ∈ R and x ∉ Q}, i.e., all real numbers that are not rational.
Members of T include 2 , 5 and π .
Some of the obvious relations among these subsets are:
N ⊂ Z ⊂ Q, Q ⊂ R, T ⊂ R, N ⊄ T.
1.6.2 Intervals as subsets of R Let a, b ∈ R and a < b. Then the set of real numbers
{ y : a < y < b} is called an open interval and is denoted by (a, b). All the points
between a and b belong to the open interval (a, b) but a, b themselves do not belong to
this interval.
The interval which contains the end points also is called closed interval and is
denoted by [ a, b ]. Thus
[ a, b ] = {x : a ≤ x ≤ b}
We can also have intervals closed at one end and open at the other, i.e.,
[ a, b ) = {x : a ≤ x < b} is an open interval from a to b, including a but excluding b.
( a, b ] = { x : a < x ≤ b } is an open interval from a to b including b but excluding a.
These notations provide an alternative way of designating the subsets of set of
real numbers. For example , if A = (–3, 5) and B = [–7, 9], then A ⊂ B. The set [ 0, ∞)
defines the set of non-negative real numbers, while set ( – ∞, 0 ) defines the set of
negative real numbers. The set ( – ∞, ∞ ) describes the set of real numbers in relation
to a line extending from – ∞ to ∞.
On real number line, various types of intervals described above as subsets of R,
are shown in the Fig 1.1.

Fig 1.1

Here, we note that an interval contains infinitely many points.

For example, the set {x : x ∈ R, –5 < x ≤ 7}, written in set-builder form, can be
written in the form of interval as (–5, 7] and the interval [–3, 5) can be written in set-
builder form as {x : –3 ≤ x < 5}.

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The number (b – a) is called the length of any of the intervals (a, b), [a, b],
[a, b) or (a, b].
1.7 Power Set
Consider the set {1, 2}. Let us write down all the subsets of the set {1, 2}. We
know that φ is a subset of every set . So, φ is a subset of {1, 2}. We see that {1}
and { 2 }are also subsets of {1, 2}. Also, we know that every set is a subset of
itself. So, { 1, 2 } is a subset of {1, 2}. Thus, the set { 1, 2 } has, in all, four
subsets, viz. φ, { 1 }, { 2 } and { 1, 2 }. The set of all these subsets is called the
power set of { 1, 2 }.
Definition 5 The collection of all subsets of a set A is called the power set of A. It is
denoted by P(A). In P(A), every element is a set.
Thus, as in above, if A = { 1, 2 }, then
P( A ) = { φ,{ 1 }, { 2 }, { 1,2 }}
Also, note that n [ P (A) ] = 4 = 22
In general, if A is a set with n(A) = m, then it can be shown that
n [ P(A)] = 2m.
1.8 Universal Set
Usually, in a particular context, we have to deal with the elements and subsets of a
basic set which is relevant to that particular context. For example, while studying the
system of numbers, we are interested in the set of natural numbers and its subsets such
as the set of all prime numbers, the set of all even numbers, and so forth. This basic set
is called the “Universal Set”. The universal set is usually denoted by U, and all its
subsets by the letters A, B, C, etc.
For example, for the set of all integers, the universal set can be the set of rational
numbers or, for that matter, the set R of real numbers. For another example, in human
population studies, the universal set consists of all the people in the world.

EXERCISE 1.3
1. Make correct statements by filling in the symbols ⊂ or ⊄ in the blank spaces :
(i) { 2, 3, 4 } . . . { 1, 2, 3, 4,5 } (ii) { a, b, c } . . . { b, c, d }
(iii) {x : x is a student of Class XI of your school}. . .{x : x student of your school}
(iv) {x : x is a circle in the plane} . . .{x : x is a circle in the same plane with
radius 1 unit}
(v) {x : x is a triangle in a plane} . . . {x : x is a rectangle in the plane}
(vi) {x : x is an equilateral triangle in a plane} . . . {x : x is a triangle in the same plane}
(vii) {x : x is an even natural number} . . . {x : x is an integer}

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 SETS 13

2. Examine whether the following statements are true or false:

(i) { a, b } ⊄ { b, c, a }
(ii) { a, e } ⊂ { x : x is a vowel in the English alphabet}
(iii) { 1, 2, 3 } ⊂ { 1, 3, 5 }
(iv) { a } ⊂ { a, b, c }
(v) { a } ∈ { a, b, c }
(vi) { x : x is an even natural number less than 6} ⊂ { x : x is a natural number
which divides 36}
3. Let A = { 1, 2, { 3, 4 }, 5 }. Which of the following statements are incorrect and why?
(i) {3, 4} ⊂ A (ii) {3, 4} ∈ A (iii) {{3, 4}} ⊂ A
(iv) 1 ∈ A (v) 1 ⊂ A (vi) {1, 2, 5} ⊂ A
(vii) {1, 2, 5} ∈ A (viii) {1, 2, 3} ⊂ A (ix) φ ∈ A
(x) φ ⊂ A (xi) {φ} ⊂ A
4. Write down all the subsets of the following sets
(i) {a} (ii) {a, b} (iii) {1, 2, 3} (iv) φ
5. How many elements has P(A), if A = φ?
6. Write the following as intervals :
(i) {x : x ∈ R, – 4 < x ≤ 6} (ii) {x : x ∈ R, – 12 < x < –10}
(iii) {x : x ∈ R, 0 ≤ x < 7} (iv) {x : x ∈ R, 3 ≤ x ≤ 4}
7. Write the following intervals in set-builder form :
(i) (– 3, 0) (ii) [6 , 12] (iii) (6, 12] (iv) [–23, 5)
8. What universal set(s) would you propose for each of the following :
(i) The set of right triangles. (ii) The set of isosceles triangles.
9. Given the sets A = {1, 3, 5}, B = {2, 4, 6} and C = {0, 2, 4, 6, 8}, which of the
following may be considered as universal set (s) for all the three sets A, B and C
(i) {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
(ii) φ
(iii) {0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10}
(iv) {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8}
1.9 Venn Diagrams
Most of the relationships between sets can be
represented by means of diagrams which are known
as Venn diagrams. Venn diagrams are named after
the English logician, John Venn (1834-1883). These
diagrams consist of rectangles and closed curves
usually circles. The universal set is represented
usually by a rectangle and its subsets by circles.
In Venn diagrams, the elements of the sets
are written in their respective circles (Figs 1.2 and 1.3) Fig 1.2

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Illustration 1 In Fig 1.2, U = {1,2,3, ..., 10} is the

universal set of which
A = {2,4,6,8,10} is a subset.
Illustration 2 In Fig 1.3, U = {1,2,3, ..., 10} is the
universal set of which
A = {2,4,6,8,10} and B = {4, 6} are subsets,
and also B ⊂ A. Fig 1.3
The reader will see an extensive use of the
Venn diagrams when we discuss the union, intersection and difference of sets.
1.10 Operations on Sets
In earlier classes, we have learnt how to perform the operations of addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division on numbers. Each one of these operations was performed
on a pair of numbers to get another number. For example, when we perform the
operation of addition on the pair of numbers 5 and 13, we get the number 18. Again,
performing the operation of multiplication on the pair of numbers 5 and 13, we get 65.
Similarly, there are some operations which when performed on two sets give rise to
another set. We will now define certain operations on sets and examine their properties.
Henceforth, we will refer all our sets as subsets of some universal set.
1.10.1 Union of sets Let A and B be any two sets. The union of A and B is the set
which consists of all the elements of A and all the elements of B, the common elements
being taken only once. The symbol ‘∪’ is used to denote the union. Symbolically, we
write A ∪ B and usually read as ‘A union B’.
Example 12 Let A = { 2, 4, 6, 8} and B = { 6, 8, 10, 12}. Find A ∪ B.
Solution We have A ∪ B = { 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12}
Note that the common elements 6 and 8 have been taken only once while writing
A ∪ B.
Example 13 Let A = { a, e, i, o, u } and B = { a, i, u }. Show that A ∪ B = A
Solution We have, A ∪ B = { a, e, i, o, u } = A.
This example illustrates that union of sets A and its subset B is the set A
itself, i.e., if B ⊂ A, then A ∪ B = A.
Example 14 Let X = {Ram, Geeta, Akbar} be the set of students of Class XI, who are
in school hockey team. Let Y = {Geeta, David, Ashok} be the set of students from
Class XI who are in the school football team. Find X ∪ Y and interpret the set.
Solution We have, X ∪ Y = {Ram, Geeta, Akbar, David, Ashok}. This is the set of
students from Class XI who are in the hockey team or the football team or both.

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Thus, we can define the union of two sets as follows:

Definition 6 The union of two sets A and B is the set C which consists of all those
elements which are either in A or in B (including
those which are in both). In symbols, we write.
A ∪ B = { x : x ∈A or x ∈B }
The union of two sets can be represented by a
Venn diagram as shown in Fig 1.4.
The shaded portion in Fig 1.4 represents A ∪ B.
Some Properties of the Operation of Union
(i) A ∪ B = B ∪ A (Commutative law) Fig 1.4
(ii) ( A ∪ B ) ∪ C = A ∪ ( B ∪ C)
(Associative law )
(iii) A ∪ φ = A (Law of identity element, φ is the identity of ∪)
(iv) A ∪ A = A (Idempotent law)
(v) U ∪ A = U (Law of U)
1.10.2 Intersection of sets The intersection of sets A and B is the set of all elements
which are common to both A and B. The symbol ‘∩’ is used to denote the intersection.
The intersection of two sets A and B is the set of all those elements which belong to
both A and B. Symbolically, we write A ∩ B = {x : x ∈ A and x ∈ B}.
Example 15 Consider the sets A and B of Example 12. Find A ∩ B.
Solution We see that 6, 8 are the only elements which are common to both A and B.
Hence A ∩ B = { 6, 8 }.
Example 16 Consider the sets X and Y of Example 14. Find X ∩ Y.
Solution We see that element ‘Geeta’ is the only element common to both. Hence,
X ∩ Y = {Geeta}.
Example 17 Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10} and B = { 2, 3, 5, 7 }. Find A ∩ B and
hence show that A ∩ B = B.
Solution We have A ∩ B = { 2, 3, 5, 7 } = B. We
note that B ⊂ A and that A ∩ B = B.
Definition 7 The intersection of two sets A and B
is the set of all those elements which belong to both
A and B. Symbolically, we write
A ∩ B = {x : x ∈ A and x ∈ B}
The shaded portion in Fig 1.5 indicates the
intersection of A and B. Fig 1.5

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If A and B are two sets such that A ∩ B = φ, then U

A and B are called disjoint sets.
For example, let A = { 2, 4, 6, 8 } and
B = { 1, 3, 5, 7 }. Then A and B are disjoint sets, A B
because there are no elements which are common to
A and B. The disjoint sets can be represented by
means of Venn diagram as shown in the Fig 1.6
In the above diagram, A and B are disjoint sets. Fig 1.6
Some Properties of Operation of Intersection
(i) A ∩ B = B ∩ A (Commutative law).
(ii) ( A ∩ B ) ∩ C = A ∩ ( B ∩ C ) (Associative law).
(iii) φ ∩ A = φ, U ∩ A = A (Law of φ and U).
(iv) A ∩ A = A (Idempotent law)
(v) A ∩ ( B ∪ C ) = ( A ∩ B ) ∪ ( A ∩ C ) (Distributive law ) i. e.,
∩ distributes over ∪
This can be seen easily from the following Venn diagrams [Figs 1.7 (i) to (v)].

(i) (iii)

(ii) (iv)

(v)
Figs 1.7 (i) to (v)

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1.10.3 Difference of sets The difference of the sets A and B in this order is the set
of elements which belong to A but not to B. Symbolically, we write A – B and read as
“ A minus B”.
Example 18 Let A = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, B = { 2, 4, 6, 8 }. Find A – B and B – A.
Solution We have, A – B = { 1, 3, 5 }, since the elements 1, 3, 5 belong to A but
not to B and B – A = { 8 }, since the element 8 belongs to B and not to A.
We note that A – B ≠ B – A.
Example 19 Let V = { a, e, i, o, u } and
B = { a, i, k, u}. Find V – B and B – V
Solution We have, V – B = { e, o }, since the elements
e, o belong to V but not to B and B – V = { k }, since
the element k belongs to B but not to V.
We note that V – B ≠ B – V. Using the set-
builder notation, we can rewrite the definition of
Fig 1.8
difference as
A – B = { x : x ∈ A and x ∉ B }
The difference of two sets A and B can be
represented by Venn diagram as shown in Fig 1.8.
The shaded portion represents the difference of
the two sets A and B.
Remark The sets A – B, A ∩ B and B – A are
mutually disjoint sets, i.e., the intersection of any of
Fig 1.9
these two sets is the null set as shown in Fig 1.9.

EXERCISE 1.4
1. Find the union of each of the following pairs of sets :
(i) X = {1, 3, 5} Y = {1, 2, 3}
(ii) A = [ a, e, i, o, u} B = {a, b, c}
(iii) A = {x : x is a natural number and multiple of 3}
B = {x : x is a natural number less than 6}
(iv) A = {x : x is a natural number and 1 < x ≤ 6 }
B = {x : x is a natural number and 6 < x < 10 }
(v) A = {1, 2, 3}, B = φ
2. Let A = { a, b }, B = {a, b, c}. Is A ⊂ B ? What is A ∪ B ?
3. If A and B are two sets such that A ⊂ B, then what is A ∪ B ?
4. If A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, B = {3, 4, 5, 6}, C = {5, 6, 7, 8 }and D = { 7, 8, 9, 10 }; find

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(i) A ∪ B (ii) A ∪ C (iii) B ∪ C (iv) B ∪ D

(v) A ∪ B ∪ C (vi) A ∪ B ∪ D (vii) B ∪ C ∪ D
5. Find the intersection of each pair of sets of question 1 above.
6. If A = { 3, 5, 7, 9, 11 }, B = {7, 9, 11, 13}, C = {11, 13, 15}and D = {15, 17}; find
(i) A ∩ B (ii) B ∩ C (iii) A ∩ C ∩ D
(iv) A ∩ C (v) B ∩ D (vi) A ∩ (B ∪ C)
(vii) A ∩ D (viii) A ∩ (B ∪ D) (ix) ( A ∩ B ) ∩ ( B ∪ C )
(x) ( A ∪ D) ∩ ( B ∪ C)
7. If A = {x : x is a natural number }, B = {x : x is an even natural number}
C = {x : x is an odd natural number}andD = {x : x is a prime number }, find
(i) A ∩ B (ii) A ∩ C (iii) A ∩ D
(iv) B ∩ C (v) B ∩ D (vi) C ∩ D
8. Which of the following pairs of sets are disjoint
(i) {1, 2, 3, 4} and {x : x is a natural number and 4 ≤ x ≤ 6 }
(ii) { a, e, i, o, u } and { c, d, e, f }
(iii) {x : x is an even integer } and {x : x is an odd integer}
9. If A = {3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 21}, B = { 4, 8, 12, 16, 20 },
C = { 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16 }, D = {5, 10, 15, 20 }; find
(i) A – B (ii) A – C (iii) A – D (iv) B – A
(v) C – A (vi) D – A (vii) B – C (viii) B – D
(ix) C – B (x) D – B (xi) C – D (xii) D – C
10. If X= { a, b, c, d } and Y = { f, b, d, g}, find
(i) X – Y (ii) Y – X (iii) X ∩ Y
11. If R is the set of real numbers and Q is the set of rational numbers, then what is
R – Q?
12. State whether each of the following statement is true or false. Justify your answer.
(i) { 2, 3, 4, 5 } and { 3, 6} are disjoint sets.
(ii) { a, e, i, o, u } and { a, b, c, d }are disjoint sets.
(iii) { 2, 6, 10, 14 } and { 3, 7, 11, 15} are disjoint sets.
(iv) { 2, 6, 10 } and { 3, 7, 11} are disjoint sets.
1.11 Complement of a Set
Let U be the universal set which consists of all prime numbers and A be the subset of
U which consists of all those prime numbers that are not divisors of 42. Thus,
A = {x : x ∈ U and x is not a divisor of 42 }. We see that 2 ∈ U but 2 ∉ A, because
2 is divisor of 42. Similarly, 3 ∈ U but 3 ∉ A, and 7 ∈ U but 7 ∉ A. Now 2, 3 and 7 are
the only elements of U which do not belong to A. The set of these three prime numbers,
i.e., the set {2, 3, 7} is called the Complement of A with respect to U, and is denoted by

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A′. So we have A′ = {2, 3, 7}. Thus, we see that

A′ = {x : x ∈ U and x ∉ A }. This leads to the following definition.
Definition 8 Let U be the universal set and A a subset of U. Then the complement of
A is the set of all elements of U which are not the elements of A. Symbolically, we
write A′ to denote the complement of A with respect to U. Thus,
A′ = {x : x ∈ U and x ∉ A }. Obviously A′ = U – A
We note that the complement of a set A can be looked upon, alternatively, as the
difference between a universal set U and the set A.
Example 20 Let U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10} and A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}. Find A′.
Solution We note that 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 are the only elements of U which do not belong to
A. Hence A′ = { 2, 4, 6, 8,10 }.
Example 21 Let U be universal set of all the students of Class XI of a coeducational
school and A be the set of all girls in Class XI. Find A′.
Solution Since A is the set of all girls, A′ is clearly the set of all boys in the class.

ANote If A is a subset of the universal set U, then its complement A′ is also a

subset of U.
Again in Example 20 above, we have A′ = { 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 }
Hence (A′ )′ = {x : x ∈ U and x ∉ A′}
= {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} = A
It is clear from the definition of the complement that for any subset of the universal
set U, we have ( A′ )′ = A

Now, we want to find the results for ( A ∪ B )′ and A′ ∩ B′ in the followng

example.
Example 22 Let U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, A = {2, 3} and B = {3, 4, 5}.
Find A′, B′ , A′ ∩ B′, A ∪ B and hence show that ( A ∪ B )′ = A′ ∩ B′.
Solution Clearly A′ = {1, 4, 5, 6}, B′ = { 1, 2, 6 }. Hence A′ ∩ B′ = { 1, 6 }
Also A ∪ B = { 2, 3, 4, 5 }, so that (A ∪ B )′ = { 1, 6 }
( A ∪ B )′ = { 1, 6 } = A′ ∩ B′
It can be shown that the above result is true in general. If A and B are any two
subsets of the universal set U, then
( A ∪ B )′ = A′ ∩ B′. Similarly, ( A ∩ B )′ = A′ ∪ B′ . These two results are stated
in words as follows :

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The complement of the union of two sets is

the intersection of their complements and the
complement of the intersection of two sets is the
union of their complements. These are called De
Morgan’s laws. These are named after the
mathematician De Morgan.
The complement A′ of a set A can be represented
by a Venn diagram as shown in Fig 1.10. Fig 1.10
The shaded portion represents the complement of the set A.
Some Properties of Complement Sets
1. Complement laws: (i) A ∪ A′ = U (ii) A ∩ A′ = φ
2. De Morgan’s law: (i) (A ∪ B)´ = A′ ∩ B′ (ii) (A ∩ B )′ = A′ ∪ B′
3. Law of double complementation : (A′ )′ = A
4. Laws of empty set and universal set φ′ = U and U′ = φ.
These laws can be verified by using Venn diagrams.

EXERCISE 1.5
1. Let U = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 }, A = { 1, 2, 3, 4}, B = { 2, 4, 6, 8 } and
C = { 3, 4, 5, 6 }. Find (i) A′ (ii) B′ (iii) (A ∪ C)′ (iv) (A ∪ B)′ (v) (A′)′
(vi) (B – C)′
2. If U = { a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h}, find the complements of the following sets :
(i) A = {a, b, c} (ii) B = {d, e, f, g}
(iii) C = {a, c, e, g} (iv) D = { f, g, h, a}
3. Taking the set of natural numbers as the universal set, write down the complements
of the following sets:
(i) {x : x is an even natural number} (ii) { x : x is an odd natural number }
(iii) {x : x is a positive multiple of 3} (iv) { x : x is a prime number }
(v) {x : x is a natural number divisible by 3 and 5}
(vi) { x : x is a perfect square } (vii) { x : x is a perfect cube}
(viii) { x : x + 5 = 8 } (ix) { x : 2x + 5 = 9}
(x) { x : x ≥ 7 } (xi) { x : x ∈ N and 2x + 1 > 10 }
4. If U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 }, A = {2, 4, 6, 8} and B = { 2, 3, 5, 7}. Verify that
(i) (A ∪ B)′ = A′ ∩ B′ (ii) (A ∩ B)′ = A′ ∪ B′
5. Draw appropriate Venn diagram for each of the following :
(i) (A ∪ B)′, (ii) A′ ∩ B′, (iii) (A ∩ B)′, (iv) A′ ∪ B′
6. Let U be the set of all triangles in a plane. If A is the set of all triangles with at
least one angle different from 60°, what is A′?

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7. Fill in the blanks to make each of the following a true statement :

(i) A ∪ A′ = . . . (ii) φ′ ∩ A = . . .
(iii) A ∩ A′ = . . . (iv) U′ ∩ A = . . .
1.12 Practical Problems on Union and
Intersection of Two Sets
In earlier Section, we have learnt union, intersection
and difference of two sets. In this Section, we will
go through some practical problems related to our
daily life.The formulae derived in this Section will
also be used in subsequent Chapter on Probability
(Chapter 16). Fig 1.11
Let A and B be finite sets. If A ∩ B = φ, then
(i) n ( A ∪ B ) = n ( A ) + n ( B ) ... (1)
The elements in A ∪ B are either in A or in B but not in both as A ∩ B = φ. So, (1)
follows immediately.
In general, if A and B are finite sets, then
(ii) n ( A ∪ B ) = n ( A ) + n ( B ) – n ( A ∩ B ) ... (2)
Note that the sets A – B, A ∩ B and B – A are disjoint and their union is A ∪ B
(Fig 1.11). Therefore
n ( A ∪ B) = n ( A – B) + n ( A ∩ B ) + n ( B – A )
= n ( A – B) + n ( A ∩ B ) + n ( B – A ) + n ( A ∩ B ) – n ( A ∩ B)
= n ( A ) + n ( B ) – n ( A ∩ B), which verifies (2)
(iii) If A, B and C are finite sets, then
n ( A ∪ B ∪ C ) = n ( A ) + n ( B ) + n ( C ) – n ( A ∩ B ) – n ( B ∩ C)
– n (A ∩ C)+n (A ∩ B ∩ C) ... (3)
In fact, we have
n ( A ∪ B ∪ C ) = n (A) + n ( B ∪ C ) – n [ A ∩ ( B ∪ C ) ] [ by (2) ]
= n (A) + n ( B ) + n ( C ) – n ( B ∩ C ) – n [ A ∩ ( B ∪ C ) ] [ by (2) ]
Since A ∩ ( B ∪ C ) = ( A ∩ B ) ∪ ( A ∩ C ), we get
n [ A ∩ ( B ∪ C ) ] = n ( A ∩ B ) + n ( A ∩ C ) – n [ ( A ∩ B ) ∩ (A ∩ C)]
= n ( A ∩ B ) + n ( A ∩ C ) – n (A ∩ B ∩ C)
Therefore
n ( A ∪ B ∪ C ) = n (A) + n ( B ) + n ( C ) – n ( A ∩ B ) – n ( B ∩ C)
– n(A ∩ C)+n (A ∩B ∩C)
This proves (3).
Example 23 If X and Y are two sets such that X ∪ Y has 50 elements, X has
28 elements and Y has 32 elements, how many elements does X ∩ Y have ?

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Solution Given that

n ( X ∪ Y ) = 50, n ( X ) = 28, n ( Y ) = 32,
n (X ∩ Y) = ?
By using the formula
n ( X ∪ Y ) = n ( X ) + n ( Y ) – n ( X ∩ Y ),
we find that
n(X∩Y) = n ( X ) + n(Y) – n ( X∪Y)
= 28 + 32 – 50 = 10 Fig 1.12
Alternatively, suppose n ( X ∩ Y ) = k, then
n ( X – Y ) = 28 – k , n ( Y – X ) = 32 – k (by Venn diagram in Fig 1.12 )
This gives 50 = n ( X ∪ Y ) = n (X – Y) + n (X ∩ Y) + n ( Y – X)
= ( 28 – k ) + k + (32 – k )
Hence k = 10.
Example 24 In a school there are 20 teachers who teach mathematics or physics. Of
these, 12 teach mathematics and 4 teach both physics and mathematics. How many
teach physics ?
Solution Let M denote the set of teachers who teach mathematics and P denote the
set of teachers who teach physics. In the statement of the problem, the word ‘or’ gives
us a clue of union and the word ‘and’ gives us a clue of intersection. We, therefore,
have
n ( M ∪ P ) = 20 , n ( M ) = 12 and n ( M ∩ P ) = 4
We wish to determine n ( P ).
Using the result
n ( M ∪ P ) = n ( M ) + n ( P ) – n ( M ∩ P ),
we obtain
20 = 12 + n ( P ) – 4
Thus n ( P ) = 12
Hence 12 teachers teach physics.
Example 25 In a class of 35 students, 24 like to play cricket and 16 like to play
football. Also, each student likes to play at least one of the two games. How many
students like to play both cricket and football ?
Solution Let X be the set of students who like to play cricket and Y be the set of
students who like to play football. Then X ∪ Y is the set of students who like to play
at least one game, and X ∩ Y is the set of students who like to play both games.
Given n ( X) = 24, n ( Y ) = 16, n ( X ∪ Y ) = 35, n (X ∩ Y) = ?
Using the formula n ( X ∪ Y ) = n ( X ) + n ( Y ) – n ( X ∩ Y ), we get
35 = 24 + 16 – n (X ∩ Y)

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Thus, n (X ∩ Y) = 5
i.e., 5 students like to play both games.
Example 26 In a survey of 400 students in a school, 100 were listed as taking apple
juice, 150 as taking orange juice and 75 were listed as taking both apple as well as
orange juice. Find how many students were taking neither apple juice nor orange juice.
Solution Let U denote the set of surveyed students and A denote the set of students
taking apple juice and B denote the set of students taking orange juice. Then
n (U) = 400, n (A) = 100, n (B) = 150 and n (A ∩ B) = 75.
Now n (A′ ∩ B′) = n (A ∪ B)′
= n (U) – n (A ∪ B)
= n (U) – n (A) – n (B) + n (A ∩ B)
= 400 – 100 – 150 + 75 = 225
Hence 225 students were taking neither apple juice nor orange juice.
Example 27 There are 200 individuals with a skin disorder, 120 had been exposed to
the chemical C1, 50 to chemical C2, and 30 to both the chemicals C1 and C2. Find the
number of individuals exposed to
(i) Chemical C1 but not chemical C2 (ii) Chemical C2 but not chemical C1
(iii) Chemical C1 or chemical C2
Solution Let U denote the universal set consisting of individuals suffering from the
skin disorder, A denote the set of individuals exposed to the chemical C1 and B denote
the set of individuals exposed to the chemical C2.
Here n ( U) = 200, n ( A ) = 120, n ( B ) = 50 and n ( A ∩ B ) = 30
(i) From the Venn diagram given in Fig 1.13, we have
A = ( A – B ) ∪ ( A ∩ B ).
n (A) = n( A – B ) + n( A ∩ B ) (Since A – B) and A ∩ B are disjoint.)
or n ( A – B ) = n ( A ) – n ( A ∩ B ) = 120 –30 = 90
Hence, the number of individuals exposed to
chemical C1 but not to chemical C2 is 90.
(ii) From the Fig 1.13, we have
B = ( B – A) ∪ ( A ∩ B).
and so, n (B) = n (B – A) + n ( A ∩ B)
(Since B – A and A ∩B are disjoint.)
or n ( B – A ) = n ( B ) – n ( A ∩ B )
= 50 – 30 = 20 Fig 1.13

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24 MATHEMATICS

Thus, the number of individuals exposed to chemical C2 and not to chemical C1 is 20.
(iii) The number of individuals exposed either to chemical C1 or to chemical C2, i.e.,
n (A∪ B ) = n (A) + n ( B ) – n (A∩ B )
= 120 + 50 – 30 = 140.

EXERCISE 1.6
1. If X and Y are two sets such that n ( X ) = 17, n ( Y ) = 23 and n ( X ∪ Y ) = 38,
find n ( X ∩ Y ).
2. If X and Y are two sets such that X ∪ Y has 18 elements, X has 8 elements and
Y has 15 elements ; how many elements does X ∩ Y have?
3. In a group of 400 people, 250 can speak Hindi and 200 can speak English. How
many people can speak both Hindi and English?
4. If S and T are two sets such that S has 21 elements, T has 32 elements, and S ∩ T
has 11 elements, how many elements does S ∪ T have?
5. If X and Y are two sets such that X has 40 elements, X ∪ Y has 60 elements and
X ∩ Y has 10 elements, how many elements does Y have?
6. In a group of 70 people, 37 like coffee, 52 like tea and each person likes at least
one of the two drinks. How many people like both coffee and tea?
7. In a group of 65 people, 40 like cricket, 10 like both cricket and tennis. How many
like tennis only and not cricket? How many like tennis?
8. In a committee, 50 people speak French, 20 speak Spanish and 10 speak both
Spanish and French. How many speak at least one of these two languages?

Miscellaneous Examples
Example 28 Show that the set of letters needed to spell “ CATARACT ” and the
set of letters needed to spell “ TRACT” are equal.
Solution Let X be the set of letters in “CATARACT”. Then
X = { C, A, T, R }
Let Y be the set of letters in “ TRACT”. Then
Y = { T, R, A, C, T } = { T, R, A, C }
Since every element in X is in Y and every element in Y is in X. It follows that X = Y.
Example 29 List all the subsets of the set { –1, 0, 1 }.
Solution Let A = { –1, 0, 1 }. The subset of A having no element is the empty
set φ. The subsets of A having one element are { –1 }, { 0 }, { 1 }. The subsets of
A having two elements are {–1, 0}, {–1, 1} ,{0, 1}. The subset of A having three
elements of A is A itself. So, all the subsets of A are φ, {–1}, {0}, {1}, {–1, 0}, {–1, 1},
{0, 1} and {–1, 0, 1}.

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 SETS 25

Example 30 Show that A ∪ B = A ∩ B implies A = B

Solution Let a ∈ A. Then a ∈ A ∪ B. Since A ∪ B = A ∩ B , a ∈ A ∩ B. So a ∈ B.
Therefore, A ⊂ B. Similarly, if b ∈ B, then b ∈ A ∪ B. Since
A ∪ B = A ∩ B, b ∈ A ∩ B. So, b ∈ A. Therefore, B ⊂ A. Thus, A = B
Example 31 For any sets A and B, show that
P ( A ∩ B ) = P ( A ) ∩ P ( B ).
Solution Let X ∈ P ( A ∩ B ). Then X ⊂ A ∩ B. So, X ⊂ A and X ⊂ B. Therefore,
X ∈ P ( A ) and X ∈ P ( B ) which implies X ∈ P ( A ) ∩ P ( B). This gives P ( A ∩ B )
⊂ P ( A ) ∩ P ( B ). Let Y ∈ P ( A ) ∩ P ( B ). Then Y ∈ P ( A) and Y ∈ P ( B ). So,
Y ⊂ A and Y ⊂ B. Therefore, Y ⊂ A ∩ B, which implies Y ∈ P ( A ∩ B ). This gives
P ( A ) ∩ P ( B ) ⊂ P ( A ∩ B)
Hence P ( A ∩ B ) = P ( A ) ∩ P ( B ).
Example 32 A market research group conducted a survey of 1000 consumers and
reported that 720 consumers like product A and 450 consumers like product B, what is
the least number that must have liked both products?
Solution Let U be the set of consumers questioned, S be the set of consumers who
liked the product A and T be the set of consumers who like the product B. Given that
n ( U ) = 1000, n ( S ) = 720, n ( T ) = 450
So n(S∪T)=n(S)+n(T)–n(S∩T)
= 720 + 450 – n (S ∩ T) = 1170 – n ( S ∩ T )
Therefore, n ( S ∪ T ) is maximum when n ( S ∩ T ) is least. But S ∪ T ⊂ U implies
n ( S ∪ T ) ≤ n ( U ) = 1000. So, maximum values of n ( S ∪ T ) is 1000. Thus, the least
value of n ( S ∩ T ) is 170. Hence, the least number of consumers who liked both products
is 170.
Example 33 Out of 500 car owners investigated, 400 owned car A and 200 owned
car B, 50 owned both A and B cars. Is this data correct?
Solution Let U be the set of car owners investigated, M be the set of persons who
owned car A and S be the set of persons who owned car B.
Given that n ( U ) = 500, n (M ) = 400, n ( S ) = 200 and n ( S ∩ M ) = 50.
Then n ( S ∪ M ) = n ( S ) + n ( M ) – n ( S ∩ M ) = 200 + 400 – 50 = 550
But S ∪ M ⊂ U implies n ( S ∪ M ) ≤ n ( U ).
This is a contradiction. So, the given data is incorrect.
Example 34 A college awarded 38 medals in football, 15 in basketball and 20 in
cricket. If these medals went to a total of 58 men and only three men got medals in all
the three sports, how many received medals in exactly two of the three sports ?

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26 MATHEMATICS

Solution Let F, B and C denote the set of men who

received medals in football, basketball and cricket,
respectively.
Then n ( F ) = 38, n ( B ) = 15, n ( C ) = 20
n (F ∪ B ∪ C ) = 58 and n (F ∩ B ∩ C ) = 3
Therefore, n (F ∪ B ∪ C ) = n ( F ) + n ( B )
+ n ( C ) – n (F ∩ B ) – n (F ∩ C ) – n (B ∩ C ) +
n ( F ∩ B ∩ C ), Fig 1.14
gives n ( F ∩ B ) + n ( F ∩ C ) + n ( B ∩ C ) = 18
Consider the Venn diagram as given in Fig 1.14
Here, a denotes the number of men who got medals in football and basketball only, b
denotes the number of men who got medals in football and cricket only, c denotes the
number of men who got medals in basket ball and cricket only and d denotes the
number of men who got medal in all the three. Thus, d = n ( F ∩ B ∩ C ) = 3 and
a + d + b + d + c + d = 18
Therefore a + b + c = 9,
which is the number of people who got medals in exactly two of the three sports.
Miscellaneous Exercise on Chapter 1
1. Decide, among the following sets, which sets are subsets of one and another:
A = { x : x ∈ R and x satisfy x2 – 8x + 12 = 0 },
B = { 2, 4, 6 }, C = { 2, 4, 6, 8, . . . }, D = { 6 }.
2. In each of the following, determine whether the statement is true or false. If it is
true, prove it. If it is false, give an example.
(i) If x ∈ A and A ∈ B , then x ∈ B
(ii) If A ⊂ B and B ∈ C , then A ∈ C
(iii) If A ⊂ B and B ⊂ C , then A ⊂ C
(iv) If A ⊄ B and B ⊄ C , then A ⊄ C
(v) If x ∈ A and A ⊄ B , then x ∈ B
(vi) If A ⊂ B and x ∉ B , then x ∉ A
3. Let A, B, and C be the sets such that A ∪ B = A ∪ C and A ∩ B = A ∩ C. Show
that B = C.
4. Show that the following four conditions are equivalent :
(i) A ⊂ B(ii) A – B = φ (iii) A ∪ B = B (iv) A ∩ B = A
5. Show that if A ⊂ B, then C – B ⊂ C – A.
6. Assume that P ( A ) = P ( B ). Show that A = B
7. Is it true that for any sets A and B, P ( A ) ∪ P ( B ) = P ( A ∪ B )? Justify your
answer.

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 SETS 27

8. Show that for any sets A and B,

A = ( A ∩ B ) ∪ ( A – B ) and A ∪ ( B – A ) = ( A ∪ B )
9. Using properties of sets, show that
(i) A ∪ ( A ∩ B ) = A (ii) A ∩ ( A ∪ B ) = A.
10. Show that A ∩ B = A ∩ C need not imply B = C.
11. Let A and B be sets. If A ∩ X = B ∩ X = φ and A ∪ X = B ∪ X for some set
X, show that A = B.
(Hints A = A ∩ ( A ∪ X ) , B = B ∩ ( B ∪ X ) and use Distributive law )
12. Find sets A, B and C such that A ∩ B, B ∩ C and A ∩ C are non-empty
sets and A ∩ B ∩ C = φ.
13. In a survey of 600 students in a school, 150 students were found to be taking tea
and 225 taking coffee, 100 were taking both tea and coffee. Find how many
students were taking neither tea nor coffee?
14. In a group of students, 100 students know Hindi, 50 know English and 25 know
both. Each of the students knows either Hindi or English. How many students
are there in the group?
15. In a survey of 60 people, it was found that 25 people read newspaper H, 26 read
newspaper T, 26 read newspaper I, 9 read both H and I, 11 read both H and T,
8 read both T and I, 3 read all three newspapers. Find:
(i) the number of people who read at least one of the newspapers.
(ii) the number of people who read exactly one newspaper.
16. In a survey it was found that 21 people liked product A, 26 liked product B and
29 liked product C. If 14 people liked products A and B, 12 people liked products
C and A, 14 people liked products B and C and 8 liked all the three products.
Find how many liked product C only.

Summary
This chapter deals with some basic definitions and operations involving sets. These
are summarised below:
® A set is a well-defined collection of objects.
® A set which does not contain any element is called empty set.
® A set which consists of a definite number of elements is called finite set,
otherwise, the set is called infinite set.
® Two sets A and B are said to be equal if they have exactly the same elements.
® A set A is said to be subset of a set B, if every element of A is also an element
of B. Intervals are subsets of R.
® power set of a set A is collection of all subsets of A. It is denoted by P(A).
A

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28 MATHEMATICS

® The union of two sets A and B is the set of all those elements which are either
in A or in B.
® The intersection of two sets A and B is the set of all elements which are
common. The difference of two sets A and B in this order is the set of elements
which belong to A but not to B.
® The complement of a subset A of universal set U is the set of all elements of U
which are not the elements of A.
® For any two sets A and B, (A ∪ B)′ = A′ ∩ B′ and ( A ∩ B )′ = A′ ∪ B′
® If A and B are finite sets such that A ∩ B = φ, then
n (A ∪ B) = n (A) + n (B).
If A ∩ B ≠ φ, then
n (A ∪ B) = n (A) + n (B) – n (A ∩ B)

Historical Note
The modern theory of sets is considered to have been originated largely by the
German mathematician Georg Cantor (1845-1918). His papers on set theory
appeared sometimes during 1874 to 1897. His study of set theory came when he
was studying trigonometric series of the form a1 sin x + a2 sin 2x + a3 sin 3x + ...
He published in a paper in 1874 that the set of real numbers could not be put into
one-to-one correspondence wih the integers. From 1879 onwards, he publishd
several papers showing various properties of abstract sets.
Cantor’s work was well received by another famous mathematician Richard
Dedekind (1831-1916). But Kronecker (1810-1893) castigated him for regarding
infinite set the same way as finite sets. Another German mathematician Gottlob
Frege, at the turn of the century, presented the set theory as principles of logic.
Till then the entire set theory was based on the assumption of the existence of the
set of all sets. It was the famous Englih Philosopher Bertand Russell (1872-
1970 ) who showed in 1902 that the assumption of existence of a set of all sets
leads to a contradiction. This led to the famous Russell’s Paradox. Paul R.Halmos
writes about it in his book ‘Naïve Set Theory’ that “nothing contains everything”.
The Russell’s Paradox was not the only one which arose in set theory.
Many paradoxes were produced later by several mathematicians and logicians.

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 SETS 29

As a consequence of all these paradoxes, the first axiomatisation of set theory

was published in 1908 by Ernst Zermelo. Another one was proposed by Abraham
Fraenkel in 1922. John Von Neumann in 1925 introduced explicitly the axiom of
regularity. Later in 1937 Paul Bernays gave a set of more satisfactory
axiomatisation. A modification of these axioms was done by Kurt Gödel in his
monograph in 1940. This was known as Von Neumann-Bernays (VNB) or Gödel-
Bernays (GB) set theory.
Despite all these difficulties, Cantor’s set theory is used in present day
mathematics. In fact, these days most of the concepts and results in mathematics
are expressed in the set theoretic language.

v—
—v

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 Chapter 2
RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS

vMathematics is the indispensable instrument of

all physical research. – BERTHELOT v

2.1 Introduction
Much of mathematics is about finding a pattern – a
recognisable link between quantities that change. In our
daily life, we come across many patterns that characterise
relations such as brother and sister, father and son, teacher
and student. In mathematics also, we come across many
relations such as number m is less than number n, line l is
parallel to line m, set A is a subset of set B. In all these, we
notice that a relation involves pairs of objects in certain
order. In this Chapter, we will learn how to link pairs of
objects from two sets and then introduce relations between
the two objects in the pair. Finally, we will learn about G . W. Leibnitz
special relations which will qualify to be functions. The (1646–1716)
concept of function is very important in mathematics since it captures the idea of a
mathematically precise correspondence between one quantity with the other.
2.2 Cartesian Products of Sets
Suppose A is a set of 2 colours and B is a set of 3 objects, i.e.,
A = {red, blue}and B = {b, c, s},
where b, c and s represent a particular bag, coat and shirt, respectively.
How many pairs of coloured objects can be made from these two sets?
Proceeding in a very orderly manner, we can see that there will be 6
distinct pairs as given below:
(red, b), (red, c), (red, s), (blue, b), (blue, c), (blue, s).
Thus, we get 6 distinct objects (Fig 2.1).
Let us recall from our earlier classes that an ordered pair of elements Fig 2.1
taken from any two sets P and Q is a pair of elements written in small

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 RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS 31

brackets and grouped together in a particular order, i.e., (p,q), p ∈ P and q ∈ Q . This
leads to the following definition:
Definition 1 Given two non-empty sets P and Q. The cartesian product P × Q is the
set of all ordered pairs of elements from P and Q, i.e.,
P × Q = { (p,q) : p ∈ P, q ∈ Q }
If either P or Q is the null set, then P × Q will also be empty set, i.e., P × Q = φ
From the illustration given above we note that
A × B = {(red,b), (red,c), (red,s), (blue,b), (blue,c), (blue,s)}.
Again, consider the two sets:
A = {DL, MP, KA}, where DL, MP, KA represent Delhi,
Madhya Pradesh and Karnataka, respectively and B = {01,02, 03
03}representing codes for the licence plates of vehicles issued 02
by DL, MP and KA . 01
If the three states, Delhi, Madhya Pradesh and Karnataka
were making codes for the licence plates of vehicles, with the DL MP KA
restriction that the code begins with an element from set A,
Fig 2.2
which are the pairs available from these sets and how many such
pairs will there be (Fig 2.2)?
The available pairs are:(DL,01), (DL,02), (DL,03), (MP,01), (MP,02), (MP,03),
(KA,01), (KA,02), (KA,03) and the product of set A and set B is given by
A × B = {(DL,01), (DL,02), (DL,03), (MP,01), (MP,02), (MP,03), (KA,01), (KA,02),
(KA,03)}.
It can easily be seen that there will be 9 such pairs in the Cartesian product, since
there are 3 elements in each of the sets A and B. This gives us 9 possible codes. Also
note that the order in which these elements are paired is crucial. For example, the code
(DL, 01) will not be the same as the code (01, DL).
As a final illustration, consider the two sets A= {a1, a2} and
B = {b1, b2, b3, b4} (Fig 2.3).
A × B = {( a1, b1), (a1, b2), (a1, b3), (a1, b4), (a2, b1), (a2, b2),
(a2, b3), (a2, b4)}.
The 8 ordered pairs thus formed can represent the position of points in
the plane if A and B are subsets of the set of real numbers and it is
obvious that the point in the position (a1, b2) will be distinct from the point
Fig 2.3
in the position (b2, a1).
Remarks
(i) Two ordered pairs are equal, if and only if the corresponding first elements
are equal and the second elements are also equal.

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32 MATHEMATICS

(ii) If there are p elements in A and q elements in B, then there will be pq

elements in A × B, i.e., if n(A) = p and n(B) = q, then n(A × B) = pq.
(iii) If A and B are non-empty sets and either A or B is an infinite set, then so is
A × B.
(iv) A × A × A = {(a, b, c) : a, b, c ∈ A}. Here (a, b, c) is called an ordered
triplet.

Example 1 If (x + 1, y – 2) = (3,1), find the values of x and y.

Solution Since the ordered pairs are equal, the corresponding elements are equal.
Therefore x + 1 = 3 and y – 2 = 1.
Solving we get x = 2 and y = 3.
Example 2 If P = {a, b, c} and Q = {r}, form the sets P × Q and Q × P.
Are these two products equal?
Solution By the definition of the cartesian product,
P × Q = {(a, r), (b, r), (c, r)} and Q × P = {(r, a), (r, b), (r, c)}
Since, by the definition of equality of ordered pairs, the pair (a, r) is not equal to the pair
(r, a), we conclude that P × Q ≠ Q × P.
However, the number of elements in each set will be the same.
Example 3 Let A = {1,2,3}, B = {3,4} and C = {4,5,6}. Find
(i) A × (B ∩ C) (ii) (A × B) ∩ (A × C)
(iii) A × (B ∪ C) (iv) (A × B) ∪ (A × C)
Solution (i) By the definition of the intersection of two sets, (B ∩ C) = {4}.
Therefore, A × (B ∩ C) = {(1,4), (2,4), (3,4)}.
(ii) Now (A × B) = {(1,3), (1,4), (2,3), (2,4), (3,3), (3,4)}
and (A × C) = {(1,4), (1,5), (1,6), (2,4), (2,5), (2,6), (3,4), (3,5), (3,6)}
Therefore, (A × B) ∩ (A × C) = {(1, 4), (2, 4), (3, 4)}.
(iii) Since, (B ∪ C) = {3, 4, 5, 6}, we have
A × (B ∪ C) = {(1,3), (1,4), (1,5), (1,6), (2,3), (2,4), (2,5), (2,6), (3,3),
(3,4), (3,5), (3,6)}.
(iv) Using the sets A × B and A × C from part (ii) above, we obtain
(A × B) ∪ (A × C) = {(1,3), (1,4), (1,5), (1,6), (2,3), (2,4), (2,5), (2,6),
(3,3), (3,4), (3,5), (3,6)}.

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 RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS 33

Example 4 If P = {1, 2}, form the set P × P × P.

Solution We have, P × P × P = {(1,1,1), (1,1,2), (1,2,1), (1,2,2), (2,1,1), (2,1,2), (2,2,1),
(2,2,2)}.
Example 5 If R is the set of all real numbers, what do the cartesian products R × R
and R × R × R represent?
Solution The Cartesian product R × R represents the set R × R={(x, y) : x, y ∈ R}
which represents the coordinates of all the points in two dimensional space and the
cartesian product R × R × R represents the set R × R × R ={(x, y, z) : x, y, z ∈ R}
which represents the coordinates of all the points in three-dimensional space.

Example 6 If A × B ={(p, q),(p, r), (m, q), (m, r)}, find A and B.
Solution A = set of first elements = {p, m}
B = set of second elements = {q, r}.

EXERCISE 2.1
x 2 5 1
1. If  + 1, y –  =  ,  , find the values of x and y.
3 3 3 3
2. If the set A has 3 elements and the set B = {3, 4, 5}, then find the number of
elements in (A×B).
3. If G = {7, 8} and H = {5, 4, 2}, find G × H and H × G.
4. State whether each of the following statements are true or false. If the statement
is false, rewrite the given statement correctly.
(i) If P = {m, n} and Q = { n, m}, then P × Q = {(m, n),(n, m)}.
(ii) If A and B are non-empty sets, then A × B is a non-empty set of ordered
pairs (x, y) such that x ∈ A and y ∈ B.
(iii) If A = {1, 2}, B = {3, 4}, then A × (B ∩ φ) = φ.
5. If A = {–1, 1}, find A × A × A.
6. If A × B = {(a, x),(a , y), (b, x), (b, y)}. Find A and B.
7. Let A = {1, 2}, B = {1, 2, 3, 4}, C = {5, 6} and D = {5, 6, 7, 8}. Verify that
(i) A × (B ∩ C) = (A × B) ∩ (A × C). (ii) A × C is a subset of B × D.
8. Let A = {1, 2} and B = {3, 4}. Write A × B. How many subsets will A × B have?
List them.
9. Let A and B be two sets such that n(A) = 3 and n(B) = 2. If (x, 1), (y, 2), (z, 1)
are in A × B, find A and B, where x, y and z are distinct elements.

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34 MATHEMATICS

10. The Cartesian product A × A has 9 elements among which are found (–1, 0) and
(0,1). Find the set A and the remaining elements of A × A.
2.3 Relations
Consider the two sets P = {a, b, c} and Q = {Ali, Bhanu, Binoy, Chandra, Divya}.
The cartesian product of
P and Q has 15 ordered pairs which
can be listed as P × Q = {(a, Ali),
(a,Bhanu), (a, Binoy), ..., (c, Divya)}.
We can now obtain a subset of
P × Q by introducing a relation R
between the first element x and the
second element y of each ordered pair Fig 2.4
(x, y) as
R= { (x,y): x is the first letter of the name y, x ∈ P, y ∈ Q}.
Then R = {(a, Ali), (b, Bhanu), (b, Binoy), (c, Chandra)}
A visual representation of this relation R (called an arrow diagram) is shown
in Fig 2.4.
Definition 2 A relation R from a non-empty set A to a non-empty set B is a subset of
the cartesian product A × B. The subset is derived by describing a relationship between
the first element and the second element of the ordered pairs in A × B. The second
element is called the image of the first element.
Definition 3 The set of all first elements of the ordered pairs in a relation R from a set
A to a set B is called the domain of the relation R.
Definition 4 The set of all second elements in a relation R from a set A to a set B is
called the range of the relation R. The whole set B is called the codomain of the
relation R. Note that range ⊂ codomain.
Remarks (i) A relation may be represented algebraically either by the Roster
method or by the Set-builder method.
(ii) An arrow diagram is a visual representation of a relation.
Example 7 Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}. Define a relation R from A to A by
R = {(x, y) : y = x + 1 }
(i) Depict this relation using an arrow diagram.
(ii) Write down the domain, codomain and range of R.
Solution (i) By the definition of the relation,
R = {(1,2), (2,3), (3,4), (4,5), (5,6)}.

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 RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS 35

The corresponding arrow diagram is

shown in Fig 2.5.
(ii) We can see that the
domain ={1, 2, 3, 4, 5,}
Similarly, the range = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
and the codomain = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.
Fig 2.5
Example 8 The Fig 2.6 shows a relation
between the sets P and Q. Write this relation (i) in set-builder form, (ii) in roster form.
What is its domain and range?
Solution It is obvious that the relation R is
“x is the square of y”.
(i) In set-builder form, R = {(x, y): x
is the square of y, x ∈ P, y ∈ Q}
(ii) In roster form, R = {(9, 3),
(9, –3), (4, 2), (4, –2), (25, 5), (25, –5)} Fig 2.6
The domain of this relation is {4, 9, 25}.
The range of this relation is {– 2, 2, –3, 3, –5, 5}.
Note that the element 1 is not related to any element in set P.
The set Q is the codomain of this relation.

A Note The total number of relations that can be defined from a set A to a set B
is the number of possible subsets of A × B. If n(A ) = p and n(B) = q, then
n (A × B) = pq and the total number of relations is 2pq.
Example 9 Let A = {1, 2} and B = {3, 4}. Find the number of relations from A to B.
Solution We have,
A × B = {(1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 3), (2, 4)}.
Since n (A×B ) = 4, the number of subsets of A×B is 24. Therefore, the number of
relations from A into B will be 24.
Remark A relation R from A to A is also stated as a relation on A.

EXERCISE 2.2
1. Let A = {1, 2, 3,...,14}. Define a relation R from A to A by
R = {(x, y) : 3x – y = 0, where x, y ∈ A}. Write down its domain, codomain and
range.

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36 MATHEMATICS

2. Define a relation R on the set N of natural numbers by R = {(x, y) : y = x + 5,

x is a natural number less than 4; x, y ∈N}. Depict this relationship using roster
form. Write down the domain and the range.
3. A = {1, 2, 3, 5} and B = {4, 6, 9}. Define a relation R from A to B by
R = {(x, y): the difference between x and y is odd; x ∈ A, y ∈ B}. Write R in
roster form.
4. The Fig2.7 shows a relationship
between the sets P and Q. Write this
relation
(i) in set-builder form (ii) roster form.
What is its domain and range?
5. Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6}. Let R be the
relation on A defined by Fig 2.7
{(a, b): a , b ∈A, b is exactly divisible by a}.
(i) Write R in roster form
(ii) Find the domain of R
(iii) Find the range of R.
6. Determine the domain and range of the relation R defined by
R = {(x, x + 5) : x ∈ {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}}.
7. Write the relation R = {(x, x3) : x is a prime number less than 10} in roster form.
8. Let A = {x, y, z} and B = {1, 2}. Find the number of relations from A to B.
9. Let R be the relation on Z defined by R = {(a,b): a, b ∈ Z, a – b is an integer}.
Find the domain and range of R.
2.4 Functions
In this Section, we study a special type of relation called function. It is one of the most
important concepts in mathematics. We can, visualise a function as a rule, which produces
new elements out of some given elements. There are many terms such as ‘map’ or
‘mapping’ used to denote a function.
Definition 5 A relation f from a set A to a set B is said to be a function if every
element of set A has one and only one image in set B.
In other words, a function f is a relation from a non-empty set A to a non-empty
set B such that the domain of f is A and no two distinct ordered pairs in f have the
same first element.
If f is a function from A to B and (a, b) ∈ f, then f (a) = b, where b is called the
image of a under f and a is called the preimage of b under f.

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 RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS 37

The function f from A to B is denoted by f: A à B.

Looking at the previous examples, we can easily see that the relation in Example 7 is
not a function because the element 6 has no image.
Again, the relation in Example 8 is not a function because the elements in the
domain are connected to more than one images. Similarly, the relation in Example 9 is
also not a function. (Why?) In the examples given below, we will see many more
relations some of which are functions and others are not.
Example 10 Let N be the set of natural numbers and the relation R be defined on
N such that R = {(x, y) : y = 2x, x, y ∈ N}.
What is the domain, codomain and range of R? Is this relation a function?
Solution The domain of R is the set of natural numbers N. The codomain is also N.
The range is the set of even natural numbers.
Since every natural number n has one and only one image, this relation is a
function.
Example 11 Examine each of the following relations given below and state in each
case, giving reasons whether it is a function or not?
(i) R = {(2,1),(3,1), (4,2)}, (ii) R = {(2,2),(2,4),(3,3), (4,4)}
(iii) R = {(1,2),(2,3),(3,4), (4,5), (5,6), (6,7)}
Solution (i) Since 2, 3, 4 are the elements of domain of R having their unique images,
this relation R is a function.
(ii) Since the same first element 2 corresponds to two different images 2
and 4, this relation is not a function.
(iii) Since every element has one and only one image, this relation is a
function.
Definition 6 A function which has either R or one of its subsets as its range is called
a real valued function. Further, if its domain is also either R or a subset of R, it is
called a real function.
Example 12 Let N be the set of natural numbers. Define a real valued function
f : Nà N by f (x) = 2x + 1. Using this definition, complete the table given below.
x 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
y f (1) = ... f (2) = ... f (3) = ... f (4) = ... f (5) = ... f (6) = ... f (7) = ...
Solution The completed table is given by
x 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
y f (1) = 3 f (2) = 5 f (3) = 7 f (4) = 9 f (5) = 11 f (6) = 13 f (7) =15

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38 MATHEMATICS

2.4.1 Some functions and their graphs

(i) Identity function Let R be the set of real numbers. Define the real valued
function f : R → R by y = f(x) = x for each x ∈ R. Such a function is called the
identity function. Here the domain and range of f are R. The graph is a straight line as
shown in Fig 2.8. It passes through the origin.

Fig 2.8
(ii) Constant function Define the function f: R → R by y = f (x) = c, x ∈ R where
c is a constant and each x ∈ R. Here domain of f is R and its range is {c}.

Fig 2.9

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 RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS 39

The graph is a line parallel to x-axis. For example, if f(x)=3 for each x∈R, then its
graph will be a line as shown in the Fig 2.9.
(iii) Polynomial function A function f : R → R is said to be polynomial function if
for each x in R, y = f (x) = a0 + a1x + a2x2 + ...+ an xn, where n is a non-negative
integer and a0, a1, a2,...,an∈R.
The functions defined by f(x) = x3 – x2 + 2, and g(x) = x4 + 2 x are some examples
2
of polynomial functions, whereas the function h defined by h(x) = x 3 + 2x is not a
polynomial function.(Why?)
Example 13 Define the function f: R → R by y = f(x) = x2, x ∈ R. Complete the
Table given below by using this definition. What is the domain and range of this function?
Draw the graph of f.
x –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
y = f(x) = x2
Solution The completed Table is given below:
x –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
2
y = f (x) = x 16 9 4 1 0 1 4 9 16
2
Domain of f = {x : x∈R}. Range of f = {x : x ∈ R}. The graph of f is given
by Fig 2.10

Fig 2.10

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40 MATHEMATICS

Example 14 Draw the graph of the function f :R → R defined by f (x) = x3, x∈R.
Solution We have
f(0) = 0, f(1) = 1, f(–1) = –1, f(2) = 8, f(–2) = –8, f(3) = 27; f(–3) = –27, etc.
Therefore, f = {(x,x3): x∈R}.
The graph of f is given in Fig 2.11.

Fig 2.11
f (x )
(iv) Rational functions are functions of the type , where f(x) and g(x) are
g (x)
polynomial functions of x defined in a domain, where g(x) ≠ 0.
1
Example 15 Define the real valued function f : R – {0} → R defined by f (x) = ,
x
x ∈ R –{0}. Complete the Table given below using this definition. What is the domain
and range of this function?

x –2 –1.5 –1 –0.5 0.25 0.5 1 1.5 2

1
y = ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
x
Solution The completed Table is given by
x –2 –1.5 –1 –0.5 0.25 0.5 1 1.5 2

1
y= – 0.5 – 0.67 –1 – 2 4 2 1 0.67 0.5
x

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 RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS 41

The domain is all real numbers except 0 and its range is also all real numbers
except 0. The graph of f is given in Fig 2.12.

Fig 2.12

(v) The Modulus function The function

f: R→R defined by f(x) = |x| for each
x ∈R is called modulus function. For each
non-negative value of x, f(x) is equal to x.
But for negative values of x, the value of
f(x) is the negative of the value of x, i.e.,

 x,x ≥ 0
f (x) = 
 − x,x < 0
The graph of the modulus function is given
in Fig 2.13.
(vi) Signum function The function
f:R→R defined by
Fig 2.13
1,if x > 0

f (x ) = 0,if x = 0
−1,if x < 0


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42 MATHEMATICS

is called the signum function. The domain of the signum function is R and the range is
the set {–1, 0, 1}. The graph of the signum function is given by the Fig 2.14.

x
f(x) = x , x ‘ 0and 0for x = 0
Fig 2.14

(vii) Greatest integer function

The function f: R → R defined
by f(x) = [x], x ∈R assumes the
value of the greatest integer, less
than or equal to x. Such a function
is called the greatest integer
function.
From the definition of [x], we
can see that
[x] = –1 for –1 ≤ x < 0
[x] = 0 for 0 ≤ x < 1
[x] = 1 for 1 ≤ x < 2
[x] = 2 for 2 ≤ x < 3 and
so on.
Fig 2.15
The graph of the function is
shown in Fig 2.15.
2.4.2 Algebra of real functions In this Section, we shall learn how to add two real
functions, subtract a real function from another, multiply a real function by a scalar
(here by a scalar we mean a real number), multiply two real functions and divide one
real function by another.
(i) Addition of two real functions Let f : X → R and g : X → R be any two real
functions, where X ⊂ R. Then, we define (f + g): X → R by
(f + g) (x) = f (x) + g (x), for all x ∈ X.

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 RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS 43

(ii) Subtraction of a real function from another Let f : X → R and g: X → R be

any two real functions, where X ⊂ R. Then, we define (f – g) : X → R by
(f–g) (x) = f(x) –g(x), for all x ∈ X.
(iii) Multiplication by a scalar Let f : X→R be a real valued function and α be a
scalar. Here by scalar, we mean a real number. Then the product α f is a function from
X to R defined by (α f ) (x) = α f (x), x ∈X.
(iv) Multiplication of two real functions The product (or multiplication) of two real
functions f:X → R and g:X → R is a function fg:X → R defined by
(fg) (x) = f(x) g(x), for all x ∈ X.
This is also called pointwise multiplication.
(v) Quotient of two real functions Let f and g be two real functions defined from
f
X→R, where X ⊂ R. The quotient of f by g denoted by
g is a function defined by ,

 f  f ( x)
  ( x) = , provided g(x) ≠ 0, x ∈ X
g g ( x)
2
Example 16 Let f(x) = x and g(x) = 2x + 1 be two real functions.Find
 f 
(f + g) (x), (f –g) (x), (fg) (x),   ( x ) .
g
Solution We have,
2 2
(f + g) (x) = x + 2x + 1, (f –g) (x) = x – 2x – 1,

2  f 
3 2 x2 1
(fg) (x) = x (2x + 1) = 2x + x ,   ( x ) = ,x ≠ −
g 2x + 1 2
Example 17 Let f(x) = x and g(x) = x be two functions defined over the set of non-
 f 
negative real numbers. Find (f + g) (x), (f – g) (x), (fg) (x) and   (x).
g
Solution We have
(f + g) (x) = x + x, (f – g) (x) = x –x,
3  f  x –
1

(fg) x = x( x ) = x2 and  g  ( x ) = = x 2,x≠0

  x

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44 MATHEMATICS

EXERCISE 2.3
1. Which of the following relations are functions? Give reasons. If it is a function,
determine its domain and range.
(i) {(2,1), (5,1), (8,1), (11,1), (14,1), (17,1)}
(ii) {(2,1), (4,2), (6,3), (8,4), (10,5), (12,6), (14,7)}
(iii) {(1,3), (1,5), (2,5)}.
2. Find the domain and range of the following real functions:
(i) f(x) = – x (ii) f(x) = 9 − x2 .
3. A function f is defined by f(x) = 2x –5. Write down the values of
(i) f (0), (ii) f (7), (iii) f (–3).
4. The function ‘t’ which maps temperature in degree Celsius into temperature in
9C
degree Fahrenheit is defined by t(C) = + 32.
5
Find (i) t(0) (ii) t(28) (iii) t(–10) (iv) The value of C, when t(C) = 212.
5. Find the range of each of the following functions.
(i) f (x) = 2 – 3x, x ∈ R, x > 0.
(ii) f (x) = x2 + 2, x is a real number.
(iii) f (x) = x, x is a real number.

Miscellaneous Examples
Example 18 Let R be the set of real numbers.
Define the real function
f: R→R by f(x) = x + 10
and sketch the graph of this function.
Solution Here f(0) = 10, f(1) = 11, f(2) = 12, ...,
f(10) = 20, etc., and
f(–1) = 9, f(–2) = 8, ..., f(–10) = 0 and so on.
Therefore, shape of the graph of the given
function assumes the form as shown in Fig 2.16.
Remark The function f defined by f(x) = mx + c ,
x ∈ R, is called linear function, where m and c are
constants. Above function is an example of a linear
Fig 2.16
function.

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 RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS 45

Example 19 Let R be a relation from Q to Q defined by R = {(a,b): a,b ∈ Q and

a – b ∈ Z}. Show that
(i) (a,a) ∈ R for all a ∈ Q
(ii) (a,b) ∈ R implies that (b, a) ∈ R
(iii) (a,b) ∈ R and (b,c) ∈ R implies that (a,c) ∈R
Solution (i) Since, a – a = 0 ∈ Z, if follows that (a, a) ∈ R.
(ii) (a,b) ∈ R implies that a – b ∈ Z. So, b – a ∈ Z. Therefore,
(b, a) ∈ R
(iii) (a, b) and (b, c) ∈ R implies that a – b ∈ Z. b – c ∈ Z. So,
a – c = (a – b) + (b – c) ∈ Z. Therefore, (a,c) ∈ R
Example 20 Let f = {(1,1), (2,3), (0, –1), (–1, –3)} be a linear function from Z into Z.
Find f(x).
Solution Since f is a linear function, f (x) = mx + c. Also, since (1, 1), (0, – 1) ∈ R,
f (1) = m + c = 1 and f (0) = c = –1. This gives m = 2 and f(x) = 2x – 1.

x2 + 3x + 5
Example 21 Find the domain of the function f ( x ) =
x2 − 5x + 4
2
Solution Since x –5x + 4 = (x – 4) (x –1), the function f is defined for all real numbers
except at x = 4 and x = 1. Hence the domain of f is R – {1, 4}.
Example 22 The function f is defined by
1− x, x < 0

1 , x=0
f (x) = 
 x + 1, x > 0

Draw the graph of f (x).
Solution Here, f(x) = 1 – x, x < 0, this gives
f(– 4) = 1 – (– 4) = 5;
f(– 3) =1 – (– 3) = 4,
f(– 2) = 1 – (– 2) = 3
f(–1) = 1 – (–1) = 2; etc,
and f(1) = 2, f (2) = 3, f (3) = 4
f(4) = 5 and so on for f(x) = x + 1, x > 0.
Thus, the graph of f is as shown in Fig 2.17 Fig 2.17

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46 MATHEMATICS

Miscellaneous Exercise on Chapter 2

 x , 0 ≤ x ≤ 3
2
1. The relation f is defined by f (x) = 
3 x,3 ≤ x ≤10

 x 2 , 0 ≤ x ≤ 2
The relation g is defined by g ( x) = 
3x , 2 ≤ x ≤ 10
Show that f is a function and g is not a function.
2 f (1.1) – f (1)
2. If f (x) = x , find .
(1.1 – 1)

x2 + 2 x + 1
3. Find the domain of the function f (x) = .
x 2 – 8 x + 12
4. Find the domain and the range of the real function f defined by f (x) = ( x − 1) .
5. Find the domain and the range of the real function f defined by f (x) = x – 1 .

 x2  
6. Let f =  x ,  : x ∈ R  be a function from R into R. Determine the range
 1 + x 
2

of f.
7. Let f, g : R→R be defined, respectively by f(x) = x + 1, g(x) = 2x – 3. Find
f
f + g, f – g and
g.
8. Let f = {(1,1), (2,3), (0,–1), (–1, –3)} be a function from Z to Z defined by
f(x) = ax + b, for some integers a, b. Determine a, b.
2
9. Let R be a relation from N to N defined by R = {(a, b) : a, b ∈N and a = b }. Are
the following true?
(i) (a,a) ∈ R, for all a ∈ N (ii) (a,b) ∈ R, implies (b,a) ∈ R
(iii) (a,b) ∈ R, (b,c) ∈ R implies (a,c) ∈ R.
Justify your answer in each case.
10. Let A ={1,2,3,4}, B = {1,5,9,11,15,16} and f = {(1,5), (2,9), (3,1), (4,5), (2,11)}
Are the following true?
(i) f is a relation from A to B (ii) f is a function from A to B.
Justify your answer in each case.

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 RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS 47

11. Let f be the subset of Z × Z defined by f = {(ab, a + b) : a, b ∈ Z}. Is f a

function from Z to Z? Justify your answer.
12. Let A = {9,10,11,12,13} and let f : A→N be defined by f (n) = the highest prime
factor of n. Find the range of f.

Summary
In this Chapter, we studied about relations and functions.The main features of
this Chapter are as follows:
® Ordered pair A pair of elements grouped together in a particular order.
® Cartesian product A × B of two sets A and B is given by
A × B = {(a, b): a ∈ A, b ∈ B}
In particular R × R = {(x, y): x, y ∈ R}
and R × R × R = (x, y, z): x, y, z ∈ R}
® If (a, b) = (x, y), then a = x and b = y.
® If n(A) = p and n(B) = q, then n(A × B) = pq.
®A×φ=φ
® In general, A × B ≠ B × A.
® Relation A relation R from a set A to a set B is a subset of the cartesian
product A × B obtained by describing a relationship between the first element
x and the second element y of the ordered pairs in A × B.
® The image of an element x under a relation R is given by y, where (x, y) ∈ R,
® The domain of R is the set of all first elements of the ordered pairs in a
relation R.
® The range of the relation R is the set of all second elements of the ordered
pairs in a relation R.
® Function A function f from a set A to a set B is a specific type of relation for
which every element x of set A has one and only one image y in set B.
We write f: A→B, where f(x) = y.
® A is the domain and B is the codomain of f.

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48 MATHEMATICS

® The range of the function is the set of images.

® A real function has the set of real numbers or one of its subsets both as its
domain and as its range.
® Algebra of functions For functions f : X → R and g : X → R, we have
(f + g) (x) = f (x) + g(x), x ∈ X
(f – g) (x) = f (x) – g(x), x ∈ X
(f.g) (x) = f (x) .g (x), x ∈ X
(kf) (x) = k ( f (x) ), x ∈ X, where k is a real number.
f f ( x)
  (x) = g ( x ) , x ∈ X, g(x) ≠ 0
g

Historical Note
The word FUNCTION first appears in a Latin manuscript “Methodus
tangentium inversa, seu de fuctionibus” written by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnitz
(1646-1716) in 1673; Leibnitz used the word in the non-analytical sense. He
considered a function in terms of “mathematical job” – the “employee” being
just a curve.
On July 5, 1698, Johan Bernoulli, in a letter to Leibnitz, for the first time
deliberately assigned a specialised use of the term function in the analytical
sense. At the end of that month, Leibnitz replied showing his approval.
Function is found in English in 1779 in Chambers’ Cyclopaedia: “The
term function is used in algebra, for an analytical expression any way compounded
of a variable quantity, and of numbers, or constant quantities”.

—v —

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 Chapter 3
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
vA mathematician knows how to solve a problem,
he can not solve it. – MILNE v

3.1 Introduction
The word ‘trigonometry’ is derived from the Greek words
‘trigon’ and ‘metron’ and it means ‘measuring the sides of
a triangle’. The subject was originally developed to solve
geometric problems involving triangles. It was studied by
sea captains for navigation, surveyor to map out the new
lands, by engineers and others. Currently, trigonometry is
used in many areas such as the science of seismology,
designing electric circuits, describing the state of an atom,
predicting the heights of tides in the ocean, analysing a
musical tone and in many other areas.
In earlier classes, we have studied the trigonometric Arya Bhatt
ratios of acute angles as the ratio of the sides of a right (476-550)
angled triangle. We have also studied the trigonometric identities and application of
trigonometric ratios in solving the problems related to heights and distances. In this
Chapter, we will generalise the concept of trigonometric ratios to trigonometric functions
and study their properties.
3.2 Angles
Angle is a measure of rotation of a given ray about its initial point. The original ray is
Vertex

Fig 3.1

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50 MATHEMATICS

called the initial side and the final position of the ray after rotation is called the
terminal side of the angle. The point of rotation is called the vertex. If the direction of
rotation is anticlockwise, the angle is said to be positive and if the direction of rotation
is clockwise, then the angle is negative (Fig 3.1).
The measure of an angle is the amount of
rotation performed to get the terminal side from
the initial side. There are several units for
measuring angles. The definition of an angle Fig 3.2
suggests a unit, viz. one complete revolution from the position of the initial side as
indicated in Fig 3.2.
This is often convenient for large angles. For example, we can say that a rapidly
spinning wheel is making an angle of say 15 revolution per second. We shall describe
two other units of measurement of an angle which are most commonly used, viz.
degree measure and radian measure.
th
 1 
3.2.1 Degree measure If a rotation from the initial side to terminal side is   of
 360 
a revolution, the angle is said to have a measure of one degree, written as 1°. A degree is
divided into 60 minutes, and a minute is divided into 60 seconds . One sixtieth of a degree is
called a minute, written as 1′, and one sixtieth of a minute is called a second, written as 1″.
Thus, 1° = 60′, 1′ = 60″
Some of the angles whose measures are 360°,180°, 270°, 420°, – 30°, – 420° are
shown in Fig 3.3.

Fig 3.3

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 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 51

3.2.2 Radian measure There is another unit for measurement of an angle, called
the radian measure. Angle subtended at the centre by an arc of length 1 unit in a
unit circle (circle of radius 1 unit) is said to have a measure of 1 radian. In the Fig
3.4(i) to (iv), OA is the initial side and OB is the terminal side. The figures show the
1 1
angles whose measures are 1 radian, –1 radian, 1 radian and –1 radian.
2 2

(i) (ii)
(iii)

(iv)
Fig 3.4 (i) to (iv)
We know that the circumference of a circle of radius 1 unit is 2π. Thus, one
complete revolution of the initial side subtends an angle of 2π radian.
More generally, in a circle of radius r, an arc of length r will subtend an angle of
1 radian. It is well-known that equal arcs of a circle subtend equal angle at the centre.
Since in a circle of radius r, an arc of length r subtends an angle whose measure is 1
l
radian, an arc of length l will subtend an angle whose measure is radian. Thus, if in
r
a circle of radius r, an arc of length l subtends an angle θ radian at the centre, we have
l
θ = or l = r θ.
r

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52 MATHEMATICS

P
3.2.3 Relation between radian and real numbers
2
Consider the unit circle with centre O. Let A be any point
on the circle. Consider OA as initial side of an angle.
Then the length of an arc of the circle will give the radian 1
measure of the angle which the arc will subtend at the
centre of the circle. Consider the line PAQ which is
1 A 0
tangent to the circle at A. Let the point A represent the O
real number zero, AP represents positive real number and
AQ represents negative real numbers (Fig 3.5). If we
−1
rope the line AP in the anticlockwise direction along the
circle, and AQ in the clockwise direction, then every real
number will correspond to a radian measure and −2
conversely. Thus, radian measures and real numbers can Fig 3.5 Q
be considered as one and the same.

3.2.4 Relation between degree and radian Since a circle subtends at the centre
an angle whose radian measure is 2π and its degree measure is 360°, it follows that
2π radian = 360° or π radian = 180°
The above relation enables us to express a radian measure in terms of degree
measure and a degree measure in terms of radian measure. Using approximate value
22
of π as , we have
7
180°
1 radian = = 57° 16′ approximately.
π

π
Also 1° = radian = 0.01746 radian approximately.
180

The relation between degree measures and radian measure of some common angles
are given in the following table:

Degree 30° 45° 60° 90° 180° 270° 360°

π π π π 3π
Radian π 2π
6 4 3 2 2

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 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 53

Notational Convention
Since angles are measured either in degrees or in radians, we adopt the convention
that whenever we write angle θ°, we mean the angle whose degree measure is θ and
whenever we write angle β, we mean the angle whose radian measure is β.
Note that when an angle is expressed in radians, the word ‘radian’ is frequently
π π
omitted. Thus, π = 180° and = 45° are written with the understanding that π and
4 4
are radian measures. Thus, we can say that
π
180 ×
Radian measure = Degree measure

180
Degree measure = × Radian measure
π
Example 1 Convert 40° 20′ into radian measure.
Solution We know that 180° = π radian.
1 π 121 121π
Hence 40° 20′ = 40 degree = × radian = radian.
3 180 3 540
121π
Therefore 40° 20′ = radian.
540
Example 2 Convert 6 radians into degree measure.
Solution We know that π radian = 180°.
180 1080 × 7
Hence 6 radians = × 6 degree = degree
π 22
7 7 × 60
= 343 degree = 343° + minute [as 1° = 60′]
11 11
2
= 343° + 38′ + minute [as 1′ = 60″]
11
= 343° + 38′ + 10.9″ = 343°38′ 11″ approximately.
Hence 6 radians = 343° 38′ 11″ approximately.
Example 3 Find the radius of the circle in which a central angle of 60° intercepts an
22
arc of length 37.4 cm (use π = ).
7

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54 MATHEMATICS

60π π
Solution Here l = 37.4 cm and θ = 60° = radian =
180 3
l
Hence, by r = , we have
θ
37.4×3 37.4×3×7
r= = = 35.7 cm
π 22
Example 4 The minute hand of a watch is 1.5 cm long. How far does its tip move in
40 minutes? (Use π = 3.14).
Solution In 60 minutes, the minute hand of a watch completes one revolution. Therefore,
2 2
in 40 minutes, the minute hand turns through of a revolution. Therefore, θ = × 360°
3 3
4π
or radian. Hence, the required distance travelled is given by
3
4π
l = r θ = 1.5 × cm = 2π cm = 2 × 3.14 cm = 6.28 cm.
3
Example 5 If the arcs of the same lengths in two circles subtend angles 65°and 110°
at the centre, find the ratio of their radii.
Solution Let r1 and r2 be the radii of the two circles. Given that
π 13π
θ1 = 65° = × 65 = radian
180 36
π 22π
and θ2 = 110° = × 110 = radian
180 36
Let l be the length of each of the arc. Then l = r1θ1 = r2θ2, which gives
13π 22π r1 22
× r1 = × r2 , i.e., r =
36 36 2 13
Hence r1 : r2 = 22 : 13.

EXERCISE 3.1
1. Find the radian measures corresponding to the following degree measures:
(i) 25° (ii) – 47°30′ (iii) 240° (iv) 520°

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 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 55

2. Find the degree measures corresponding to the following radian measures

22
(Use π = ).
7
11 5π 7π
(i) (ii) – 4 (iii) (iv)
16 3 6
3. A wheel makes 360 revolutions in one minute. Through how many radians does
it turn in one second?
4. Find the degree measure of the angle subtended at the centre of a circle of
22
radius 100 cm by an arc of length 22 cm (Use π = ).
7
5. In a circle of diameter 40 cm, the length of a chord is 20 cm. Find the length of
minor arc of the chord.
6. If in two circles, arcs of the same length subtend angles 60° and 75° at the
centre, find the ratio of their radii.
7. Find the angle in radian through which a pendulum swings if its length is 75 cm
and th e tip describes an arc of length
(i) 10 cm (ii) 15 cm (iii) 21 cm
3.3 Trigonometric Functions
In earlier classes, we have studied trigonometric ratios for acute angles as the ratio of
sides of a right angled triangle. We will now extend the definition of trigonometric
ratios to any angle in terms of radian measure and study them as trigonometric functions.
Consider a unit circle with centre
at origin of the coordinate axes. Let
P (a, b) be any point on the circle with
angle AOP = x radian, i.e., length of arc
AP = x (Fig 3.6).
We define cos x = a and sin x = b
Since ∆OMP is a right triangle, we have
OM2 + MP2 = OP2 or a2 + b2 = 1
Thus, for every point on the unit circle,
we have
a2 + b2 = 1 or cos2 x + sin2 x = 1
Since one complete revolution
subtends an angle of 2π radian at the
π
centre of the circle, ∠AOB = , Fig 3.6
2

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56 MATHEMATICS

3π π
∠AOC = π and ∠AOD = . All angles which are integral multiples of are called
2 2
quadrantal angles. The coordinates of the points A, B, C and D are, respectively,
(1, 0), (0, 1), (–1, 0) and (0, –1). Therefore, for quadrantal angles, we have
cos 0° = 1 sin 0° = 0,
π π
cos =0 sin =1
2 2
cosπ = − 1 sinπ = 0
3π 3π
cos =0 sin = –1
2 2
cos 2π = 1 sin 2π = 0
Now, if we take one complete revolution from the point P, we again come back to
same point P. Thus, we also observe that if x increases (or decreases) by any integral
multiple of 2π, the values of sine and cosine functions do not change. Thus,
sin (2nπ + x) = sin x , n ∈ Z , cos (2nπ + x) = cos x , n ∈ Z
Further, sin x = 0, if x = 0, ± π, ± 2π , ± 3π, ..., i.e., when x is an integral multiple of π
π 3π 5π
and cos x = 0, if x = ± ,± ,± , ... i.e., cos x vanishes when x is an odd
2 2 2
π
multiple of . Thus
2
π, where n is any integer
sin x = 0 implies x = nπ,
π
cos x = 0 implies x = (2n + 1) , where n is any integer.
2
We now define other trigonometric functions in terms of sine and cosine functions:
1
cosec x = , x ≠ nπ, where n is any integer.
sin x
1 π
sec x = , x ≠ (2n + 1) , where n is any integer.
cos x 2
sin x π
tan x = , x ≠ (2n +1) , where n is any integer.
cos x 2
cos x
cot x = , x ≠ n π, where n is any integer.
sin x

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 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 57

We have shown that for all real x, sin2 x + cos2 x = 1

It follows that

1 + tan2 x = sec2 x (why?)

1 + cot2 x = cosec2 x (why?)

In earlier classes, we have discussed the values of trigonometric ratios for 0°,
30°, 45°, 60° and 90°. The values of trigonometric functions for these angles are same
as that of trigonometric ratios studied in earlier classes. Thus, we have the following
table:
π π π π 3π
0° π 2π
6 4 3 2 2
1 1 3
sin 0 1 0 –1 0
2 2 2
3 1 1
cos 1 0 –1 0 1
2 2 2
1 not not
tan 0 1 3 0 0
3 defined defined

The values of cosec x, sec x and cot x

are the reciprocal of the values of sin x,
cos x and tan x, respectively.
3.3.1 Sign of trigonometric functions
Let P (a, b) be a point on the unit circle
with centre at the origin such that
∠AOP = x. If ∠AOQ = – x, then the
coordinates of the point Q will be (a, –b)
(Fig 3.7). Therefore
cos (– x) = cos x
and sin (– x) = – sin x
Since for every point P (a, b) on
the unit circle, – 1 ≤ a ≤ 1 and Fig 3.7

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– 1 ≤ b ≤ 1, we have – 1 ≤ cos x ≤ 1 and –1 ≤ sin x ≤ 1 for all x. We have learnt in

π
previous classes that in the first quadrant (0 < x < ) a and b are both positive, in the
2
π
second quadrant ( < x <π) a is negative and b is positive, in the third quadrant
2
3π 3π
(π < x < ) a and b are both negative and in the fourth quadrant ( < x < 2π) a is
2 2
positive and b is negative. Therefore, sin x is positive for 0 < x < π, and negative for
π π 3π
π < x < 2π. Similarly, cos x is positive for 0 < x < , negative for < x < and also
2 2 2
3π
positive for < x < 2π. Likewise, we can find the signs of other trigonometric
2

functions in different quadrants. In fact, we have the following table.

I II III IV

sin x + + – –

cos x + – – +

tan x + – + –

cosec x + + – –

sec x + – – +

cot x + – + –

3.3.2 Domain and range of trigonometric functions From the definition of sine
and cosine functions, we observe that they are defined for all real numbers. Further,
we observe that for each real number x,
– 1 ≤ sin x ≤ 1 and – 1 ≤ cos x ≤ 1
Thus, domain of y = sin x and y = cos x is the set of all real numbers and range
is the interval [–1, 1], i.e., – 1 ≤ y ≤ 1.

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1
Since cosec x =
sin x , the domain of y = cosec x is the set { x : x ∈ R and
x ≠ n π, n ∈ Z} and range is the set {y : y ∈ R, y ≥ 1 or y ≤ – 1}. Similarly, the domain
π
of y = sec x is the set {x : x ∈ R and x ≠ (2n + 1)
, n ∈ Z} and range is the set
2
{y : y ∈ R, y ≤ – 1or y ≥ 1}. The domain of y = tan x is the set {x : x ∈ R and
π
x ≠ (2n + 1) , n ∈ Z} and range is the set of all real numbers. The domain of
2
y = cot x is the set {x : x ∈ R and x ≠ n π, n ∈ Z} and the range is the set of all real
numbers.
π
We further observe that in the first quadrant, as x increases from 0 to , sin x
2
π
increases from 0 to 1, as x increases from to π, sin x decreases from 1 to 0. In the
2
3π
third quadrant, as x increases from π to , sin x decreases from 0 to –1and finally, in
2
3π
the fourth quadrant, sin x increases from –1 to 0 as x increases from to 2π.
2
Similarly, we can discuss the behaviour of other trigonometric functions. In fact, we
have the following table:

I quadrant II quadrant III quadrant IV quadrant

sin increases from 0 to 1 decreases from 1 to 0 decreases from 0 to –1 increases from –1 to 0

cos decreases from 1 to 0 decreases from 0 to – 1 increases from –1 to 0 increases from 0 to 1

tan increases from 0 to ∞ increases from –∞to 0 increases from 0 to ∞ increases from –∞to 0

cot decreases from ∞ to 0 decreases from 0 to–∞ decreases from ∞ to 0 decreases from 0to –∞

sec increases from 1 to ∞ increases from –∞to–1 decreases from –1to–∞ decreases from ∞ to 1

cosec decreases from ∞ to 1 increases from 1 to ∞ increases from –∞to–1 decreases from–1to–∞

Remark In the above table, the statement tan x increases from 0 to ∞ (infinity) for
π π
0<x< simply means that tan x increases as x increases for 0 < x < and
2 2

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π
assumes arbitraily large positive values as x approaches to . Similarly, to say that
2
cosec x decreases from –1 to – ∞ (minus infinity) in the fourth quadrant means that
3π
cosec x decreases for x ∈ ( , 2π) and assumes arbitrarily large negative values as
2
x approaches to 2π. The symbols ∞ and – ∞ simply specify certain types of behaviour
of functions and variables.
We have already seen that values of sin x and cos x repeats after an interval of
2π. Hence, values of cosec x and sec x will also repeat after an interval of 2π. We

Fig 3.8

Fig 3.9

Fig 3.10 Fig 3.11

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 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 61

Fig 3.12 Fig 3.13

shall see in the next section that tan (π + x) = tan x. Hence, values of tan x will repeat
after an interval of π. Since cot x is reciprocal of tan x, its values will also repeat after
an interval of π. Using this knowledge and behaviour of trigonometic functions, we can
sketch the graph of these functions. The graph of these functions are given above:

Example 6 If cos x = – 3 , x lies in the third quadrant, find the values of other five
5
trigonometric functions.
3 5
Solution Since cos x = − , we have sec x = −
5 3
2 2 2 2
Now sin x + cos x = 1, i.e., sin x = 1 – cos x
9 16
or sin2 x = 1 – =
25 25
4
Hence sin x = ±
5
Since x lies in third quadrant, sin x is negative. Therefore
4
sin x = –
5
which also gives
5
cosec x = –
4

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Further, we have
sin x 4 cos x 3
tan x = = and cot x = = .
cos x 3 sin x 4
5
Example 7 If cot x = – , x lies in second quadrant, find the values of other five
12
trigonometric functions.

5 12
Solution Since cot x = – , we have tan x = –
12 5
144 169
Now sec2 x = 1 + tan2 x = 1 + =
25 25
13
Hence sec x = ±
5
Since x lies in second quadrant, sec x will be negative. Therefore
13
sec x = – ,
5
which also gives
5
cos x = −
13
Further, we have
12 5 12
sin x = tan x cos x = (– ) × (– )=
5 13 13
1 13
and cosec x = = .
sin x 12

31π
Example 8 Find the value of sin .
3
Solution We know that values of sin x repeats after an interval of 2π. Therefore

31π π π 3
sin = sin (10π + ) = sin = .
3 3 3 2

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Example 9 Find the value of cos (–1710°).

Solution We know that values of cos x repeats after an interval of 2π or 360°.
Therefore, cos (–1710°) = cos (–1710° + 5 × 360°)
= cos (–1710° + 1800°) = cos 90° = 0.

EXERCISE 3.2
Find the values of other five trigonometric functions in Exercises 1 to 5.

1
1. cos x = – , x lies in third quadrant.
2
3
2. sin x = , x lies in second quadrant.
5
3
3. cot x = , x lies in third quadrant.
4
13
4. sec x = , x lies in fourth quadrant.
5
5
5. tan x = – , x lies in second quadrant.
12
Find the values of the trigonometric functions in Exercises 6 to 10.
6. sin 765° 7. cosec (– 1410°)
19π 11π
8. tan 9. sin (– )
3 3
15π
10. cot (– )
4
3.4 Trigonometric Functions of Sum and Difference of Two Angles
In this Section, we shall derive expressions for trigonometric functions of the sum and
difference of two numbers (angles) and related expressions. The basic results in this
connection are called trigonometric identities. We have seen that

1. sin (– x) = – sin x
2. cos (– x) = cos x
We shall now prove some more results:

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3. cos (x + y) = cos x cos y – sin x sin y

Consider the unit circle with centre at the origin. Let x be the angle P4OP1and y be
the angle P1OP2. Then (x + y) is the angle P4OP2. Also let (– y) be the angle P4OP3.
Therefore, P 1 , P 2 , P 3 and P 4 will have the coordinates P 1 (cos x, sin x),
P2 [cos (x + y), sin (x + y)], P3 [cos (– y), sin (– y)] and P4 (1, 0) (Fig 3.14).

Fig 3.14
Consider the triangles P1OP3 and P2OP4. They are congruent (Why?). Therefore,
P1P3 and P2P4 are equal. By using distance formula, we get
P 1P 32 = [cos x – cos (– y)]2 + [sin x – sin(–y]2
= (cos x – cos y)2 + (sin x + sin y)2
= cos2 x + cos2 y – 2 cos x cos y + sin2 x + sin2 y + 2sin x sin y
= 2 – 2 (cos x cos y – sin x sin y) (Why?)
Also, P 2P 42 = [1 – cos (x + y)] 2 + [0 – sin (x + y)]2
= 1 – 2cos (x + y) + cos2 (x + y) + sin2 (x + y)
= 2 – 2 cos (x + y)

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Since P 1 P 3 = P2P4, we have P1P32 = P2P42.

Therefore, 2 –2 (cos x cos y – sin x sin y) = 2 – 2 cos (x + y).
Hence cos (x + y) = cos x cos y – sin x sin y
4 . cos (x – y) = cos x cos y + sin x sin y
Replacing y by – y in identity 3, we get
cos (x + (– y)) = cos x cos (– y) – sin x sin (– y)
or cos (x – y) = cos x cos y + sin x sin y
π
5. cos ( – x ) = sin x
2
π
If we replace x by and y by x in Identity (4), we get
2
π π π
cos ( − x ) = cos cos x + sin sin x = sin x.
2 2 2
π
6. sin ( – x ) = cos x
2
Using the Identity 5, we have
π π  π 
sin (− x ) = cos  −  − x   = cos x.
2 2  2 
7. sin (x + y) = sin x cos y + cos x sin y
We know that
π   π 
sin (x + y) = cos  − (x + y )  = cos  ( − x) − y 
2   2 
π π
= cos ( − x ) cos y + sin ( − x) sin y
2 2
= sin x cos y + cos x sin y
8. sin (x – y) = sin x cos y – cos x sin y
If we replace y by –y, in the Identity 7, we get the result.
9. By taking suitable values of x and y in the identities 3, 4, 7 and 8, we get the
following results:
π π
cos ( + x ) = – sin x sin ( + x ) = cos x
2 2
π – x) = – cos x
cos (π π – x) = sin x
sin (π

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π + x) = – cos x
cos (π π + x) = – sin x
sin (π
cos (2ππ – x) = cos x sin (2ππ – x) = – sin x
Similar results for tan x, cot x, sec x and cosec x can be obtained from the results of sin
x and cos x.
π
10. If none of the angles x, y and (x + y) is an odd multiple of , then
2
tan x + tan y
tan (x + y) =
1 – tan x tan y

π
Since none of the x, y and (x + y) is an odd multiple of , it follows that cos x,
2
cos y and cos (x + y) are non-zero. Now
sin( x + y ) sin x cos y + cos x sin y
tan (x + y) = = .
cos( x + y ) cos x cos y − sin x sin y
Dividing numerator and denominator by cos x cos y, we have

sin x cos y cos x sin y

+
cos x cos y cos x cos y
tan (x + y) =
cos x cos y sin x sin y
−
cos x cos y cos x cos y

tan x + tan y
= 1 – tan x tan y

tan x – tan y
11. tan ( x – y) =
1 + tan x tan y
If we replace y by – y in Identity 10, we get
tan (x – y) = tan [x + (– y)]
tan x + tan (− y ) tan x − tan y
= =
1 − tan x tan ( − y ) 1+ tan x tan y
12. If none of the angles x, y and (x + y) is a multiple of π , then
cot x cot y – 1
cot ( x + y) =
cot y + cot x

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Since, none of the x, y and (x + y) is multiple of π, we find that sin x sin y and
sin (x + y) are non-zero. Now,
cos ( x + y ) cos x cos y – sin x sin y
cot ( x + y) = =
sin ( x + y ) sin x cos y + cos x sin y
Dividing numerator and denominator by sin x sin y, we have
cot x cot y – 1
cot (x + y) =
cot y + cot x

cot x cot y + 1
13. cot (x – y) = if none of angles x, y and x–y is a multiple of π
cot y – cot x
If we replace y by –y in identity 12, we get the result

2 2 2
1 – tan 2 x
2
14. cos 2x = cos x – sin x = 2 cos x – 1 = 1 – 2 sin x =
1 + tan 2 x
We know that
cos (x + y) = cos x cos y – sin x sin y
Replacing y by x, we get
cos 2x = cos2x – sin2 x
= cos2 x – (1 – cos2 x) = 2 cos2x – 1
Again, cos 2x = cos2 x – sin2 x
= 1 – sin2 x – sin2 x = 1 – 2 sin2 x.

2
cos2 x − sin 2 x
2
We have cos 2x = cos x – sin x =
cos2 x + sin 2 x
Dividing numerator and denominator by cos2 x, we get
1 – tan 2 x π
cos 2x = 2 ,
x ≠ n π + , where n is an integer
1 + tan x 2

2tan x π
15. sin 2x = 2 sinx cos x = 2 x ≠ n π + , where n is an integer
1 + tan x 2
We have
sin (x + y) = sin x cos y + cos x sin y
Replacing y by x, we get sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x.
2sin x cos x
Again sin 2x =
cos2 x + sin 2 x

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Dividing each term by cos2 x, we get

2tan x
sin 2x =
1 +tan 2 x

2tan x π
16. tan 2x = 2 if 2 x ≠ n π + , where n is an integer
1 – tan x 2
We know that
tan x + tan y
tan (x + y) = 1 – tan x tan y

2 tan x
Replacing y by x , we get tan 2 x =
1− tan 2 x
17. sin 3x = 3 sin x – 4 sin3 x
We have,
sin 3x = sin (2x + x)
= sin 2x cos x + cos 2x sin x
= 2 sin x cos x cos x + (1 – 2sin2 x) sin x
= 2 sin x (1 – sin2 x) + sin x – 2 sin3 x
= 2 sin x – 2 sin3 x + sin x – 2 sin3 x
= 3 sin x – 4 sin3 x
18. cos 3x = 4 cos3 x – 3 cos x
We have,
cos 3x = cos (2x +x)
= cos 2x cos x – sin 2x sin x
= (2cos2 x – 1) cos x – 2sin x cos x sin x
= (2cos2 x – 1) cos x – 2cos x (1 – cos2 x)
= 2cos3 x – cos x – 2cos x + 2 cos3 x
= 4cos3 x – 3cos x.
3 tan x – tan 3 x π
19. tan 3 x = if 3 x ≠ n π + , where n is an integer
1 – 3tan 2 x 2
We have tan 3x =tan (2x + x)
2tan x
+ tan x
tan 2 x + tan x 1 – tan 2 x
= =
1 – tan 2 x tan x 1 – 2tan x . tan x
1 – tan 2 x

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 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 69

2tan x + tan x – tan 3 x 3 tan x – tan 3 x

= =
1 – tan 2 x – 2tan 2 x 1 – 3tan 2 x

x+ y x– y
20. (i) cos x + cos y = 2cos cos
2 2
x+ y x– y
(ii) cos x – cos y = – 2sin sin
2 2
x+ y x– y
(iii) sin x + sin y = 2sin cos
2 2
x+ y x– y
(iv) sin x – sin y = 2cos sin
2 2
We know that
cos (x + y) = cos x cos y – sin x sin y ... (1)
and cos (x – y) = cos x cos y + sin x sin y ... (2)
Adding and subtracting (1) and (2), we get
cos (x + y) + cos(x – y) = 2 cos x cos y ... (3)
and cos (x + y) – cos (x – y) = – 2 sin x sin y ... (4)
Further sin (x + y) = sin x cos y + cos x sin y ... (5)
and sin (x – y) = sin x cos y – cos x sin y ... (6)
Adding and subtracting (5) and (6), we get
sin (x + y) + sin (x – y) = 2 sin x cos y ... (7)
sin (x + y) – sin (x – y) = 2cos x sin y ... (8)
Let x + y = θ and x – y = φ. Therefore
 θ+φ   θ−φ 
x =  and y =  
 2   2 
Substituting the values of x and y in (3), (4), (7) and (8), we get
 θ+φ   θ −φ 
cos θ + cos φ = 2 cos   cos  
 2   2 

θ+φ θ – φ
cos θ – cos φ = – 2 sin   sin  
 2   2 

 θ+φ   θ−φ 
sin θ + sin φ = 2 sin   cos  
 2   2 

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 θ+φ   θ−φ 
sin θ – sin φ = 2 cos   sin  
 2   2 
Since θ and φ can take any real values, we can replace θ by x and φ by y.
Thus, we get
x+ y x− y x+ y x− y
cos x + cos y = 2 cos cos ; cos x – cos y = – 2 sin sin ,
2 2 2 2
x+ y x− y x+ y x− y
sin x + sin y = 2 sin cos ; sin x – sin y = 2 cos sin .
2 2 2 2
Remark As a part of identities given in 20, we can prove the following results:
21. (i) 2 cos x cos y = cos (x + y) + cos (x – y)
(ii) –2 sin x sin y = cos (x + y) – cos (x – y)
(iii) 2 sin x cos y = sin (x + y) + sin (x – y)
(iv) 2 cos x sin y = sin (x + y) – sin (x – y).
Example 10 Prove that
π π 5π π
3sin sec − 4sin cot =1
6 3 6 4
Solution We have
π π 5π π
L.H.S. = 3sin sec − 4sin cot
6 3 6 4
1  π π
=3× × 2 – 4 sin  π −  × 1 = 3 – 4 sin
2  6 6
1
=3–4× = 1 = R.H.S.
2
Example 11 Find the value of sin 15°.
Solution We have
sin 15° = sin (45° – 30°)
= sin 45° cos 30° – cos 45° sin 30°
1 3 1 1 3 –1
= × − × = .
2 2 2 2 2 2
13 π
Example 12 Find the value of tan .
12

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 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 71

Solution We have
13 π  π π π π
tan = tan  π +  = tan = tan  − 
12  12  12 4 6

π π 1−
1
tan − tan
4 6 3 = 3 −1 = 2 − 3
= =
π π 1 3 +1
1 + tan tan 1+
4 6 3

Example 13 Prove that

sin ( x + y ) tan x + tan y
=
sin ( x − y ) tan x − tan y .

Solution We have
sin (x + y) sin x cos y + cos x sin y
L.H.S. = =
sin (x − y ) sin x cos y − cos x sin y
Dividing the numerator and denominator by cos x cos y, we get
sin ( x + y ) tan x + tan y
=
sin ( x − y ) tan x − tan y .

Example 14 Show that

tan 3 x tan 2 x tan x = tan 3x – tan 2 x – tan x
Solution We know that 3x = 2x + x
Therefore, tan 3x = tan (2x + x)
tan 2 x + tan x
or tan 3x =
1– tan 2 x tan x
or tan 3x – tan 3x tan 2x tan x = tan 2x + tan x
or tan 3x – tan 2x – tan x = tan 3x tan 2x tan x
or tan 3x tan 2x tan x = tan 3x – tan 2x – tan x.
Example 15 Prove that
π  π 
cos  + x  + cos  − x  = 2 cos x
4  4 
Solution Using the Identity 20(i), we have

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72 MATHEMATICS

π  π 
L.H.S. = cos  + x  + cos  − x 
4  4 

π π  π π 
 4 +x+ 4 −x  4 + x – ( 4 − x) 
= 2cos   cos  
 2   2 
   

π 1
= 2 cos cos x = 2 × cos x = 2 cos x = R.H.S.
4 2

cos 7 x + cos 5 x
Example 16 Prove that = cot x
sin 7 x – sin 5 x

Solution Using the Identities 20 (i) and 20 (iv), we get

7 x + 5x 7 x − 5x
2cos cos cos x
2 2 = cot x = R.H.S.
L.H.S. = =
7 x + 5x 7 x − 5x sin x
2cos sin
2 2

sin 5 x − 2sin 3x + sin x

Example 17 Prove that = = tan x
cos5 x − cos x

Solution We have

sin 5 x − 2sin 3 x + sin x sin 5 x + sin x − 2sin 3x

L.H.S. = =
cos5 x − cos x cos5 x − cos x

2sin 3 x cos 2 x − 2sin 3 x sin 3 x (cos 2 x − 1)

= =–
– 2sin 3x sin 2x sin 3x sin 2x

1− cos 2 x 2sin 2 x
= = = tan x = R.H.S.
sin 2 x 2sin x cos x

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EXERCISE 3.3
Prove that:
π π π 1 π 7π π 3
1. sin2 + cos2 – tan2 = – 2. 2sin2 + cosec2 cos 2 =
6 3 4 2 6 6 3 2
π 5π π 2 3π π π
3. cot
2
+ cosec + 3tan 2 = 6 4. 2sin + 2cos 2 + 2sec 2 = 10
6 6 6 4 4 3
5. Find the value of:
(i) sin 75° (ii) tan 15°

Prove the following:

π  π  π  π 
6. cos  − x  cos  − y  − sin  − x  sin  − y  = sin ( x + y )
 4   4   4   4 

π 
tan  + x  2
 4  =  1 + tan x cos (π + x) cos ( − x )
7.   8. = cot 2 x
π   1 − tan x π 
tan  − x  sin (π − x) cos  + x 
4  2 

 3π    3π  
9. cos  + x  cos (2 π + x)  cot  − x  + cot (2π + x)  = 1
 2    2  
10. sin (n + 1)x sin (n + 2)x + cos (n + 1)x cos (n + 2)x = cos x
 3π   3π 
11. cos  + x  − cos  − x  = − 2 sin x
 4   4 
12. sin2 6x – sin2 4x = sin 2x sin 10x 13. cos2 2x – cos2 6x = sin 4x sin 8x
14. sin2 x + 2 sin 4x + sin 6x = 4 cos2 x sin 4x
15. cot 4x (sin 5x + sin 3x) = cot x (sin 5x – sin 3x)
cos 9 x − cos 5 x sin 2 x sin 5x + sin 3 x
16. =− 17. = tan 4 x
sin 17 x − sin 3 x cos 10 x cos 5x + cos 3 x
sin x − sin y x−y sin x + sin 3 x
18. = tan 19. = tan 2 x
cos x + cos y 2 cos x + cos 3 x
sin x − sin 3x cos 4 x + cos 3x + cos 2 x
20. = 2 sin x 21. = cot 3x
2
sin x − cos x
2
sin 4 x + sin 3x + sin 2 x

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22. cot x cot 2x – cot 2x cot 3x – cot 3x cot x = 1

4tan x (1 − tan 2 x)
23. tan 4 x = 24. cos 4x = 1 – 8sin2 x cos2 x
1 − 6 tan 2 x + tan 4 x

25. cos 6x = 32 cos6 x – 48cos4 x + 18 cos2 x – 1

3.5 Trigonometric Equations
Equations involving trigonometric functions of a variable are called trigonometric
equations. In this Section, we shall find the solutions of such equations. We have
already learnt that the values of sin x and cos x repeat after an interval of 2π and the
values of tan x repeat after an interval of π. The solutions of a trigonometric equation
for which 0 ≤ x < 2π are called principal solutions. The expression involving integer
‘n’ which gives all solutions of a trigonometric equation is called the general solution.
We shall use ‘Z’ to denote the set of integers.
The following examples will be helpful in solving trigonometric equations:
3
Example 18 Find the principal solutions of the equation sin x = .
2

π 3 2π  π π 3
Solution We know that, sin = and sin = sin  π −  = sin = .
3 2 3  3 3 2
π 2π
Therefore, principal solutions are x = and .
3 3
1
Example 19 Find the principal solutions of the equation tan x = − .
3
π 1  π π 1
Solution We know that, tan = . Thus, tan  π –  = – tan = –
6 3  6 6 3

 π π 1
and tan  2π −  = − tan = −
 6 6 3
5π 11π 1
Thus tan = tan =− .
6 6 3
5π 11π
Therefore, principal solutions are and .
6 6
We will now find the general solutions of trigonometric equations. We have already

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 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 75

seen that:
sin x =0 gives x = nπ, where n ∈ Z
π
cos x =0 gives x = (2n + 1) , where n ∈ Z.
2
We shall now prove the following results:
Theorem 1 For any real numbers x and y,
sin x = sin y implies x = nπ + (–1)n y, where n ∈ Z
Proof If sin x = sin y, then
x+y x−y
sin x – sin y = 0 or 2cos sin =0
2 2
x+ y x− y
which gives cos = 0 or sin =0
2 2
x+ y π x−y
Therefore = (2n + 1) or= nπ, where n ∈ Z
2 2 2
i.e. x = (2n + 1) π – y or x = 2nπ + y, where n∈Z
Hence x = (2n + 1)π + (–1)2n + 1 y or x = 2nπ +(–1)2n y, where n ∈ Z.
Combining these two results, we get
x = nπ + (–1)n y, where n ∈ Z.
Theorem 2 For any real numbers x and y, cos x = cos y, implies x = 2nπ ± y,
where n ∈ Z
Proof If cos x = cos y, then
x+ y x− y
cos x – cos y = 0 i.e., –2 sin sin =0
2 2
x+y x−y
Thus sin =0 or sin =0
2 2
x+ y x−y
Therefore = nπ or = nπ, where n ∈ Z
2 2
i.e. x = 2nπ – y or x = 2nπ + y, where n ∈ Z
Hence x = 2nπ ± y, where n ∈ Z
π
Theorem 3 Prove that if x and y are not odd mulitple of , then
2
tan x = tan y implies x = nπ + y, where n ∈ Z

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Proof If tan x = tan y, then tan x – tan y = 0

sin x cos y − cos x sin y
or =0
cos x cos y
which gives sin (x – y) = 0 (Why?)
Therefore x – y = nπ, i.e., x = nπ + y, where n ∈ Z

3
Example 20 Find the solution of sin x = – .
2

3 π  π 4π
Solution We have sin x = – = − sin = sin  π +  = sin
2 3  3 3
4π
Hence sin x = sin , which gives
3
4π
x = nπ + ( − 1) n , where n ∈ Z.
3

4π 3
A Note is one such value of x for which sin x = − . One may take any
3 2
3
other value of x for which sin x = − . The solutions obtained will be the same
2
although these may apparently look different.
1
Example 21 Solve cos x = .
2
1 π
Solution We have, cos x = = cos
2 3
π
Therefore x = 2nπ ± , where n ∈ Z.
3
 π
Example 22 Solve tan 2 x = − cot  x +  .
 3

π π
Solution We have, tan 2 x = − cot  x + π  = tan  + x + 
 3 2 3

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 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 77

 5π 
or tan2 x = tan  x + 
 6 
5π
Therefore 2 x = nπ + x + , where n∈Z
6
5π
or x = nπ +
, where n∈Z.
6
Example 23 Solve sin 2x – sin 4x + sin 6x = 0.
Solution The equation can be written as
sin 6 x + sin 2 x − sin 4 x = 0
or 2 sin 4 x cos 2 x − sin 4 x = 0
i.e. sin 4 x (2 cos 2 x − 1) = 0
1
Therefore sin 4x = 0 or cos 2 x =
2
π
i.e. sin4 x = 0 or cos 2 x = cos
3
π
Hence 4 x = nπ or 2 x = 2nπ ± , where n∈Z
3
nπ π
i.e. x= or x = nπ ± , where n∈Z.
4 6
Example 24 Solve 2 cos2 x + 3 sin x = 0
Solution The equation can be written as
2 (1 − sin 2 x ) + 3 sin x = 0
2
or 2 sin x − 3 sin x − 2 = 0
or (2sinx + 1) (sinx − 2) = 0

1
Hence sin x = − or sin x = 2
2
But sin x = 2 is not possible (Why?)
1 7π
Therefore sin x = − = sin .
2 6

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Hence, the solution is given by

7π
x = nπ + ( − 1) n , where n ∈ Z.
6

EXERCISE 3.4
Find the principal and general solutions of the following equations:
1. tan x = 3 2. sec x = 2
3. cot x = − 3 4. cosec x = – 2
Find the general solution for each of the following equations:
5. cos 4 x = cos 2 x 6. cos 3x + cos x – cos 2x = 0
7. sin 2x + cos x = 0 8. sec2 2x = 1– tan 2x
9. sin x + sin 3x + sin 5x = 0

Miscellaneous Examples
3 12
Example 25 If sin x = , cos y = − , where x and y both lie in second quadrant,
5 13
find the value of sin (x + y).
Solution We know that
sin (x + y) = sin x cos y + cos x sin y ... (1)
9 16
Now cos2 x = 1 – sin2 x = 1 – =
25 25
4
Therefore cos x = ± .
5
Since x lies in second quadrant, cos x is negative.
4
Hence cos x = −
5
144 25
Now sin2y = 1 – cos2y = 1 – =
169 169
5
i.e. sin y = ± .
13
5
Since y lies in second quadrant, hence sin y is positive. Therefore, sin y = . Substituting
13
the values of sin x, sin y, cos x and cos y in (1), we get

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3  12   4  5 36 20 56
sin( x + y ) = ×  −  +  − × = − − =− .
5  13   5  13 65 65 65
Example 26 Prove that
x 9x 5x
cos 2 x cos − cos 3 x cos = sin 5 x sin .
2 2 2
Solution We have
1  x 9x 
L.H.S. =  2cos 2 x cos − 2cos cos 3x 
2  2 2 

1  x  x  9x   9x 
cos  2 x +  + cos  2 x −  − cos  + 3x  − cos  − 3x  
2  
=
2  2  2   2 
1 5x 3x 15x 3x  1  5x 15x 
 cos + cos − cos − cos  =  cos − cos
2 
=
2 2 2 2 2  2 2

  5 x 15 x   5 x 15 x 
1   2 + 2   2 − 2 
 −2sin   sin  
= 2  2   2 
    

 5x  5x
= − sin 5x sin  −  = sin 5x sin = R.H.S.
 2 2
π
Example 27 Find the value of tan .
8
π π
Solution Let x = . Then 2 x = .
8 4
2 tan x
Now tan 2 x =
1 − tan 2 x
π
2tan
π 8
tan =
or 4 1 − tan 2 π
8

π 2y
Let y = tan . Then 1 =
8 1− y2

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or y2 + 2y – 1 = 0

−2 ± 2 2
Therefore y= = − 1± 2
2
π π
Since lies in the first quadrant, y = tan is positve. Hence
8 8
π
tan = 2 −1 .
8

3 3π x x x
Example 28 If tan x = , π < x < , find the value of sin , cos and tan .
4 2 2 2 2

3π
Solution Since π < x < , cos x is negative.
2
π x 3π
Also < < .
2 2 4
x x
Therefore, sin is positive and cos is negative.
2 2
9 25
Now sec2 x = 1 + tan2 x = 1 + =
16 16
16 4
Therefore cos2 x = or cos x = – (Why?)
25 5
x 4 9
Now 2 sin 2 = 1 – cos x = 1 + = .
2 5 5
x 9
Therefore sin2 =
2 10
x 3
or sin = (Why?)
2 10
x 4 1
Again 2cos2 = 1+ cos x = 1 − =
2 5 5
x 1
Therefore cos2 =
2 10

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 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 81

x 1
or cos =− (Why?)
2 10
x
sin  − 10 
x 2 3
Hence tan = = ×  = – 3.
2 x 10  1 
cos
2
Example 29
 π  π 3
Prove that cos2 x + cos2  x +  + cos 2  x −  = .
 3  3 2

Solution We have

 2π   2π 
1 + cos  2 x +  1 + cos  2 x − 
L.H.S. = 1 + cos 2 x +  3 
+  3  .
2 2 2

1  2π   2π  
 3 + cos 2 x + cos  2 x +  + cos  2 x − 
3  
=
2  3  

1 2π 
=  3 + cos 2 x + 2cos 2 x cos 
2 3

1  π 
=  3 + cos 2 x + 2cos 2 x cos  π −  
2  3 

1 π
=  3 + cos 2 x − 2cos 2 x cos 
2 3
1 3
= [3 + cos 2 x − cos 2 x ] = = R.H.S.
2 2

Miscellaneous Exercise on Chapter 3

Prove that:

π 9π 3π 5π
1. 2 cos cos + cos + cos =0
13 13 13 13
2. (sin 3x + sin x) sin x + (cos 3x – cos x) cos x = 0

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x+ y
3. (cos x + cos y)2 + (sin x – sin y)2 = 4 cos2
2
x −y
4. (cos x – cos y)2 + (sin x – sin y)2 = 4 sin2
2
5. sin x + sin 3x + sin 5x + sin 7x = 4 cos x cos 2x sin 4x
(sin 7x + sin 5x ) + (sin 9x + sin 3x )
6. = tan 6x
(cos 7x + cos 5x ) + (cos 9x + cos 3x )
x 3x
7. sin 3x + sin 2x – sin x = 4sin x cos cos
2 2
x x x
Find sin , cos and tan in each of the following :
2 2 2
4 1
8. tan x = − , x in quadrant II 9. cos x = − , x in quadrant III
3 3
1
10. sin x = , x in quadrant II
4

Summary
® If in a circle of radius r, an arc of length l subtends an angle of θ radians, then
l=rθ
π
® Radian measure = × Degree measure
180
180
® Degree measure = π × Radian measure

® cos2 x + sin2 x = 1
® 1 + tan2 x = sec2 x
® 1 + cot2 x = cosec2 x
® cos (2nπ + x) = cos x
® sin (2nπ + x) = sin x
® sin (– x) = – sin x
® cos (– x) = cos x

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 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 83

® cos (x + y) = cos x cos y – sin x sin y

® cos (x – y) = cos x cos y + sin x sin y
π
® cos ( 2 − x ) = sin x
π
® sin ( 2 − x ) = cos x
® sin (x + y) = sin x cos y + cos x sin y
® sin (x – y) = sin x cos y – cos x sin y
π  π 
® cos  2 + x  = – sin x sin  + x  = cos x
2 
cos (π – x) = – cos x sin (π – x) = sin x
cos (π + x) = – cos x sin (π + x) = – sin x
cos (2π – x) = cos x sin (2π – x) = – sin x

π
® If none of the angles x, y and (x ± y) is an odd multiple of 2
, then

tan x + tan y
tan (x + y) =
1 − tan x tan y
tan x − tan y
® tan (x – y) = 1 + tan x tan y

® If none of the angles x, y and (x ± y) is a multiple of π, then

cot x cot y − 1
cot (x + y) =
cot y + cot x
cot x cot y + 1
® cot (x – y) = cot y − cot x

1 – tan 2 x
® cos 2x = cos2 x – sin2 x = 2cos2 x – 1 = 1 – 2 sin2 x = 1 + tan 2 x

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2 tan x
® sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x =
1 + tan 2 x

2tanx
® tan 2x = 1 − tan 2 x

® sin 3x = 3sin x – 4sin3 x

® cos 3x = 4cos3 x – 3cos x
3tan x − tan 3 x
® tan 3x = 1− 3tan 2 x
x+ y x− y
® (i) cos x + cos y = 2cos cos
2 2
x+ y x− y
(ii) cos x – cos y = – 2sin sin
2 2
x+ y x− y
(iii) sin x + sin y = 2 sin cos
2 2
x+ y x− y
(iv) sin x – sin y = 2cos sin
2 2
® (i) 2cos x cos y = cos ( x + y) + cos ( x – y)
(ii) – 2sin x sin y = cos (x + y) – cos (x – y)
(iii) 2sin x cos y = sin (x + y) + sin (x – y)
(iv) 2 cos x sin y = sin (x + y) – sin (x – y).
® sin x = 0 gives x = nπ, where n ∈ Z.
π
® cos x = 0 gives x = (2n + 1) , where n ∈ Z.
2
® sin x = sin y implies x = nπ + (– 1)n y, where n ∈ Z.
® cos x = cos y, implies x = 2nπ ± y, where n ∈ Z.
® tan x = tan y implies x = nπ + y, where n ∈ Z.

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Historical Note
The study of trigonometry was first started in India. The ancient Indian
Mathematicians, Aryabhatta (476), Brahmagupta (598), Bhaskara I (600) and
Bhaskara II (1114) got important results. All this knowledge first went from
India to middle-east and from there to Europe. The Greeks had also started the
study of trigonometry but their approach was so clumsy that when the Indian
approach became known, it was immediately adopted throughout the world.
In India, the predecessor of the modern trigonometric functions, known as
the sine of an angle, and the introduction of the sine function represents the main
contribution of the siddhantas (Sanskrit astronomical works) to the history of
mathematics.
Bhaskara I (about 600) gave formulae to find the values of sine functions
for angles more than 90°. A sixteenth century Malayalam work Yuktibhasa
(period) contains a proof for the expansion of sin (A + B). Exact expression for
sines or cosines of 18°, 36°, 54°, 72°, etc., are given by
Bhaskara II.
The symbols sin–1 x, cos–1 x, etc., for arc sin x, arc cos x, etc., were
suggested by the astronomer Sir John F.W. Hersehel (1813) The names of Thales
(about 600 B.C.) is invariably associated with height and distance problems. He
is credited with the determination of the height of a great pyramid in Egypt by
measuring shadows of the pyramid and an auxiliary staff (or gnomon) of known
height, and comparing the ratios:
H h
= = tan (sun’s altitude)
S s
Thales is also said to have calculated the distance of a ship at sea through
the proportionality of sides of similar triangles. Problems on height and distance
using the similarity property are also found in ancient Indian works.

—v —

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 Chapter 4
PRINCIPLE OF
MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION

vAnalysis and natural philosophy owe their most important discoveries to

this fruitful means, which is called induction. Newton was indebted
to it for his theorem of the binomial and the principle of
universal gravity. – LAPLACE v

4.1 Introduction
One key basis for mathematical thinking is deductive rea-
soning. An informal, and example of deductive reasoning,
borrowed from the study of logic, is an argument expressed
in three statements:
(a) Socrates is a man.
(b) All men are mortal, therefore,
(c) Socrates is mortal.
If statements (a) and (b) are true, then the truth of (c) is
established. To make this simple mathematical example,
we could write:
(i) Eight is divisible by two.
(ii) Any number divisible by two is an even number, G . Peano
(1858-1932)
therefore,
(iii) Eight is an even number.
Thus, deduction in a nutshell is given a statement to be proven, often called a
conjecture or a theorem in mathematics, valid deductive steps are derived and a
proof may or may not be established, i.e., deduction is the application of a general
case to a particular case.
In contrast to deduction, inductive reasoning depends on working with each case,
and developing a conjecture by observing incidences till we have observed each and
every case. It is frequently used in mathematics and is a key aspect of scientific
reasoning, where collecting and analysing data is the norm. Thus, in simple language,
we can say the word induction means the generalisation from particular cases or facts.

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 PRINCIPLE OF MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION 87

In algebra or in other discipline of mathematics, there are certain results or state-

ments that are formulated in terms of n, where n is a positive integer. To prove such
statements the well-suited principle that is used–based on the specific technique, is
known as the principle of mathematical induction.
4.2 Motivation
In mathematics, we use a form of complete induction called mathematical induction.
To understand the basic principles of mathematical induction, suppose a set of thin
rectangular tiles are placed as shown in Fig 4.1.

Fig 4.1

When the first tile is pushed in the indicated direction, all the tiles will fall. To be
absolutely sure that all the tiles will fall, it is sufficient to know that
(a) The first tile falls, and
(b) In the event that any tile falls its successor necessarily falls.
This is the underlying principle of mathematical induction.
We know, the set of natural numbers N is a special ordered subset of the real
numbers. In fact, N is the smallest subset of R with the following property:
A set S is said to be an inductive set if 1∈ S and x + 1 ∈ S whenever x ∈ S. Since
N is the smallest subset of R which is an inductive set, it follows that any subset of R
that is an inductive set must contain N.
Illustration
Suppose we wish to find the formula for the sum of positive integers 1, 2, 3,...,n, that is,
a formula which will give the value of 1 + 2 + 3 when n = 3, the value 1 + 2 + 3 + 4,
when n = 4 and so on and suppose that in some manner we are led to believe that the
n ( n + 1)
formula 1 + 2 + 3+...+ n = is the correct one.
2
How can this formula actually be proved? We can, of course, verify the statement
for as many positive integral values of n as we like, but this process will not prove the
formula for all values of n. What is needed is some kind of chain reaction which will

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have the effect that once the formula is proved for a particular positive integer the
formula will automatically follow for the next positive integer and the next indefinitely.
Such a reaction may be considered as produced by the method of mathematical induction.
4.3 The Principle of Mathematical Induction
Suppose there is a given statement P(n) involving the natural number n such that
(i) The statement is true for n = 1, i.e., P(1) is true, and
(ii) If the statement is true for n = k (where k is some positive integer), then
the statement is also true for n = k + 1, i.e., truth of P(k) implies the
truth of P (k + 1).
Then, P(n) is true for all natural numbers n.
Property (i) is simply a statement of fact. There may be situations when a
statement is true for all n ≥ 4. In this case, step 1 will start from n = 4 and we shall
verify the result for n = 4, i.e., P(4).
Property (ii) is a conditional property. It does not assert that the given statement
is true for n = k, but only that if it is true for n = k, then it is also true for n = k +1. So,
to prove that the property holds , only prove that conditional proposition:
If the statement is true for n = k, then it is also true for n = k + 1.
This is sometimes referred to as the inductive step. The assumption that the given
statement is true for n = k in this inductive step is called the inductive hypothesis.
For example, frequently in mathematics, a formula will be discovered that appears
to fit a pattern like
1 = 12 =1
4 = 22 = 1 + 3
9 = 32 = 1 + 3 + 5
16 = 42 = 1 + 3 + 5 + 7, etc.
It is worth to be noted that the sum of the first two odd natural numbers is the
square of second natural number, sum of the first three odd natural numbers is the
square of third natural number and so on.Thus, from this pattern it appears that
1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + ... + (2n – 1) = n2 , i.e,
the sum of the first n odd natural numbers is the square of n.
Let us write
P(n): 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + ... + (2n – 1) = n2.
We wish to prove that P(n) is true for all n.
The first step in a proof that uses mathematical induction is to prove that
P (1) is true. This step is called the basic step. Obviously
1 = 12, i.e., P(1) is true.
The next step is called the inductive step. Here, we suppose that P (k) is true for some

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positive integer k and we need to prove that P (k + 1) is true. Since P (k) is true, we
have
1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + ... + (2k – 1) = k2 ... (1)
Consider
1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + ... + (2k – 1) + {2(k +1) – 1} ... (2)
= k2 + (2k + 1) = (k + 1)2 [Using (1)]
Therefore, P (k + 1) is true and the inductive proof is now completed.
Hence P(n) is true for all natural numbers n.
Example 1 For all n ≥ 1, prove that
n (n + 1)(2 n + 1)
12 + 22 + 32 + 42 +…+ n2 = .
6
Solution Let the given statement be P(n), i.e.,
n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
P(n) : 12 + 22 + 32 + 42 +…+ n2 =
6
1(1 + 1) (2 × 1 + 1) 1× 2× 3
For n = 1, P(1): 1 = = =1 which is true.
6 6
Assume that P(k) is true for some positive integer k, i.e.,
k (k + 1)(2k + 1)
12 + 22 + 32 + 42 +…+ k2 = ... (1)
6
We shall now prove that P(k + 1) is also true. Now, we have
(12 +22 +32 +42 +…+k2 ) + (k + 1) 2
k (k + 1)(2k + 1)
= + ( k + 1)2 [Using (1)]
6
k (k + 1) (2k + 1) + 6(k + 1)2
=
6
(k + 1) (2 k 2 + 7 k + 6)
=
6
(k + 1)( k + 1 + 1){2( k + 1) + 1}
=
6
Thus P(k + 1) is true, whenever P (k) is true.
Hence, from the principle of mathematical induction, the statement P(n) is true
for all natural numbers n.

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Example 2 Prove that 2n > n for all positive integers n.

Solution Let P(n): 2n > n
When n =1, 21 >1. Hence P(1) is true.
Assume that P(k) is true for any positive integer k, i.e.,
2k > k ... (1)
We shall now prove that P(k +1) is true whenever P(k) is true.
Multiplying both sides of (1) by 2, we get
2. 2k > 2k
k+1
i.e., 2 > 2k = k + k > k + 1
Therefore, P(k + 1) is true when P(k) is true. Hence, by principle of mathematical
induction, P(n) is true for every positive integer n.
Example 3 For all n ≥ 1, prove that
1 1 1 1 n
+ + + ... + =
1.2 2.3 3.4 n(n + 1) n + 1 .

Solution We can write

1 1 1 1 n
P(n): + + + ... + =
1.2 2.3 3.4 n( n + 1) n + 1

1 1 1
We note that P(1): = = , which is true. Thus, P(n) is true for n = 1.
1.2 2 1 +1
Assume that P(k) is true for some natural number k,
1 1 1 1 k
i.e., + + + ... + = ... (1)
1.2 2.3 3.4 k ( k + 1) k + 1
We need to prove that P(k + 1) is true whenever P(k) is true. We have
1 1 1 1 1
+ + + ... + +
1.2 2.3 3.4 k (k + 1) ( k + 1) (k + 2)

 1 1 1 1  1
=  + + + ... + +
 1.2 2.3 3.4 k ( k + 1)  ( k + 1) ( k + 2)

k 1
= + [Using (1)]
k + 1 (k + 1)( k + 2)

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k (k + 2) + 1 (k 2 + 2 k + 1) ( k + 1)2 k +1
=
k +1
= = = =
(k + 1)(k + 2) (k + 1) ( k + 2) ( k + 1) ( k + 2 ) k + 2 ( k + 1) + 1
Thus P(k + 1) is true whenever P(k) is true. Hence, by the principle of mathematical
induction, P(n) is true for all natural numbers.
Example 4 For every positive integer n, prove that 7n – 3n is divisible by 4.
Solution We can write
P(n) : 7n – 3n is divisible by 4.
We note that
P(1): 71 – 31 = 4 which is divisible by 4. Thus P(n) is true for n = 1
Let P(k) be true for some natural number k,
i.e., P(k) : 7k – 3k is divisible by 4.
We can write 7k – 3k = 4d, where d ∈ N.
Now, we wish to prove that P(k + 1) is true whenever P(k) is true.
Now 7(k + 1) – 3(k + 1) = 7(k + 1) – 7.3k + 7.3k – 3(k + 1)
= 7(7k – 3k) + (7 – 3)3k = 7(4d) + (7 – 3)3k
= 7(4d) + 4.3k = 4(7d + 3k)
From the last line, we see that 7(k + 1) – 3(k + 1) is divisible by 4. Thus, P(k + 1) is true
when P(k) is true. Therefore, by principle of mathematical induction the statement is
true for every positive integer n.
Example 5 Prove that (1 + x)n ≥ (1 + nx), for all natural number n, where x > – 1.
Solution Let P(n) be the given statement,
i.e., P(n): (1 + x)n ≥ (1 + nx), for x > – 1.
We note that P(n) is true when n = 1, since ( 1+x) ≥ (1 + x) for x > –1
Assume that
P(k): (1 + x)k ≥ (1 + kx), x > – 1 is true. ... (1)
We want to prove that P(k + 1) is true for x > –1 whenever P(k) is true. ... (2)
Consider the identity
(1 + x)k + 1 = (1 + x)k (1 + x)
Given that x > –1, so (1+x) > 0.
Therefore , by using (1 + x)k ≥ (1 + kx), we have
(1 + x) k + 1 ≥ (1 + kx)(1 + x)
i.e. (1 + x)k + 1 ≥ (1 + x + kx + kx2). ... (3)

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Here k is a natural number and x2 ≥ 0 so that kx2 ≥ 0. Therefore

(1 + x + kx + kx2) ≥ (1 + x + kx),
and so we obtain
(1 + x)k + 1 ≥ (1 + x + kx)
i.e. (1 + x)k + 1 ≥ [1 + (1 + k)x]
Thus, the statement in (2) is established. Hence, by the principle of mathematical
induction, P(n) is true for all natural numbers.
Example 6 Prove that
2.7n + 3.5n – 5 is divisible by 24, for all n ∈ N.

Solution Let the statement P(n) be defined as

P(n) : 2.7n + 3.5n – 5 is divisible by 24.
We note that P(n) is true for n = 1, since 2.7 + 3.5 – 5 = 24, which is divisible by 24.
Assume that P(k) is true
i.e. 2.7k + 3.5k – 5 = 24q, when q ∈ N ... (1)
Now, we wish to prove that P(k + 1) is true whenever P(k) is true.
We have
2.7k+1 + 3.5k+1 – 5 = 2.7k . 71 + 3.5k . 51 – 5
= 7 [2.7k + 3.5k – 5 – 3.5k + 5] + 3.5k . 5 – 5
= 7 [24q – 3.5k + 5] + 15.5k –5
= 7 × 24q – 21.5k + 35 + 15.5k – 5
= 7 × 24q – 6.5k + 30
= 7 × 24q – 6 (5k – 5)
= 7 × 24q – 6 (4p) [(5k – 5) is a multiple of 4 (why?)]
= 7 × 24q – 24p
= 24 (7q – p)
= 24 × r; r = 7q – p, is some natural number. ... (2)
The expression on the R.H.S. of (1) is divisible by 24. Thus P(k + 1) is true whenever
P(k) is true.
Hence, by principle of mathematical induction, P(n) is true for all n ∈ N.

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Example 7 Prove that

n3
12 + 22 + ... + n2 > ,n∈N
3
Solution Let P(n) be the given statement.
n3
i.e., P(n) : 12 + 22 + ... + n2 > , n∈N
3
13
We note that P(n) is true for n = 1 since 1 >
2
3
Assume that P(k) is true
k3
i.e. P(k) : 12 + 22 + ... + k2 > ...(1)
3
We shall now prove that P(k + 1) is true whenever P(k) is true.
We have 12 + 22 + 32 + ... + k2 + (k + 1)2
k3
( )
= 12 + 22 + ... + k 2 + ( k + 1) >
2

3
+ ( k + 1)
2
[by (1)]

1 3
= [k + 3k2 + 6k + 3]
3
1 1
= [(k + 1)3 + 3k + 2] > (k + 1)3
3 3
Therefore, P(k + 1) is also true whenever P(k) is true. Hence, by mathematical induction
P(n) is true for all n ∈ N.
Example 8 Prove the rule of exponents (ab)n = anbn
by using principle of mathematical induction for every natural number.
Solution Let P(n) be the given statement
i.e. P(n) : (ab)n = anbn.
We note that P(n) is true for n = 1 since (ab)1 = a1b1.
Let P(k) be true, i.e.,
(ab)k = akbk ... (1)
We shall now prove that P(k + 1) is true whenever P(k) is true.
Now, we have
(ab)k + 1 = (ab)k (ab)

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= (ak bk) (ab) [by (1)]

= (ak . a1) (bk . b1) = ak+1 . bk+1
Therefore, P(k + 1) is also true whenever P(k) is true. Hence, by principle of math-
ematical induction, P(n) is true for all n ∈ N.

EXERCISE 4.1
Prove the following by using the principle of mathematical induction for all n ∈ N:

(3n − 1)
1. 1 + 3 + 32 + ... + 3n – 1 = .
2
2
 n(n + 1) 
2. 1 + 2 + 3 + … +n = 
3 3 3 3
 .
 2 
1 1 1 2n
3. 1+ (1 + 2) + (1 + 2 + 3) + ...+ (1 + 2 + 3 + ...n) = (n + 1) .

n( n + 1) (n + 2) ( n + 3)
4. 1.2.3 + 2.3.4 +…+ n(n+1) (n+2) = .
4
(2n − 1)3n +1 + 3
5. 1.3 + 2.32 + 3.33 +…+ n.3n = .
4

 n( n + 1) (n + 2) 
6. 1.2 + 2.3 + 3.4 +…+ n.(n+1) =   .
 3

n(4n 2 + 6n − 1)
7. 1.3 + 3.5 + 5.7 +…+ (2n–1) (2n+1) = .
3
8. 1.2 + 2.22 + 3.23 + ...+n.2n = (n–1) 2n + 1 + 2.
1 1 1 1 1
9. + + + ... + n = 1 − n .
2 4 8 2 2
1 1 1 1 n
10. + + + ... + =
2.5 5.8 8.11 (3n − 1)(3n + 2) (6n + 4) .

1 1 1 1 n(n + 3)
11. + + + ... + =
1.2.3 2.3.4 3.4.5 n( n + 1) ( n + 2) 4( n + 1) ( n + 2) .

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a (r n − 1)
12. a + ar + ar2 +…+ arn-1 = .
r −1

 3  5  7   (2n + 1) 
13. 1 +  1 +  1 +  ...  1 +  = ( n + 1) .
2

 1  4  9  n2 

 1  1   1   1 
14. 1 +  1 +  1 +  ...1 +  = (n + 1) .
 1  2   3   n 
n(2n − 1)(2n + 1)
15. 12 + 32 + 52 + …+ (2n–1)2 = .
3
1 1 1 1 n
16. 1.4 + 4.7 + 7.10 + ... + (3n − 2)(3n + 1) = (3n + 1) .

1 1 1 1 n
17. + + + ... + =
3.5 5.7 7.9 (2n + 1)(2n + 3) 3(2n + 3) .

1
18. 1 + 2 + 3 +…+ n < (2n + 1)2.
8
19. n (n + 1) (n + 5) is a multiple of 3.
20. 102n – 1 + 1 is divisible by 11.
21. x2n – y2n is divisible by x + y.
22. 32n+2 – 8n – 9 is divisible by 8.
23. 41n – 14n is a multiple of 27.
24. (2n + 7) < (n + 3)2.

Summary
® One key basis for mathematical thinking is deductive reasoning. In contrast to
deduction, inductive reasoning depends on working with different cases and
developing a conjecture by observing incidences till we have observed each
and every case. Thus, in simple language we can say the word ‘induction’
means the generalisation from particular cases or facts.
® The principle of mathematical induction is one such tool which can be used to
prove a wide variety of mathematical statements. Each such statement is
assumed as P(n) associated with positive integer n, for which the correctness

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for the case n = 1 is examined. Then assuming the truth of P(k) for some
positive integer k, the truth of P (k+1) is established.

Historical Note
Unlike other concepts and methods, proof by mathematical induction is not
the invention of a particular individual at a fixed moment. It is said that the principle
of mathematical induction was known by the Pythagoreans.
The French mathematician Blaise Pascal is credited with the origin of the
principle of mathematical induction.
The name induction was used by the English mathematician John Wallis.
Later the principle was employed to provide a proof of the binomial theorem.
De Morgan contributed many accomplishments in the field of mathematics
on many different subjects. He was the first person to define and name
“mathematical induction” and developed De Morgan’s rule to determine the
convergence of a mathematical series.
G. Peano undertook the task of deducing the properties of natural numbers
from a set of explicitly stated assumptions, now known as Peano’s axioms.The
principle of mathematical induction is a restatement of one of the Peano’s axioms.

—v —

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 Chapter 5

COMPLEX NUMBERS AND

QUADRATIC EQUATIONS

vMathematics is the Queen of Sciences and Arithmetic is the Queen of

Mathematics. – GAUSS v

5.1 Introduction
In earlier classes, we have studied linear equations in one
and two variables and quadratic equations in one variable.
We have seen that the equation x2 + 1 = 0 has no real
solution as x2 + 1 = 0 gives x2 = – 1 and square of every
real number is non-negative. So, we need to extend the
real number system to a larger system so that we can
find the solution of the equation x2 = – 1. In fact, the main
objective is to solve the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0, where
D = b2 – 4ac < 0, which is not possible in the system of
real numbers.
W. R. Hamilton
5.2 Complex Numbers (1805-1865)

Let us denote −1 by the symbol i. Then, we have i = −1 . This means that i is a

2

solution of the equation x2 + 1 = 0.

A number of the form a + ib, where a and b are real numbers, is defined to be a
 −1 
complex number. For example, 2 + i3, (– 1) + i 3 , 4 + i   are complex numbers.
 11 
For the complex number z = a + ib, a is called the real part, denoted by Re z and
b is called the imaginary part denoted by Im z of the complex number z. For example,
if z = 2 + i5, then Re z = 2 and Im z = 5.
Two complex numbers z1 = a + ib and z2 = c + id are equal if a = c and b = d.

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Example 1 If 4x + i(3x – y) = 3 + i (– 6), where x and y are real numbers, then find
the values of x and y.
Solution We have
4x + i (3x – y) = 3 + i (–6) ... (1)
Equating the real and the imaginary parts of (1), we get
4x = 3, 3x – y = – 6,
3 33
which, on solving simultaneously, give x = and y = .
4 4
5.3 Algebra of Complex Numbers
In this Section, we shall develop the algebra of complex numbers.
5.3.1 Addition of two complex numbers Let z1 = a + ib and z2 = c + id be any two
complex numbers. Then, the sum z1 + z2 is defined as follows:
z1 + z2 = (a + c) + i (b + d), which is again a complex number.
For example, (2 + i3) + (– 6 +i5) = (2 – 6) + i (3 + 5) = – 4 + i 8
The addition of complex numbers satisfy the following properties:
(i) The closure law The sum of two complex numbers is a complex
number, i.e., z1 + z2 is a complex number for all complex numbers
z1 and z2.
(ii) The commutative law For any two complex numbers z 1 and z 2 ,
z1 + z2 = z2 + z1
(iii) The associative law For any three complex numbers z 1, z 2, z 3 ,
(z1 + z2) + z3 = z1 + (z2 + z3).
(iv) The existence of additive identity There exists the complex number
0 + i 0 (denoted as 0), called the additive identity or the zero complex
number, such that, for every complex number z, z + 0 = z.
(v) The existence of additive inverse To every complex number
z = a + ib, we have the complex number – a + i(– b) (denoted as – z),
called the additive inverse or negative of z. We observe that z + (–z) = 0
(the additive identity).
5.3.2 Difference of two complex numbers Given any two complex numbers z1 and
z2, the difference z1 – z2 is defined as follows:
z1 – z2 = z1 + (– z2).
For example, (6 + 3i) – (2 – i) = (6 + 3i) + (– 2 + i ) = 4 + 4i
and (2 – i) – (6 + 3i) = (2 – i) + ( – 6 – 3i) = – 4 – 4i

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5.3.3 Multiplication of two complex numbers Let z1 = a + ib and z2 = c + id be any

two complex numbers. Then, the product z1 z2 is defined as follows:
z1 z2 = (ac – bd) + i(ad + bc)
For example, (3 + i5) (2 + i6) = (3 × 2 – 5 × 6) + i(3 × 6 + 5 × 2) = – 24 + i28
The multiplication of complex numbers possesses the following properties, which
we state without proofs.
(i) The closure law The product of two complex numbers is a complex number,
the product z1 z2 is a complex number for all complex numbers z1 and z2.
(ii) The commutative law For any two complex numbers z1 and z2,
z1 z2 = z2 z1 .
(iii) The associative law For any three complex numbers z 1 , z 2 , z 3 ,
(z1 z2) z3 = z1 (z2 z3).
(iv) The existence of multiplicative identity There exists the complex number
1 + i 0 (denoted as 1), called the multiplicative identity such that z.1 = z,
for every complex number z.
(v) The existence of multiplicative inverse For every non-zero complex
number z = a + ib or a + bi(a ≠ 0, b ≠ 0), we have the complex number
a –b 1
+i 2 2 (denoted by or z–1 ), called the multiplicative inverse
a +b
2 2
a +b z
of z such that
1
z. = 1 (the multiplicative identity).
z
(vi) The distributive law For any three complex numbers z1, z2, z3,
(a) z1 (z2 + z3) = z1 z2 + z1 z3
(b) (z1 + z2) z3 = z1 z3 + z2 z3
5.3.4 Division of two complex numbers Given any two complex numbers z1 and z2,
z1
where z2 ≠ 0 , the quotient z is defined by
2

z1 1
= z1
z2 z2
For example, let z1 = 6 + 3i and z2 = 2 – i

z1  1   2 − ( −1) 
=  (6 + 3i) ×  + 
2−i (
Then  = 6 + 3i )  22 + ( −1)
i 2 
z2  
2
2 2
+ ( −1) 

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 2+i  1 1
= ( 6 + 3i )  = 12 − 3 + i (6 + 6 ) = (9 + 12i )
 5  5 5
5.3.5 Power of i we know that

( )
2
i 3 = i 2 i = ( −1) i = −i , = ( −1) = 1
2
i4 = i2

( ) i = (−1) i = i , ( )
2 3
= ( − 1) = −1 , etc.
2 3
i5 = i 2 i6 = i2

1 i i 1 1
Also, we have i −1 = × = = − i, i− 2 = = = − 1,
i i −1 i 2
−1

1 1 i i 1 1
i −3 =
= × = = i, i −4 = 4 = = 1
i 3
−i i 1 i 1
4k 4k + 1 4k + 2 4k + 3
In general, for any integer k, i = 1, i = i, i = –1, i =–i
5.3.6 The square roots of a negative real number
Note that i2 = –1 and ( – i)2 = i2 = – 1
Therefore, the square roots of – 1 are i, – i. However, by the symbol −1 , we would
mean i only.
Now, we can see that i and –i both are the solutions of the equation x2 + 1 = 0 or
2
x = –1.

( 3 i) = ( 3)
2 2
Similarly i2 = 3 (– 1) = – 3

(− 3 i) = (− 3 )
2 2
i2 = – 3

Therefore, the square roots of –3 are 3 i and − 3 i .

Again, the symbol −3 is meant to represent 3 i only, i.e., −3 = 3i .
Generally, if a is a positive real number, −a = a −1 = a i,
We already know that a × b = ab for all positive real number a and b. This
result also holds true when either a > 0, b < 0 or a < 0, b > 0. What if a < 0, b < 0?
Let us examine.
Note that

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 COMPLEX NUMBERS AND QUADRATIC EQUATIONS 101

i 2 = −1 −1 = ( −1) ( −1) (by assuming a× b = ab for all real numbers)

2
= 1 = 1, which is a contradiction to the fact that i = −1 .
Therefore, a × b ≠ ab if both a and b are negative real numbers.
Further, if any of a and b is zero, then, clearly, a × b = ab = 0.
5.3.7 Identities We prove the following identity

( z1 + z2 )
2
= z12 + z22 + 2 z1 z2 , for all complex numbers z1 and z2.

Proof We have, (z1 + z2)2 = (z1 + z2) (z1 + z2),

= (z1 + z2) z1 + (z1 + z2) z2 (Distributive law)
= z12 + z2 z1 + z1 z2 + z22 (Distributive law)

= z12 + z1 z2 + z1 z2 + z22 (Commutative law of multiplication)

= z12 + 2 z1 z2 + z22
Similarly, we can prove the following identities:

( z1 − z2 )
2
(i) = z12 − 2 z1 z2 + z22

( z1 + z2 )
3
(ii) = z13 + 3 z12 z2 + 3z1 z22 + z23

( z1 − z2 )
3
(iii) = z13 − 3z12 z2 + 3 z1 z22 − z23

(iv) z12 – z 22 = ( z1 + z 2 ) ( z1 – z 2 )
In fact, many other identities which are true for all real numbers, can be proved
to be true for all complex numbers.
Example 2 Express the following in the form of a + bi:
3
1   1 
(i) ( −5i )  i  (ii) ( −i ) ( 2i ) − i
8   8 

−5 2 −5
( −5i ) 
1  5 5
Solution (i) i = i = ( −1) = = + i0
8  8 8 8 8
3
 1  1 1 2
( ) 1
2
(ii) ( −i ) ( 2i )  − i  = 2 × × i5 = i i= i.
 8  8× 8×8 256 256

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Example 3 Express (5 – 3i)3 in the form a + ib.

Solution We have, (5 – 3i)3 = 53 – 3 × 52 × (3i) + 3 × 5 (3i)2 – (3i)3
= 125 – 225i – 135 + 27i = – 10 – 198i.

( )( )
Example 4 Express − 3 + −2 2 3 − i in the form of a + ib

(
Solution We have, − 3 + −2 ) (2 3 −i ) = (− 3 + 2 i ) (2 3 − i )
= −6 + 3i + 2 6i − 2 i = ( −6 + 2 ) + 3 (1 + 2 2 ) i
2

5.4 The Modulus and the Conjugate of a Complex Number

Let z = a + ib be a complex number. Then, the modulus of z, denoted by | z |, is defined
to be the non-negative real number a 2 + b 2 , i.e., | z | = a 2 + b 2 and the conjugate
of z, denoted as z , is the complex number a – ib, i.e., z = a – ib.

For example, 3 + i = 32 + 12 = 10 , 2 − 5i = 22 + ( − 5)2 = 29 ,

and 3 + i = 3 − i , 2 − 5 i = 2 + 5 i , −3i − 5 = 3i – 5
Observe that the multiplicative inverse of the non-zero complex number z is
given by
1 a −b a − ib z
z–1 = = 2 +i 2 2 = =
a + ib a +b 2
a +b a 2 + b2 z
2

2
or z z= z
Furthermore, the following results can easily be derived.
For any two compex numbers z1 and z2 , we have

z1 z
(i) z1 z2 = z1 z2 (ii) = 1 provided z ≠ 0
z2 z2 2

 z1  z1
(iii) z1 z2 = z1 z2 (iv) z1 ± z2 = z1 ± z2 (v)  z  = z provided z2 ≠ 0.
 2 2

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Example 5 Find the multiplicative inverse of 2 – 3i.

Solution Let z = 2 – 3i
2
Then z = 2 + 3i and z = 22 + ( − 3) 2 = 13
Therefore, the multiplicative inverse of 2 − 3i is given by
z 2 + 3i 2 3
z–1 = 2
= = + i
z 13 13 13

The above working can be reproduced in the following manner also,

1 2 + 3i
z–1 = =
2 − 3i (2 − 3i )(2 + 3i)

2 + 3i 2 + 3i 2 3
= = = + i
2 − (3i)
2 2
13 13 13
Example 6 Express the following in the form a + ib
5 + 2i
(i) (ii) i–35
1 − 2i

5 + 2i 5 + 2i 1 + 2i 5 + 5 2i + 2i − 2
Solution (i) We have, = × =
( 2i )
2
1 − 2i 1 − 2i 1 + 2i 1−

3 + 6 2i 3(1 + 2 2i )
= = = 1 + 2 2i .
1+ 2 3

−35 1 1 1 i i
(ii) i = = = × = 2 =i
(i ) −i i −i
35 17
i 2
i

EXERCISE 5.1
Express each of the complex number given in the Exercises 1 to 10 in the
form a + ib.

(5i )  −
3 
1. i 2. i 9 + i 19 3. i −39
 5 

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4. 3(7 + i7) + i (7 + i7) 5. (1 – i) – ( –1 + i6)

1 2  5  1 7   1   4 
6.  +i  −4+i  7.  3 + i 3  +  4 + i 3   −  − 3 + i 
5 5  2      
3 3
1   1 
8. (1 – i) 4
9.  + 3i  10.  −2 − i 
 3   3 
Find the multiplicative inverse of each of the complex numbers given in the
Exercises 11 to 13.
11. 4 – 3i 12.5 + 3i 13. – i
14. Express the following expression in the form of a + ib :

(3 + i 5 ) (3 − i 5 )
( 3 + 2 i) − ( 3 − i 2 )
5.5 Argand Plane and Polar Representation
We already know that corresponding to
each ordered pair of real numbers
(x, y), we get a unique point in the XY-
plane and vice-versa with reference to a
set of mutually perpendicular lines known
as the x-axis and the y-axis. The complex
number x + iy which corresponds to the
ordered pair (x, y) can be represented
geometrically as the unique point P(x, y)
in the XY-plane and vice-versa.
Some complex numbers such as
2 + 4i, – 2 + 3i, 0 + 1i, 2 + 0i, – 5 –2i and
Fig 5.1
1 – 2i which correspond to the ordered
pairs (2, 4), ( – 2, 3), (0, 1), (2, 0), ( –5, –2), and (1, – 2), respectively, have been
represented geometrically by the points A, B, C, D, E, and F, respectively in
the Fig 5.1.
The plane having a complex number assigned to each of its point is called the
complex plane or the Argand plane.

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 COMPLEX NUMBERS AND QUADRATIC EQUATIONS 105

Obviously, in the Argand plane, the modulus of the complex number

x + iy = x 2 + y 2 is the distance between the point P(x, y) and the origin O (0, 0)
(Fig 5.2). The points on the x-axis corresponds to the complex numbers of the form
a + i 0 and the points on the y-axis corresponds to the complex numbers of the form

Fig 5.2

0 + i b. The x-axis and y-axis in the Argand plane are called, respectively, the real axis
and the imaginary axis.
The representation of a complex number z = x + iy and its conjugate
z = x – iy in the Argand plane are, respectively, the points P (x, y) and Q (x, – y).
Geometrically, the point (x, – y) is the mirror image of the point (x, y) on the real
axis (Fig 5.3).

Fig 5.3

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5.5.1 Polar representation of a complex

number Let the point P represent the non-
zero complex number z = x + iy. Let the
directed line segment OP be of length r and
θ be the angle which OP makes with the
positive direction of x-axis (Fig 5.4).
We may note that the point P is
uniquely determined by the ordered pair of
real numbers (r, θ), called the polar
coordinates of the point P. We consider
the origin as the pole and the positive
direction of the x axis as the initial line. Fig 5.4
We have, x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ and therefore, z = r (cos θ + i sin θ). The latter
is said to be the polar form of the complex number. Here r = x 2 + y 2 = z is the
modulus of z and θ is called the argument (or amplitude) of z which is denoted by arg z.
For any complex number z ≠ 0, there corresponds only one value of θ in
0 ≤ θ < 2π. However, any other interval of length 2π, for example – π < θ ≤ π, can be
such an interval.We shall take the value of θ such that – π < θ ≤ π, called principal
argument of z and is denoted by arg z, unless specified otherwise. (Figs. 5.5 and 5.6)

Fig 5.5 ( 0 ≤ θ < 2π )

Fig 5.6 (– π < θ ≤ π )

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Example 7 Represent the complex number z = 1 + i 3 in the polar form.

Solution Let 1 = r cos θ, 3 = r sin θ
By squaring and adding, we get

(
r 2 cos 2 θ + sin 2 θ = 4)
i.e., r = 4 = 2 (conventionally, r >0)
1 3 π
Therefore, cos θ = , sin θ = , which gives θ =
2 2 3
Fig 5.7
 π π
Therefore, required polar form is z = 2  cos + i sin 
 3 3
The complex number z = 1 + i 3 is represented as shown in Fig 5.7.
−16
Example 8 Convert the complex number into polar form.
1+ i 3

−16 −16 1− i 3
Solution The given complex number = ×
1+ i 3 1+ i 3 1− i 3

(
–16 1 – i 3 ) = –16 (1 – i 3 ) – 4 1 – i 3 = – 4 + i 4
= = ( ) 3 (Fig 5.8).
1 – (i 3 )
2
1+ 3

Let – 4 = r cos θ, 4 3 = r sin θ

By squaring and adding, we get

(
16 + 48 = r 2 cos 2θ + sin 2θ )
2
which gives r = 64, i.e., r = 8
1 3
Hence cos θ = − , sin θ =
2 2 Fig 5.8
π 2π
θ=π– =
3 3

 2π 2π 
Thus, the required polar form is 8  cos + i sin 
 3 3 

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EXERCISE 5.2
Find the modulus and the arguments of each of the complex numbers in
Exercises 1 to 2.
1. z = – 1 – i 3 2. z = – 3 + i
Convert each of the complex numbers given in Exercises 3 to 8 in the polar form:
3. 1 – i 4. – 1 + i 5. – 1 – i
6. – 3 7. 3 +i 8. i

5.6 Quadratic Equations

We are already familiar with the quadratic equations and have solved them in the set
of real numbers in the cases where discriminant is non-negative, i.e., ≥ 0,
Let us consider the following quadratic equation:
ax2 + bx + c = 0 with real coefficients a, b, c and a ≠ 0.
Also, let us assume that the b2 – 4ac < 0.
Now, we know that we can find the square root of negative real numbers in the
set of complex numbers. Therefore, the solutions to the above equation are available in
the set of complex numbers which are given by

−b ± b 2 − 4ac −b ± 4ac − b 2 i
x= =
2a 2a

A Note At this point of time, some would be interested to know as to how many
roots does an equation have? In this regard, the following theorem known as the
Fundamental theorem of Algebra is stated below (without proof).
“A polynomial equation has at least one root.”
As a consequence of this theorem, the following result, which is of immense
importance, is arrived at:
“A polynomial equation of degree n has n roots.”

Example 9 Solve x2 + 2 = 0
Solution We have, x2 + 2 = 0
or x2 = – 2 i.e., x = ± −2 = ± 2 i

Example 10 Solve x2 + x + 1= 0
Solution Here, b2 – 4ac = 12 – 4 × 1 × 1 = 1 – 4 = – 3

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−1 ± −3 −1 ± 3i
Therefore, the solutions are given by x = =
2 ×1 2
Example 11 Solve 5x2 + x + 5 = 0
Solution Here, the discriminant of the equation is
12 − 4 × 5 × 5 = 1 – 20 = – 19
Therefore, the solutions are

−1 ± −19 −1 ± 19i
= .
2 5 2 5

EXERCISE 5.3
Solve each of the following equations:
1. x2 + 3 = 0 2. 2x2 + x + 1 = 0 3. x2 + 3x + 9 = 0
4. – x2 + x – 2 = 0 5. x2 + 3x + 5 = 0 6. x2 – x + 2 = 0
7. 2 x2 + x + 2 = 0 8. 3x2 − 2 x + 3 3 = 0
1 x
9. x2 + x + =0 10. x2 + +1 = 0
2 2

Miscellaneous Examples

(3 − 2i) (2 + 3i )
Example 12 Find the conjugate of
(1 + 2i ) (2 − i ) .

(3 − 2i ) (2 + 3i )
Solution We have , (1 + 2i) (2 − i )

6 + 9i − 4i + 6 12 + 5i 4 − 3i
= = ×
2 − i + 4i + 2 4 + 3i 4 − 3i

48 − 36i + 20i + 15 63 −16i 63 16

= = = − i
16 + 9 25 25 25

(3 − 2i ) (2 + 3i ) 63 16
Therefore, conjugate of is + i
(1 + 2i) (2 − i ) 25 25 .

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Example 13 Find the modulus and argument of the complex numbers:

1+ i 1
(i) , (ii)
1− i 1+ i

1+ i 1 + i 1+ i 1 − 1+ 2i
Solution (i) We have, = × = =i= 0 + i
1 − i 1− i 1+ i 1+ 1
Now, let us put 0 = r cos θ, 1 = r sin θ
2
Squaring and adding, r = 1 i.e., r = 1 so that
cos θ = 0, sin θ = 1
π
Therefore, θ =
2
1+ i π
Hence, the modulus of is 1 and the argument is .
1− i 2
1 1− i 1− i 1 i
(ii) We have = = = −
1 + i (1 + i) (1 − i) 1 + 1 2 2

1 1
Let = r cos θ, – = r sin θ
2 2
1 1 −1
Proceeding as in part (i) above, we get r = ; cosθ = , sin θ =
2 2 2

−π
Therefore θ =
4

1 1 −π
Hence, the modulus of is , argument is .
1+ i 2 4

a + ib
2 2
Example 14 If x + iy =
a − ib , prove that x + y = 1.

Solution We have,
(a + ib) (a + ib) a 2 − b 2 + 2abi a2 − b2 2ab
x + iy = ( a − ib) ( a + ib) = = + 2 2i
a +b
2 2
a +b
2 2
a +b

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a 2 − b2 2ab
So that, x – iy = − 2 2i
a +b a +b
2 2

Therefore,

( a 2 − b 2 )2 4a 2b 2 (a 2 + b 2 ) 2
2 2
x + y = (x + iy) (x – iy) = + = 2 2 2 =1
(a 2 + b 2 ) 2 (a 2 + b 2 ) 2 (a + b )
Example 15 Find real θ such that
3 + 2i sinθ
is purely real.
1− 2i sinθ

Solution We have,
3 + 2i sinθ (3 + 2i sinθ) (1 + 2i sinθ)
=
1 − 2i sinθ (1 − 2i sinθ) (1 + 2i sinθ)

3+ 6i sinθ + 2i sinθ – 4sin 2θ 3 − 4sin 2θ 8i sinθ

= = +
1+ 4sin 2θ 1 + 4sin 2 θ 1 + 4sin 2θ
We are given the complex number to be real. Therefore
8sinθ
= 0, i.e., sin θ = 0
1 + 4sin 2θ
Thus θ = nπ, n ∈ Z.
i −1
Example 16 Convert the complex number z = π π in the polar form.
cos + i sin
3 3

i −1
Solution We have, z =
1 3
+ i
2 2

= × =
(
2(i − 1) 1 − 3i 2 i + 3 − 1 + 3i
=
) 3 −1
+
3 +1
i
1 + 3i 1 − 3i 1+ 3 2 2

3 −1 3 +1
Now, put = r cos θ , = r sin θ
2 2

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Squaring and adding, we obtain

2  ( 3) + 1
2 2 2
 3 −1  3 +1 
r =  +  = 2× 4 = 2
2
   = 
 2   2  4 4

3 −1 3 +1
Hence, r = 2 which gives cosθ = , sinθ =
2 2 2 2

π π 5π
Therefore, θ = + = (Why?)
4 6 12
Hence, the polar form is
 5π 5π 
2  cos + i sin 
 12 12 

Miscellaneous Exercise on Chapter 5

3
 18  1  25 
1. Evaluate:  i +    .
  i  
2. For any two complex numbers z1 and z2, prove that
Re (z1 z2) = Re z1 Re z2 – Imz1 Imz2.
 1 2   3 − 4i 
3. Reduce  −   to the standard form .
 1 − 4i 1 + i   5 + i 

a − ib a2 + b2
( )
2
4. If x − iy = prove that x + y = 2 2 .
2 2
c − id c +d
5. Convert the following in the polar form:
1 + 7i 1 + 3i
(i)
(2 − i ) 2 , (ii)
1 – 2i
Solve each of the equation in Exercises 6 to 9.
20 3
6. 3 x − 4 x + =0 x2 − 2 x + =0
2
7.
3 2
8. 27 x 2 − 10 x + 1 = 0

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9. 21x 2 − 28 x + 10 = 0

z1 + z2 +1
10. If z1 = 2 – i, z2 = 1 + i, find z – z +1 .
1 2

( x 2 + 1) 2
( x + i )2
11. If a + ib =
2 x2 + 1 (
, prove that a2 + b2 = 2 x 2 + 1 2 .
)
12. Let z1 = 2 – i, z2 = –2 + i. Find

 z1 z2   1 
(i) Re  z  , (ii) Im  .
 1   z1 z1 
1+ 2i
13. Find the modulus and argument of the complex number .
1 − 3i
14. Find the real numbers x and y if (x – iy) (3 + 5i) is the conjugate of –6 – 24i.
1+ i 1− i
15. Find the modulus of −
1 − i 1+ i .
u v
16. If (x + iy)3 = u + iv, then show that + = 4( x 2 – y 2 ) .
x y

β–α
17. If α and β are different complex numbers with β = 1 , then find 1 – α β .

x
18. Find the number of non-zero integral solutions of the equation 1 – i = 2x .
19. If (a + ib) (c + id) (e + if) (g + ih) = A + iB, then show that
(a2 + b2) (c2 + d2) (e2 + f 2) (g2 + h2) = A2 + B2

m
1+ i 
20. If   = 1 , then find the least positive integral value of m.
1 – i 

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Summary

® A number of the form a + ib, where a and b are real numbers, is called a
complex number, a is called the real part and b is called the imaginary part
of the complex number.
® Let z1 = a + ib and z2 = c + id. Then
(i) z1 + z2 = (a + c) + i (b + d)
(ii) z1 z2 = (ac – bd) + i (ad + bc)
® For any non-zero complex number z = a + ib (a ≠ 0, b ≠ 0), there exists the
a −b 1
complex number +i 2 2 , denoted by or z –1, called the
a +b
2 2
a +b z

 a2 −b 
multiplicative inverse of z such that (a + ib)  2 +i 2  = 1 + i0 =1
 a +b a + b2 
2

® For any integer k, i4k = 1, i4k + 1 = i, i4k + 2 = – 1, i4k + 3 = – i

® The conjugate of the complex number z = a + ib, denoted by z , is given by
z = a – ib.
® The polar form of the complex number z = x + iy is r (cosθ + i sinθ), where
x y
r= x 2 + y 2 (the modulus of z) and cosθ = , sinθ = . (θ is known as the
r r
argument of z. The value of θ, such that – π < θ ≤ π, is called the principal
argument of z.
® A polynomial equation of n degree has n roots.
® The solutions of the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0, where a, b, c ∈ R,
−b ± 4ac − b 2 i
a ≠ 0, b2 – 4ac < 0, are given by x = .
2a

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Historical Note
The fact that square root of a negative number does not exist in the real number
system was recognised by the Greeks. But the credit goes to the Indian
mathematician Mahavira (850) who first stated this difficulty clearly. “He mentions
in his work ‘Ganitasara Sangraha’ as in the nature of things a negative (quantity)
is not a square (quantity)’, it has, therefore, no square root”. Bhaskara, another
Indian mathematician, also writes in his work Bijaganita, written in 1150. “There
is no square root of a negative quantity, for it is not a square.” Cardan (1545)
considered the problem of solving
x + y = 10, xy = 40.
He obtained x = 5 + −15 and y = 5 – −15 as the solution of it, which
was discarded by him by saying that these numbers are ‘useless’. Albert Girard
(about 1625) accepted square root of negative numbers and said that this will
enable us to get as many roots as the degree of the polynomial equation. Euler
was the first to introduce the symbol i for −1 and W.R. Hamilton (about
1830) regarded the complex number a + ib as an ordered pair of real numbers
(a, b) thus giving it a purely mathematical definition and avoiding use of the so
called ‘imaginary numbers’.

—v —

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 Chapter 6
LINEAR INEQUALITIES

vMathematics is the art of saying many things in many

different ways. – MAXWELLv

6.1 Introduction
In earlier classes, we have studied equations in one variable and two variables and also
solved some statement problems by translating them in the form of equations. Now a
natural question arises: ‘Is it always possible to translate a statement problem in the
form of an equation? For example, the height of all the students in your class is less
than 160 cm. Your classroom can occupy atmost 60 tables or chairs or both. Here we
get certain statements involving a sign ‘<’ (less than), ‘>’ (greater than), ‘≤’ (less than
or equal) and ≥ (greater than or equal) which are known as inequalities.
In this Chapter, we will study linear inequalities in one and two variables. The
study of inequalities is very useful in solving problems in the field of science, mathematics,
statistics, economics, psychology, etc.

6.2 Inequalities
Let us consider the following situations:
(i) Ravi goes to market with ` 200 to buy rice, which is available in packets of 1kg. The
price of one packet of rice is ` 30. If x denotes the number of packets of rice, which he
buys, then the total amount spent by him is ` 30x. Since, he has to buy rice in packets
only, he may not be able to spend the entire amount of ` 200. (Why?) Hence
30x < 200
... (1)
Clearly the statement (i) is not an equation as it does not involve the sign of equality.
(ii) Reshma has ` 120 and wants to buy some registers and pens. The cost of one
register is ` 40 and that of a pen is ` 20. In this case, if x denotes the number of
registers and y, the number of pens which Reshma buys, then the total amount spent by
her is ` (40x + 20y) and we have
40x + 20y ≤ 120 ... (2)

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Since in this case the total amount spent may be upto ` 120. Note that the statement (2)
consists of two statements
40x + 20y < 120 ... (3)
and 40x + 20y = 120 ... (4)
Statement (3) is not an equation, i.e., it is an inequality while statement (4) is an equation.

Definition 1 Two real numbers or two algebraic expressions related by the symbol
‘<’, ‘>’, ‘≤’ or ‘≥’ form an inequality.
Statements such as (1), (2) and (3) above are inequalities.
3 < 5; 7 > 5 are the examples of numerical inequalities while
x < 5; y > 2; x ≥ 3, y ≤ 4 are some examples of literal inequalities.
3 < 5 < 7 (read as 5 is greater than 3 and less than 7), 3 < x < 5 (read as x is greater
than or equal to 3 and less than 5) and 2 < y < 4 are the examples of double inequalities.
Some more examples of inequalities are:
ax + b < 0 ... (5)
ax + b > 0 ... (6)
ax + b ≤ 0 ... (7)
ax + b ≥ 0 ... (8)
ax + by < c ... (9)
ax + by > c ... (10)
ax + by ≤ c ... (11)
ax + by ≥ c ... (12)
ax + bx + c ≤ 0
2
... (13)
ax2 + bx + c > 0 ... (14)
Inequalities (5), (6), (9), (10) and (14) are strict inequalities while inequalities (7), (8),
(11), (12), and (13) are slack inequalities. Inequalities from (5) to (8) are linear
inequalities in one variable x when a ≠ 0, while inequalities from (9) to (12) are linear
inequalities in two variables x and y when a ≠ 0, b ≠ 0.
Inequalities (13) and (14) are not linear (in fact, these are quadratic inequalities
in one variable x when a ≠ 0).
In this Chapter, we shall confine ourselves to the study of linear inequalities in one
and two variables only.

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6.3 Algebraic Solutions of Linear Inequalities in One Variable and their

Graphical Representation
Let us consider the inequality (1) of Section 6.2, viz, 30x < 200
Note that here x denotes the number of packets of rice.
Obviously, x cannot be a negative integer or a fraction. Left hand side (L.H.S.) of this
inequality is 30x and right hand side (RHS) is 200. Therefore, we have
For x = 0, L.H.S. = 30 (0) = 0 < 200 (R.H.S.), which is true.
For x = 1, L.H.S. = 30 (1) = 30 < 200 (R.H.S.), which is true.
For x = 2, L.H.S. = 30 (2) = 60 < 200, which is true.
For x = 3, L.H.S. = 30 (3) = 90 < 200, which is true.
For x = 4, L.H.S. = 30 (4) = 120 < 200, which is true.
For x = 5, L.H.S. = 30 (5) = 150 < 200, which is true.
For x = 6, L.H.S. = 30 (6) = 180 < 200, which is true.
For x = 7, L.H.S. = 30 (7) = 210 < 200, which is false.
In the above situation, we find that the values of x, which makes the above
inequality a true statement, are 0,1,2,3,4,5,6. These values of x, which make above
inequality a true statement, are called solutions of inequality and the set {0,1,2,3,4,5,6}
is called its solution set.
Thus, any solution of an inequality in one variable is a value of the variable
which makes it a true statement.
We have found the solutions of the above inequality by trial and error method
which is not very efficient. Obviously, this method is time consuming and sometimes
not feasible. We must have some better or systematic techniques for solving inequalities.
Before that we should go through some more properties of numerical inequalities and
follow them as rules while solving the inequalities.
You will recall that while solving linear equations, we followed the following rules:
Rule 1 Equal numbers may be added to (or subtracted from) both sides of an equation.
Rule 2 Both sides of an equation may be multiplied (or divided) by the same non-zero
number.
In the case of solving inequalities, we again follow the same rules except with a
difference that in Rule 2, the sign of inequality is reversed (i.e., ‘<‘ becomes ‘>’, ≤’
becomes ‘≥’ and so on) whenever we multiply (or divide) both sides of an inequality by
a negative number. It is evident from the facts that
3 > 2 while – 3 < – 2,
– 8 < – 7 while (– 8) (– 2) > (– 7) (– 2) , i.e., 16 > 14.

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Thus, we state the following rules for solving an inequality:

Rule 1 Equal numbers may be added to (or subtracted from) both sides of an inequality
without affecting the sign of inequality.
Rule 2 Both sides of an inequality can be multiplied (or divided) by the same positive
number. But when both sides are multiplied or divided by a negative number, then the
sign of inequality is reversed.
Now, let us consider some examples.
Example 1 Solve 30 x < 200 when
(i) x is a natural number, (ii) x is an integer.
Solution We are given 30 x < 200
30 x 200
or < (Rule 2), i.e., x < 20 / 3.
30 30
(i) When x is a natural number, in this case the following values of x make the
statement true.
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.
The solution set of the inequality is {1,2,3,4,5,6}.
(ii) When x is an integer, the solutions of the given inequality are
..., – 3, –2, –1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
The solution set of the inequality is {...,–3, –2,–1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
Example 2 Solve 5x – 3 < 3x +1 when
(i) x is an integer, (ii) x is a real number.
Solution We have, 5x –3 < 3x + 1
or 5x –3 + 3 < 3x +1 +3 (Rule 1)
or 5x < 3x +4
or 5x – 3x < 3x + 4 – 3x (Rule 1)
or 2x < 4
or x < 2 (Rule 2)
(i) When x is an integer, the solutions of the given inequality are
..., – 4, – 3, – 2, – 1, 0, 1
(ii) When x is a real number, the solutions of the inequality are given by x < 2,
i.e., all real numbers x which are less than 2. Therefore, the solution set of
the inequality is x ∈ (– ∞, 2).
We have considered solutions of inequalities in the set of natural numbers, set of
integers and in the set of real numbers. Henceforth, unless stated otherwise, we shall
solve the inequalities in this Chapter in the set of real numbers.

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120 MATHEMATICS

Example 3 Solve 4x + 3 < 6x +7.

Solution We have, 4x + 3 < 6x + 7
or 4x – 6x < 6x + 4 – 6x
or – 2x < 4 or x > – 2
i.e., all the real numbers which are greater than –2, are the solutions of the given
inequality. Hence, the solution set is (–2, ∞).

5 – 2x x
Example 4 Solve ≤ –5.
3 6
Solution We have
5 – 2x x
≤ –5
3 6
or 2 (5 – 2x) ≤ x – 30.
or 10 – 4x ≤ x – 30
or – 5x ≤ – 40, i.e., x ≥ 8
Thus, all real numbers x which are greater than or equal to 8 are the solutions of the
given inequality, i.e., x ∈ [8, ∞).
Example 5 Solve 7x + 3 < 5x + 9. Show the graph of the solutions on number line.
Solution We have 7x + 3 < 5x + 9 or
2x < 6 or x < 3
The graphical representation of the solutions are given in Fig 6.1.

Fig 6.1

3x − 4 x + 1
Example 6 Solve ≥ −1 . Show the graph of the solutions on number line.
2 4
Solution We have
3x − 4 x + 1
≥ −1
2 4
3x − 4 x − 3
or ≥
2 4
or 2 (3x – 4) ≥ (x – 3)

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 LINEAR INEQUALITIES 121

or 6x – 8 ≥ x – 3
or 5x ≥ 5 or x ≥ 1
The graphical representation of solutions is given in Fig 6.2.

Fig 6.2

Example 7 The marks obtained by a student of Class XI in first and second terminal
examination are 62 and 48, respectively. Find the minimum marks he should get in the
annual examination to have an average of at least 60 marks.
Solution Let x be the marks obtained by student in the annual examination. Then
62 + 48 + x
≥ 60
3
or 110 + x ≥ 180
or x ≥ 70
Thus, the student must obtain a minimum of 70 marks to get an average of at least
60 marks.
Example 8 Find all pairs of consecutive odd natural numbers, both of which are larger
than 10, such that their sum is less than 40.
Solution Let x be the smaller of the two consecutive odd natural number, so that the
other one is x +2. Then, we should have
x > 10 ... (1)
and x + ( x + 2) < 40 ... (2)
Solving (2), we get
2x + 2 < 40
i.e., x < 19 ... (3)
From (1) and (3), we get
10 < x < 19
Since x is an odd number, x can take the values 11, 13, 15, and 17. So, the required
possible pairs will be
(11, 13), (13, 15), (15, 17), (17, 19)

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EXERCISE 6.1
1. Solve 24x < 100, when
(i) x is a natural number. (ii) x is an integer.
2. Solve – 12x > 30, when
(i) x is a natural number. (ii) x is an integer.
3. Solve 5x – 3 < 7, when
(i) x is an integer. (ii) x is a real number.
4. Solve 3x + 8 >2, when
(i) x is an integer. (ii) x is a real number.
Solve the inequalities in Exercises 5 to 16 for real x.
5. 4x + 3 < 5x + 7 6. 3x – 7 > 5x – 1
7. 3(x – 1) ≤ 2 (x – 3) 8. 3 (2 – x) ≥ 2 (1 – x)
x x x x
9. x + + < 11 10. > +1
2 3 3 2
3( x − 2) 5(2 − x) 1  3x  1
11. ≤ 12.  + 4  ≥ ( x − 6)
5 3 2 5  3
13. 2 (2x + 3) – 10 < 6 (x – 2) 14. 37 – (3x + 5) > 9x – 8 (x – 3)
x (5 x − 2) (7 x − 3) (2 x −1) (3 x − 2) (2 − x )
15. < − 16. ≥ −
4 3 5 3 4 5
Solve the inequalities in Exercises 17 to 20 and show the graph of the solution in each
case on number line
17. 3x – 2 < 2x + 1 18. 5x – 3 > 3x – 5
x (5 x – 2) (7 x – 3)
19. 3 (1 – x) < 2 (x + 4) 20. ≥ –
2 3 5
21. Ravi obtained 70 and 75 marks in first two unit test. Find the minimum marks he
should get in the third test to have an average of at least 60 marks.
22. To receive Grade ‘A’ in a course, one must obtain an average of 90 marks or
more in five examinations (each of 100 marks). If Sunita’s marks in first four
examinations are 87, 92, 94 and 95, find minimum marks that Sunita must obtain
in fifth examination to get grade ‘A’ in the course.
23. Find all pairs of consecutive odd positive integers both of which are smaller than
10 such that their sum is more than 11.
24. Find all pairs of consecutive even positive integers, both of which are larger than
5 such that their sum is less than 23.

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 LINEAR INEQUALITIES 123

25. The longest side of a triangle is 3 times the shortest side and the third side is 2 cm
shorter than the longest side. If the perimeter of the triangle is at least 61 cm, find
the minimum length of the shortest side.
26. A man wants to cut three lengths from a single piece of board of length 91cm.
The second length is to be 3cm longer than the shortest and the third length is to
be twice as long as the shortest. What are the possible lengths of the shortest
board if the third piece is to be at least 5cm longer than the second?
[Hint: If x is the length of the shortest board, then x , (x + 3) and 2x are the
lengths of the second and third piece, respectively. Thus, x + (x + 3) + 2x ≤ 91 and
2x ≥ (x + 3) + 5].

6.4 Graphical Solution of Linear Inequalities in Two Variables

In earlier section, we have seen that a graph of an inequality in one variable is a visual
representation and is a convenient way to represent the solutions of the inequality.
Now, we will discuss graph of a linear inequality in two variables.
We know that a line divides the Cartesian plane into two parts. Each part is
known as a half plane. A vertical line will divide the plane in left and right half planes
and a non-vertical line will divide the plane into lower and upper half planes
(Figs. 6.3 and 6.4).

Fig 6.3 Fig 6.4

A point in the Cartesian plane will either lie on a line or will lie in either of the half
planes I or II. We shall now examine the relationship, if any, of the points in the plane
and the inequalities ax + by < c or ax + by > c.
Let us consider the line
ax + by = c, a ≠ 0, b ≠ 0 ... (1)

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124 MATHEMATICS

There are three possibilities namely:

(i) ax + by = c (ii) ax + by > c (iii) ax + by < c.
In case (i), clearly, all points (x, y) satisfying (i) lie on the line it represents and
conversely. Consider case (ii), let us first assume that b > 0. Consider a point P (α,β)
on the line ax + by = c, b > 0, so that
aα + bβ = c.Take an arbitrary point
Q (α , γ) in the half plane II (Fig 6.5).
Now, from Fig 6.5, we interpret,
γ > β (Why?)
or b γ > bβ or aα + b γ > aα + bβ
(Why?)
or aα + b γ > c
i.e., Q(α, γ ) satisfies the inequality
ax + by > c.
Thus, all the points lying in the half
plane II above the line ax + by = c satisfies Fig 6.5
the inequality ax + by > c. Conversely, let (α, β) be a point on line ax + by = c and an
arbitrary point Q(α, γ) satisfying
ax + by > c
so that aα + bγ > c
⇒ aα + b γ > aα + bβ (Why?)
⇒ γ>β (as b > 0)
This means that the point (α, γ ) lies in the half plane II.
Thus, any point in the half plane II satisfies ax + by > c, and conversely any point
satisfying the inequality ax + by > c lies in half plane II.
In case b < 0, we can similarly prove that any point satisfying ax + by > c lies in
the half plane I, and conversely.
Hence, we deduce that all points satisfying ax + by > c lies in one of the half
planes II or I according as b > 0 or b < 0, and conversely.
Thus, graph of the inequality ax + by > c will be one of the half plane (called
solution region) and represented by shading in the corresponding half plane.

A Note 1 The region containing all the solutions of an inequality is called the
solution region.
2. In order to identify the half plane represented by an inequality, it is just sufficient
to take any point (a, b) (not online) and check whether it satisfies the inequality or
not. If it satisfies, then the inequality represents the half plane and shade the region

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 LINEAR INEQUALITIES 125

which contains the point, otherwise, the inequality represents that half plane which
does not contain the point within it. For convenience, the point (0, 0) is preferred.
3. If an inequality is of the type ax + by ≥ c or ax + by ≤ c, then the points on the
line ax + by = c are also included in the solution region. So draw a dark line in the
solution region.
4. If an inequality is of the form ax + by > c or ax + by < c, then the points on the
line ax + by = c are not to be included in the solution region. So draw a broken or
dotted line in the solution region.
In Section 6.2, we obtained the following linear inequalities in two variables
x and y: 40x + 20y ≤ 120 ... (1)
while translating the word problem of purchasing of registers and pens by Reshma.
Let us now solve this inequality keeping in mind that x and y can be only whole
numbers, since the number of articles cannot be a fraction or a negative number. In
this case, we find the pairs of values of x and y, which make the statement (1) true. In
fact, the set of such pairs will be the solution set of the inequality (1).
To start with, let x = 0. Then L.H.S. of (1) is
40x + 20y = 40 (0) + 20y = 20y.
Thus, we have
20y ≤ 120 or y ≤ 6 ... (2)
For x = 0, the corresponding values of y can be 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 only. In this case, the
solutions of (1) are (0, 0), (0, 1), (0,2), (0,3), (0,4),
(0, 5) and (0, 6).
Similarly, other solutions of (1), when
x = 1, 2 and 3 are: (1, 0), (1, 1), (1, 2), (1,
3), (1, 4), (2, 0), (2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 0)
This is shown in Fig 6.6.
Let us now extend the domain of x and y
from whole numbers to real numbers, and see
what will be the solutions of (1) in this case.
You will see that the graphical method of solution
will be very convenient in this case. For this
purpose, let us consider the (corresponding)
equation and draw its graph.
40x + 20y = 120 ... (3)
In order to draw the graph of the inequality
(1), we take one point say (0, 0), in half plane I
and check whether values of x and y satisfy the
inequality or not. Fig 6.6

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126 MATHEMATICS

We observe that x = 0, y = 0 satisfy the

inequality. Thus, we say that the half plane I is the
graph (Fig 6.7) of the inequality. Since the points on
the line also satisfy the inequality (1) above, the line
is also a part of the graph.
Thus, the graph of the given inequality is half
plane I including the line itself. Clearly half plane II
is not the part of the graph. Hence, solutions of
inequality (1) will consist of all the points of its graph
(half plane I including the line).
We shall now consider some examples to
explain the above procedure for solving a linear
inequality involving two variables.
Example 9 Solve 3x + 2y > 6 graphically. Fig 6.7
Solution Graph of 3x + 2y = 6 is given as dotted line in the Fig 6.8.
This line divides the xy-plane in two half
planes I and II. We select a point (not on the
line), say (0, 0), which lies in one of the half
planes (Fig 6.8) and determine if this point
satisfies the given inequality, we note that
3 (0) + 2 (0) > 6
or 0 > 6 , which is false.
Hence, half plane I is not the solution region of
the given inequality. Clearly, any point on the
line does not satisfy the given strict inequality.
In other words, the shaded half plane II Fig 6.8
excluding the points on the line is the solution
region of the inequality.
Example 10 Solve 3x – 6 ≥ 0 graphically in
two dimensional plane.
Solution Graph of 3x – 6 = 0 is given in the
Fig 6.9.
We select a point, say (0, 0) and substituting it in
given inequality, we see that:
3 (0) – 6 ≥ 0 or – 6 ≥ 0 which is false.
Thus, the solution region is the shaded region on
the right hand side of the line x = 2. Fig 6.9

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 LINEAR INEQUALITIES 127

Example 11 Solve y < 2 graphically.

Solution Graph of y = 2 is given in the Fig 6.10.
Let us select a point, (0, 0) in lower half
plane I and putting y = 0 in the given inequality,
we see that
1 × 0 < 2 or 0 < 2 which is true.
Thus, the solution region is the shaded region
below the line y = 2. Hence, every point below
the line (excluding all the points on the line)
determines the solution of the given inequality.
Fig 6.10

EXERCISE 6.2
Solve the following inequalities graphically in two-dimensional plane:
1. x + y < 5 2. 2x + y ≥ 6 3. 3x + 4y ≤ 12
4. y + 8 ≥ 2x 5. x – y ≤ 2 6. 2x – 3y > 6
7. – 3x + 2y ≥ – 6 8. 3y – 5x < 30 9. y < – 2
10. x > – 3.
6.5 Solution of System of Linear Inequalities in Two Variables
In previous Section, you have learnt how to solve linear inequality in one or two variables
graphically. We will now illustrate the method for solving a system of linear inequalities
in two variables graphically through some
examples.
Example 12 Solve the following system
of linear inequalities graphically.
x+y≥5 ... (1)
x–y≤3 ... (2)
Solution The graph of linear equation
x+y=5
is drawn in Fig 6.11.
We note that solution of inequality
(1) is represented by the shaded region
above the line x + y = 5, including the
points on the line.
On the same set of axes, we draw
the graph of the equation x – y = 3 as Fig 6.11
shown in Fig 6.11. Then we note that inequality (2) represents the shaded region above

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128 MATHEMATICS

the line x – y = 3, including the points on the line.

Clearly, the double shaded region, common to the above two shaded regions is
the required solution region of the given system of inequalities.
Example 13 Solve the following system
of inequalities graphically
5x + 4y ≤ 40 ... (1)
x≥2 ... (2)
y≥3 ... (3)
Solution We first draw the graph of
the line
5x + 4y = 40, x = 2 and y = 3
Then we note that the inequality (1)
represents shaded region below the line
5x + 4y = 40 and inequality (2) represents
the shaded region right of line x = 2 but
inequality (3) represents the shaded region
above the line y = 3. Hence, shaded region
(Fig 6.12) including all the point on the lines
are also the solution of the given system Fig 6.12
of the linear inequalities.
In many practical situations involving
system of inequalities the variable x and y
often represent quantities that cannot have
negative values, for example, number of
units produced, number of articles
purchased, number of hours worked, etc.
Clearly, in such cases, x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0 and the
solution region lies only in the first quadrant.
Example 14 Solve the following system
of inequalities
8x + 3y ≤ 100 ... (1)
x≥0 ... (2)
y≥0 ... (3)
Solution We draw the graph of the line
8x + 3y = 100
The inequality 8x + 3y ≤ 100 represents the
shaded region below the line, including the Fig 6.13
points on the line 8x +3y =100 (Fig 6.13).

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 LINEAR INEQUALITIES 129

Since x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0, every point in the

shaded region in the first quadrant,
including the points on the line and
the axes, represents the solution of
the given system of inequalities.
Example 15 Solve the following
system of inequalities graphically
x + 2y ≤ 8 ... (1)
2x + y ≤ 8 ... (2)
x>0 ... (3)
y>0 ... (4)
Solution We draw the graphs of
the lines x + 2y = 8 and 2x + y = 8.
The inequality (1) and (2) represent
Fig 6.14
the region below the two lines,
including the point on the respective lines.
Since x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0, every point in the shaded region in the first quadrant represent
a solution of the given system of inequalities (Fig 6.14).

EXERCISE 6.3
Solve the following system of inequalities graphically:
1. x ≥ 3, y ≥ 2 2. 3x + 2y ≤ 12, x ≥ 1, y ≥ 2
3. 2x + y ≥ 6, 3x + 4y < 12 4. x + y ≥ 4, 2x – y < 0
5. 2x – y >1, x – 2y < – 1 6. x + y ≤ 6, x + y ≥ 4
7. 2x + y ≥ 8, x + 2y ≥ 10 8. x + y ≤ 9, y > x, x ≥ 0
9. 5x + 4y ≤ 20, x ≥ 1, y ≥ 2
10. 3x + 4y ≤ 60, x +3y ≤ 30, x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0
11. 2x + y ≥ 4, x + y ≤ 3, 2x – 3y ≤ 6
12. x – 2y ≤ 3, 3x + 4y ≥ 12, x ≥ 0 , y ≥ 1
13. 4x + 3y ≤ 60, y ≥ 2x, x ≥ 3, x, y ≥ 0
14. 3x + 2y ≤ 150, x + 4y ≤ 80, x ≤ 15, y ≥ 0, x ≥ 0
15. x + 2y ≤ 10, x + y ≥ 1, x – y ≤ 0, x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0

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Miscellaneous Examples
Example 16 Solve – 8 ≤ 5x – 3 < 7.
Solution In this case, we have two inequalities, – 8 ≤ 5x – 3 and 5x – 3 < 7, which we
will solve simultaneously. We have – 8 ≤ 5x –3 < 7
or –5 ≤ 5x < 10 or –1 ≤ x < 2
5 – 3x
Example 17 Solve – 5 ≤ ≤ 8.
2
5 – 3x
Solution We have – 5 ≤ ≤8
2
or –10 ≤ 5 – 3x ≤ 16 or – 15 ≤ – 3x ≤ 11
11
or 5≥x≥–
3
–11
which can be written as ≤ x ≤5
3
Example 18 Solve the system of inequalities:
3x – 7 < 5 + x ... (1)
11 – 5 x ≤ 1 ... (2)
and represent the solutions on the number line.
Solution From inequality (1), we have
3x – 7 < 5 + x
or x<6
... (3)
Also, from inequality (2), we have
11 – 5 x ≤ 1
or – 5 x ≤ – 10 i.e., x ≥ 2 ... (4)
If we draw the graph of inequalities (3) and (4) on the number line, we see that the
values of x, which are common to both, are shown by bold line in Fig 6.15.

Fig 6.15
Thus, solution of the system are real numbers x lying between 2 and 6 including 2, i.e.,
2≤x<6

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 LINEAR INEQUALITIES 131

Example 19 In an experiment, a solution of hydrochloric acid is to be kept between

30° and 35° Celsius. What is the range of temperature in degree Fahrenheit if conversion
5
formula is given by C = (F – 32), where C and F represent temperature in degree
9
Celsius and degree Fahrenheit, respectively.
Solution It is given that 30 < C < 35.
5
Putting C= (F – 32), we get
9
5
30 < (F – 32) < 35,
9
9 9
or × (30) < (F – 32) < × (35)
5 5
or 54 < (F – 32) < 63
or 86 < F < 95.
Thus, the required range of temperature is between 86° F and 95° F.
Example 20 A manufacturer has 600 litres of a 12% solution of acid. How many litres
of a 30% acid solution must be added to it so that acid content in the resulting mixture
will be more than 15% but less than 18%?
Solution Let x litres of 30% acid solution is required to be added. Then
Total mixture = (x + 600) litres
Therefore 30% x + 12% of 600 > 15% of (x + 600)
and 30% x + 12% of 600 < 18% of (x + 600)
30 x 12 15
or + (600) > (x + 600)
100 100 100

30 x 12 18
and + (600) < (x + 600)
100 100 100
or 30x + 7200 > 15x + 9000
and 30x + 7200 < 18x + 10800
or 15x > 1800 and 12x < 3600
or x > 120 and x < 300,
i.e. 120 < x < 300

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Thus, the number of litres of the 30% solution of acid will have to be more than
120 litres but less than 300 litres.

Miscellaneous Exercise on Chapter 6

Solve the inequalities in Exercises 1 to 6.
1. 2 ≤ 3x – 4 ≤ 5 2. 6 ≤ – 3 (2x – 4) < 12
7x 3( x − 2 )
3. –3≤4− ≤ 18 4. −15 < ≤0
2 5
3x ( 3x +11 )
5. −12 < 4 − ≤2 6. 7 ≤ ≤ 11 .
−5 2
Solve the inequalities in Exercises 7 to 10 and represent the solution graphically on
number line.
7. 5x + 1 > – 24, 5x – 1 < 24
8. 2 (x – 1) < x + 5, 3 (x + 2) > 2 – x
9. 3x – 7 > 2 (x – 6) , 6 – x > 11 – 2x
10. 5 (2x – 7) – 3 (2x + 3) ≤ 0 , 2x + 19 ≤ 6x + 47 .
11. A solution is to be kept between 68° F and 77° F. What is the range in temperature
in degree Celsius (C) if the Celsius / Fahrenheit (F) conversion formula is given by
9
F= C + 32 ?
5
12. A solution of 8% boric acid is to be diluted by adding a 2% boric acid solution to
it. The resulting mixture is to be more than 4% but less than 6% boric acid. If we have
640 litres of the 8% solution, how many litres of the 2% solution will have to be added?
13. How many litres of water will have to be added to 1125 litres of the 45% solution
of acid so that the resulting mixture will contain more than 25% but less than 30% acid
content?
14. IQ of a person is given by the formula

MA
IQ = × 100,
CA
where MA is mental age and CA is chronological age. If 80 ≤ IQ ≤ 140 for a group of
12 years old children, find the range of their mental age.

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Summary
® Two real numbers or two algebraic expressions related by the symbols <, >, ≤
or ≥ form an inequality.
® Equal numbers may be added to (or subtracted from ) both sides of an inequality.
® Both sides of an inequality can be multiplied (or divided ) by the same positive
number. But when both sides are multiplied (or divided) by a negative number,
then the inequality is reversed.
® The values of x, which make an inequality a true statement, are called solutions
of the inequality.
® To represent x < a (or x > a) on a number line, put a circle on the number a and
dark line to the left (or right) of the number a.
® represent x ≤ a (or x ≥ a) on a number line, put a dark circle on the number
To
a and dark the line to the left (or right) of the number x.
® If an inequality is having ≤ or ≥ symbol, then the points on the line are also
included in the solutions of the inequality and the graph of the inequality lies left
(below) or right (above) of the graph of the equality represented by dark line
that satisfies an arbitrary point in that part.
® If an inequality is having < or > symbol, then the points on the line are not
included in the solutions of the inequality and the graph of the inequality lies to
the left (below) or right (above) of the graph of the corresponding equality
represented by dotted line that satisfies an arbitrary point in that part.
® The solution region of a system of inequalities is the region which satisfies all
the given inequalities in the system simultaneously.

—v —

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 Chapter 7
PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS

vEvery body of discovery is mathematical in form because there is no

other guidance we can have – DARWINv

7.1 Introduction
Suppose you have a suitcase with a number lock. The number
lock has 4 wheels each labelled with 10 digits from 0 to 9.
The lock can be opened if 4 specific digits are arranged in a
particular sequence with no repetition. Some how, you have
forgotten this specific sequence of digits. You remember only
the first digit which is 7. In order to open the lock, how
many sequences of 3-digits you may have to check with? To
answer this question, you may, immediately, start listing all
possible arrangements of 9 remaining digits taken 3 at a
Jacob Bernoulli
time. But, this method will be tedious, because the number
(1654-1705)
of possible sequences may be large. Here, in this Chapter,
we shall learn some basic counting techniques which will enable us to answer this
question without actually listing 3-digit arrangements. In fact, these techniques will be
useful in determining the number of different ways of arranging and selecting objects
without actually listing them. As a first step, we shall examine a principle which is most
fundamental to the learning of these techniques.

7.2 Fundamental Principle of Counting

Let us consider the following problem. Mohan has 3 pants and 2 shirts. How many
different pairs of a pant and a shirt, can he dress up with? There are 3 ways in which
a pant can be chosen, because there are 3 pants available. Similarly, a shirt can be
chosen in 2 ways. For every choice of a pant, there are 2 choices of a shirt. Therefore,
there are 3 × 2 = 6 pairs of a pant and a shirt.

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Let us name the three pants as P1, P2 , P3 and the two shirts as S1, S2. Then,
these six possibilities can be illustrated in the Fig. 7.1.
Let us consider another problem
of the same type.
Sabnam has 2 school bags, 3 tiffin boxes
and 2 water bottles. In how many ways
can she carry these items (choosing one
each).
A school bag can be chosen in 2
different ways. After a school bag is
chosen, a tiffin box can be chosen in 3
different ways. Hence, there are
2 × 3 = 6 pairs of school bag and a tiffin
box. For each of these pairs a water
bottle can be chosen in 2 different ways. Fig 7.1
Hence, there are 6 × 2 = 12 different ways in which, Sabnam can carry these items to
school. If we name the 2 school bags as B1, B2, the three tiffin boxes as T1, T2, T3 and
the two water bottles as W1, W2, these possibilities can be illustrated in the Fig. 7.2.

Fig 7.2

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In fact, the problems of the above types are solved by applying the following
principle known as the fundamental principle of counting, or, simply, the multiplication
principle, which states that
“If an event can occur in m different ways, following which another event
can occur in n different ways, then the total number of occurrence of the events
in the given order is m×n.”
The above principle can be generalised for any finite number of events. For
example, for 3 events, the principle is as follows:
‘If an event can occur in m different ways, following which another event can
occur in n different ways, following which a third event can occur in p different ways,
then the total number of occurrence to ‘the events in the given order is m × n × p.”
In the first problem, the required number of ways of wearing a pant and a shirt
was the number of different ways of the occurence of the following events in succession:
(i) the event of choosing a pant
(ii) the event of choosing a shirt.
In the second problem, the required number of ways was the number of different
ways of the occurence of the following events in succession:
(i) the event of choosing a school bag
(ii) the event of choosing a tiffin box
(iii) the event of choosing a water bottle.
Here, in both the cases, the events in each problem could occur in various possible
orders. But, we have to choose any one of the possible orders and count the number of
different ways of the occurence of the events in this chosen order.
Example 1 Find the number of 4 letter words, with or without meaning, which can be
formed out of the letters of the word ROSE, where the repetition of the letters is not
allowed.
Solution There are as many words as there are ways of filling in 4 vacant places
by the 4 letters, keeping in mind that the repetition is not allowed. The
first place can be filled in 4 different ways by anyone of the 4 letters R,O,S,E. Following
which, the second place can be filled in by anyone of the remaining 3 letters in 3
different ways, following which the third place can be filled in 2 different ways; following
which, the fourth place can be filled in 1 way. Thus, the number of ways in which the
4 places can be filled, by the multiplication principle, is 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 24. Hence, the
required number of words is 24.

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ANote If the repetition of the letters was allowed, how many words can be formed?
One can easily understand that each of the 4 vacant places can be filled in succession
in 4 different ways. Hence, the required number of words = 4 × 4 × 4 × 4 = 256.

Example 2 Given 4 flags of different colours, how many different signals can be
generated, if a signal requires the use of 2 flags one below the other?
Solution There will be as many signals as there are ways of filling in 2 vacant places

in succession by the 4 flags of different colours. The upper vacant place can
be filled in 4 different ways by anyone of the 4 flags; following which, the lower vacant
place can be filled in 3 different ways by anyone of the remaining 3 different flags.
Hence, by the multiplication principle, the required number of signals = 4 × 3 = 12.
Example 3 How many 2 digit even numbers can be formed from the digits
1, 2, 3, 4, 5 if the digits can be repeated?
Solution There will be as many ways as there are ways of filling 2 vacant places
in succession by the five given digits. Here, in this case, we start filling in unit’s
place, because the options for this place are 2 and 4 only and this can be done in 2
ways; following which the ten’s place can be filled by any of the 5 digits in 5 different
ways as the digits can be repeated. Therefore, by the multiplication principle, the required
number of two digits even numbers is 2 × 5, i.e., 10.
Example 4 Find the number of different signals that can be generated by arranging at
least 2 flags in order (one below the other) on a vertical staff, if five different flags are
available.
Solution A signal can consist of either 2 flags, 3 flags, 4 flags or 5 flags. Now, let us
count the possible number of signals consisting of 2 flags, 3 flags, 4 flags and 5 flags
separately and then add the respective numbers.
There will be as many 2 flag signals as there are ways of filling in 2 vacant places

in succession by the 5 flags available. By Multiplication rule, the number of

ways is 5 × 4 = 20.
Similarly, there will be as many 3 flag signals as there are ways of filling in 3

vacant places in succession by the 5 flags.

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The number of ways is 5 × 4 × 3 = 60.

Continuing the same way, we find that
The number of 4 flag signals = 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 = 120
and the number of 5 flag signals = 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 120
Therefore, the required no of signals = 20 + 60 + 120 + 120 = 320.

EXERCISE 7.1
1. How many 3-digit numbers can be formed from the digits 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5
assuming that
(i) repetition of the digits is allowed?
(ii) repetition of the digits is not allowed?
2. How many 3-digit even numbers can be formed from the digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 if the
digits can be repeated?
3. How many 4-letter code can be formed using the first 10 letters of the English
alphabet, if no letter can be repeated?
4. How many 5-digit telephone numbers can be constructed using the digits 0 to 9 if
each number starts with 67 and no digit appears more than once?
5. A coin is tossed 3 times and the outcomes are recorded. How many possible
outcomes are there?
6. Given 5 flags of different colours, how many different signals can be generated if
each signal requires the use of 2 flags, one below the other?
7.3 Permutations
In Example 1 of the previous Section, we are actually counting the different possible
arrangements of the letters such as ROSE, REOS, ..., etc. Here, in this list, each
arrangement is different from other. In other words, the order of writing the letters is
important. Each arrangement is called a permutation of 4 different letters taken all
at a time. Now, if we have to determine the number of 3-letter words, with or without
meaning, which can be formed out of the letters of the word NUMBER, where the
repetition of the letters is not allowed, we need to count the arrangements NUM,
NMU, MUN, NUB, ..., etc. Here, we are counting the permutations of 6 different
letters taken 3 at a time. The required number of words = 6 × 5 × 4 = 120 (by using
multiplication principle).
If the repetition of the letters was allowed, the required number of words would
be 6 × 6 × 6 = 216.

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Definition 1 A permutation is an arrangement in a definite order of a number of

objects taken some or all at a time.
In the following sub-section, we shall obtain the formula needed to answer these
questions immediately.
7.3.1 Permutations when all the objects are distinct
Theorem 1 The number of permutations of n different objects taken r at a time,
where 0 < r ≤ n and the objects do not repeat is n ( n – 1) ( n – 2). . .( n – r + 1),
which is denoted by nPr.
Proof There will be as many permutations as there are ways of filling in r vacant
places ... by
← r vacant places →
the n objects. The first place can be filled in n ways; following which, the second place
can be filled in (n – 1) ways, following which the third place can be filled in (n – 2)
ways,..., the rth place can be filled in (n – (r – 1)) ways. Therefore, the number of
ways of filling in r vacant places in succession is n(n – 1) (n – 2) . . . (n – (r – 1)) or
n ( n – 1) (n – 2) ... (n – r + 1)
This expression for nPr is cumbersome and we need a notation which will help to
reduce the size of this expression. The symbol n! (read as factorial n or n factorial )
comes to our rescue. In the following text we will learn what actually n! means.
7.3.2 Factorial notation The notation n! represents the product of first n natural
numbers, i.e., the product 1 × 2 × 3 × . . . × (n – 1) × n is denoted as n!. We read this
symbol as ‘n factorial’. Thus, 1 × 2 × 3 × 4 . . . × (n – 1) × n = n !
1=1!
1×2=2!
1× 2 × 3 = 3 !
1 × 2 × 3 × 4 = 4 ! and so on.
We define 0 ! = 1
We can write 5 ! = 5 × 4 ! = 5 × 4 × 3 ! = 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 !
= 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1!
Clearly, for a natural number n
n ! = n (n – 1) !
= n (n – 1) (n – 2) ! [provided (n ≥ 2)]
= n (n – 1) (n – 2) (n – 3) ! [provided (n ≥ 3)]
and so on.

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Example 5 Evaluate (i) 5 ! (ii) 7 ! (iii) 7 ! – 5!

Solution (i) 5 ! = 1 × 2 × 3 × 4 × 5 = 120
(ii) 7 ! = 1 × 2 × 3 × 4 × 5 × 6 ×7 = 5040
and (iii) 7 ! – 5! = 5040 – 120 = 4920.
7! 12!
Example 6 Compute (i)
5! ( )
(ii) 10! (2!)

7! 7 × 6 × 5!
Solution (i) We have = = 7 × 6 = 42
5! 5!

12! 12 × 11 × (10!)
and (ii) = = 6 × 11 = 66.
(10!) ( 2!) (10!)× ( 2 )
n!
( )
Example 7 Evaluate r ! n − r ! , when n = 5, r = 2.

5!
Solution
( )
We have to evaluate 2! 5 − 2 ! (since n = 5, r = 2)

5! 5! 5× 4
= = 10 .
We have 2 !(5 − 2 )! 2! × 3!
= 2

1 1 x
Example 8 If + =
8! 9! 10! , find x.

1 1 x
Solution We have 8! + 9 × 8! = 10 × 9 × 8!

1 x 10 x
Therefore 1+ = or =
9 10 × 9 9 10 × 9
So x = 100.

EXERCISE 7.2
1. Evaluate
(i) 8 ! (ii) 4 ! – 3 !

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8! 1 1 x
2. Is 3 ! + 4 ! = 7 ! ? 3. Compute 4. If + = , find x
6! × 2! 6! 7! 8!

n!
5.
( )
Evaluate n − r ! , when

(i) n = 6, r = 2 (ii) n = 9, r = 5.
7.3.3 Derivation of the formula for nPr

n n!
Pr = ,0≤r≤n
( r )!
n −
Let us now go back to the stage where we had determined the following formula:
n
Pr = n (n – 1) (n – 2) . . . (n – r + 1)
Multiplying numerator and denomirator by (n – r) (n – r – 1) . . . 3 × 2 × 1, we get
n ( n − 1) ( n − 2 ) ...( n − r + 1)( n − r )( n − r − 1) ...3 × 2 × 1 n!
n
Pr = = ,
( n − r )( n − r − 1) ... 3 × 2 × 1 ( n − r )!
n!
n
Pr =
Thus
( n − r )! , where 0 < r ≤ n
This is a much more convenient expression for nPr than the previous one.
n!
In particular, when r = n, n Pn = = n!
0!
Counting permutations is merely counting the number of ways in which some or
all objects at a time are rearranged. Arranging no object at all is the same as leaving
behind all the objects and we know that there is only one way of doing so. Thus, we
can have
n! n!
n
P0 = 1 = = ... (1)
n ! ( n − 0)!

Therefore, the formula (1) is applicable for r = 0 also.

n!
n
Pr = ,0≤r ≤n .
Thus
( n − r )!

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Theorem 2 The number of permutations of n different objects taken r at a time,

where repetition is allowed, is nr.
Proof is very similar to that of Theorem 1 and is left for the reader to arrive at.
Here, we are solving some of the problems of the pervious Section using the
formula for nPr to illustrate its usefulness.
In Example 1, the required number of words = 4P4 = 4! = 24. Here repetition is
not allowed. If repetition is allowed, the required number of words would be 44 = 256.
The number of 3-letter words which can be formed by the letters of the word
6!
NUMBER = P3 = 3! = 4 × 5 × 6 = 120. Here, in this case also, the repetition is not
6

allowed. If the repetition is allowed,the required number of words would be 63 = 216.

The number of ways in which a Chairman and a Vice-Chairman can be chosen
from amongst a group of 12 persons assuming that one person can not hold more than
12!
one position, clearly 12
P2 = = 11 × 12 = 132.
10!

7.3.4 Permutations when all the objects are not distinct objects Suppose we have
to find the number of ways of rearranging the letters of the word ROOT. In this case,
the letters of the word are not all different. There are 2 Os, which are of the same kind.
Let us treat, temporarily, the 2 Os as different, say, O1 and O2. The number of
permutations of 4-different letters, in this case, taken all at a time
is 4!. Consider one of these permutations say, RO 1O2T. Corresponding to this
permutation,we have 2 ! permutations RO1O2T and RO2O1T which will be exactly the
same permutation if O1 and O2 are not treated as different, i.e., if O1 and O2 are the
same O at both places.
4!
Therefore, the required number of permutations = 2! = 3 × 4 = 12 .

Permutations when O1, O2 are Permutations when O1, O2 are

different. the same O.
RO1O 2 T 
RO 2 O1T 
ROOT

T O1O 2 R 
T O2 O1R 
TOOR

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R O1T O 2 
R O 2 T O1 
ROTO

T O1R O 2 
T O 2 R O1 
TORO

R T O1 O 2 
R T O 2 O1 
RTOO

T R O1 O 2 
T R O 2 O1 
TROO

O1 O 2 R T 
O2 O1 T R 
OORT

O1 R O 2 T 
O 2 R O1 T 
OROT

O1 T O 2 R 
O 2 T O1 R 
OTOR

O1 R T O 2 
O 2 R T O1 
ORTO

O1 T R O 2 
O 2 T R O1 
OTRO

O1 O 2 T R 
O 2 O1 T R 
OOTR

Let us now find the number of ways of rearranging the letters of the word
INSTITUTE. In this case there are 9 letters, in which I appears 2 times and T appears
3 times.
Temporarily, let us treat these letters different and name them as I1, I2, T1, T2, T3.
The number of permutations of 9 different letters, in this case, taken all at a time is 9 !.
Consider one such permutation, say, I1 NT1 SI2 T2 U E T3. Here if I1, I2 are not same

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and T1, T2, T3 are not same, then I1, I2 can be arranged in 2! ways and T1, T2, T3 can
be arranged in 3! ways. Therefore, 2! × 3! permutations will be just the same permutation
corresponding to this chosen permutation I1NT1SI2T2UET3. Hence, total number of
9!
different permutations will be
2! 3!
We can state (without proof) the following theorems:
Theorem 3 The number of permutations of n objects, where p objects are of the
n!
same kind and rest are all different =
p! .
In fact, we have a more general theorem.
Theorem 4 The number of permutations of n objects, where p1 objects are of one
kind, p2 are of second kind, ..., pk are of kth kind and the rest, if any, are of different
n!
kind is .
p1! p2! ... pk!

Example 9 Find the number of permutations of the letters of the word ALLAHABAD.
Solution Here, there are 9 objects (letters) of which there are 4A’s, 2 L’s and rest are
all different.
9! 5× 6× 7 ×8× 9
Therefore, the required number of arrangements = = = 7560
4! 2! 2

Example 10 How many 4-digit numbers can be formed by using the digits 1 to 9 if
repetition of digits is not allowed?
Solution Here order matters for example 1234 and 1324 are two different numbers.
Therefore, there will be as many 4 digit numbers as there are permutations of 9 different
digits taken 4 at a time.
9 9! 9!
Therefore, the required 4 digit numbers = P4 = = = 9 × 8 × 7 × 6 = 3024.
(9 – 4 )! 5!
Example 11 How many numbers lying between 100 and 1000 can be formed with the
digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, if the repetition of the digits is not allowed?
Solution Every number between 100 and 1000 is a 3-digit number. We, first, have to

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count the permutations of 6 digits taken 3 at a time. This number would be 6P3. But,
these permutations will include those also where 0 is at the 100’s place. For example,
092, 042, . . ., etc are such numbers which are actually 2-digit numbers and hence the
number of such numbers has to be subtracted from 6P3 to get the required number. To
get the number of such numbers, we fix 0 at the 100’s place and rearrange the remaining
5 digits taking 2 at a time. This number is 5P2. So
6! 5!
The required number = 6 P3 − 5 P2 = −
3! 3!
= 4 × 5 × 6 – 4 ×5 = 100
Example 12 Find the value of n such that
n
P4 5
(i) n
P5 = 42 P3 , n > 4
n
(ii) n –1
= ,n>4
P4 3

Solution (i) Given that

n
P5 = 42 n P3
or n (n – 1) (n – 2) (n – 3) (n – 4) = 42 n(n – 1) (n – 2)
Since n>4 so n(n – 1) (n – 2) ≠ 0
Therefore, by dividing both sides by n(n – 1) (n – 2), we get
(n – 3 (n – 4) = 42
or n2 – 7n – 30 = 0
or n2 – 10n + 3n – 30
or (n – 10) (n + 3) = 0
or n – 10 = 0 or n + 3 = 0
or n = 10 or n = – 3
As n cannot be negative, so n = 10.
n
P4 5
(ii) Given that n –1
=
P4 3
Therefore 3n (n – 1) (n – 2) (n – 3) = 5(n – 1) (n – 2) (n – 3) (n – 4)
or 3n = 5 (n – 4) [as (n – 1) (n – 2) (n – 3) ≠ 0, n > 4]
or n = 10.

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Example 13 Find r, if 5 4Pr = 6 5Pr–1 .

Solution We have 5 4 Pr = 6 5 Pr −1

4! 5!
5× = 6×
or
( 4 − r )! (5 − r + 1)!
5! 6 × 5!
=
or
( 4 − r )! (5 − r + 1) (5 − r )(5 − r − 1)!
or (6 – r) (5 – r) = 6
or r2 – 11r + 24 = 0
or r2 – 8r – 3r + 24 = 0
or (r – 8) (r – 3) = 0
or r = 8 or r = 3.
Hence r = 8, 3.
Example 14 Find the number of different 8-letter arrangements that can be made
from the letters of the word DAUGHTER so that
(i) all vowels occur together (ii) all vowels do not occur together.
Solution (i) There are 8 different letters in the word DAUGHTER, in which there
are 3 vowels, namely, A, U and E. Since the vowels have to occur together, we can for
the time being, assume them as a single object (AUE). This single object together with
5 remaining letters (objects) will be counted as 6 objects. Then we count permutations
of these 6 objects taken all at a time. This number would be 6P6 = 6!. Corresponding to
each of these permutations, we shall have 3! permutations of the three vowels A, U, E
taken all at a time . Hence, by the multiplication principle the required number of
permutations = 6 ! × 3 ! = 4320.
(ii) If we have to count those permutations in which all vowels are never
together, we first have to find all possible arrangments of 8 letters taken all at a time,
which can be done in 8! ways. Then, we have to subtract from this number, the number
of permutations in which the vowels are always together.
Therefore, the required number 8 ! – 6 ! × 3 ! = 6 ! (7×8 – 6)
= 2 × 6 ! (28 – 3)
= 50 × 6 ! = 50 × 720 = 36000
Example 15 In how many ways can 4 red, 3 yellow and 2 green discs be arranged in
a row if the discs of the same colour are indistinguishable ?
Solution Total number of discs are 4 + 3 + 2 = 9. Out of 9 discs, 4 are of the first kind

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(red), 3 are of the second kind (yellow) and 2 are of the third kind (green).
9!
Therefore, the number of arrangements = 1260 .
4! 3! 2!
Example 16 Find the number of arrangements of the letters of the word
INDEPENDENCE. In how many of these arrangements,
(i) do the words start with P
(ii) do all the vowels always occur together
(iii) do the vowels never occur together
(iv) do the words begin with I and end in P?
Solution There are 12 letters, of which N appears 3 times, E appears 4 times and D
appears 2 times and the rest are all different. Therefore
12!
The required number of arrangements = 3! 4! 2! = 1663200

(i) Let us fix P at the extreme left position, we, then, count the arrangements of the
remaining 11 letters. Therefore, the required number of words starting with P
11!
= = 138600 .
3! 2! 4!
(ii) There are 5 vowels in the given word, which are 4 Es and 1 I. Since, they have
to always occur together, we treat them as a single object EEEEI for the time
being. This single object together with 7 remaining objects will account for 8
objects. These 8 objects, in which there are 3Ns and 2 Ds, can be rearranged in
8!
3! 2! ways. Corresponding to each of these arrangements, the 5 vowels E, E, E,

5!
E and I can be rearranged in ways. Therefore, by multiplication principle,
4!
the required number of arrangements
8! 5!
= × = 16800
3! 2! 4!
(iii) The required number of arrangements
= the total number of arrangements (without any restriction) – the number
of arrangements where all the vowels occur together.

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= 1663200 – 16800 = 1646400

(iv) Let us fix I and P at the extreme ends (I at the left end and P at the right end).
We are left with 10 letters.
Hence, the required number of arrangements
10!
= = 12600
3! 2! 4!

EXERCISE 7.3
1. How many 3-digit numbers can be formed by using the digits 1 to 9 if no digit is
repeated?
2. How many 4-digit numbers are there with no digit repeated?
3. How many 3-digit even numbers can be made using the digits
1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, if no digit is repeated?
4. Find the number of 4-digit numbers that can be formed using the digits 1, 2, 3, 4,
5 if no digit is repeated. How many of these will be even?
5. From a committee of 8 persons, in how many ways can we choose a chairman
and a vice chairman assuming one person can not hold more than one position?
6. Find n if n – 1P3 : nP4 = 1 : 9.
7. Find r if (i) 5 Pr = 2 6 Pr −1 (ii) 5 Pr = 6 Pr −1 .
8. How many words, with or without meaning, can be formed using all the letters of
the word EQUATION, using each letter exactly once?
9. How many words, with or without meaning can be made from the letters of the
word MONDAY, assuming that no letter is repeated, if.
(i) 4 letters are used at a time, (ii) all letters are used at a time,
(iii) all letters are used but first letter is a vowel?
10. In how many of the distinct permutations of the letters in MISSISSIPPI do the
four I’s not come together?
11. In how many ways can the letters of the word PERMUTATIONS be arranged if the
(i) words start with P and end with S, (ii) vowels are all together,
(iii) there are always 4 letters between P and S?
7.4 Combinations
Let us now assume that there is a group of 3 lawn tennis players X, Y, Z. A team
consisting of 2 players is to be formed. In how many ways can we do so? Is the team
of X and Y different from the team of Y and X ? Here, order is not important.
In fact, there are only 3 possible ways in which the team could be constructed.

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Fig. 7.3
These are XY, YZ and ZX (Fig 7.3).
Here, each selection is called a combination of 3 different objects taken 2 at a time.
In a combination, the order is not important.
Now consider some more illustrations.
Twelve persons meet in a room and each shakes hand with all the others. How do
we determine the number of hand shakes. X shaking hands with Y and Y with X will
not be two different hand shakes. Here, order is not important. There will be as many
hand shakes as there are combinations of 12 different things taken 2 at a time.
Seven points lie on a circle. How many chords can be drawn by joining these
points pairwise? There will be as many chords as there are combinations of 7 different
things taken 2 at a time.
Now, we obtain the formula for finding the number of combinations of n different
objects taken r at a time, denoted by nCr..
Suppose we have 4 different objects A, B, C and D. Taking 2 at a time, if we have
to make combinations, these will be AB, AC, AD, BC, BD, CD. Here, AB and BA are
the same combination as order does not alter the combination. This is why we have not
included BA, CA, DA, CB, DB and DC in this list. There are as many as 6 combinations
of 4 different objects taken 2 at a time, i.e., 4C2 = 6.
Corresponding to each combination in the list, we can arrive at 2! permutations as
2 objects in each combination can be rearranged in 2! ways. Hence, the number of
permutations = 4C2 × 2!.
On the other hand, the number of permutations of 4 different things taken 2 at
a time = 4P2.
4!
4
P2 = 4C2 × 2! or = 4C2
Therefore
( 4 − 2 )! 2!
Now, let us suppose that we have 5 different objects A, B, C, D, E. Taking 3 at a
time, if we have to make combinations, these will be ABC, ABD, ABE, BCD, BCE,
CDE, ACE, ACD, ADE, BDE. Corresponding to each of these 5C3 combinations, there
are 3! permutations, because, the three objects in each combination can be

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rearranged in 3 ! ways. Therefore, the total of permutations = 5 C3 × 3!

5!
5
P3 = 5C3 × 3! = 5 C3
Therefore or
( )
5 − 3 ! 3!
These examples suggest the following theorem showing relationship between
permutaion and combination:
Theorem 5 n Pr = n C r r! , 0 < r ≤ n.

Proof Corresponding to each combination of nCr, we have r ! permutations, because

r objects in every combination can be rearranged in r ! ways.
Hence, the total number of permutations of n different things taken r at a time
is nCr × r!. On the other hand, it is n Pr . Thus
n
Pr = n C r × r! , 0 < r ≤ n .

n! n!
Remarks 1. From above ( n − r )! = C r × r! , i.e., Cr =
n n
r!( n − r )! .

n!
In particular, if r = n , Cn = = 1.
n
n! 0!
2. We define nC0 = 1, i.e., the number of combinations of n different things taken
nothing at all is considered to be 1. Counting combinations is merely counting the
number of ways in which some or all objects at a time are selected. Selecting
nothing at all is the same as leaving behind all the objects and we know that there
is only one way of doing so. This way we define nC0 = 1.
n! n!
3. As = 1 = n C0 , the formula n Cr = is applicable for r = 0 also.
0!( n − 0 )! r ! ( − r )!
n

Hence
n!
n
Cr =
r ! (n − r ) ! , 0 ≤ r ≤ n.

n! n!
4.
n
Cn− r = = n − r !r ! = n C r ,
( n − r )!( n − ( n − r ))! ( )

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 PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS 151

i.e., selecting r objects out of n objects is same as rejecting (n – r) objects.

5. Ca = nCb ⇒ a = b or a = n – b, i.e., n = a + b
n

n +1
Theorem 6 n
C r + n C r −1 = Cr

n! n!
Proof We have
n
Cr + n Cr −1 = +
r!( n − r )! ( r − 1)!( n − r + 1)!

n! n!
= +
r × ( r − 1)!( n − r )! ( r − 1)!( n − r + 1) ( n − r )!

n! 1 1 
+
( r − 1)!( n − r )!  r n − r + 1 

=

n!
×
n − r +1 + r ( n + 1)! = n +1 C
= =
( r − 1)!( n − r )! r ( n − r + 1) r!( n + 1 − r )! r

Example 17 If n C9 = n C8 , find n C17 .

Solution We have n C9 = n C8

n! n!
=
i.e., 9!( n − 9 )! ( n − 8 )! 8!

1 1
or = or n – 8 = 9 or n = 17
9 n −8
Therefore n
C17 = 17 C17 = 1 .
Example 18 A committee of 3 persons is to be constituted from a group of 2 men and
3 women. In how many ways can this be done? How many of these committees would
consist of 1 man and 2 women?
Solution Here, order does not matter. Therefore, we need to count combinations.
There will be as many committees as there are combinations of 5 different persons
5! 4 × 5
taken 3 at a time. Hence, the required number of ways = C3 = = = 10 .
5
3! 2! 2
Now, 1 man can be selected from 2 men in 2C1 ways and 2 women can be
selected from 3 women in 3C2 ways. Therefore, the required number of committees

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152 MATHEMATICS

2! 3!
= C1 × C2 = × = 6.
2 3
1! 1! 2! 1!

Example 19 What is the number of ways of choosing 4 cards from a pack of 52

playing cards? In how many of these
(i) four cards are of the same suit,
(ii) four cards belong to four different suits,
(iii) are face cards,
(iv) two are red cards and two are black cards,
(v) cards are of the same colour?
Solution There will be as many ways of choosing 4 cards from 52 cards as there are
combinations of 52 different things, taken 4 at a time. Therefore
52! 49 × 50 × 51× 52
The required number of ways =
52
C4 = =
4! 48! 2× 3× 4
= 270725
(i) There are four suits: diamond, club, spade, heart and there are 13 cards of each
suit. Therefore, there are 13C4 ways of choosing 4 diamonds. Similarly, there are
13
C4 ways of choosing 4 clubs, 13C4 ways of choosing 4 spades and 13C4 ways of
choosing 4 hearts. Therefore
The required number of ways = 13C4 + 13C4 + 13C4 + 13C4.
13!
= 4× = 2860
4! 9!
(ii) There are13 cards in each suit.
Therefore, there are 13C1 ways of choosing 1 card from 13 cards of diamond,
13
C1 ways of choosing 1 card from 13 cards of hearts, 13C1 ways of choosing 1
card from 13 cards of clubs, 13C1 ways of choosing 1 card from 13 cards of
spades. Hence, by multiplication principle, the required number of ways
= 13C1 × 13C1 × 13C1× 13C1 = 134
(iii) There are 12 face cards and 4 are to be selected out of these 12 cards. This can be
12!
done in 12C4 ways. Therefore, the required number of ways = = 495 .
4! 8!

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(iv) There are 26 red cards and 26 black cards. Therefore, the required number of
ways = 26C2 × 26C2
2
 26! 
 = (325) = 105625
2
=
 2! 24! 
26
(v) 4 red cards can be selected out of 26 red cards in C 4 ways.
4 black cards can be selected out of 26 black cards in 26C4ways.
Therefore, the required number of ways = 26C4 + 26C4
26!
= 2× = 29900.
4! 22!

EXERCISE 7.4
1. If nC8 = nC2, find nC2.
2. Determine n if
(i) 2nC3 : nC3 = 12 : 1 (ii) 2nC3 : nC3 = 11 : 1
3. How many chords can be drawn through 21 points on a circle?
4. In how many ways can a team of 3 boys and 3 girls be selected from 5 boys and
4 girls?
5. Find the number of ways of selecting 9 balls from 6 red balls, 5 white balls and 5
blue balls if each selection consists of 3 balls of each colour.
6. Determine the number of 5 card combinations out of a deck of 52 cards if there
is exactly one ace in each combination.
7. In how many ways can one select a cricket team of eleven from 17 players in
which only 5 players can bowl if each cricket team of 11 must include exactly 4
bowlers?
8. A bag contains 5 black and 6 red balls. Determine the number of ways in which
2 black and 3 red balls can be selected.
9. In how many ways can a student choose a programme of 5 courses if 9 courses
are available and 2 specific courses are compulsory for every student?

Miscellaneous Examples
Example 20 How many words, with or without meaning, each of 3 vowels and 2
consonants can be formed from the letters of the word INVOLUTE ?
Solution In the word INVOLUTE, there are 4 vowels, namely, I,O,E,Uand 4
consonants, namely, N, V, L and T.

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The number of ways of selecting 3 vowels out of 4 = 4C3 = 4.

The number of ways of selecting 2 consonants out of 4 = 4C2 = 6.
Therefore, the number of combinations of 3 vowels and 2 consonants is
4 × 6 = 24.
Now, each of these 24 combinations has 5 letters which can be arranged among
themselves in 5 ! ways. Therefore, the required number of different words is
24 × 5 ! = 2880.
Example 21 A group consists of 4 girls and 7 boys. In how many ways can a team of
5 members be selected if the team has (i) no girl ? (ii) at least one boy and one girl ?
(iii) at least 3 girls ?
Solution (i) Since, the team will not include any girl, therefore, only boys are to be
selected. 5 boys out of 7 boys can be selected in 7C5 ways. Therefore, the required
7! 6× 7
= C5 = 5! 2! = 2 = 21
7
number of ways

(ii) Since, at least one boy and one girl are to be there in every team. Therefore, the
team can consist of
(a) 1 boy and 4 girls (b) 2 boys and 3 girls
(c) 3 boys and 2 girls (d) 4 boys and 1 girl.
1 boy and 4 girls can be selected in 7C1 × 4C4 ways.
2 boys and 3 girls can be selected in 7C2 × 4C3 ways.
3 boys and 2 girls can be selected in 7C3 × 4C2 ways.
4 boys and 1 girl can be selected in 7C4 × 4C1 ways.
Therefore, the required number of ways
= 7C1 × 4C4 + 7C2 × 4C3 + 7C3 × 4C2 + 7C4 × 4C1
= 7 + 84 + 210 + 140 = 441
(iii) Since, the team has to consist of at least 3 girls, the team can consist of
(a) 3 girls and 2 boys, or (b) 4 girls and 1 boy.
Note that the team cannot have all 5 girls, because, the group has only 4 girls.
3 girls and 2 boys can be selected in 4C3 × 7C2 ways.
4 girls and 1 boy can be selected in 4C4 × 7C1 ways.
Therefore, the required number of ways
= 4C3 × 7C2 + 4C4 × 7C1 = 84 + 7 = 91

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Example 22 Find the number of words with or without meaning which can be made
using all the letters of the word AGAIN. If these words are written as in a dictionary,
what will be the 50th word?
Solution There are 5 letters in the word AGAIN, in which A appears 2 times. Therefore,
5!
the required number of words = = 60 .
2!
To get the number of words starting with A, we fix the letter A at the extreme left
position, we then rearrange the remaining 4 letters taken all at a time. There will be as
many arrangements of these 4 letters taken 4 at a time as there are permutations of 4
different things taken 4 at a time. Hence, the number of words starting with
4!
A = 4! = 24. Then, starting with G, the number of words = = 12 as after placing G
2!
at the extreme left position, we are left with the letters A, A, I and N. Similarly, there
are 12 words starting with the next letter I. Total number of words so far obtained
= 24 + 12 + 12 =48.
The 49th word is NAAGI. The 50th word is NAAIG.
Example 23 How many numbers greater than 1000000 can be formed by using the
digits 1, 2, 0, 2, 4, 2, 4?
Solution Since, 1000000 is a 7-digit number and the number of digits to be used is also
7. Therefore, the numbers to be counted will be 7-digit only. Also, the numbers have to
be greater than 1000000, so they can begin either with 1, 2 or 4.
6! 4 × 5 × 6
The number of numbers beginning with 1 = = = 60, as when 1 is
3! 2! 2
fixed at the extreme left position, the remaining digits to be rearranged will be 0, 2, 2, 2,
4, 4, in which there are 3, 2s and 2, 4s.
Total numbers begining with 2
6! 3× 4 × 5 × 6
= = = 180
2! 2! 2

6!
and total numbers begining with 4 = = 4 × 5 × 6 = 120
3!

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156 MATHEMATICS

Therefore, the required number of numbers = 60 + 180 + 120 = 360.

Alternative Method
7!
The number of 7-digit arrangements, clearly, 3! 2! = 420 . But, this will include those

numbers also, which have 0 at the extreme left position. The number of such
6!
arrangements 3! 2! (by fixing 0 at the extreme left position) = 60.

Therefore, the required number of numbers = 420 – 60 = 360.

A Note If one or more than one digits given in the list is repeated, it will be
understood that in any number, the digits can be used as many times as is given in
the list, e.g., in the above example 1 and 0 can be used only once whereas 2 and 4
can be used 3 times and 2 times, respectively.
Example 24 In how many ways can 5 girls and 3 boys be seated in a row so that no
two boys are together?
Solution Let us first seat the 5 girls. This can be done in 5! ways. For each such
arrangement, the three boys can be seated only at the cross marked places.
× G × G × G × G × G ×.
There are 6 cross marked places and the three boys can be seated in 6P3 ways.
Hence, by multiplication principle, the total number of ways
6!
= 5! × 6P3 = 5!×
3!
= 4 × 5 × 2 × 3 × 4 × 5 × 6 = 14400.

Miscellaneous Exercise on Chapter 7

1. How many words, with or without meaning, each of 2 vowels and 3 consonants
can be formed from the letters of the word DAUGHTER ?
2. How many words, with or without meaning, can be formed using all the letters of
the word EQUATION at a time so that the vowels and consonants occur together?
3. A committee of 7 has to be formed from 9 boys and 4 girls. In how many ways
can this be done when the committee consists of:
(i) exactly 3 girls ? (ii) atleast 3 girls ? (iii) atmost 3 girls ?
4. If the different permutations of all the letter of the word EXAMINATION are

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listed as in a dictionary, how many words are there in this list before the first
word starting with E ?
5. How many 6-digit numbers can be formed from the digits 0, 1, 3, 5, 7 and 9
which are divisible by 10 and no digit is repeated ?
6. The English alphabet has 5 vowels and 21 consonants. How many words with
two different vowels and 2 different consonants can be formed from the
alphabet ?
7. In an examination, a question paper consists of 12 questions divided into two
parts i.e., Part I and Part II, containing 5 and 7 questions, respectively. A student
is required to attempt 8 questions in all, selecting at least 3 from each part. In
how many ways can a student select the questions ?
8. Determine the number of 5-card combinations out of a deck of 52 cards if each
selection of 5 cards has exactly one king.
9. It is required to seat 5 men and 4 women in a row so that the women occupy the
even places. How many such arrangements are possible ?
10. From a class of 25 students, 10 are to be chosen for an excursion party. There
are 3 students who decide that either all of them will join or none of them will
join. In how many ways can the excursion party be chosen ?
11. In how many ways can the letters of the word ASSASSINATION be arranged
so that all the S’s are together ?

Summary
® Fundamental principle of counting If an event can occur in m different
ways, following which another event can occur in n different ways, then the
total number of occurrence of the events in the given order is m × n.
® The number of permutations of n different things taken r at a time, where
n!
repetition is not allowed, is denoted by nPr and is given by nPr =
(n − r )! ,
where 0 ≤ r ≤ n.
® n! = 1 × 2 × 3 × ...×n
® n! = n × (n – 1) !
® The number of permutations of n different things, taken r at a time, where
repeatition is allowed, is nr.
® The number of permutations of n objects taken all at a time, where p1 objects

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are of first kind, p2 objects are of the second kind, ..., pk objects are of the kth
n!
kind and rest, if any, are all different is p ! p !... p ! .
1 2 k

® The number of combinations of n different things taken r at a time, denoted by

n!
Cr , is given by nCr = =
r!( n − r )! , 0 ≤ r ≤ n.
n

Historical Note
The concepts of permutations and combinations can be traced back to the advent
of Jainism in India and perhaps even earlier. The credit, however, goes to the
Jains who treated its subject matter as a self-contained topic in mathematics,
under the name Vikalpa.
Among the Jains, Mahavira, (around 850) is perhaps the world’s first
mathematician credited with providing the general formulae for permutations and
combinations.
In the 6th century B.C., Sushruta, in his medicinal work, Sushruta Samhita,
asserts that 63 combinations can be made out of 6 different tastes, taken one at a
time, two at a time, etc. Pingala, a Sanskrit scholar around third century B.C.,
gives the method of determining the number of combinations of a given number
of letters, taken one at a time, two at a time, etc. in his work Chhanda Sutra.
Bhaskaracharya (born 1114) treated the subject matter of permutations and
combinations under the name Anka Pasha in his famous work Lilavati. In addition
to the general formulae for nC r and nP r already provided by Mahavira,
Bhaskaracharya gives several important theorems and results concerning the
subject.
Outside India, the subject matter of permutations and combinations had its
humble beginnings in China in the famous book I–King (Book of changes). It is
difficult to give the approximate time of this work, since in 213 B.C., the emperor
had ordered all books and manuscripts in the country to be burnt which fortunately
was not completely carried out. Greeks and later Latin writers also did some
scattered work on the theory of permutations and combinations.
Some Arabic and Hebrew writers used the concepts of permutations and
combinations in studying astronomy. Rabbi ben Ezra, for instance, determined
the number of combinations of known planets taken two at a time, three at a time
and so on. This was around 1140. It appears that Rabbi ben Ezra did not know

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the formula for nCr. However, he was aware that nCr = nCn–r for specific values
n and r. In 1321, Levi Ben Gerson, another Hebrew writer came up with the
formulae for nPr , nPn and the general formula for nCr.
The first book which gives a complete treatment of the subject matter of
permutations and combinations is Ars Conjectandi written by a Swiss, Jacob
Bernoulli (1654 – 1705), posthumously published in 1713. This book contains
essentially the theory of permutations and combinations as is known today.

—v —

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 Chapter 8
BINOMIAL THEOREM

vMathematics is a most exact science and its conclusions are capable of

absolute proofs. – C.P. STEINMETZv

8.1 Introduction
In earlier classes, we have learnt how to find the squares
and cubes of binomials like a + b and a – b. Using them, we
could evaluate the numerical values of numbers like
(98)2 = (100 – 2)2, (999)3 = (1000 – 1)3, etc. However, for
higher powers like (98)5, (101)6, etc., the calculations become
difficult by using repeated multiplication. This difficulty was
overcome by a theorem known as binomial theorem. It gives
an easier way to expand (a + b)n, where n is an integer or a
rational number. In this Chapter, we study binomial theorem
for positive integral indices only.
Blaise Pascal
8.2 Binomial Theorem for Positive Integral Indices (1623-1662)
Let us have a look at the following identities done earlier:
(a+ b)0 = 1 a+b≠0
(a+ b)1 = a + b
(a+ b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2
(a+ b)3 = a3 + 3a2b + 3ab2 + b3
(a+ b)4 = (a + b)3 (a + b) = a4 + 4a3b + 6a2b2 + 4ab3 + b4
In these expansions, we observe that
(i) The total number of terms in the expansion is one more than the index. For
example, in the expansion of (a + b)2 , number of terms is 3 whereas the index of
(a + b)2 is 2.
(ii) Powers of the first quantity ‘a’ go on decreasing by 1 whereas the powers of the
second quantity ‘b’ increase by 1, in the successive terms.
(iii) In each term of the expansion, the sum of the indices of a and b is the same and
is equal to the index of a + b.

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 BINOMIAL THEOREM 161

We now arrange the coefficients in these expansions as follows (Fig 8.1):

Fig 8.1
Do we observe any pattern in this table that will help us to write the next row? Yes we
do. It can be seen that the addition of 1’s in the row for index 1 gives rise to 2 in the row
for index 2. The addition of 1, 2 and 2, 1 in the row for index 2, gives rise to 3 and 3 in
the row for index 3 and so on. Also, 1 is present at the beginning and at the end of each
row. This can be continued till any index of our interest.
We can extend the pattern given in Fig 8.2 by writing a few more rows.

Fig 8.2

Pascal’s Triangle
The structure given in Fig 8.2 looks like a triangle with 1 at the top vertex and running
down the two slanting sides. This array of numbers is known as Pascal’s triangle,
after the name of French mathematician Blaise Pascal. It is also known as Meru
Prastara by Pingla.
Expansions for the higher powers of a binomial are also possible by using Pascal’s
triangle. Let us expand (2x + 3y)5 by using Pascal’s triangle. The row for index 5 is
1 5 10 10 5 1
Using this row and our observations (i), (ii) and (iii), we get
(2x + 3y)5 = (2x)5 + 5(2x)4 (3y) + 10(2x)3 (3y)2 +10 (2x)2 (3y)3 + 5(2x)(3y)4 +(3y)5
= 32x5 + 240x4y + 720x3y2 + 1080x2y3 + 810xy4 + 243y5.

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Now, if we want to find the expansion of (2x + 3y)12, we are first required to get
the row for index 12. This can be done by writing all the rows of the Pascal’s triangle
till index 12. This is a slightly lengthy process. The process, as you observe, will become
more difficult, if we need the expansions involving still larger powers.
We thus try to find a rule that will help us to find the expansion of the binomial for
any power without writing all the rows of the Pascal’s triangle, that come before the
row of the desired index.
For this, we make use of the concept of combinations studied earlier to rewrite
n!
n
Cr =
the numbers in the Pascal’s triangle. We know that
r!(n – r )! , 0 ≤ r ≤ n and
n is a non-negative integer. Also, nC0 = 1 = nCn
The Pascal’s triangle can now be rewritten as (Fig 8.3)

Fig 8.3 Pascal’s triangle

Observing this pattern, we can now write the row of the Pascal’s triangle for any index
without writing the earlier rows. For example, for the index 7 the row would be
7
C0 7C1 7C2 7C3 7C4 7C5 7C6 7C7.
Thus, using this row and the observations (i), (ii) and (iii), we have
(a + b)7 = 7C0 a7 + 7C1a6b + 7C2a5b2 + 7C3a4b3 + 7C4a3b4 + 7C5a2b5 + 7C6ab6 + 7C7b7
An expansion of a binomial to any positive integral index say n can now be visualised
using these observations. We are now in a position to write the expansion of a binomial
to any positive integral index.

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 BINOMIAL THEOREM 163

8.2.1 Binomial theorem for any positive integer n,

(a + b)n = nC0an + nC1an–1b + nC2an–2 b2 + ...+ nCn – 1a.bn–1 + nCnbn
Proof The proof is obtained by applying principle of mathematical induction.
Let the given statement be
P(n) : (a + b)n = nC0an + nC1an – 1b + nC2an – 2b2 + ...+ nCn–1a.bn – 1 + nCnbn
For n = 1, we have
P (1) : (a + b)1 = 1C0a1 + 1C1b1 = a + b
Thus, P (1) is true.
Suppose P (k) is true for some positive integer k, i.e.
(a + b)k = kC0ak + kC1ak – 1b + kC2ak – 2b2 + ...+ kCkbk ... (1)
We shall prove that P(k + 1) is also true, i.e.,
(a + b)k + 1 = k+1
C0 ak + 1 + k+1
C 1 ak b + k+1
C2 ak – 1b2 + ...+ k+1
Ck+1 bk + 1
Now, (a + b)k + 1 = (a + b) (a + b)k
= (a + b) (kC0 ak + kC1ak – 1 b + kC2 ak – 2 b2 +...+ kCk – 1 abk – 1 + kCk bk)
[from (1)]
= kC0 ak + 1 + kC1 akb + kC2ak – 1b2 +...+ kCk – 1 a2bk – 1 + kCk abk + kC0 akb
+ kC1ak – 1b2 + kC2ak – 2b3+...+ kCk-1abk + kCkbk + 1
[by actual multiplication]
= kC0ak + 1 + (kC1+ kC0) akb + (kC2 + kC1)ak – 1b2 + ...
+ (kCk+ kCk–1) abk + kCkbk + 1 [grouping like terms]
= k + 1C0a k + 1 + k + 1C1akb + k + 1C2 ak – 1b2 +...+ k + 1Ckabk + k + 1Ck + 1 bk +1
k+1 k+1
(by using C0=1, kCr + kCr–1 = Cr and k
Ck = 1= k + 1Ck + 1)
Thus, it has been proved that P (k + 1) is true whenever P(k) is true. Therefore, by
principle of mathematical induction, P(n) is true for every positive integer n.
We illustrate this theorem by expanding (x + 2)6:
(x + 2)6 = 6C0x6 + 6C1x5.2 + 6C2x422 + 6C3x3.23 + 6C4x2.24 + 6C5x.25 + 6C6.26.
= x6 + 12x5 + 60x4 + 160x3 + 240x2 + 192x + 64
Thus (x + 2)6 = x6 + 12x5 + 60x4 + 160x3 + 240x2 + 192x + 64.

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Observations
n

1. The notation ∑
k =0
n
C k a n− k b k stands for

C0a b + C1an–1b1 + ...+ nC ran–rbr + ...+nCnan–nbn, where b0 = 1 = an–n.

n n 0 n

Hence the theorem can also be stated as

n
( a + b) n = ∑ n C k a n − k b k .
k =0

2. The coefficients nCr occuring in the binomial theorem are known as binomial
coefficients.
3. There are (n+1) terms in the expansion of (a+b)n, i.e., one more than the index.
4. In the successive terms of the expansion the index of a goes on decreasing by
unity. It is n in the first term, (n–1) in the second term, and so on ending with zero
in the last term. At the same time the index of b increases by unity, starting with
zero in the first term, 1 in the second and so on ending with n in the last term.
5. In the expansion of (a+b)n, the sum of the indices of a and b is n + 0 = n in the
first term, (n – 1) + 1 = n in the second term and so on 0 + n = n in the last term.
Thus, it can be seen that the sum of the indices of a and b is n in every term of the
expansion.
8.2.2 Some special cases In the expansion of (a + b)n,
(i) Taking a = x and b = – y, we obtain
(x – y)n = [x + (–y)]n
= nC0xn + nC1xn – 1(–y) + nC2xn–2(–y)2 + nC3xn–3(–y)3 + ... + nCn (–y)n
= nC0xn – nC1xn – 1y + nC2xn – 2y2 – nC3xn – 3y3 + ... + (–1)n nCn yn
Thus (x–y)n = nC0xn – nC1xn – 1 y + nC2xn – 2 y2 + ... + (–1)n nCn yn
Using this, we have (x–2y)5 = 5
C0x5 – 5C1x4 (2y) + 5C2x3 (2y)2 – 5C3x2 (2y)3 +
5
C4 x(2y)4 – 5C5(2y)5
= x5 –10x4y + 40x3y2 – 80x2y3 + 80xy4 – 32y5.
(ii) Taking a = 1, b = x, we obtain
(1 + x)n = nC0(1)n + nC1(1)n – 1x + nC2(1)n – 2 x2 + ... + nCnxn
= nC0 + nC1x + nC2x2 + nC3x3 + ... + nCnxn
Thus (1 + x)n = nC0 + nC1x + nC2x2 + nC3x3 + ... + nCnxn

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 BINOMIAL THEOREM 165

In particular, for x = 1, we have

2n = nC0 + nC1 + nC2 + ... + nCn.
(iii) Taking a = 1, b = – x, we obtain
(1– x)n = nC0 – nC1x + nC2x2 – ... + (– 1)n nCnxn
In particular, for x = 1, we get
0 = nC0 – nC1 + nC2 – ... + (–1)n nCn
4
 2 3
Example 1 Expand  x +  , x ≠ 0
 x
Solution By using binomial theorem, we have
4 2 3 4
 2 3 4 3  3  3  3
 x +  = C0(x2)4 + 4C1(x2)3  x  + 4C2(x2)2   + 4C3(x2)   + 4C4  
x    x  x  x
3 9 27 81
= x8 + 4.x6 . + 6.x4 . 2 + 4.x2. 3 + 4
x x x x
108 81
= x8 + 12x5 + 54x2 + + .
x x4
Example 2 Compute (98)5.
Solution We express 98 as the sum or difference of two numbers whose powers are
easier to calculate, and then use Binomial Theorem.
Write 98 = 100 – 2
Therefore, (98)5 = (100 – 2)5
= 5C0 (100)5 – 5C1 (100)4.2 + 5C2 (100)322
– 5C3 (100)2 (2)3 + 5C4 (100) (2)4 – 5C5 (2)5
= 10000000000 – 5 × 100000000 × 2 + 10 × 1000000 × 4 – 10 ×10000
× 8 + 5 × 100 × 16 – 32

= 10040008000 – 1000800032 = 9039207968.

Example 3 Which is larger (1.01)1000000 or 10,000?
Solution Splitting 1.01 and using binomial theorem to write the first few terms we
have

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166 MATHEMATICS

(1.01)1000000 = (1 + 0.01)1000000
1000000 1000000
= C0 + C1(0.01) + other positive terms

= 1 + 1000000 × 0.01 + other positive terms

= 1 + 10000 + other positive terms

> 10000

Hence (1.01)1000000 > 10000

Example 4 Using binomial theorem, prove that 6n–5n always leaves remainder
1 when divided by 25.
Solution For two numbers a and b if we can find numbers q and r such that
a = bq + r, then we say that b divides a with q as quotient and r as remainder. Thus, in
order to show that 6n – 5n leaves remainder 1 when divided by 25, we prove that
6n – 5n = 25k + 1, where k is some natural number.
We have
(1 + a)n = nC0 + nC1a + nC2a2 + ... + nCnan
For a = 5, we get
(1 + 5)n = nC0 + nC15 + nC252 + ... + nCn5n

i.e. (6)n = 1 + 5n + 52.nC2 + 53.nC3 + ... + 5n

i.e. 6n – 5n = 1+52 (nC2 + nC35 + ... + 5n-2)

or 6n – 5n = 1+ 25 (nC2 + 5 .nC3 + ... + 5n-2)

or 6n – 5n = 25k+1 where k = nC2 + 5 .nC3 + ... + 5n–2.

This shows that when divided by 25, 6n – 5n leaves remainder 1.

EXERCISE 8.1
Expand each of the expressions in Exercises 1 to 5.
5
2 x
1. (1–2x)5 2.  –  3. (2x – 3)6
 x 2

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 BINOMIAL THEOREM 167

5 6
x 1  1
4.  +  5.  x + 
3 x  x
Using binomial theorem, evaluate each of the following:
6. (96)3 7. (102)5 8. (101)4
9. (99)5
10. Using Binomial Theorem, indicate which number is larger (1.1)10000 or 1000.
11. Find (a + b)4 – (a – b)4. Hence, evaluate ( 3 + 2)4 – ( 3 – 2 )4 .
12. Find (x + 1)6 + (x – 1)6. Hence or otherwise evaluate ( 2 + 1)6 + ( 2 – 1)6.
13. Show that 9n+1 – 8n – 9 is divisible by 64, whenever n is a positive integer.
n

14. Prove that ∑3

r =0
r n
C r = 4n .

8.3 General and Middle Terms

1. In the binomial expansion for (a + b)n, we observe that the first term is
n
C0an, the second term is nC1an–1b, the third term is nC2an–2b2, and so on. Looking
at the pattern of the successive terms we can say that the (r + 1)th term is
n
Cran–rbr. The (r + 1)th term is also called the general term of the expansion
(a + b)n. It is denoted by Tr+1. Thus Tr+1 = nCr an–rbr.
2. Regarding the middle term in the expansion (a + b)n, we have
(i) If n is even, then the number of terms in the expansion will be n + 1. Since
th
 n +1+1
n is even so n + 1 is odd. Therefore, the middle term is   , i.e.,
 2 
th
n 
 +1 term.
2 
th
8 
For example, in the expansion of (x + 2y) , the middle term is  +1  i.e.,
8
2 
5th term.

(ii) If n is odd, then n +1 is even, so there will be two middle terms in the

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168 MATHEMATICS

th
 n +1 
th
 n +1 
expansion, namely,   term and  + 1 term. So in the expansion
 2   2 
th th
 7 +1   7 +1 
(2x – y) , the middle terms are 
7  , i.e., 4th and  + 1 , i.e., 5th term.
 2   2 

2n th
 1  2 n +1 + 1 
3. In the expansion of  x +  , where x ≠ 0, the middle term is   ,
 x  2 
i.e., (n + 1)th term, as 2n is even.
n
1
It is given by Cnx   = 2nCn (constant).
2n n
x
This term is called the term independent of x or the constant term.
Example 5 Find a if the 17th and 18th terms of the expansion (2 + a)50 are equal.
Solution The (r + 1)th term of the expansion (x + y)n is given by Tr + 1 = nCrxn–ryr.
For the 17th term, we have, r + 1 = 17, i.e., r = 16
Therefore, T17 = T16 + 1 = 50C16 (2)50 – 16 a16
= 50C 16 234 a16.
Similarly, T18 = 50C 17 233 a17
Given that T17 = T 18
50
So C 16 (2)34 a16 = 50C 17 (2)33 a17

50
C 16 . 2 34 a 17
Therefore 50
=
C 17 . 2 33 a 16
50
C16 × 2 50! 17! . 33!
i.e., a= 50 = × × 2 =1
C17 16!34! 50!

Example 6 Show that the middle term in the expansion of (1+x) 2n is

1.3.5...(2n − 1)
2n xn, where n is a positive integer.
n!

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 BINOMIAL THEOREM 169

th
 2n 
Solution As 2n is even, the middle term of the expansion (1 + x)2n is  + 1 ,
 2 
i.e., (n + 1)th term which is given by,
(2n)! n
Tn+1 = 2nCn(1)2n – n(x)n = 2nCnxn = x
n! n!

2n (2n − 1) (2n − 2) ...4.3.2.1 n

= x
n! n!

1.2.3.4...(2n − 2) (2n − 1) (2n) n

= x
n!n!
[1.3.5 ... (2n – 1)][2.4.6...(2n)] n
= x
n!n!

[1.3.5...(2n − 1)]2 n [1.2.3...n] n

= x
n!n!
[1.3.5...(2n − 1)] n! n n
= 2 .x
n! n!

1.3.5...(2n − 1) n n
= 2 x
n!
Example 7 Find the coefficient of x6y3 in the expansion of (x + 2y)9.
Solution Suppose x6y3 occurs in the (r + 1)th term of the expansion (x + 2y)9.
Now Tr+1 = 9Cr x9 – r (2y)r = 9Cr 2 r . x9 – r . y r .
Comparing the indices of x as well as y in x6y3 and in Tr + 1 , we get r = 3.
Thus, the coefficient of x6y3 is
9! 3 9.8.7 3
9
C3 2 3 = .2 = . 2 = 672.
3! 6! 3.2

Example 8 The second, third and fourth terms in the binomial expansion (x + a)n are
240, 720 and 1080, respectively. Find x, a and n.
Solution Given that second term T2 = 240

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We have T2 = nC1xn – 1 . a
n
So C1xn–1 . a = 240 ... (1)
Similarly n
C2xn–2 a2 = 720 ... (2)
n n–3 3
and C3x a = 1080 ... (3)
Dividing (2) by (1), we get
n
C 2 x n− 2 a 2 720 (n − 1)! a
= i.e., . =6
n
C1 x n −1a 240 (n − 2)! x
a 6
or = ... (4)
x ( n − 1)
Dividing (3) by (2), we have
a 9
= ... (5)
x 2( n − 2)
From (4) and (5),
6 9
=
n −1 2 (n − 2) . Thus, n = 5

a 3
Hence, from (1), 5x4a = 240, and from (4), =
x 2
Solving these equations for a and x, we get x = 2 and a = 3.
Example 9 The coefficients of three consecutive terms in the expansion of (1 + a)n
are in the ratio1: 7 : 42. Find n.
Solution Suppose the three consecutive terms in the expansion of (1 + a)n are
(r – 1)th, rth and (r + 1)th terms.
The (r – 1)th term is nCr – 2 ar – 2, and its coefficient is nCr – 2. Similarly, the coefficients
of rth and (r + 1)th terms are nCr – 1 and nCr , respectively.
Since the coefficients are in the ratio 1 : 7 : 42, so we have,
n
Cr −2 1
n
= , i.e., n – 8r + 9 = 0 ... (1)
C r −1 7
n
C r −1 7
and n
= , i.e., n – 7r + 1 = 0 ... (2)
Cr 42
Solving equations(1) and (2), we get, n = 55.

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 BINOMIAL THEOREM 171

EXERCISE 8.2

Find the coefficient of

1. x5 in (x + 3)8 2. a5b7 in (a – 2b)12 .
Write the general term in the expansion of
3. (x2 – y)6 4. (x2 – yx)12, x ≠ 0.
5. Find the 4th term in the expansion of (x – 2y)12.
18
 1 
6. Find the 13 term in the expansion of  9 x −
th
 , x ≠ 0.
 3 x

Find the middle terms in the expansions of

7 10
 x3  x 
 3 −  8.  + 9 y 
6 
7. .
  3 
9. In the expansion of (1 + a)m+n, prove that coefficients of am and an are equal.
10. The coefficients of the (r – 1)th, rth and (r + 1)th terms in the expansion of (x + 1)n
are in the ratio 1 : 3 : 5. Find n and r.
11. Prove that the coefficient of xn in the expansion of (1 + x)2n is twice the coefficient
of xn in the expansion of (1 + x)2n – 1.
12. Find a positive value of m for which the coefficient of x2 in the expansion
(1 + x)m is 6.

Miscellaneous Examples
6
3 2 1 
Example 10 Find the term independent of x in the expansion of  x −  .
2 3x 

6−r r
3 2  1 
− 
6
Solution We have Tr + 1 = Cr  x 
2   3x 

6−r r
3 1  1 
(x )
6−r
6
= Cr  
2
( − 1)r    r
2  x 3 

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(3)6 − 2 r 12 − 3r
= ( − 1)
r 6
Cr x
(2) 6 − r
The term will be independent of x if the index of x is zero, i.e., 12 – 3r = 0. Thus, r = 4
(3) 6−8 5
th
Hence 5 term is independent of x and is given by (– 1) C4 = .
4 6
(2) 6− 4 12
Example 11 If the coefficients of ar – 1, ar and ar + 1 in the expansion of (1 + a)n are in
arithmetic progression, prove that n2 – n(4r + 1) + 4r2 – 2 = 0.
Solution The (r + 1)th term in the expansion is nCrar. Thus it can be seen that ar occurs
in the (r + 1)th term, and its coefficient is nCr. Hence the coefficients of ar – 1, ar and
ar + 1 are nCr – 1, nCr and nCr + 1, respectively. Since these coefficients are in arithmetic
progression, so we have, nCr – 1+ nCr + 1 = 2.nCr. This gives
n! n! n!
+ =2×
(r − 1)!(n − r + 1)! (r + 1)!(n − r − 1)! r!(n − r )!
1 1
i.e. +
(r − 1)!(n − r + 1) (n − r ) (n − r − 1)! (r + 1) (r ) (r − 1)!(n − r − 1)!
1
=2×
r ( r − 1)! (n − r ) ( n − r − 1)!

1  1 1 
or (r − 1)! (n − r − 1)!  ( n – r ) ( n − r + 1) + ( r + 1) (r ) 
 
1
= 2×
( r − 1)! (n − r − 1)![r (n – r )]

1 1 2
i.e. + =
(n − r + 1) (n − r ) r (r + 1) r (n − r ) ,
r (r + 1) + (n − r )(n − r + 1) 2
or =
(n − r )(n − r + 1)r (r + 1) r (n − r )

or r(r + 1) + (n – r) (n – r + 1) = 2 (r + 1) (n – r + 1)
or r2 + r + n2 – nr + n – nr + r2 – r = 2(nr – r2 + r + n – r + 1)

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 BINOMIAL THEOREM 173

or n2 – 4nr – n + 4r2 – 2 = 0
i.e., n2 – n (4r + 1) + 4r2 – 2 = 0
Example 12 Show that the coefficient of the middle term in the expansion of (1 + x)2n is
equal to the sum of the coefficients of two middle terms in the expansion of (1 + x)2n – 1.
Solution As 2n is even so the expansion (1 + x)2n has only one middle term which is
th
 2n 
 + 1 i.e., (n + 1)th term.
 2 
The (n + 1)th term is 2nCnxn. The coefficient of xn is 2nCn
Similarly, (2n – 1) being odd, the other expansion has two middle terms,
th th
 2n − 1 + 1   2n − 1 + 1 
  and  + 1 i.e., nth and (n + 1)th terms. The coefficients of
 2   2 
2n – 1 2n – 1
these terms are Cn – 1 and Cn, respectively.
Now
2n – 1 2n – 1
Cn – 1 + Cn= 2nCn [As nCr – 1+ nCr = n+1
Cr]. as required.

Example 13 Find the coefficient of a4 in the product (1 + 2a)4 (2 – a)5 using binomial
theorem.
Solution We first expand each of the factors of the given product using Binomial
Theorem. We have
(1 + 2a)4 = 4C0 + 4C1 (2a) + 4C2 (2a)2 + 4C3 (2a)3 + 4C4 (2a)4
= 1 + 4 (2a) + 6(4a2) + 4 (8a3) + 16a4.
= 1 + 8a + 24a2 + 32a3 + 16a4
and (2 – a)5 = 5C0 (2)5 – 5C1 (2)4 (a) + 5C2 (2)3 (a)2 – 5C3 (2)2 (a)3
+ 5C4 (2) (a)4 – 5C5 (a)5
= 32 – 80a + 80a2 – 40a3 + 10a4 – a5
Thus (1 + 2a)4 (2 – a)5
= (1 + 8a + 24a2 + 32a3+ 16a4) (32 –80a + 80a2– 40a3 + 10a4– a5)
The complete multiplication of the two brackets need not be carried out. We write only
those terms which involve a4. This can be done if we note that ar. a4 – r = a4. The terms
containing a4 are
1 (10a4) + (8a) (–40a3) + (24a2) (80a2) + (32a3) (– 80a) + (16a4) (32) = – 438a4

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Thus, the coefficient of a4 in the given product is – 438.

Example 14 Find the rth term from the end in the expansion of (x + a)n.
Solution There are (n + 1) terms in the expansion of (x + a)n. Observing the terms we
can say that the first term from the end is the last term, i.e., (n + 1)th term of the
expansion and n + 1 = (n + 1) – (1 – 1). The second term from the end is the nth term
of the expansion, and n = (n + 1) – (2 – 1). The third term from the end is the (n – 1)th
term of the expansion and n – 1 = (n + 1) – (3 – 1) and so on. Thus rth term from the
end will be term number (n + 1) – (r – 1) = (n – r + 2) of the expansion. And the
(n – r + 2)th term is nCn – r + 1 xr – 1 an – r + 1.
18
3 1 
Example 15 Find the term independent of x in the expansion of  x + 3  , x > 0.
 2 x
r
 1 
( x)
18 − r
18 3
Solution We have Tr + 1 = Cr  3 
2 x 
18 − r 18 − 2 r
1 1
= 18
Cr x 3 . =
18
Cr .x 3

r
r
2r
2 .x 3
18 − 2r
Since we have to find a term independent of x, i.e., term not having x, so take =0.
3
1
We get r = 9. The required term is 18C9 .
29
Example 16 The sum of the coefficients of the first three terms in the expansion of
m
 3 
 x − 2  , x ≠ 0, m being a natural number, is 559. Find the term of the expansion
 x 
containing x3.
m
 3 
Solution The coefficients of the first three terms of  x − 2  are mC0, (–3) mC1
 x 
m
and 9 C2. Therefore, by the given condition, we have
9m (m − 1)
m
C0 –3 mC1+ 9 mC2 = 559, i.e., 1 – 3m + = 559
2

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 BINOMIAL THEOREM 175

which gives m = 12 (m being a natural number).

r
 3 
Now Tr + 1 = 12
Cr x12 – r − 2  = 12
Cr (– 3)r . x12 – 3r
 x 

Since we need the term containing x3, so put 12 – 3r = 3 i.e., r = 3.

Thus, the required term is 12C3 (– 3)3 x3, i.e., – 5940 x3.
Example 17 If the coefficients of (r – 5)th and (2r – 1)th terms in the expansion of
(1 + x)34 are equal, find r.
Solution The coefficients of (r – 5)th and (2r – 1)th terms of the expansion (1 + x)34
are 34Cr – 6 and 34C2r – 2, respectively. Since they are equal so 34Cr – 6 = 34C2r – 2
Therefore, either r – 6 = 2r – 2 or r–6 = 34 – (2r – 2)
[Using the fact that if nCr = nCp, then either r = p or r = n – p]
So, we get r = – 4 or r = 14. r being a natural number, r = – 4 is not possible.
So, r = 14.

Miscellaneous Exercise on Chapter 8

1. Find a, b and n in the expansion of (a + b)n if the first three terms of the expansion
are 729, 7290 and 30375, respectively.
2. Find a if the coefficients of x2 and x3 in the expansion of (3 + ax)9 are equal.
3. Find the coefficient of x5 in the product (1 + 2x)6 (1 – x)7 using binomial theorem.
4. If a and b are distinct integers, prove that a – b is a factor of an – bn, whenever
n is a positive integer.
[Hint write an = (a – b + b)n and expand]

( ) −( )
6 6
5. Evaluate 3+ 2 3− 2 .

( ) + (a )
4 4
6. Find the value of a + a − 1 − a2 − 1 .
2 2 2

7. Find an approximation of (0.99)5 using the first three terms of its expansion.
8. Find n, if the ratio of the fifth term from the beginning to the fifth term from the
n
4 1 
end in the expansion of  2 + 4  is 6 :1 .
 3

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4
 x 2
9. Expand using Binomial Theorem  1 + −  , x ≠ 0 .
 2 x
2 2 3
10. Find the expansion of (3x – 2ax + 3a ) using binomial theorem.

Summary
® The expansion of a binomial forn anyn positive
n n
integral n is given by Binomial
n – 1 n n – 2 2
Theorem, which is (a + b) = C 0 a + C 1 a b + C 2a b + ...+
n
Cn – 1a.bn – 1 + nCnbn.
® The coefficients of the expansions are arranged in an array. This array is
called Pascal’s triangle.
® The general term of an expansion (a + b)n is Tr + 1 = nCran – r. br.
th
n 
® In the expansion (a + b)n, if n is even, then the middle term is the  2 + 1
th th
 n +1  n+1 
term.If n is odd, then the middle terms are   and  +1 terms.
 2   2 

Historical Note
The ancient Indian mathematicians knew about the coefficients in the
expansions of (x + y)n, 0 ≤ n ≤ 7. The arrangement of these coefficients was in
the form of a diagram called Meru-Prastara, provided by Pingla in his book
Chhanda shastra (200B.C.). This triangular arrangement is also found in the
work of Chinese mathematician Chu-shi-kie in 1303. The term binomial coefficients
was first introduced by the German mathematician, Michael Stipel (1486-1567) in
approximately 1544. Bombelli (1572) also gave the coefficients in the expansion of
(a + b)n, for n = 1,2 ...,7 and Oughtred (1631) gave them for n = 1, 2,..., 10. The
arithmetic triangle, popularly known as Pascal’s triangle and similar to the Meru-
Prastara of Pingla was constructed by the French mathematician Blaise Pascal
(1623-1662) in 1665.
The present form of the binomial theorem for integral values of n appeared in
Trate du triange arithmetic, written by Pascal and published posthumously in
1665.

—v —

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 Chapter 9
SEQUENCES AND SERIES

vNatural numbers are the product of human spirit. – DEDEKIND v

9.1 Introduction
In mathematics, the word, “sequence” is used in much the
same way as it is in ordinary English. When we say that a
collection of objects is listed in a sequence, we usually mean
that the collection is ordered in such a way that it has an
identified first member, second member, third member and
so on. For example, population of human beings or bacteria
at different times form a sequence. The amount of money
deposited in a bank, over a number of years form a sequence.
Depreciated values of certain commodity occur in a
sequence. Sequences have important applications in several Fibonacci
spheres of human activities. (1175-1250)
Sequences, following specific patterns are called progressions. In previous class,
we have studied about arithmetic progression (A.P). In this Chapter, besides discussing
more about A.P.; arithmetic mean, geometric mean, relationship between A.M.
and G.M., special series in forms of sum to n terms of consecutive natural numbers,
sum to n terms of squares of natural numbers and sum to n terms of cubes of
natural numbers will also be studied.
9.2 Sequences
Let us consider the following examples:
Assume that there is a generation gap of 30 years, we are asked to find the
number of ancestors, i.e., parents, grandparents, great grandparents, etc. that a person
might have over 300 years.

Here, the total number of generations = 300 = 10

30

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The number of person’s ancestors for the first, second, third, …, tenth generations are
2, 4, 8, 16, 32, …, 1024. These numbers form what we call a sequence.
Consider the successive quotients that we obtain in the division of 10 by 3 at
different steps of division. In this process we get 3,3.3,3.33,3.333, ... and so on. These
quotients also form a sequence. The various numbers occurring in a sequence are
called its terms. We denote the terms of a sequence by a1, a2, a3, …, an, …, etc., the
subscripts denote the position of the term. The nth term is the number at the nth position
of the sequence and is denoted by an. The nth term is also called the general term of the
sequence.
Thus, the terms of the sequence of person’s ancestors mentioned above are:
a1 = 2, a2 = 4, a3 = 8, …, a10 = 1024.
Similarly, in the example of successive quotients
a1 = 3, a2 = 3.3, a3 = 3.33, …, a6 = 3.33333, etc.
A sequence containing finite number of terms is called a finite sequence. For
example, sequence of ancestors is a finite sequence since it contains 10 terms (a fixed
number).
A sequence is called infinite, if it is not a finite sequence. For example, the
sequence of successive quotients mentioned above is an infinite sequence, infinite in
the sense that it never ends.
Often, it is possible to express the rule, which yields the various terms of a sequence
in terms of algebraic formula. Consider for instance, the sequence of even natural
numbers 2, 4, 6, …
Here a1 = 2 = 2 × 1 a2 = 4 = 2 × 2
a3 = 6 = 2 × 3 a4 = 8 = 2 × 4
.... .... .... .... .... ....
.... .... .... .... .... ....
a23 = 46 = 2 × 23, a24 = 48 = 2 × 24, and so on.
In fact, we see that the nth term of this sequence can be written as an = 2n,
where n is a natural number. Similarly, in the sequence of odd natural numbers 1,3,5, …,
the nth term is given by the formula, an = 2n – 1, where n is a natural number.
In some cases, an arrangement of numbers such as 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8,.. has no visible
pattern, but the sequence is generated by the recurrence relation given by
a1 = a2 = 1
a3 = a1 + a2
an = an – 2 + an – 1, n > 2
This sequence is called Fibonacci sequence.

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In the sequence of primes 2,3,5,7,…, we find that there is no formula for the nth
prime. Such sequence can only be described by verbal description.
In every sequence, we should not expect that its terms will necessarily be given
by a specific formula. However, we expect a theoretical scheme or a rule for generating
the terms a1, a2, a3,…,an,… in succession.
In view of the above, a sequence can be regarded as a function whose domain
is the set of natural numbers or some subset of it. Sometimes, we use the functional
notation a(n) for an.
9.3 Series
Let a1, a2, a3,…,an, be a given sequence. Then, the expression
a1 + a2 + a3 +,…+ an + ...
is called the series associated with the given sequence .The series is finite or infinite
according as the given sequence is finite or infinite. Series are often represented in
compact form, called sigma notation, using the Greek letter ∑ (sigma) as means of
indicating the summation involved. Thus, the series a1 + a2 + a3 + ... + an is abbreviated

n
as ∑ ak .
k =1

Remark When the series is used, it refers to the indicated sum not to the sum itself.
For example, 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 is a finite series with four terms. When we use the phrase
“sum of a series,” we will mean the number that results from adding the terms, the
sum of the series is 16.
We now consider some examples.
Example 1 Write the first three terms in each of the following sequences defined by
the following:
n−3
(i) an = 2n + 5, (ii) an = .
4
Solution (i) Here an = 2n + 5
Substituting n = 1, 2, 3, we get
a1 = 2(1) + 5 = 7, a2 = 9, a3 = 11
Therefore, the required terms are 7, 9 and 11.
n−3 1− 3 1 1
(ii) Here an = . Thus, a1 = = − , a2 = − , a3 = 0
4 4 2 4

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Hence, the first three terms are – 1 , – 1 and 0.

2 4
Example 2 What is the 20th term of the sequence defined by
an = (n – 1) (2 – n) (3 + n) ?
Solution Putting n = 20 , we obtain
a20 = (20 – 1) (2 – 20) (3 + 20)
= 19 × (– 18) × (23) = – 7866.
Example 3 Let the sequence an be defined as follows:
a1 = 1, an = an – 1 + 2 for n ≥ 2.
Find first five terms and write corresponding series.
Solution We have
a1 = 1, a2 = a1 + 2 = 1 + 2 = 3, a3 = a2 + 2 = 3 + 2 = 5,
a4 = a3 + 2 = 5 + 2 = 7, a5 = a4 + 2 = 7 + 2 = 9.
Hence, the first five terms of the sequence are 1,3,5,7 and 9. The corresponding series
is 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 +...

EXERCISE 9.1
Write the first five terms of each of the sequences in Exercises 1 to 6 whose nth
terms are:
n
1. an = n (n + 2) 2. an = 3. an = 2n
n +1

2n − 3 n2 + 5
4. an = 5. an = (–1)n–1 5n+1 6. a n = n .
6 4
Find the indicated terms in each of the sequences in Exercises 7 to 10 whose nth
terms are:

n2
7. an = 4n – 3; a17, a24 8. an = 2n ; a7
n(n – 2)
9. an = (–1)n – 1n3; a9 10. an = ; a20 .
n+3

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Write the first five terms of each of the sequences in Exercises 11 to 13 and obtain the
corresponding series:
an −1
11. a1 = 3, an = 3an – 1 + 2 for all n > 1 12. a1 = – 1, an = ,n≥2
n
13. a1 = a2 = 2, an = an – 1–1, n > 2
14. The Fibonacci sequence is defined by
1 = a1 = a2 and an = an – 1 + an – 2, n > 2.
an +1
Find
an , for n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5

9.4 Arithmetic Progression (A.P.)

Let us recall some formulae and properties studied earlier.
A sequence a1, a2, a3,…, an ,… is called arithmetic sequence or arithmetic
progression if an + 1 = an + d, n ∈ N, where a1 is called the first term and the constant
term d is called the common difference of the A.P.
Let us consider an A.P. (in its standard form) with first term a and common
difference d, i.e., a, a + d, a + 2d, ...
Then the nth term (general term) of the A.P. is an = a + (n – 1) d.
We can verify the following simple properties of an A.P. :
(i) If a constant is added to each term of an A.P., the resulting sequence is
also an A.P.
(ii) If a constant is subtracted from each term of an A.P., the resulting
sequence is also an A.P.
(iii) If each term of an A.P. is multiplied by a constant, then the resulting
sequence is also an A.P.
(iv) If each term of an A.P. is divided by a non-zero constant then the
resulting sequence is also an A.P.
Here, we shall use the following notations for an arithmetic progression:
a = the first term, l = the last term, d = common difference,
n = the number of terms.
Sn= the sum to n terms of A.P.
Let a, a + d, a + 2d, …, a + (n – 1) d be an A.P. Then
l = a + (n – 1) d

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n
Sn = [2a + (n −1)d ]
2

n
We can also write, Sn = [a + l ]
2
Let us consider some examples.

Example 4 In an A.P. if mth term is n and the nth term is m, where m ≠ n, find the pth
term.
Solution We have am = a + (m – 1) d = n, ... (1)
and an = a + (n – 1) d = m ... (2)
Solving (1) and (2), we get
(m – n) d = n – m, or d = – 1, ... (3)
and a= n+m–1 ... (4)
Therefore a p = a + (p – 1)d
= n + m – 1 + ( p – 1) (–1) = n + m – p
Hence, the pth term is n + m – p.
1
Example 5 If the sum of n terms of an A.P. is nP + n(n – 1)Q , where P and Q
2
are constants, find the common difference.
Solution Let a1, a2, … an be the given A.P. Then
1
Sn = a1 + a2 + a3 +...+ an–1 + an = nP + n (n – 1) Q
2
Therefore S1 = a1 = P, S2 = a1 + a2 = 2P + Q
So that a2 = S2 – S1 = P + Q
Hence, the common difference is given by d = a2 – a1 = (P + Q) – P = Q.
Example 6 The sum of n terms of two arithmetic progressions are in the ratio
(3n + 8) : (7n + 15). Find the ratio of their 12th terms.
Solution Let a1, a2 and d1, d2 be the first terms and common difference of the first
and second arithmetic progression, respectively. According to the given condition, we
have
Sum to n terms of first A.P. 3n + 8
=
Sum to n termsof second A.P. 7 n + 15

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n
2
[2a1 + ( n −1 )d1 ] 3n + 8
=
or n 7n +15
2
[ 2
2 a + ( n − 1 )d 2]

2a1 + ( n − 1) d1 3n + 8
or = ... (1)
2a2 + ( n − 1) d 2 7n + 15

12th term of first A.P. a +11d1

Now = 1
12 term of second A.P a2 +11d 2
th

2a1 + 22d1 3 × 23 + 8
= [By putting n = 23 in (1)]
2a2 + 22d 2 7 × 23 + 15

a1 + 11d1 12th term of first A.P. 7

Therefore = th =
a2 + 11d 2 12 term of second A.P. 16
Hence, the required ratio is 7 : 16.
Example 7 The income of a person is Rs. 3,00,000, in the first year and he receives an
increase of Rs.10,000 to his income per year for the next 19 years. Find the total
amount, he received in 20 years.
Solution Here, we have an A.P. with a = 3,00,000, d = 10,000, and n = 20.
Using the sum formula, we get,
20
S20 = [600000 + 19 × 10000] = 10 (790000) = 79,00,000.
2
Hence, the person received Rs. 79,00,000 as the total amount at the end of 20 years.
9.4.1 Arithmetic mean Given two numbers a and b. We can insert a number A
between them so that a, A, b is an A.P. Such a number A is called the arithmetic mean
(A.M.) of the numbers a and b. Note that, in this case, we have
a +b
A – a = b – A, i.e., A =
2
We may also interpret the A.M. between two numbers a and b as their
a +b
average . For example, the A.M. of two numbers 4 and 16 is 10. We have, thus
2
constructed an A.P. 4, 10, 16 by inserting a number 10 between 4 and 16. The natural

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question now arises : Can we insert two or more numbers between given two numbers
so that the resulting sequence comes out to be an A.P. ? Observe that two numbers 8
and 12 can be inserted between 4 and 16 so that the resulting sequence 4, 8, 12, 16
becomes an A.P.
More generally, given any two numbers a and b, we can insert as many numbers
as we like between them such that the resulting sequence is an A.P.
Let A1, A2, A3, …, An be n numbers between a and b such that a, A1, A2, A3, …,
An, b is an A.P.
Here, b is the (n + 2) th term, i.e., b = a + [(n + 2) – 1]d = a + (n + 1) d.
b−a
This gives d= .
n +1
Thus, n numbers between a and b are as follows:
b−a
A1 = a + d = a +
n +1

2(b − a )
A2 = a + 2d = a +
n +1

3(b − a )
A3 = a + 3d = a +
n +1
..... ..... ..... .....
..... ..... ..... .....
n (b − a )
An = a + nd = a +
n +1 .
Example 8 Insert 6 numbers between 3 and 24 such that the resulting sequence is
an A.P.
Solution Let A1, A2, A3, A4, A5 and A6 be six numbers between 3 and 24 such that
3, A1, A2, A3, A4, A5, A6, 24 are in A.P. Here, a = 3, b = 24, n = 8.
Therefore, 24 = 3 + (8 –1) d, so that d = 3.
Thus A1 = a + d = 3 + 3 = 6; A2 = a + 2d = 3 + 2 × 3 = 9;
A3 = a + 3d = 3 + 3 × 3 = 12; A4 = a + 4d = 3 + 4 × 3 = 15;
A5 = a + 5d = 3 + 5 × 3 = 18; A6 = a + 6d = 3 + 6 × 3 = 21.
Hence, six numbers between 3 and 24 are 6, 9, 12, 15, 18 and 21.

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EXERCISE 9.2
1. Find the sum of odd integers from 1 to 2001.
2. Find the sum of all natural numbers lying between 100 and 1000, which are
multiples of 5.
3. In an A.P., the first term is 2 and the sum of the first five terms is one-fourth of
the next five terms. Show that 20th term is –112.

4. How many terms of the A.P. – 6, −

11 , – 5, … are needed to give the sum –25?
2

1 1
5. In an A.P., if pth term is and qth term is , prove that the sum of first pq
q p
1
terms is (pq +1), where p ≠ q.
2
6. If the sum of a certain number of terms of the A.P. 25, 22, 19, … is 116. Find the
last term.
7. Find the sum to n terms of the A.P., whose kth term is 5k + 1.
8. If the sum of n terms of an A.P. is (pn + qn2), where p and q are constants,
find the common difference.
9. The sums of n terms of two arithmetic progressions are in the ratio
5n + 4 : 9n + 6. Find the ratio of their 18th terms.
10. If the sum of first p terms of an A.P. is equal to the sum of the first q terms, then
find the sum of the first (p + q) terms.
11. Sum of the first p, q and r terms of an A.P. are a, b and c, respectively.
a b c
Prove that ( q − r ) + ( r − p ) + ( p − q) = 0
p q r
12. The ratio of the sums of m and n terms of an A.P. is m2 : n2. Show that the ratio
of mth and nth term is (2m – 1) : (2n – 1).
13. If the sum of n terms of an A.P. is 3n2 + 5n and its mth term is 164, find the value
of m.
14. Insert five numbers between 8 and 26 such that the resulting sequence is an A.P.

a n + bn
15. If is the A.M. between a and b, then find the value of n.
a n−1 + b n−1
16. Between 1 and 31, m numbers have been inserted in such a way that the resulting
sequence is an A. P. and the ratio of 7th and (m – 1)th numbers is 5 : 9. Find the
value of m.

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17. A man starts repaying a loan as first instalment of Rs. 100. If he increases the
instalment by Rs 5 every month, what amount he will pay in the 30th instalment?
18. The difference between any two consecutive interior angles of a polygon is 5°.
If the smallest angle is 120° , find the number of the sides of the polygon.
9.5 Geometric Progression (G. P.)
Let us consider the following sequences:
1 –1 1 –1
(i) 2,4,8,16,..., (ii) , , , (iii) .01,.0001,.000001,...
9 27 81 243 ...
In each of these sequences, how their terms progress? We note that each term, except
the first progresses in a definite order.

a2 a a
In (i), we have a1 = 2, = 2, 3 = 2, 4 = 2 and so on.
a1 a2 a3

1 a2 1 a 1 a 1
In (ii), we observe, a1 = , = , 3 = , 4= and so on.
9 a1 3 a2 3 a3 3
Similarly, state how do the terms in (iii) progress? It is observed that in each case,
every term except the first term bears a constant ratio to the term immediately preceding
1
it. In (i), this constant ratio is 2; in (ii), it is – 3 and in (iii), the constant ratio is 0.01.
Such sequences are called geometric sequence or geometric progression abbreviated
as G.P.
A sequence a1, a2, a3, …, an, … is called geometric progression, if each term is
ak + 1
non-zero and = r (constant), for k ≥ 1.
ak
By letting a1 = a, we obtain a geometric progression, a, ar, ar2, ar3,…., where a
is called the first term and r is called the common ratio of the G.P. Common ratio in
1
geometric progression (i), (ii) and (iii) above are 2, – and 0.01, respectively.
3
As in case of arithmetic progression, the problem of finding the nth term or sum of n
terms of a geometric progression containing a large number of terms would be difficult
without the use of the formulae which we shall develop in the next Section. We shall
use the following notations with these formulae:
a = the first term, r = the common ratio, l = the last term,
n = the numbers of terms,

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n = the numbers of terms,

Sn = the sum of first n terms.
9.5.1 General term of a G .P. Let us consider a G.P. with first non-zero term ‘a’ and
common ratio ‘r’. Write a few terms of it. The second term is obtained by multiplying
a by r, thus a2 = ar. Similarly, third term is obtained by multiplying a2 by r. Thus,
a3 = a2r = ar2, and so on.
We write below these and few more terms.
1st term = a1 = a = ar1–1, 2nd term = a2 = ar = ar2–1, 3rd term = a3 = ar2 = ar3–1
4th term = a4 = ar3 = ar4–1, 5th term = a5 = ar4 = ar5–1
Do you see a pattern? What will be 16th term?
a16 = ar16–1 = ar15
Therefore, the pattern suggests that the nth term of a G.P. is given by
an = ar n−1 .
Thus, a, G.P. can be written as a, ar, ar2, ar3, … arn – 1; a, ar, ar2,...,arn – 1... ;according
as G.P. is finite or infinite, respectively.
The series a + ar + ar2 + ... + arn–1 or a + ar + ar2 + ... + arn–1 +...are called
finite or infinite geometric series, respectively.
9.5.2. Sum to n terms of a G .P. Let the first term of a G.P. be a and the common
ratio be r. Let us denote by Sn the sum to first n terms of G.P. Then
Sn = a + ar + ar2 +...+ arn–1 ... (1)
Case 1 If r = 1, we have Sn = a + a + a + ... + a (n terms) = na
Case 2 If r ≠ 1, multiplying (1) by r, we have
rSn = ar + ar2 + ar3 + ... + arn ... (2)
Subtracting (2) from (1), we get (1 – r) Sn = a – arn = a(1 – rn)

a (1 − r n ) a( r n −1)
This gives Sn = or Sn =
1− r r −1
th th
Example 9 Find the 10 and n terms of the G.P. 5, 25,125,… .
Solution Here a = 5 and r = 5. Thus, a10 = 5(5)10–1 = 5(5)9 = 510
and an = arn–1 = 5(5)n–1 = 5n .
Example10 Which term of the G.P., 2,8,32, ... up to n terms is 131072?
Solution Let 131072 be the nth term of the given G.P. Here a = 2 and r = 4.
Therefore 131072 = an = 2(4)n – 1 or 65536 = 4n – 1
This gives 48 = 4n – 1.
So that n – 1 = 8, i.e., n = 9. Hence, 131072 is the 9th term of the G.P.

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Example11 In a G.P., the 3rd term is 24 and the 6th term is 192.Find the 10th term.
Solution Here, a3 = ar = 24
2
... (1)
and a6 = ar = 192
5
... (2)
Dividing (2) by (1), we get r = 2. Substituting r = 2 in (1), we get a = 6.
Hence a10 = 6 (2)9 = 3072.
Example12 Find the sum of first n terms and the sum of first 5 terms of the geometric
2 4
series 1 + + + ...
3 9
2
Solution Here a = 1 and r = . Therefore
3

  2 n 
1 −     n

a (1 − r n )   3   3 1−  2  
Sn = = =  
1− r 2   3  
1−
3

  2 5  211 211
In particular, S5 = 3 1 −    = 3 × = .
243 81
  3  
3 3
Example 13 How many terms of the G.P. 3, , ,... are needed to give the
2 4
3069
sum 512 ?

1 3069
Solution Let n be the number of terms needed. Given that a = 3, r = and Sn =
2 512
a (1 – r n )
Since Sn =
1− r

1
3(1 − )
Therefore 3069
= 2n = 6  1− 1 
1  n 
512 1−  2 
2

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3069 1
or = 1− n
3072 2
1 3069 3 1
or n =
1− = =
2 3072 3072 1024
or 2n = 1024 = 210, which gives n = 10.
13
Example 14 The sum of first three terms of a G.P. is and their product is – 1.
12
Find the common ratio and the terms.
a
Solution Let , a, ar be the first three terms of the G.P. Then
r
a 13
+ ar + a = ... (1)
r 12

a ... (2)

and   (a ) (ar ) = – 1
r
From (2), we get a3 = – 1, i.e., a = – 1 (considering only real roots)
Substituting a = –1 in (1), we have
1 13
– –1 – r = or 12r2 + 25r + 12 = 0.
r 12

3 4
This is a quadratic in r, solving, we get r = –or – .
4 3
4 3 –3 3 4 –4
Thus, the three terms of G.P. are : , – 1, for r = and , – 1, for r = ,
3 4 4 4 3 3
Example15 Find the sum of the sequence 7, 77, 777, 7777, ... to n terms.
Solution This is not a G.P., however, we can relate it to a G.P. by writing the terms as
Sn = 7 + 77 + 777 + 7777 + ... to n terms
7
= [9 + 99 + 999 + 9999 + ...to n term]
9
7
= [(10 − 1) + (102 − 1) + (103 −1) + (104 − 1) + ...n terms]
9

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7
= [(10 + 102 + 103 + ...n terms) – (1+1+1+...n terms)]
9

7  10(10n − 1)  7  10 (10n − 1) 
=  − n  =  − n .
9  10 − 1  9 9 
Example 16 A person has 2 parents, 4 grandparents, 8 great grandparents, and so on.
Find the number of his ancestors during the ten generations preceding his own.
Solution Here a = 2, r = 2 and n = 10
a (r n −1)
Using the sum formula Sn =
r −1
We have S10 = 2(210 – 1) = 2046
Hence, the number of ancestors preceding the person is 2046.
9.5.3 Geometric Mean (G .M.) The geometric mean of two positive numbers a

and b is the number ab . Therefore, the geometric mean of 2 and 8 is 4. We

observe that the three numbers 2,4,8 are consecutive terms of a G.P. This leads to a
generalisation of the concept of geometric means of two numbers.
Given any two positive numbers a and b, we can insert as many numbers as
we like between them to make the resulting sequence in a G.P.
Let G1, G2,…, Gn be n numbers between positive numbers a and b such that
a,G1,G2,G3,…,Gn,b is a G.P. Thus, b being the (n + 2)th term,we have

1
n +1  b n + 1 .
b = ar , or r= 
a
1
 b  n+1 2 3
Hence G1 = ar = a   ,  b  n +1  b  n+1
a G 2 = ar 2 = a   , G 3 = ar = a   ,
3
a a
n
 b  n +1
G n = ar n = a  
a

Example17 Insert three numbers between 1 and 256 so that the resulting sequence
is a G.P.
Solution Let G1, G2,G3 be three numbers between 1 and 256 such that
1, G1,G2,G3 ,256 is a G.P.

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Therefore 256 = r4 giving r = ± 4 (Taking real roots only)

For r = 4, we have G1 = ar = 4, G2 = ar2 = 16, G3 = ar3 = 64
Similarly, for r = – 4, numbers are – 4,16 and – 64.
Hence, we can insert 4, 16, 64 between 1 and 256 so that the resulting sequences are
in G.P.
9.6 Relationship Between A.M. and G.M.
Let A and G be A.M. and G.M. of two given positive real numbers a and b, respectively.
Then
a+b
A= and G = ab
2
Thus, we have
a +b a + b − 2 ab
A–G= − ab =
2 2

( )
2
a− b
= ≥0 ... (1)
2
From (1), we obtain the relationship A ≥ G.
Example 18 If A.M. and G.M. of two positive numbers a and b are 10 and 8,
respectively, find the numbers.
a+b
Solution Given that A.M. = =10 ... (1)
2
and G.M. = ab = 8 ... (2)

From (1) and (2), we get

a + b = 20 ... (3)
ab = 64 ... (4)
Putting the value of a and b from (3), (4) in the identity (a – b) = (a + b)2 – 4ab,
2

we get
(a – b)2 = 400 – 256 = 144
or a – b = ± 12
... (5)
Solving (3) and (5), we obtain
a = 4, b = 16 or a = 16, b = 4
Thus, the numbers a and b are 4, 16 or 16, 4 respectively.

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EXERCISE 9.3

5 5 5
1. Find the 20th and nth terms of the G.P. , , , ...
2 4 8
2. Find the 12th term of a G.P. whose 8th term is 192 and the common ratio is 2.
3. The 5 th, 8 th and 11 th terms of a G.P. are p, q and s, respectively. Show
that q2 = ps.
4. The 4th term of a G.P. is square of its second term, and the first term is – 3.
Determine its 7th term.
5. Which term of the following sequences:
(a) 2, 2 2 , 4,... is 128 ? (b) 3 ,3,3 3 ,... is729 ?
1 1 1 1
(c) , , ,... is ?
3 9 27 19683

2 7
6. For what values of x, the numbers – , x, – are in G.P.?
7 2
Find the sum to indicated number of terms in each of the geometric progressions in
Exercises 7 to 10:
7. 0.15, 0.015, 0.0015, ... 20 terms.
8. 7 , 21 , 3 7 , ... n terms.
9. 1, – a, a2, – a3, ... n terms (if a ≠ – 1).
10. x3, x5, x7, ... n terms (if x ≠ ± 1).

11
11. Evaluate ∑ (2 + 3k ) .
k =1

39
12. The sum of first three terms of a G.P. is and their product is 1. Find the
10
common ratio and the terms.
13. How many terms of G.P. 3, 32, 33, … are needed to give the sum 120?
14. The sum of first three terms of a G.P. is 16 and the sum of the next three terms is
128. Determine the first term, the common ratio and the sum to n terms of the G.P.
15. Given a G.P. with a = 729 and 7th term 64, determine S7.
16. Find a G.P. for which sum of the first two terms is – 4 and the fifth term is
4 times the third term.
17. If the 4th, 10th and 16th terms of a G.P. are x, y and z, respectively. Prove that x,
y, z are in G.P.

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 SEQUENCES AND SERIES 193

18. Find the sum to n terms of the sequence, 8, 88, 888, 8888… .
19. Find the sum of the products of the corresponding terms of the sequences 2, 4, 8,

1
16, 32 and 128, 32, 8, 2, .
2
20. Show that the products of the corresponding terms of the sequences a, ar, ar2,
…arn – 1 and A, AR, AR2, … ARn – 1 form a G.P, and find the common ratio.
21. Find four numbers forming a geometric progression in which the third term is
greater than the first term by 9, and the second term is greater than the 4th by 18.
22. If the pth, qth and rth terms of a G.P. are a, b and c, respectively. Prove that
aq – r br – pcP – q = 1.
23. If the first and the nth term of a G.P. are a and b, respectively, and if P is the
product of n terms, prove that P2 = (ab)n.
24. Show that the ratio of the sum of first n terms of a G.P. to the sum of terms from

1
(n + 1)th to (2n)th term is .
rn
25. If a, b, c and d are in G.P. show that
(a2 + b2 + c2) (b2 + c2 + d2) = (ab + bc + cd)2 .
26. Insert two numbers between 3 and 81 so that the resulting sequence is G.P.

a n+1 + b n+1
27. Find the value of n so that may be the geometric mean between
a n + bn
a and b.
28. The sum of two numbers is 6 times their geometric mean, show that numbers

( )(
are in the ratio 3 + 2 2 : 3 − 2 2 . )
29. If A and G be A.M. and G.M., respectively between two positive numbers,

prove that the numbers are A ± ( A + G )( A − G ) .

30. The number of bacteria in a certain culture doubles every hour. If there were 30
bacteria present in the culture originally, how many bacteria will be present at the
end of 2nd hour, 4th hour and nth hour ?
31. What will Rs 500 amounts to in 10 years after its deposit in a bank which pays
annual interest rate of 10% compounded annually?
32. If A.M. and G.M. of roots of a quadratic equation are 8 and 5, respectively, then
obtain the quadratic equation.

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9.7 Sum to n Terms of Special Series

We shall now find the sum of first n terms of some special series, namely;
(i) 1 + 2 + 3 +… + n (sum of first n natural numbers)
(ii) 12 + 22 + 32 +… + n2(sum of squares of the first n natural numbers)
(iii) 13 + 23 + 33 +… + n3(sum of cubes of the first n natural numbers).
Let us take them one by one.

n (n + 1)
(i) Sn=1 + 2 + 3 + … + n, then Sn = (See Section 9.4)
2
(ii) Here Sn= 12 + 22 + 32 + … + n2
We consider the identity k3 – (k – 1)3 = 3k2 – 3k + 1
Putting k = 1, 2…, n successively, we obtain
13 – 03 = 3 (1)2 – 3 (1) + 1
23 – 13 = 3 (2)2 – 3 (2) + 1
33 – 23 = 3(3)2 – 3 (3) + 1
.......................................
.......................................
......................................
n3 – (n – 1)3 = 3 (n)2 – 3 (n) + 1
Adding both sides, we get
n3 – 03 = 3 (12 + 22 + 32 + ... + n2) – 3 (1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n) + n

n n
n3 = 3 ∑ k 2 – 3 ∑ k + n
k =1 k =1

n
n (n + 1)
By (i), we know that ∑ k =1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n = 2
k =1
n
1 3n (n + 1)  1
Hence Sn = ∑ k 2 = 3 n3 + 2
− n  = (2n3 + 3n 2 + n)
 6
k =1

n (n +1)(2n + 1)
=
6
(iii) Here Sn = 13 + 23 + ...+n3
We consider the identity, (k + 1)4 – k4 = 4k3 + 6k2 + 4k + 1
Putting k = 1, 2, 3… n, we get

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 SEQUENCES AND SERIES 195

24 – 14 = 4(1)3 + 6(1)2 + 4(1) + 1

34 – 24 = 4(2)3 + 6(2)2 + 4(2) + 1
44 – 34 = 4(3)3 + 6(3)2 + 4(3) + 1
..................................................
..................................................
..................................................
(n – 1)4 – (n – 2)4 = 4(n – 2)3 + 6(n – 2)2 + 4(n – 2) + 1
n4 – (n – 1)4 = 4(n – 1)3 + 6(n – 1)2 + 4(n – 1) + 1
(n + 1)4 – n4 = 4n3 + 6n2 + 4n + 1
Adding both sides, we get
(n + 1)4 – 14 = 4(13 + 23 + 33 +...+ n3) + 6(12 + 22 + 32 + ...+ n2) +
4(1 + 2 + 3 +...+ n) + n

n n n
= 4 ∑ k3 + 6 ∑ k 2 + 4 ∑ k + n ... (1)
k =1 k =1 k =1

From parts (i) and (ii), we know that

n
n (n + 1) n
n (n + 1) (2n + 1)
∑k = 2
and ∑ k2 = 6
k =1 k =1

Putting these values in equation (1), we obtain

n
6n (n + 1) (2n + 1) 4n (n + 1)
4 ∑ k 3 = n 4 + 4n 3 + 6n 2 + 4 n – – –n
k =1 6 2
or 4Sn = n4 + 4n3 + 6n2 + 4n – n (2n2 + 3n + 1) – 2n (n + 1) – n
= n4 + 2n3 + n2
= n2(n + 1)2.

n 2 (n + 1) 2 [n (n + 1) ]
2
Hence, Sn = =
4 4
Example 19 Find the sum to n terms of the series: 5 + 11 + 19 + 29 + 41…
Solution Let us write
Sn = 5 + 11 + 19 + 29 + ... + an–1 + an
or Sn = 5 + 11 + 19 + ... + an–2 + an–1 + an
On subtraction, we get

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0 = 5 + [6 + 8 + 10 + 12 + ...(n – 1) terms] – an
(n – 1)[12 + (n − 2) × 2]
or an = 5 +
2
= 5 + (n – 1) (n + 4) = n2 + 3n + 1
n n n n
Sn = ∑ ak = ∑ ( k + 3k + 1) = ∑ k + 3∑ k + n
Hence 2 2

k =1 k =1 k =1 1

n(n +1)(2n + 1) 3n(n + 1) n(n + 2)(n + 4)

= + +n = .
6 2 3

Example 20 Find the sum to n terms of the series whose nth term is n (n+3).
Solution Given that an = n (n + 3) = n2 + 3n
Thus, the sum to n terms is given by
n n n
Sn = ∑ ak = ∑ k 2 + 3∑ k
k =1 k =1 k =1

n (n + 1) (2n + 1) 3n (n + 1) n(n + 1)(n + 5)

= + = .
6 2 3

EXERCISE 9.4
Find the sum to n terms of each of the series in Exercises 1 to 7.
1. 1 × 2 + 2 × 3 + 3 × 4 + 4 × 5 +... 2. 1 × 2 × 3 + 2 × 3 × 4 + 3 × 4 × 5 + ...
1 1 1
3. 3 × 12 + 5 × 22 + 7 × 32 + ... 4. + + +
1× 2 2 × 3 3× 4 ...
5. 52 + 62 + 72 + ... + 202 6. 3 × 8 + 6 × 11 + 9 × 14 + ...
7. 12 + (12 + 22) + (12 + 22 + 32) + ...
Find the sum to n terms of the series in Exercises 8 to 10 whose nth terms is given by

8. n (n+1) (n+4). 9. n2 + 2n
10. (2n – 1) 2

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Miscellaneous Examples

Example21 If pth, qth, r th and sth terms of an A.P. are in G.P, then show that
(p – q), (q – r), (r – s) are also in G.P.
Solution Here
ap = a + (p –1) d ... (1)
aq = a + (q –1) d ... (2)
ar = a + (r –1) d ... (3)
as = a + (s –1) d ... (4)
Given that ap, aq, ar and as are in G.P.,

So aq ar aq − ar q − r ... (5)
= = =
ap aq a p − aq p − q (why ?)

Similarly ar as ar − as r − s ... (6)

= = = (why ?)
aq ar aq − ar q − r
Hence, by (5) and (6)

q – r r – s , i.e., p – q, q – r and r – s are in G.P.

=
p–q q–r
1 1 1
Example 22 If a, b, c are in G.P. and a x = b y = c z , prove that x, y, z are in A.P.

1 1 1
Solution Let a x = b y = c z = k Then
a = kx , b = ky and c = kz. ... (1)
Since a, b, c are in G.P., therefore,
b2 = ac ... (2)
Using (1) in (2), we get
k2y = kx + z, which gives 2y = x + z.
Hence, x, y and z are in A.P.
Example 23 If a, b, c, d and p are different real numbers such that
(a2 + b2 + c2)p2 – 2(ab + bc + cd) p + (b2 + c2 + d2) ≤ 0, then show that a, b, c and d
are in G.P.
Solution Given that
(a2 + b2 + c2) p2 – 2 (ab + bc + cd) p + (b2 + c2 + d2) ≤ 0 ... (1)

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But L.H.S.
= (a2p2 – 2abp + b2) + (b2p2 – 2bcp + c2) + (c2p2 – 2cdp + d2),
which gives (ap – b)2 + (bp – c)2 + (cp – d)2 ≥ 0 ...
(2)
Since the sum of squares of real numbers is non negative, therefore, from (1) and (2),
we have, (ap – b)2 + (bp – c)2 + (cp – d)2 = 0
or ap – b = 0, bp – c = 0, cp – d = 0

b c d
This implies that = = =p
a b c
Hence a, b, c and d are in G.P.
Example 24 If p,q,r are in G.P. and the equations, px2 + 2qx + r = 0 and

d e f
dx2 + 2ex + f = 0 have a common root, then show that , , are in A.P.
p q r
Solution The equation px2 + 2qx + r = 0 has roots given by

−2q ± 4q 2 − 4rp
x=
2p

−q −q
Since p ,q, r are in G.P. q2 = pr. Thus x = but is also root of
p p
dx2 + 2ex + f = 0 (Why ?). Therefore
2
 −q   −q 
d  + 2e   + f = 0,
 p   p 
or dq2 – 2eqp + fp2 = 0 ... (1)
Dividing (1) by pq2 and using q2 = pr, we get

d 2e fp 2e d f
− + = 0, or = +
p q pr q p r

d e f
Hence , , are in A.P.
p q r

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Miscellaneous Exercise On Chapter 9

1. Show that the sum of (m + n)th and (m – n)th terms of an A.P. is equal to twice
the mth term.
2. If the sum of three numbers in A.P., is 24 and their product is 440, find the
numbers.
3. Let the sum of n, 2n, 3n terms of an A.P. be S1, S2 and S3, respectively, show that
S3 = 3(S2 – S1)
4. Find the sum of all numbers between 200 and 400 which are divisible by 7.
5. Find the sum of integers from 1 to 100 that are divisible by 2 or 5.
6. Find the sum of all two digit numbers which when divided by 4, yields 1 as
remainder.
7. If f is a function satisfying f (x +y) = f(x) f(y) for all x, y ∈ N such that
n
f(1) = 3 and ∑ f (x) = 120 , find the value of n.
x =1

8. The sum of some terms of G.P. is 315 whose first term and the common ratio are
5 and 2, respectively. Find the last term and the number of terms.
9. The first term of a G.P. is 1. The sum of the third term and fifth term is 90.
Find the common ratio of G.P.
10. The sum of three numbers in G.P. is 56. If we subtract 1, 7, 21 from these numbers
in that order, we obtain an arithmetic progression. Find the numbers.
11. A G.P. consists of an even number of terms. If the sum of all the terms is 5 times
the sum of terms occupying odd places, then find its common ratio.
12. The sum of the first four terms of an A.P. is 56. The sum of the last four terms is
112. If its first term is 11, then find the number of terms.

a + bx b + cx c + dx
13. If = = ( x ≠ 0) , then show that a, b, c and d are in G.P.
a − bx b − cx c − dx
14. Let S be the sum, P the product and R the sum of reciprocals of n terms in a G.P.
Prove that P2Rn = Sn.
15. The pth, qth and rth terms of an A.P. are a, b, c, respectively. Show that
(q – r )a + (r – p )b + (p – q )c = 0
1 1 1 1  1 1
16. If a  +  ,b  +  ,c  +  are in A.P., prove that a, b, c are in A.P.
b c c a a b
17. If a, b, c, d are in G.P, prove that (an + bn), (bn + cn), (cn + dn) are in G.P.
18. If a and b are the roots of x2 – 3x + p = 0 and c, d are roots of x2 – 12x + q = 0,
where a, b, c, d form a G.P. Prove that (q + p) : (q – p) = 17:15.

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200 MATHEMATICS

19. The ratio of the A.M. and G.M. of two positive numbers a and b, is m : n. Show

( )(
that a : b = m + m2 – n 2 : m – m2 – n 2 ).
1 1 1
20. If a, b, c are in A.P.; b, c, d are in G.P. and , , are in A.P. prove that a, c, e
c d e
are in G.P.
21. Find the sum of the following series up to n terms:
(i) 5 + 55 +555 + … (ii) .6 +. 66 +. 666+…
22. Find the 20th term of the series 2 × 4 + 4 × 6 + 6 × 8 + ... + n terms.
23. Find the sum of the first n terms of the series: 3+ 7 +13 +21 +31 +…
24. If S1, S2, S3 are the sum of first n natural numbers, their squares and their
cubes, respectively, show that 9 S22 = S3 (1 + 8S1).
25. Find the sum of the following series up to n terms:

13 13 + 23 13 + 23 + 33
+ + + ...
1 1+ 3 1+ 3 + 5
1 × 2 2 + 2 × 32 + ... + n × (n + 1) 2 3n + 5
26. Show that =
12 × 2 + 2 2 × 3 + ... + n2 × (n + 1) 3n + 1 .
27. A farmer buys a used tractor for Rs 12000. He pays Rs 6000 cash and agrees to
pay the balance in annual instalments of Rs 500 plus 12% interest on the unpaid
amount. How much will the tractor cost him?
28. Shamshad Ali buys a scooter for Rs 22000. He pays Rs 4000 cash and agrees to
pay the balance in annual instalment of Rs 1000 plus 10% interest on the unpaid
amount. How much will the scooter cost him?
29. A person writes a letter to four of his friends. He asks each one of them to copy
the letter and mail to four different persons with instruction that they move the
chain similarly. Assuming that the chain is not broken and that it costs 50 paise to
mail one letter. Find the amount spent on the postage when 8th set of letter is
mailed.
30. A man deposited Rs 10000 in a bank at the rate of 5% simple interest annually.
Find the amount in 15th year since he deposited the amount and also calculate the
total amount after 20 years.
31. A manufacturer reckons that the value of a machine, which costs him Rs. 15625,
will depreciate each year by 20%. Find the estimated value at the end of 5 years.
32. 150 workers were engaged to finish a job in a certain number of days. 4 workers
dropped out on second day, 4 more workers dropped out on third day and so on.

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It took 8 more days to finish the work. Find the number of days in which the work
was completed.

Summary
® By a sequence, we mean an arrangement of number in definite order according
to some rule. Also, we define a sequence as a function whose domain is the
set of natural numbers or some subsets of the type {1, 2, 3, ....k}. A sequence
containing a finite number of terms is called a finite sequence. A sequence is
called infinite if it is not a finite sequence.
® Let a1, a2, a3, ... be the sequence, then the sum expressed as a1 + a2 + a3 + ...
is called series. A series is called finite series if it has got finite number of
terms.
® An arithmetic progression (A.P.) is a sequence in which terms increase or
decrease regularly by the same constant. This constant is called common
difference of the A.P. Usually, we denote the first term of A.P. by a, the
common difference by d and the last term by l. The general term or the nth
term of the A.P. is given by an = a + (n – 1) d.
The sum Sn of the first n terms of an A.P. is given by

n n
Sn = 2a + ( n – 1) d  = ( a + l ) .
2 2

a+b
® The arithmetic mean A of any two numbers a and b is given by 2
i.e., the

sequence a, A, b is in A.P.
® A sequence is said to be a geometric progression or G.P., if the ratio of any
term to its preceding term is same throughout. This constant factor is called
the common ratio. Usually, we denote the first term of a G.P. by a and its
common ratio by r. The general or the nth term of G.P. is given by an= arn – 1.
The sum Sn of the first n terms of G.P. is given by

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202 MATHEMATICS

Sn =
(
a rn – 1 ) or a (1– r ) , if r ≠ 1
n

r –1 1–r

® The geometric mean (G.M.) of any two positive numbers a and b is given by
ab i.e., the sequence a, G, b is G.P.

Historical Note
Evidence is found that Babylonians, some 4000 years ago, knew of arithmetic and
geometric sequences. According to Boethius (510), arithmetic and geometric
sequences were known to early Greek writers. Among the Indian mathematician,
Aryabhatta (476) was the first to give the formula for the sum of squares and cubes
of natural numbers in his famous work Aryabhatiyam, written around
499. He also gave the formula for finding the sum to n terms of an arithmetic
sequence starting with p th term. Noted Indian mathematicians Brahmgupta
(598), Mahavira (850) and Bhaskara (1114-1185) also considered the sum of squares
and cubes. Another specific type of sequence having important applications in
mathematics, called Fibonacci sequence, was discovered by Italian mathematician
Leonardo Fibonacci (1170-1250). Seventeenth century witnessed the classification
of series into specific forms. In 1671 James Gregory used the term infinite series in
connection with infinite sequence. It was only through the rigorous development of
algebraic and set theoretic tools that the concepts related to sequence and series
could be formulated suitably.

—v —

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 Chapter 10
STRAIGHT LINES

vG eometry, as a logical system, is a means and even the most powerful

means to make children feel the strength of the human spirit that is
of their own spirit. – H. FREUDENTHALv

10.1 Introduction
We are familiar with two-dimensional coordinate geometry
from earlier classes. Mainly, it is a combination of algebra
and geometry. A systematic study of geometry by the use
of algebra was first carried out by celebrated French
philosopher and mathematician René Descartes, in his book
‘La Géométry, published in 1637. This book introduced the
notion of the equation of a curve and related analytical
methods into the study of geometry. The resulting
combination of analysis and geometry is referred now as
analytical geometry. In the earlier classes, we initiated
the study of coordinate geometry, where we studied about René Descartes
coordinate axes, coordinate plane, plotting of points in a (1596 -1650)
plane, distance between two points, section formulae, etc. All these concepts are the
basics of coordinate geometry.
Let us have a brief recall of coordinate geometry done in earlier classes. To
recapitulate, the location of the points (6, – 4) and
(3, 0) in the XY-plane is shown in Fig 10.1.
We may note that the point (6, – 4) is at 6 units
distance from the y-axis measured along the positive
x-axis and at 4 units distance from the x-axis
measured along the negative y-axis. Similarly, the
point (3, 0) is at 3 units distance from the y-axis
measured along the positive x-axis and has zero
distance from the x-axis.
We also studied there following important Fig 10.1
formulae:

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I. Distance between the points P (x1, y1) and Q (x2, y2) is

(x – x1 ) + ( y2 – y1 )
2 2
PQ = 2

For example, distance between the points (6, – 4) and (3, 0) is

( 3 − 6 )2 + ( 0 + 4 )2 = 9 + 16 = 5 units.
II. The coordinates of a point dividing the line segment joining the points (x1, y1)
 m x 2 + n x1 m y 2 + n y1 
and (x2, y2) internally, in the ratio m: n are  , .
 m+n m + n 
For example, the coordinates of the point which divides the line segment joining
1.( − 3) + 3.1
A (1, –3) and B (–3, 9) internally, in the ratio 1: 3 are given by x = =0
1+ 3
1.9 + 3. ( –3)
and y = = 0.
1+ 3
III. In particular, if m = n, the coordinates of the mid-point of the line segment
 x1 + x2 y1 + y 2 
joining the points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) are  , .
 2 2 
IV. Area of the triangle whose vertices are (x1, y1), (x2, y2) and (x3, y3) is
1
x1 ( y 2 − y 3 ) + x 2 ( y 3 − y 1) + x 3 ( y1 − y 2 ) .
2
For example, the area of the triangle, whose vertices are (4, 4), (3, – 2) and (– 3, 16) is
1 − 54
4( −2 − 16) + 3(16 − 4) + (−3)(4 + 2) = = 27.
2 2
Remark If the area of the triangle ABC is zero, then three points A, B and C lie on
a line, i.e., they are collinear.
In the this Chapter, we shall continue the study of coordinate geometry to study
properties of the simplest geometric figure – straight line. Despite its simplicity, the
line is a vital concept of geometry and enters into our daily experiences in numerous
interesting and useful ways. Main focus is on representing the line algebraically, for
which slope is most essential.
10.2 Slope of a Line
A line in a coordinate plane forms two angles with the x-axis, which are supplementary.

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 STRAIGHT LINES 205

The angle (say) θ made by the line l with positive

direction of x-axis and measured anti clockwise
is called the inclination of the line. Obviously
0° ≤ θ ≤ 180° (Fig 10.2).
We observe that lines parallel to x-axis, or
coinciding with x-axis, have inclination of 0°. The
inclination of a vertical line (parallel to or
coinciding with y-axis) is 90°.
Definition 1 If θ is the inclination of a line
l, then tan θ is called the slope or gradient of
the line l. Fig 10.2
The slope of a line whose inclination is 90° is not
defined.
The slope of a line is denoted by m.
Thus, m = tan θ, θ ≠ 90°
It may be observed that the slope of x-axis is zero and slope of y-axis is not defined.
10.2.1 Slope of a line when coordinates of any two points on the line are given
We know that a line is completely determined when we are given two points on it.
Hence, we proceed to find the slope of a
line in terms of the coordinates of two points
on the line.
Let P(x 1, y 1 ) and Q(x 2, y 2 ) be two
points on non-vertical line l whose inclination
is θ. Obviously, x1 ≠ x2, otherwise the line
will become perpendicular to x-axis and its
slope will not be defined. The inclination of
the line l may be acute or obtuse. Let us
take these two cases.
Draw perpendicular QR to x-axis and
PM perpendicular to RQ as shown in
Figs. 10.3 (i) and (ii).
Fig 10. 3 (i)
Case 1 When angle θ is acute:
In Fig 10.3 (i), ∠MPQ = θ. ... (1)
Therefore, slope of line l = m = tan θ.
MQ y2 − y1
But in ∆MPQ, we have tan θ = = . ... (2)
MP x2 − x1

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From equations (1) and (2), we have

y2 − y1
m= .
x2 − x1

Case II When angle θ is obtuse:

In Fig 10.3 (ii), we have
∠MPQ = 180° – θ.
Therefore, θ = 180° – ∠MPQ.
Now, slope of the line l
Fig 10. 3 (ii)

m = tan θ
= tan ( 180° – ∠MPQ) = – tan ∠MPQ

MQ y −y y2 − y1
= − =− 2 1 = .
MP x1 − x2 x2 − x1
Consequently, we see that in both the cases the slope m of the line through the points
y2 − y1
(x1, y1) and (x2, y2) is given by m = .
x2 − x1

10.2.2 Conditions for parallelism and perpendicularity of lines in terms of their

slopes In a coordinate plane, suppose that non-vertical lines l1 and l2 have slopes m1
and m2, respectively. Let their inclinations be α and
β, respectively.
If the line l1 is parallel to l2 (Fig 10.4), then their
inclinations are equal, i.e.,
α = β, and hence, tan α = tan β
Therefore m1 = m2, i.e., their slopes are equal.
Conversely, if the slope of two lines l1 and l2
is same, i.e.,
m1 = m2.
Fig 10. 4
Then tan α = tan β.
By the property of tangent function (between 0° and 180°), α = β.
Therefore, the lines are parallel.

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Hence, two non vertical lines l1 and l2 are parallel if and only if their slopes
are equal.
If the lines l1 and l2 are perpendicular (Fig 10.5), then β = α + 90°.
Therefore,tan β = tan (α + 90°)
1
= – cot α = −
tan α
1
i.e., m2 = − m or m1 m2 = – 1
1

Conversely, if m1 m2 = – 1, i.e., tan α tan β = – 1.

Then tan α = – cot β = tan (β + 90°) or tan (β – 90°)
Fig 10. 5
Therefore, α and β differ by 90°.
Thus, lines l1 and l2 are perpendicular to each other.
Hence, two non-vertical lines are perpendicular to each other if and only if
their slopes are negative reciprocals of each other,
1
i.e., m2= − or, m1 m2 = – 1.
m1
Let us consider the following example.

Example 1 Find the slope of the lines:

(a) Passing through the points (3, – 2) and (–1, 4),
(b) Passing through the points (3, – 2) and (7, – 2),
(c) Passing through the points (3, – 2) and (3, 4),
(d) Making inclination of 60° with the positive direction of x-axis.

Solution (a) The slope of the line through (3, – 2) and (– 1, 4) is

4 − ( −2) 6 3
m= = =− .
−1 − 3 −4 2
(b) The slope of the line through the points (3, – 2) and (7, – 2) is
–2 – (–2) 0
m= = = 0.
7–3 4
(c) The slope of the line through the points (3, – 2) and (3, 4) is

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4 – (–2) 6
m = =, which is not defined.
3–3 0
(d) Here inclination of the line α = 60°. Therefore, slope of the line is
m = tan 60° = 3.

10.2.3 Angle between two lines When we think about more than one line in a plane,
then we find that these lines are either intersecting or parallel. Here we will discuss the
angle between two lines in terms of their slopes.
Let L1 and L2 be two non-vertical lines with slopes m1 and m2, respectively. If α1
and α2 are the inclinations of lines L1 and L2, respectively. Then
m1 = tan α1 and m2 = tan α2 .
We know that when two lines intersect each other, they make two pairs of
vertically opposite angles such that sum of any two adjacent angles is 180°. Let θ and
φ be the adjacent angles between the lines L1 and L2 (Fig10.6). Then
θ = α2 – α1 and α1, α2 ≠ 90°.
tan α 2 − tan α1 m − m1
Therefore tan θ = tan (α2 – α1) = = 2 (as 1 + m1m2 ≠ 0)
1 + tan α1 tan α 2 1 + m1m2
and φ = 180° – θ so that
m2 − m1
tan φ = tan (180° – θ ) = – tan θ = – , as 1 + m1m2 ≠ 0
1 + m1m2

Fig 10. 6
Now, there arise two cases:

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m 2 – m1
Case I If is positive, then tan θ will be positive and tan φ will be negative,
1 + m1m 2
which means θ will be acute and φ will be obtuse.
m 2 – m1
Case II If is negative, then tan θ will be negative and tan φ will be positive,
1 + m1m 2
which means that θ will be obtuse and φ will be acute.
Thus, the acute angle (say θ) between lines L1 and L2 with slopes m1 and m2,
respectively, is given by
m 2 − m1
tan θ = , as 1 + m1m 2 ≠ 0 ... (1)
1 + m1m 2
The obtuse angle (say φ) can be found by using φ =1800 – θ.
π 1
Example 2 If the angle between two lines is and slope of one of the lines is , find
4 2
the slope of the other line.
Solution We know that the acute angle θ between two lines with slopes m1 and m2
m2 − m1
is given by tan θ = ... (1)
1 + m1m 2

1 π
Let m1 = , m2 = m and θ = .
2 4
Now, putting these values in (1), we get

1 1
m− m−
π 2 2
tan = or 1 = ,
4 1 1
1+ m 1+ m
2 2

1 1
m− m−
2 = 1 or 2 = –1.
which gives 1 1
1+ m 1+ m
2 2
1
Therefore m = 3 or m = − .
3

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Hence, slope of the other line is

1
3 or − . Fig 10.7 explains the
3
reason of two answers.

Fig 10. 7

Example 3 Line through the points (–2, 6) and (4, 8) is perpendicular to the line
through the points (8, 12) and (x, 24). Find the value of x.

Solution Slope of the line through the points (– 2, 6) and (4, 8) is

8−6 2 1
m1 = = =
4 − ( −2 ) 6 3
Slope of the line through the points (8, 12) and (x, 24) is
24 − 12 12
m2 = =
x−8 x −8
Since two lines are perpendicular,
m1 m2 = –1, which gives
1 12
× = −1 or x = 4 .
3 x −8
10.2.4 Collinearity of three points We
know that slopes of two parallel lines are
equal. If two lines having the same slope
pass through a common point, then two
lines will coincide. Hence, if A, B and C
are three points in the XY-plane, then they
will lie on a line, i.e., three points are
collinear (Fig 10.8) if and only if slope of
AB = slope of BC. Fig 10. 8

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Example 4 Three points P (h, k), Q (x1, y1) and R (x2, y2) lie on a line. Show that
(h – x1) (y2 – y1) = (k – y1) (x2 – x1).
Solution Since points P, Q and R are collinear, we have
y1 − k y −y
Slope of PQ = Slope of QR, i.e., = 2 1
x1 − h x2 − x1

k − y1 y 2 − y1
or =
h − x1 x2 − x1 ,

or (h – x1) (y2 – y1) = (k – y1) (x2 – x1).

Example 5 In Fig 10.9, time and
distance graph of a linear motion is given.
Two positions of time and distance are
recorded as, when T = 0, D = 2 and when
T = 3, D = 8. Using the concept of slope,
find law of motion, i.e., how distance
depends upon time.
Solution Let (T, D) be any point on the
line, where D denotes the distance at time
T. Therefore, points (0, 2), (3, 8) and
(T, D) are collinear so that Fig 10.9
8 − 2 D −8
= or 6 (T − 3) = 3 (D − 8)
3−0 T −3
or D = 2(T + 1),
which is the required relation.

EXERCISE 10.1
1. Draw a quadrilateral in the Cartesian plane, whose vertices are (– 4, 5), (0, 7),
(5, – 5) and (– 4, –2). Also, find its area.
2. The base of an equilateral triangle with side 2a lies along the y-axis such that the
mid-point of the base is at the origin. Find vertices of the triangle.
3. Find the distance between P (x1, y1) and Q (x2, y2) when : (i) PQ is parallel to the
y-axis, (ii) PQ is parallel to the x-axis.
4. Find a point on the x-axis, which is equidistant from the points (7, 6) and (3, 4).
5. Find the slope of a line, which passes through the origin, and the mid-point of the
line segment joining the points P (0, – 4) and B (8, 0).

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6. Without using the Pythagoras theorem, show that the points (4, 4), (3, 5) and
(–1, –1) are the vertices of a right angled triangle.
7. Find the slope of the line, which makes an angle of 30° with the positive direction
of y-axis measured anticlockwise.
8. Find the value of x for which the points (x, – 1), (2,1) and (4, 5) are collinear.
9. Without using distance formula, show that points (– 2, – 1), (4, 0), (3, 3) and (–3, 2)
are the vertices of a parallelogram.
10. Find the angle between the x-axis and the line joining the points (3,–1) and (4,–2).
11. The slope of a line is double of the slope of another line. If tangent of the angle
1
between them is , find the slopes of the lines.
3
12. A line passes through (x1, y1) and (h, k). If slope of the line is m, show that
k – y1 = m (h – x1).
a b
13. If three points (h, 0), (a, b) and (0, k) lie on a line, show that + = 1.
h k
14. Consider the following population and year graph (Fig 10.10), find the slope of the
line AB and using it, find what will be the population in the year 2010?

Fig 10.10

10.3 Various Forms of the Equation of a Line

We know that every line in a plane contains infinitely many points on it. This relationship
between line and points leads us to find the solution of the following problem:

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How can we say that a given point lies on the given line? Its answer may be that
for a given line we should have a definite condition on the points lying on the line.
Suppose P (x, y) is an arbitrary point in the XY-plane and L is the given line. For the
equation of L, we wish to construct a statement or condition for the point P that is
true, when P is on L, otherwise false. Of course the statement is merely an algebraic
equation involving the variables x and y. Now, we will discuss the equation of a line
under different conditions.
10.3.1 Horizontal and vertical lines If a horizontal line L is at a distance a from the
x-axis then ordinate of every point lying on the line is either a or – a [Fig 10.11 (a)].
Therefore, equation of the line L is either y = a or y = – a. Choice of sign will depend
upon the position of the line according as the line is above or below the y-axis. Similarly,
the equation of a vertical line at a distance b from the y-axis is either x = b or
x = – b [Fig 10.11(b)].

Fig 10.11

Example 6 Find the equations of the lines

parallel to axes and passing through
(– 2, 3).
Solution Position of the lines is shown in the
Fig 10.12. The y-coordinate of every point on
the line parallel to x-axis is 3, therefore, equation
of the line parallel tox-axis and passing through
(– 2, 3) is y = 3. Similarly, equation of the line
parallel to y-axis and passing through (– 2, 3)
is x = – 2. Fig 10.12

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10.3.2 Point-slope form Suppose that

P0 (x0, y0) is a fixed point on a non-vertical
line L, whose slope is m. Let P (x, y) be an
arbitrary point on L (Fig 10.13).
Then, by the definition, the slope of L is
given by
y − y0
m= , i.e. , y − y 0 = m (x − x 0 )
x − x0
...(1)
Since the point P0 (x0 , y0) along with
all points (x, y) on L satisfies (1) and no
Fig 10.13
other point in the plane satisfies (1). Equation
(1) is indeed the equation for the given line L.
Thus, the point (x, y) lies on the line with slope m through the fixed point (x0, y0),
if and only if, its coordinates satisfy the equation
y – y0 = m (x – x0)
Example 7 Find the equation of the line through (– 2, 3) with slope – 4.
Solution Here m = – 4 and given point (x0 , y0) is (– 2, 3).
By slope-intercept form formula
(1) above, equation of the given
line is
y – 3 = – 4 (x + 2) or
4x + y + 5 = 0, which is the
required equation.
10.3.3 Two-point form Let the
line L passes through two given
points P1 (x1, y1) and P2 (x2, y2).
Let P (x, y) be a general point
on L (Fig 10.14).
The three points P1, P2 and P are Fig 10.14
collinear, therefore, we have
slope of P1P = slope of P1P2
y − y1 y 2 − y1 y 2 − y1
i.e., = , or y − y 1 = ( x − x1 ).
x − x1 x 2 − x1 x 2 − x1

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Thus, equation of the line passing through the points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) is given by
y 2 − y1
y − y1 = ( x − x1) ... (2)
x 2 − x1
Example 8 Write the equation of the line through the points (1, –1) and (3, 5).
Solution Here x1 = 1, y1 = – 1, x2 = 3 and y2 = 5. Using two-point form (2) above
for the equation of the line, we have
5 – ( –1)
y – ( –1) = ( x – 1)
3 –1
or –3x + y + 4 = 0, which is the required equation.
10.3.4 Slope-intercept form Sometimes a line is known to us with its slope and an
intercept on one of the axes. We will now find equations of such lines.
Case I Suppose a line L with slope m cuts the y-axis at a distance c from the origin
(Fig10.15). The distance c is called the y-
intercept of the line L. Obviously,
coordinates of the point where the line meet
the y-axis are (0, c). Thus, L has slope m
and passes through a fixed point (0, c).
Therefore, by point-slope form, the equation
of L is
y − c = m ( x − 0 ) or y = mx + c
Thus, the point (x, y) on the line with slope
m and y-intercept c lies on the line if and Fig 10.15
only if
y = mx +c ...(3)
Note that the value of c will be positive or negative according as the intercept is made
on the positive or negative side of the y-axis, respectively.
Case II Suppose line L with slope m makes x-intercept d. Then equation of L is
y = m(x – d) ... (4)
Students may derive this equation themselves by the same method as in Case I.
1
Example 9 Write the equation of the lines for which tan θ = , where θ is the
2
3
inclination of the line and (i) y-intercept is – (ii) x-intercept is 4.
2

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1 3
Solution (i) Here, slope of the line is m = tan θ = and y - intercept c = – .
2 2
Therefore, by slope-intercept form (3) above, the equation of the line is
1 3
y= x − or 2 y − x + 3 = 0 ,
2 2
which is the required equation.
1
(ii) Here, we have m = tan θ = and d = 4.
2
Therefore, by slope-intercept form (4) above, the equation of the line is
1
y= ( x − 4) or 2 y − x + 4 = 0 ,
2
which is the required equation.
10.3.5 Intercept - form Suppose a line L makes x-intercept a and y-intercept b on the
axes. Obviously L meets x-axis at the point
(a, 0) and y-axis at the point (0, b) (Fig .10.16).
By two-point form of the equation of the line,
we have
b−0
y−0= (x − a) or ay = −bx + ab ,
0−a
x y
i.e., + = 1.
a b
Thus, equation of the line making intercepts
Fig 10.16
a and b on x-and y-axis, respectively, is
x y
+ =1 ... (5)
a b
Example 10 Find the equation of the line, which makes intercepts –3 and 2 on the
x- and y-axes respectively.
Solution Here a = –3 and b = 2. By intercept form (5) above, equation of the line is
x y
+ =1 or 2x − 3 y + 6 = 0 .
−3 2

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10.3.6 Normal form Suppose a non-vertical line is known to us with following data:
(i) Length of the perpendicular (normal) from origin to the line.
(ii) Angle which normal makes with the positive direction of x-axis.
Let L be the line, whose perpendicular distance from origin O be OA = p and the
angle between the positive x-axis and OA be ∠XOA = ω. The possible positions of line
L in the Cartesian plane are shown in the Fig 10.17. Now, our purpose is to find slope
of L and a point on it. Draw perpendicular AM on the x-axis in each case.

Fig 10.17

In each case, we have OM = p cos ω and MA = p sin ω, so that the coordinates of the
point A are (p cos ω, p sin ω).
Further, line L is perpendicular to OA. Therefore
1 1 cos ω
The slope of the line L = − =− =− .
slope of OA tan ω sin ω

cos ω
Thus, the line L has slope − and point A ( p cos ω, p sin ω)on it. Therefore, by
sin ω
point-slope form, the equation of the line L is

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cos ω
y − p sin ω = − ( x − p cos ω ) or x cos ω + y sin ω = p (sin 2ω + cos 2ω)
sin ω
or x cos ω + y sin ω = p.
Hence, the equation of the line having normal distance p from the origin and angle ω
which the normal makes with the positive direction of x-axis is given by
x cos ω + y sin ω = p ... (6)
Example 11 Find the equation of the line whose perpendicular distance from the
origin is 4 units and the angle which the normal makes with positive direction of x-axis
is 15°.
Solution Here, we are given p = 4 and
ω = 150 (Fig10.18).
3 +1
Now cos 15° =
2 2

3 −1
and sin 15º = (Why?)
2 2

By the normal form (6) above, the equation of the

line is Fig 10.18

3 +1 3 −1
x cos 150 + y sin 150 = 4 or
2 2
x+
2 2
y = 4 or ( ) (
3 +1 x + )
3 − 1 y = 8 2.

This is the required equation.

Example 12 The Fahrenheit temperature F and absolute temperature K satisfy a
linear equation. Given that K = 273 when F = 32 and that K = 373 when F = 212.
Express K in terms of F and find the value of F, when K = 0.
Solution Assuming F along x-axis and K along y-axis, we have two points (32, 273)
and (212, 373) in XY-plane. By two-point form, the point (F, K) satisfies the equation
373 − 273 100
K − 273 = ( F − 32 ) or K − 273 = ( F − 32 )
212 − 32 180
5
or K= ( F − 32 ) + 273 ... (1)
9
which is the required relation.

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When K = 0, Equation (1) gives

5 273 × 9
0= ( F − 32 ) + 273 or F − 32 = − = − 491.4 or F= − 459.4 .
9 5
Alternate method We know that simplest form of the equation of a line is y = mx + c.
Again assuming F along x-axis and K along y-axis, we can take equation in the form
K = mF + c ... (1)
Equation (1) is satisfied by (32, 273) and (212, 373). Therefore
273 = 32m + c ... (2)
and 373 = 212m + c ... (3)
Solving (2) and (3), we get
5 2297
m= and c = .
9 9
Putting the values of m and c in (1), we get
5 2297 ... (4)
K= F+
9 9
which is the required relation. When K = 0, (4) gives F = – 459.4.

A Note We know, that the equation y = mx + c, contains two constants, namely,

m and c. For finding these two constants, we need two conditions satisfied by the
equation of line. In all the examples above, we are given two conditions to determine
the equation of the line.

EXERCISE 10.2
In Exercises 1 to 8, find the equation of the line which satisfy the given conditions:
1. Write the equations for the x-and y-axes.
1
2. Passing through the point (– 4, 3) with slope .
2
3. Passing through (0, 0) with slope m.
( )
4. Passing through 2, 2 3 and inclined with the x-axis at an angle of 75o.
5. Intersecting the x-axis at a distance of 3 units to the left of origin with slope –2.
6. Intersecting the y-axis at a distance of 2 units above the origin and making an
angle of 30o with positive direction of the x-axis.
7. Passing through the points (–1, 1) and (2, – 4).

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8. Perpendicular distance from the origin is 5 units and the angle made by the
perpendicular with the positive x-axis is 300.
9. The vertices of ∆ PQR are P (2, 1), Q (–2, 3) and R (4, 5). Find equation of the
median through the vertex R.
10. Find the equation of the line passing through (–3, 5) and perpendicular to the line
through the points (2, 5) and (–3, 6).
11. A line perpendicular to the line segment joining the points (1, 0) and (2, 3) divides
it in the ratio 1: n. Find the equation of the line.
12. Find the equation of a line that cuts off equal intercepts on the coordinate axes
and passes through the point (2, 3).
13. Find equation of the line passing through the point (2, 2) and cutting off intercepts
on the axes whose sum is 9.
2π
14. Find equation of the line through the point (0, 2) making an angle with the
3
positive x-axis. Also, find the equation of line parallel to it and crossing the y-axis
at a distance of 2 units below the origin.
15. The perpendicular from the origin to a line meets it at the point (–2, 9), find the
equation of the line.
16. The length L (in centimetre) of a copper rod is a linear function of its Celsius
temperature C. In an experiment, if L = 124.942 when C = 20 and L= 125.134
when C = 110, express L in terms of C.
17. The owner of a milk store finds that, he can sell 980 litres of milk each week at
Rs 14/litre and 1220 litres of milk each week at Rs 16/litre. Assuming a linear
relationship between selling price and demand, how many litres could he sell
weekly at Rs 17/litre?
18. P (a, b) is the mid-point of a line segment between axes. Show that equation
x y
of the line is + = 2.
a b
19. Point R (h, k) divides a line segment between the axes in the ratio 1: 2. Find
equation of the line.
20. By using the concept of equation of a line, prove that the three points (3, 0),
(– 2, – 2) and (8, 2) are collinear.
10.4 General Equation of a Line
In earlier classes, we have studied general equation of first degree in two variables,
Ax + By + C = 0, where A, B and C are real constants such that A and B are not zero
simultaneously. Graph of the equation Ax + By + C = 0 is always a straight line.

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Therefore, any equation of the form Ax + By + C = 0, where A and B are not zero
simultaneously is called general linear equation or general equation of a line.
10.4.1 Different forms of Ax + By + C = 0 The general equation of a line can be
reduced into various forms of the equation of a line, by the following procedures:
(a) Slope-intercept form If B ≠ 0, then Ax + By + C = 0 can be written as
A C
y=− x − or y = mx + c ... (1)
B B
A C
where m=− and c = − .
B B
We know that Equation (1) is the slope-intercept form of the equation of a line
A C
whose slope is − , and y-intercept is − .
B B
C
If B = 0, then x = − ,which is a vertical line whose slope is undefined and
A
C
x-intercept is − .
A
(b) Intercept form If C ≠ 0, then Ax + By + C = 0 can be written as
x y x y
+ = 1 or + =1
C C a b ... (2)
− −
A B
C C
where a= − and b = − .
A B
We know that equation (2) is intercept form of the equation of a line whose
C C
x-intercept is − and y-intercept is − .
A B
If C = 0, then Ax + By + C = 0 can be written as Ax + By = 0, which is a line
passing through the origin and, therefore, has zero intercepts on the axes.
(c) Normal form Let x cos ω + y sin ω = p be the normal form of the line represented
by the equation Ax + By + C = 0 or Ax + By = – C. Thus, both the equations are
A B C
same and therefore, = =−
cos ω sin ω p

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Ap Bp
which gives cos ω = − and sin ω = − .
C C

( ) ( )
2 2
Ap Bp
sin ω + cos ω = − + − =1
2 2
Now
C C
2
C C
p = or p = ±
2
or
A +B A +B
2 2 2 2

A B
Therefore cosω = ± and sinω = ± .
A +B A +B
2 2 2 2

Thus, the normal form of the equation Ax + By + C = 0 is

x cos ω + y sin ω = p,
A B C
where cos ω = ± , sin ω = ± and p = ± .
A +B A +B A +B
2 2 2 2 2 2

Proper choice of signs is made so that p should be positive.

Example 13 Equation of a line is 3x – 4y + 10 = 0. Find its (i) slope, (ii) x - and
y-intercepts.
Solution (i) Given equation 3x – 4y + 10 = 0 can be written as
3 5
y= x+ ... (1)
4 2
3
Comparing (1) with y = mx + c, we have slope of the given line as m = .
4
(ii) Equation 3x – 4y + 10 = 0 can be written as
x y
3 x − 4 y = −10 or + =1 ... (2)
10 5
−
3 2
x y 10
Comparing (2) with + = 1 , we have x-intercept as a = − and
a b 3
5
y-intercept as b = .
2

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Example 14 Reduce the equation 3 x + y − 8 = 0 into normal form. Find the values
of p and ω.
Solution Given equation is
3x + y − 8 = 0 ... (1)

( 3)
2
Dividing (1) by + (1)2 = 2 , we get

3 1
x + y = 4 or cos 30° x + sin 30° y = 4 ... (2)
2 2
Comparing (2) with x cos ω + y sin ω = p, we get p = 4 and ω = 30°.

Example15 Find the angle between the lines y − 3 x − 5 = 0 and 3y − x + 6 = 0 .

Solution Given lines are

y − 3 x − 5 = 0 or y = 3 x + 5 ... (1)

1
and 3 y − x + 6 = 0 or y = 3 x − 2 3 ... (2)

1
Slope of line (1) is m1 = 3 and slope of line (2) is m2 = .
3
The acute angle (say) θ between two lines is given by
m 2 − m1
tan θ = ...
1 + m1m 2
(3)
Putting the values of m1 and m2 in (3), we get

1
− 3
3 1− 3 1
tan θ = = =
1 2 3 3
1+ 3 ×
3
which gives θ = 30°. Hence, angle between two lines is either 30° or 180° – 30° = 150°.
Example 16 Show that two lines a1x + b1 y + c1 = 0 and a2x + b2 y + c2 = 0,
where b1, b2 ≠ 0 are:

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a1 a2
(i) Parallel if = , and (ii) Perpendicular if a1 a 2 + b1 b 2 = 0 .
b1 b2
Solution Given lines can be written as

y = − a1 x − c1 ... (1)
b1 b1

and y = − a2 x − c2 ... (2)

b2 b2

Slopes of the lines (1) and (2) are m1 = − a1 and m2 = −

a 2 , respectively. Now
b1 b2
(i) Lines are parallel, if m1 = m2, which gives
a1 a a1 a 2
− = − 2 or = .
b1 b2 b1 b2
(ii) Lines are perpendicular, if m1.m2 = – 1, which gives
a1 a2
. = − 1 or a a + b b = 0
b1 b2 1 2 1 2

Example 17 Find the equation of a line perpendicular to the line x − 2 y + 3 = 0 and

passing through the point (1, – 2).

Solution Given line x − 2 y + 3 = 0 can be written as

1 3
y= x+ ...(1)
2 2
1
Slope of the line (1) is m1 = . Therefore, slope of the line perpendicular to line (1) is
2
1
m2 = − = −2
m1
Equation of the line with slope – 2 and passing through the point (1, – 2) is
y − ( − 2) = − 2(x − 1) or y = − 2 x ,

which is the required equation.

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10.5 Distance of a Point From a Line

The distance of a point from a line is the length of the perpendicular drawn from the
point to the line. Let L : Ax + By + C = 0 be a line, whose distance from the point
P (x1, y1) is d. Draw a perpendicular PM from the point P to the line L (Fig10.19). If

Fig10.19
the line meets the x-and y-axes at the points Q and R, respectively. Then, coordinates
 C   C
of the points are Q  − , 0  and R  0, −  . Thus, the area of the triangle PQR
 A   B
is given by
1 2 area (∆PQR)
area (∆PQR) = PM.QR , which gives PM = ... (1)
2 QR

1  C   C  C 
Also, area (∆PQR) = x1  0 +  +  −  − − y1  + 0 ( y 1 − 0 )
2  B   A  B 

1 C C C2
= x1 + y 1 +
2 B A AB

C
or 2 area (∆PQR) = . A x1 + B y 1 + C , and
AB

( )
2 2
 C C C
QR =  0 +  + − 0 = A +B
2 2
 A B AB
Substituting the values of area (∆PQR) and QR in (1), we get

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A x1 + B y 1 + C
PM =
A +B
2 2

A x1 + B y1 + C
or d= .
A +B
2 2

Thus, the perpendicular distance (d) of a line Ax + By+ C = 0 from a point (x1, y1)
is given by
A x1 + B y1 + C
d= .
A +B
2 2

10.5.1 Distance between two

parallel lines We know that slopes
of two parallel lines are equal.
Therefore, two parallel lines can be
taken in the form
y = mx + c1 ... (1)
and y = mx + c2 ... (2)
Line (1) will intersect x-axis at the point
 c1 
A  − m , 0  as shown in Fig10.20.
  Fig10.20

Distance between two lines is equal to the length of the perpendicular from point
A to line (2). Therefore, distance between the lines (1) and (2) is

( −m)  −
c1 
 + ( −c2 ) c1 − c2
 m .
or d =
1 + m2 1 + m2

Thus, the distance d between two parallel lines y = mx + c1 and y = mx + c2 is given by

c1 − c2
d= .
1 + m2
If lines are given in general form, i.e., Ax + By + C1 = 0 and Ax + By + C2 = 0,

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 STRAIGHT LINES 227

C1 − C 2
then above formula will take the form d =
A 2 + B2
Students can derive it themselves.
Example 18 Find the distance of the point (3, – 5) from the line 3x – 4y –26 = 0.
Solution Given line is 3x – 4y –26 = 0 ... (1)
Comparing (1) with general equation of line Ax + By + C = 0, we get
A = 3, B = – 4 and C = – 26.
Given point is (x1, y1) = (3, –5). The distance of the given point from given line is

Ax1 + By1 + C 3.3 + ( –4 )( –5 ) – 26 3

d= = = .
A +B 3 + ( –4 ) 5
2 2 2 2

Example 19 Find the distance between the parallel lines 3x – 4y +7 = 0 and

3x – 4y + 5 = 0
Solution Here A = 3, B = –4, C1 = 7 and C2 = 5. Therefore, the required distance is
7–5 2
d= = .
32 + ( –4 ) 5
2

EXERCISE 10.3
1. Reduce the following equations into slope - intercept form and find their slopes
and the y - intercepts.
(i) x + 7y = 0, (ii) 6x + 3y – 5 = 0, (iii) y = 0.
2. Reduce the following equations into intercept form and find their intercepts on
the axes.
(i) 3x + 2y – 12 = 0, (ii) 4x – 3y = 6, (iii) 3y + 2 = 0.
3. Reduce the following equations into normal form. Find their perpendicular distances
from the origin and angle between perpendicular and the positive x-axis.
(i) x – 3y + 8 = 0, (ii) y – 2 = 0, (iii) x – y = 4.
4. Find the distance of the point (–1, 1) from the line 12(x + 6) = 5(y – 2).
x y
5. Find the points on the x-axis, whose distances from the line + = 1 are 4 units.
3 4
6. Find the distance between parallel lines
(i) 15x + 8y – 34 = 0 and 15x + 8y + 31 = 0 (ii) l (x + y) + p = 0 and l (x + y) – r = 0.

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7. Find equation of the line parallel to the line 3 x − 4 y + 2 = 0 and passing through
the point (–2, 3).
8. Find equation of the line perpendicular to the line x – 7y + 5 = 0 and having
x intercept 3.
9. Find angles between the lines 3 x + y = 1and x + 3 y = 1.
10. The line through the points (h, 3) and (4, 1) intersects the line 7 x − 9 y − 19 = 0.
at right angle. Find the value of h.
11. Prove that the line through the point (x1, y1) and parallel to the line Ax + By + C = 0 is
A (x –x1) + B (y – y1) = 0.
12. Two lines passing through the point (2, 3) intersects each other at an angle of 60o.
If slope of one line is 2, find equation of the other line.
13. Find the equation of the right bisector of the line segment joining the points (3, 4)
and (–1, 2).
14. Find the coordinates of the foot of perpendicular from the point (–1, 3) to the
line 3x – 4y – 16 = 0.
15. The perpendicular from the origin to the line y = mx + c meets it at the point
(–1, 2). Find the values of m and c.
16. If p and q are the lengths of perpendiculars from the origin to the
lines x cos θ − y sin θ = k cos 2θ and x sec θ + y cosec θ = k, respectively, prove
that p2 + 4q2 = k2.
17. In the triangle ABC with vertices A (2, 3), B (4, –1) and C (1, 2), find the equation
and length of altitude from the vertex A.
18. If p is the length of perpendicular from the origin to the line whose intercepts on
1 1 1
the axes are a and b, then show that 2
= 2 + 2.
p a b

Miscellaneous Examples
Example 20 If the lines 2 x + y − 3 = 0 , 5 x + ky − 3 = 0 and 3 x − y − 2 = 0 are
concurrent, find the value of k.
Solution Three lines are said to be concurrent, if they pass through a common point,
i.e., point of intersection of any two lines lies on the third line. Here given lines are
2x + y – 3 = 0 ... (1)
5x + ky – 3 = 0 ... (2)

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 STRAIGHT LINES 229

3x – y – 2 = 0 ... (3)
Solving (1) and (3) by cross-multiplication method, we get
x y 1
= = or x = 1, y = 1 .
–2 – 3 –9 + 4 –2 – 3
Therefore, the point of intersection of two lines is (1, 1). Since above three lines are
concurrent, the point (1, 1) will satisfy equation (2) so that
5.1 + k .1 – 3 = 0 or k = – 2.

Example 21 Find the distance of the line 4x – y = 0 from the point P (4, 1) measured
along the line making an angle of 135° with the positive x-axis.
Solution Given line is 4x – y = 0 ... (1)
In order to find the distance of the
line (1) from the point P (4, 1) along
another line, we have to find the point
of intersection of both the lines. For
this purpose, we will first find the
equation of the second line (1, 4)
(Fig 10.21). Slope of second line is
tan 135° = –1. Equation of the line
with slope – 1 through the point
P (4, 1) is

Fig 10.21
y – 1 = – 1 (x – 4) or x + y – 5 = 0 ... (2)
Solving (1) and (2), we get x = 1 and y = 4 so that point of intersection of the two lines
is Q (1, 4). Now, distance of line (1) from the point P (4, 1) along the line (2)
= the distance between the points P (4, 1) and Q (1, 4).

= (1 − 4 )2 + ( 4 − 1)2 = 3 2 units .
Example 22 Assuming that straight lines work as the plane mirror for a point, find
the image of the point (1, 2) in the line x – 3y + 4 = 0.
Solution Let Q (h, k) is the image of the point P (1, 2) in the line
x – 3y + 4 = 0 ... (1)

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Fig10.22
Therefore, the line (1) is the perpendicular bisector of line segment PQ (Fig 10.22).
−1
Hence Slope of line PQ = ,
Slope of line x − 3 y + 4 = 0

so that k − 2 = −1 or 3h + k = 5 ... (2)

h −1 1
3

 h +1 k + 2 
and the mid-point of PQ, i.e., point  ,  will satisfy the equation (1) so that
 2 2 
h +1  k + 2  ... (3)
− 3  + 4 = 0 or h − 3k = −3
2  2 
6 7
Solving (2) and (3), we get h = and k = .
5 5
6 7
Hence, the image of the point (1, 2) in the line (1) is  ,  .
5 5
Example 23 Show that the area of the triangle formed by the lines

(c –c )
2
1 2
y = m x + c , y = m x + c and x = 0 is .
1 1 2 2
2 m1 − m 2

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Solution Given lines are

y = m1 x + c1 ... (1)
y = m2 x + c2 ... (2)
x=0 ... (3)
We know that line y = mx + c meets
the line x = 0 (y-axis) at the point
(0, c). Therefore, two vertices of the
triangle formed by lines (1) to (3) are
P (0, c1) and Q (0, c2) (Fig 10. 23).
Third vertex can be obtained by
solving equations (1) and (2). Solving
(1) and (2), we get

x=
(c2 − c1 ) and y =
( m1c2 − m2c1 ) Fig 10.23
( m1 − m2 ) ( m1 − m2 )
 ( c2 − c1 ) ( m1c2 − m2 c1 ) 
Therefore, third vertex of the triangle is R  m − m , 
( 1 2) ( m1 − m2 )  .
Now, the area of the triangle is

m c − m c  ( c −c )
2

1  m c − m2 c1  c −c  2 1
= 0  1 2 − c2  + 2 1 (c2 − c1 ) + 0  c − 1 2
=
2 1

 m1 − m2  m1 − m2 m1 − m2 2 m1 − m 2
1
2  
Example 24 A line is such that its segment
between the lines
5x – y + 4 = 0 and 3x + 4y – 4 = 0 is bisected at the
point (1, 5). Obtain its equation.
Solution Given lines are
5x – y + 4 = 0 ... (1)
3x + 4y – 4 = 0 ... (2)
Let the required line intersects the lines (1) and (2)
at the points, (α1, β1) and (α2, β2), respectively
(Fig10.24). Therefore
5α1 – β1 + 4 = 0 and
3 α2 + 4 β 2 – 4 = 0

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232 MATHEMATICS

4 – 3α 2
or β1 = 5α1 + 4 and β 2 = .
4
We are given that the mid point of the segment of the required line between (α1, β1)
and (α2, β2) is (1, 5). Therefore

α1 + α 2 β + β2
= 1 and 1 = 5,
2 2
4 – 3α 2
5α1 + 4 +
or α1 + α 2 = 2 and 4 = 5,
2
or α1 + α2 = 2 and 20 α1 – 3 α2 = 20 ... (3)
Solving equations in (3) for α1 and α2, we get

26 20 26 222
α1 = and α 2 = and hence, β1 = 5. +4 = .
23 23 23 23
Equation of the required line passing through (1, 5) and (α1, β1) is
222
β −5 −5
y −5 = 1 ( x − 1) or y − 5 = 23 (x − 1)
α1 − 1 26
−1
23
or 107x – 3y – 92 = 0,
which is the equation of required line.
Example 25 Show that the path of a moving point such that its distances from two
lines 3x – 2y = 5 and 3x + 2y = 5 are equal is a straight line.
Solution Given lines are
3x – 2y = 5 … (1)
and 3x + 2y = 5 … (2)
Let (h, k) is any point, whose distances from the lines (1) and (2) are equal. Therefore
3h − 2k − 5 3h + 2k − 5
= or 3h − 2k − 5 = 3h + 2k − 5 ,
9+4 9+4
which gives 3h – 2k – 5 = 3h + 2k – 5 or – (3h – 2k – 5) = 3h + 2k – 5.

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 STRAIGHT LINES 233

5
Solving these two relations we get k = 0 or h = . Thus, the point (h, k) satisfies the
3
5
equations y = 0 or x = , which represent straight lines. Hence, path of the point
3
equidistant from the lines (1) and (2) is a straight line.

Miscellaneous Exercise on Chapter 10

1. Find the values of k for which the line (k–3) x – (4 – k2) y + k2 –7k + 6 = 0 is
(a) Parallel to the x-axis,
(b) Parallel to the y-axis,
(c) Passing through the origin.
2. Find the values of θ and p, if the equation x cos θ + y sinθ = p is the normal form
of the line 3 x + y + 2 = 0.
3. Find the equations of the lines, which cut-off intercepts on the axes whose sum
and product are 1 and – 6, respectively.
x y
4. What are the points on the y-axis whose distance from the line + = 1 is
3 4
4 units.
5. Find perpendicular distance from the origin to the line joining the points (cosθ, sin θ)
and (cos φ, sin φ).
6. Find the equation of the line parallel to y-axis and drawn through the point of
intersection of the lines x – 7y + 5 = 0 and 3x + y = 0.
x y
7. Find the equation of a line drawn perpendicular to the line + = 1 through the
4 6
point, where it meets the y-axis.
8. Find the area of the triangle formed by the lines y – x = 0, x + y = 0 and x – k = 0.
9. Find the value of p so that the three lines 3x + y – 2 = 0, px + 2 y – 3 = 0 and
2x – y – 3 = 0 may intersect at one point.
10. If three lines whose equations are y = m1x + c1, y = m2x + c2 and y = m3x + c3 are
concurrent, then show that m1(c2 – c3) + m2 (c3 – c1) + m3 (c1 – c2) = 0.
11. Find the equation of the lines through the point (3, 2) which make an angle of 45o
with the line x – 2y = 3.
12. Find the equation of the line passing through the point of intersection of the lines
4x + 7y – 3 = 0 and 2x – 3y + 1 = 0 that has equal intercepts on the axes.

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13. Show that the equation of the line passing through the origin and making an angle
y m ± tan ‚
θ with the line y = mx + c is x = 1 ∓ m tan ‚ .

14. In what ratio, the line joining (–1, 1) and (5, 7) is divided by the line x + y = 4?
15. Find the distance of the line 4x + 7y + 5 = 0 from the point (1, 2) along the line
2x – y = 0.
16. Find the direction in which a straight line must be drawn through the point (–1, 2)
so that its point of intersection with the line x + y = 4 may be at a distance of
3 units from this point.
17. The hypotenuse of a right angled triangle has its ends at the points (1, 3) and
(– 4, 1). Find an equation of the legs (perpendicular sides) of the triangle.
18. Find the image of the point (3, 8) with respect to the line x +3y = 7 assuming the
line to be a plane mirror.
19. If the lines y = 3x +1 and 2y = x + 3 are equally inclined to the line y = mx + 4, find
the value of m.
20. If sum of the perpendicular distances of a variable point P (x, y) from the lines
x + y – 5 = 0 and 3x – 2y +7 = 0 is always 10. Show that P must move on a line.
21. Find equation of the line which is equidistant from parallel lines 9x + 6y – 7 = 0
and 3x + 2y + 6 = 0.
22. A ray of light passing through the point (1, 2) reflects on the x-axis at point A and the
reflected ray passes through the point (5, 3). Find the coordinates of A.
23. Prove that the product of the lengths of the perpendiculars drawn from the

points ( ) ( ) x
a
y
cosθ + sin θ = 1is b 2 .
a 2 − b 2 ,0 and − a 2 − b2 ,0 to the line
b
24. A person standing at the junction (crossing) of two straight paths represented by
the equations 2x – 3y + 4 = 0 and 3x + 4y – 5 = 0 wants to reach the path whose
equation is 6x – 7y + 8 = 0 in the least time. Find equation of the path that he
should follow.

Summary
® Slope (m) of a non-vertical line passing through the points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2)
y 2 − y1 y1 − y 2
is given by m = = , x 1 ≠ x 2.
x 2 − x1 x1 − x 2
® If a line makes an angle á with the positive direction of x-axis, then the slope
of the line is given by m = tan α, α ≠ 90°.
® Slope of horizontal line is zero and slope of vertical line is undefined.

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 STRAIGHT LINES 235

® An acute angle (say θ) between lines L1 and L2 with slopes m1 and m2 is

m2 – m1
given by tanθ = 1 + m m ,1 + m1 m2 ≠ 0 .
1 2

® Two lines are parallel if and only if their slopes are equal.
® Two lines are perpendicular if and only if product of their slopes is –1.
® Three points A, B and C are collinear, if and only if slope of AB = slope of BC.
® Equation of the horizontal line having distance a from the x-axis is either
y = a or y = – a.
® Equation of the vertical line having distance b from the y-axis is either
x = b or x = – b.
® The point (x, y) lies on the line with slope m and through the fixed point (xo, yo),
if and only if its coordinates satisfy the equation y – y o = m (x – xo).
® Equation of the line passing through the points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) is given by
y 2 − y1
y − y1 = ( x − x1).
x 2 − x1
® The point (x, y) on the line with slope m and y-intercept c lies on the line if and
only if y = mx + c.
® If a line with slope m makes x-intercept d. Then equation of the line is
y = m (x – d).
® Equation of a line making intercepts a and b on the x-and y-axis,
x y
respectively, is + = 1.
a b
® The equation of the line having normal distance from origin p and angle between
normal and the positive x-axis ω is given by x cos ω + y sin ω = p .
® Any equation of the form Ax + By + C = 0, with A and B are not zero,
simultaneously, is called the general linear equation or general equation of
a line.
® The perpendicular distance (d) of a line Ax + By+ C = 0 from a point (x1, y1)
Ax1 + B y1 + C
is given by d = .
A +B
2 2

® Distance between the parallel lines Ax + By + C1 = 0 and Ax + By + C2 = 0,

C1 − C 2
is given by d = .
A +B
2 2

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 Chapter 11
CONIC SECTIONS

vLet the relation of knowledge to real life be very visible to your pupils
and let them understand how by knowledge the world could be
transformed. – BERTRAND RUSSELL v

11.1 Introduction
In the preceding Chapter 10, we have studied various forms
of the equations of a line. In this Chapter, we shall study
about some other curves, viz., circles, ellipses, parabolas
and hyperbolas. The names parabola and hyperbola are
given by Apollonius. These curves are in fact, known as
conic sections or more commonly conics because they
can be obtained as intersections of a plane with a double
napped right circular cone. These curves have a very wide
range of applications in fields such as planetary motion, Apollonius
design of telescopes and antennas, reflectors in flashlights (262 B.C. -190 B.C.)

and automobile headlights, etc. Now, in the subsequent sections we will see how the
intersection of a plane with a double napped right circular cone
results in different types of curves.

11.2 Sections of a Cone

Let l be a fixed vertical line and m be another line intersecting it at
a fixed point V and inclined to it at an angle α (Fig11.1).
Suppose we rotate the line m around the line l in such a way
that the angle α remains constant. Then the surface generated is
a double-napped right circular hollow cone herein after referred as Fig 11. 1

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 CONIC SECTIONS 237

Fig 11. 2 Fig 11. 3

cone and extending indefinitely far in both directions (Fig11.2).
The point V is called the vertex; the line l is the axis of the cone. The rotating line
m is called a generator of the cone. The vertex separates the cone into two parts
called nappes.
If we take the intersection of a plane with a cone, the section so obtained is called
a conic section. Thus, conic sections are the curves obtained by intersecting a right
circular cone by a plane.
We obtain different kinds of conic sections depending on the position of the
intersecting plane with respect to the cone and by the angle made by it with the vertical
axis of the cone. Let β be the angle made by the intersecting plane with the vertical
axis of the cone (Fig11.3).
The intersection of the plane with the cone can take place either at the vertex of
the cone or at any other part of the nappe either below or above the vertex.
11.2.1 Circle, ellipse, parabola and hyperbola When the plane cuts the nappe (other
than the vertex) of the cone, we have the following situations:
(a) When β = 90o, the section is a circle (Fig11.4).
(b) When α < β < 90o, the section is an ellipse (Fig11.5).
(c) When β = α; the section is a parabola (Fig11.6).
(In each of the above three situations, the plane cuts entirely across one nappe of
the cone).
(d) When 0 ≤ β < α; the plane cuts through both the nappes and the curves of
intersection is a hyperbola (Fig11.7).

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Fig 11. 4 Fig 11. 5

Fig 11. 7
Fig 11. 6
11.2.2 Degenerated conic sections
When the plane cuts at the vertex of the cone, we have the following different cases:
(a) When α < β ≤ 90o, then the section is a point (Fig11.8).
(b) When β = α, the plane contains a generator of the cone and the section is a
straight line (Fig11.9).
It is the degenerated case of a parabola.
(c) When 0 ≤ β < α, the section is a pair of intersecting straight lines (Fig11.10). It is
the degenerated case of a hyperbola.

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 CONIC SECTIONS 239

In the following sections, we shall obtain the equations of each of these conic
sections in standard form by defining them based on geometric properties.

Fig 11. 8
Fig 11. 9

Fig 11. 10
11.3 Circle
Definition 1 A circle is the set of all points in a plane that are equidistant from a fixed
point in the plane.
The fixed point is called the centre of the circle and the distance from the centre
to a point on the circle is called the radius of the circle (Fig 11.11).

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Fig 11. 11 Fig 11. 12

The equation of the circle is simplest if the centre of the circle is at the origin.
However, we derive below the equation of the circle with a given centre and radius
(Fig 11.12).
Given C (h, k) be the centre and r the radius of circle. Let P(x, y) be any point on
the circle (Fig11.12). Then, by the definition, | CP | = r . By the distance formula,
we have
(x – h)2 + (y – k )2 = r
i.e. (x – h)2 + (y – k)2 = r2
This is the required equation of the circle with centre at (h,k) and radius r .
Example 1 Find an equation of the circle with centre at (0,0) and radius r.
Solution Here h = k = 0. Therefore, the equation of the circle is x2 + y2 = r2.
Example 2 Find the equation of the circle with centre (–3, 2) and radius 4.
Solution Here h = –3, k = 2 and r = 4. Therefore, the equation of the required circle is
(x + 3)2 + (y –2)2 = 16
Example 3 Find the centre and the radius of the circle x2 + y2 + 8x + 10y – 8 = 0
Solution The given equation is
(x2 + 8x) + (y2 + 10y) = 8
Now, completing the squares within the parenthesis, we get
(x2 + 8x + 16) + (y2 + 10y + 25) = 8 + 16 + 25
i.e. (x + 4)2 + (y + 5)2 = 49
i.e. {x – (– 4)}2 + {y – (–5)}2 = 72
Therefore, the given circle has centre at (– 4, –5) and radius 7.

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Example 4 Find the equation of the circle which passes through the points (2, – 2), and
(3,4) and whose centre lies on the line x + y = 2.
Solution Let the equation of the circle be (x – h)2 + (y – k)2 = r2.
Since the circle passes through (2, – 2) and (3,4), we have
(2 – h)2 + (–2 – k)2 = r2 ... (1)
and (3 – h)2 + (4 – k)2 = r2 ... (2)
Also since the centre lies on the line x + y = 2, we have
h+k=2 ... (3)
Solving the equations (1), (2) and (3), we get
h = 0.7, k = 1.3 and r2 = 12.58
Hence, the equation of the required circle is
(x – 0.7)2 + (y – 1.3)2 = 12.58.

EXERCISE 11.1
In each of the following Exercises 1 to 5, find the equation of the circle with
1. centre (0,2) and radius 2 2. centre (–2,3) and radius 4
1 1 1
3. centre ( , ) and radius 4. centre (1,1) and radius 2
2 4 12

5. centre (–a, –b) and radius a2 − b2 .

In each of the following Exercises 6 to 9, find the centre and radius of the circles.
6. (x + 5)2 + (y – 3)2 = 36 7. x2 + y2 – 4x – 8y – 45 = 0
8. x2 + y2 – 8x + 10y – 12 = 0 9. 2x2 + 2y2 – x = 0
10. Find the equation of the circle passing through the points (4,1) and (6,5) and
whose centre is on the line 4x + y = 16.
11. Find the equation of the circle passing through the points (2,3) and (–1,1) and
whose centre is on the line x – 3y – 11 = 0.
12. Find the equation of the circle with radius 5 whose centre lies on x-axis and
passes through the point (2,3).
13. Find the equation of the circle passing through (0,0) and making intercepts a and
b on the coordinate axes.
14. Find the equation of a circle with centre (2,2) and passes through the point (4,5).
15. Does the point (–2.5, 3.5) lie inside, outside or on the circle x2 + y2 = 25?

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11.4 Parabola
Definition 2 A parabola is the set of all points
in a plane that are equidistant from a fixed line
and a fixed point (not on the line) in the plane.
The fixed line is called the directrix of
the parabola and the fixed point F is called the
focus (Fig 11.13). (‘Para’ means ‘for’ and
‘bola’ means ‘throwing’, i.e., the shape
described when you throw a ball in the air).

A Note If the fixed point lies on the fixed

line, then the set of points in the plane, which Fig 11. 13
are equidistant from the fixed point and the
fixed line is the straight line through the fixed
point and perpendicular to the fixed line. We
call this straight line as degenerate case of
the parabola.
A line through the focus and perpendicular
to the directrix is called the axis of the
parabola. The point of intersection of parabola
with the axis is called the vertex of the parabola
(Fig11.14).
11.4.1 Standard equations of parabola The Fig 11.14
equation of a parabola is simplest if the vertex
is at the origin and the axis of symmetry is along the x-axis or y-axis. The four possible
such orientations of parabola are shown below in Fig11.15 (a) to (d).

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Fig 11.15 (a) to (d)

We will derive the equation for the parabola shown above in Fig 11.15 (a) with
focus at (a, 0) a > 0; and directricx x = – a as below:
Let F be the focus and l the directrix. Let
FM be perpendicular to the directrix and bisect
FM at the point O. Produce MO to X. By the
definition of parabola, the mid-point O is on the
parabola and is called the vertex of the parabola.
Take O as origin, OX the x-axis and OY
perpendicular to it as the y-axis. Let the distance
from the directrix to the focus be 2a. Then, the
coordinates of the focus are (a, 0), and the
equation of the directrix is x + a = 0 as in Fig11.16.
Let P(x, y) be any point on the parabola such that Fig 11.16
PF = PB, ... (1)
where PB is perpendicular to l. The coordinates of B are (– a, y). By the distance
formula, we have
PF = (x – a) 2 + y 2 and PB = (x + a) 2
Since PF = PB, we have

(x – a ) 2 + y 2 = (x + a )2
i.e. (x – a)2 + y2 = (x + a)2
or x2 – 2ax + a2 + y2 = x2 + 2ax + a2
or y2 = 4ax ( a > 0).

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Hence, any point on the parabola satisfies

y2 = 4ax. ... (2)
Conversely, let P(x, y) satisfy the equation (2)

PF = (x – a) 2 + y 2 = (x – a) 2 + 4ax

= (x + a) 2 = PB ... (3)
and so P(x,y) lies on the parabola.
Thus, from (2) and (3) we have proved that the equation to the parabola with
vertex at the origin, focus at (a,0) and directrix x = – a is y2 = 4ax.
Discussion In equation (2), since a > 0, x can assume any positive value or zero but
no negative value and the curve extends indefinitely far into the first and the fourth
quadrants. The axis of the parabola is the positive x-axis.
Similarly, we can derive the equations of the parabolas in:
Fig 11.15 (b) as y2 = – 4ax,
Fig 11.15 (c) as x2 = 4ay,
Fig 11.15 (d) as x2 = – 4ay,
These four equations are known as standard equations of parabolas.

A Note The standard equations of parabolas have focus on one of the coordinate
axis; vertex at the origin and thereby the directrix is parallel to the other coordinate
axis. However, the study of the equations of parabolas with focus at any point and
any line as directrix is beyond the scope here.
From the standard equations of the parabolas, Fig11.15, we have the following
observations:
1. Parabola is symmetric with respect to the axis of the parabola.If the equation
has a y2 term, then the axis of symmetry is along the x-axis and if the
equation has an x2 term, then the axis of symmetry is along the y-axis.
2. When the axis of symmetry is along the x-axis the parabola opens to the
(a) right if the coefficient of x is positive,
(b) left if the coefficient of x is negative.
3. When the axis of symmetry is along the y-axis the parabola opens
(c) upwards if the coefficient of y is positive.
(d) downwards if the coefficient of y is negative.

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11.4.2 Latus rectum

Definition 3 Latus rectum of a parabola is a line segment perpendicular to the axis of
the parabola, through the focus and whose end points lie on the parabola (Fig11.17).
To find the Length of the latus rectum of the parabola y2 = 4ax (Fig 11.18).
By the definition of the parabola, AF = AC.
But AC = FM = 2a
Hence AF = 2a.
And since the parabola is symmetric with respect to x-axis AF = FB and so
AB = Length of the latus rectum = 4a.

Fig 11.17 Fig 11.18

Example 5 Find the coordinates of the focus, axis,

the equation of the directrix and latus rectum of
the parabola y2 = 8x.
Solution The given equation involves y2, so the
axis of symmetry is along the x-axis.
The coefficient of x is positive so the parabola opens
to the right. Comparing with the given equation
y2 = 4ax, we find that a = 2. Fig 11.19
Thus, the focus of the parabola is (2, 0) and the equation of the directrix of the parabola
is x = – 2 (Fig 11.19).
Length of the latus rectum is 4a = 4 × 2 = 8.

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Example 6 Find the equation of the parabola with focus (2,0) and directrix x = – 2.
Solution Since the focus (2,0) lies on the x-axis, the x-axis itself is the axis of the
parabola. Hence the equation of the parabola is of the form either
y2 = 4ax or y2 = – 4ax. Since the directrix is x = – 2 and the focus is (2,0), the parabola
is to be of the form y 2 = 4ax with a = 2. Hence the required equation is
y2 = 4(2)x = 8x
Example 7 Find the equation of the parabola with vertex at (0, 0) and focus at (0, 2).
Solution Since the vertex is at (0,0) and the focus is at (0,2) which lies on y-axis, the
y-axis is the axis of the parabola. Therefore, equation of the parabola is of the form
x2 = 4ay. thus, we have
x2 = 4(2)y, i.e., x2 = 8y.

Example 8 Find the equation of the parabola which is symmetric about the y-axis, and
passes through the point (2,–3).
Solution Since the parabola is symmetric about y-axis and has its vertex at the origin,
the equation is of the form x2 = 4ay or x2 = – 4ay, where the sign depends on whether
the parabola opens upwards or downwards. But the parabola passes through (2,–3)
which lies in the fourth quadrant, it must open downwards. Thus the equation is of
the form x2 = – 4ay.
Since the parabola passes through ( 2,–3), we have

1
22 = – 4a (–3), i.e., a =
3
Therefore, the equation of the parabola is
1
x2 = − 4   y, i.e., 3x2 = – 4y.
 3

EXERCISE 11.2
In each of the following Exercises 1 to 6, find the coordinates of the focus, axis of the
parabola, the equation of the directrix and the length of the latus rectum.
1. y2 = 12x 2. x2 = 6y 3. y2 = – 8x
4. x2 = – 16y 5. y2 = 10x 6. x2 = – 9y
In each of the Exercises 7 to 12, find the equation of the parabola that satisfies the
given conditions:

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7. Focus (6,0); directrix x = – 6 8. Focus (0,–3); directrix y = 3

9. Vertex (0,0); focus (3,0) 10. Vertex (0,0); focus (–2,0)
11. Vertex (0,0) passing through (2,3) and axis is along x-axis.
12. Vertex (0,0), passing through (5,2) and symmetric with respect to y-axis.
11. 5 Ellipse
Definition 4 An ellipse is the set of all points in
a plane, the sum of whose distances from two
fixed points in the plane is a constant.
The two fixed points are called the foci (plural
of ‘focus’) of the ellipse (Fig11.20).

A Note The constant which is the sum of

the distances of a point on the ellipse from the
two fixed points is always greater than the Fig 11.20
distance between the two fixed points.
The mid point of the line segment joining the foci is called the centre of the
ellipse. The line segment through the foci of the ellipse is called the major axis and the
line segment through the centre and perpendicular to the major axis is called the minor
axis. The end points of the major axis are called the vertices of the ellipse(Fig 11.21).

Fig 11.21 Fig 11.22

We denote the length of the major axis by 2a, the length of the minor axis by 2b
and the distance between the foci by 2c. Thus, the length of the semi major axis is a
and semi-minor axis is b (Fig11.22).

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11.5.1 Relationship between semi-major

axis, semi-minor axis and the distance of
the focus from the centre of the ellipse
(Fig 11.23).
Take a point P at one end of the major axis.
Sum of the distances of the point P to the
foci is F1 P + F2P = F1O + OP + F2P
(Since, F1P = F1O + OP)
= c + a + a – c = 2a Fig 11.23

Take a point Q at one end of the minor axis.

Sum of the distances from the point Q to the foci is

F1Q + F2Q = b2 + c2 + b2 + c2 = 2 b2 + c 2
Since both P and Q lies on the ellipse.
By the definition of ellipse, we have

2 b 2 + c 2 = 2a, i.e., a = b2 + c 2

or a 2 = b2 + c2 , i.e., c= a 2 − b2 .
11.5.2 Special cases of an ellipse In the equation
c2 = a2 – b2 obtained above, if we keep a fixed and
vary c from 0 to a, the resulting ellipses will vary in
shape.
Case (i) When c = 0, both foci merge together with
the centre of the ellipse and a2 = b2, i.e., a = b, and so
the ellipse becomes circle (Fig11.24). Thus, circle is a
special case of an ellipse which is dealt in Section 11.3.
Fig 11.24
Case (ii) When c = a, then b = 0. The ellipse reduces
to the line segment F1F2 joining the two foci (Fig11.25).
11.5.3 Eccentricity Fig 11.25
Definition 5 The eccentricity of an ellipse is the ratio of the distances from the centre
of the ellipse to one of the foci and to one of the vertices of the ellipse (eccentricity is
c
denoted by e) i.e., e = .
a

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Then since the focus is at a distance of c from the centre, in terms of the eccentricity
the focus is at a distance of ae from the centre.
11.5.4 Standard equations of an ellipse The equation of an ellipse is simplest if the
centre of the ellipse is at the origin and the foci are

(a)
Fig 11.26
on the x-axis or y-axis. The two such possible orientations are shown in Fig 11.26.
We will derive the equation for the ellipse shown above in Fig 11.26 (a) with foci
on the x-axis.
Let F1 and F2 be the foci and O be the mid-
point of the line segment F1F2. Let O be the origin
and the line from O through F2 be the positive
x-axis and that through F1as the negative x-axis.
Let, the line through O perpendicular to the
x-axis be the y-axis. Let the coordinates of F1 be
(– c, 0) and F2 be (c, 0) (Fig 11.27).
Let P(x, y) be any point on the ellipse such
that the sum of the distances from P to the two x2 y 2
foci be 2a so given
+ =1
a 2 b2
PF1 + PF2 = 2a. ... (1)
Using the distance formula, we have Fig 11.27

( x + c) 2 + y 2 + ( x − c) 2 + y 2 = 2a

i.e., ( x + c) 2 + y 2 = 2a – ( x − c )2 + y 2

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Squaring both sides, we get

(x + c)2 + y2 = 4a2 – 4a ( x − c) 2 + y 2 + ( x − c) 2 + y 2
which on simplification gives
c
( x − c) 2 + y 2 = a − x
a
Squaring again and simplifying, we get
x2 y2
+ 2 =1
a2 a − c2

x2 y2
i.e., + =1 (Since c2 = a2 – b2)
a2 b2
Hence any point on the ellipse satisfies
x2 y2
+ = 1. ... (2)
a2 b2
Conversely, let P (x, y) satisfy the equation (2) with 0 < c < a. Then
 x2 

y =b  1 − 
a 2 
2 2

Therefore, PF1 = ( x + c) 2 + y 2

 a2 − x2 
= ( x + c) 2 + b 2  2

 a 

 a2 − x2 
= ( x + c) 2 + ( a 2 − c 2 )  2  (since b2 = a2 – c2)
 a 
2
 cx  c
= a+  =a+ x
 a a

c
Similarly PF2 = a − x
a

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c c
Hence PF1 + PF2 = a + x + a – x = 2a ... (3)
a a
x2 y2
So, any point that satisfies + = 1, satisfies the geometric condition and so
a2 b2
P(x, y) lies on the ellipse.
Hence from (2) and (3), we proved that the equation of an ellipse with centre of
the origin and major axis along the x-axis is
x2 y 2
+ = 1.
a 2 b2
Discussion From the equation of the ellipse obtained above, it follows that for every
point P (x, y) on the ellipse, we have
x2 y2
= 1 − ≤ 1, i.e., x2 ≤ a2, so – a ≤ x ≤ a.
a2 b2
Therefore, the ellipse lies between the lines x = – a and x = a and touches these lines.
Similarly, the ellipse lies between the lines y = – b and y = b and touches these
lines.
x2 y2
Similarly, we can derive the equation of the ellipse in Fig 11.26 (b) as + =1 .
b2 a 2
These two equations are known as standard equations of the ellipses.

A Note The standard equations of ellipses have centre at the origin and the
major and minor axis are coordinate axes. However, the study of the ellipses with
centre at any other point, and any line through the centre as major and the minor
axes passing through the centre and perpendicular to major axis are beyond the
scope here.
From the standard equations of the ellipses (Fig11.26), we have the following
observations:
1. Ellipse is symmetric with respect to both the coordinate axes since if (x, y) is a
point on the ellipse, then (– x, y), (x, –y) and (– x, –y) are also points on the ellipse.
2. The foci always lie on the major axis. The major axis can be determined by
finding the intercepts on the axes of symmetry. That is, major axis is along the x-axis
if the coefficient of x2 has the larger denominator and it is along the y-axis if the
coefficient of y2 has the larger denominator.

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11.5.5 Latus rectum

Definition 6 Latus rectum of an ellipse is a

line segment perpendicular to the major axis
through any of the foci and whose end points
lie on the ellipse (Fig 11.28).
To find the length of the latus rectum
x2 y 2
of the ellipse + =1
a 2 b2
Let the length of AF2 be l. Fig 11. 28
Then the coordinates of A are (c, l ),i.e.,
(ae, l )
x2 y 2
Since A lies on the ellipse + = 1 , we have
a 2 b2

(ae) 2 l 2
+ 2 =1
a2 b
⇒ l2 = b2 (1 – e2)
c2 a 2 – b2 b2
But e2 = = = 1 –
a2 a2 a2

b4 b2
Therefore l2 = , i.e., l =
a2 a
Since the ellipse is symmetric with respect to y-axis (of course, it is symmetric w.r.t.
2b2
both the coordinate axes), AF2 = F2B and so length of the latus rectum is .
a
Example 9 Find the coordinates of the foci, the vertices, the length of major axis, the
minor axis, the eccentricity and the latus rectum of the ellipse
x2 y 2
+ =1
25 9
x2 y2
Solution Since denominator of is larger than the denominator of , the major
25 9

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x2 y 2
axis is along the x-axis. Comparing the given equation with + = 1 , we get
a 2 b2
a = 5 and b = 3. Also
c = a 2 – b 2 = 25 – 9 = 4
Therefore, the coordinates of the foci are (– 4,0) and (4,0), vertices are (– 5, 0) and
(5, 0). Length of the major axis is 10 units length of the minor axis 2b is 6 units and the
4 2b 2 18
eccentricity is and latus rectum is = .
5 a 5
Example 10 Find the coordinates of the foci, the vertices, the lengths of major and
minor axes and the eccentricity of the ellipse 9x2 + 4y2 = 36.
Solution The given equation of the ellipse can be written in standard form as
x2 y2
+ =1
4 9
y2 x2
Since the denominator of is larger than the denominator of , the major axis is
9 4
along the y-axis. Comparing the given equation with the standard equation
x2 y2
+ = 1 , we have b = 2 and a = 3.
b2 a 2

Also c= a2 – b2 = 9–4= 5

c 5
and e= =
a 3
Hence the foci are (0, 5 ) and (0, – 5 ), vertices are (0,3) and (0, –3), length of the
major axis is 6 units, the length of the minor axis is 4 units and the eccentricity of the
5
ellipse is .
3
Example 11 Find the equation of the ellipse whose vertices are (± 13, 0) and foci are
(± 5, 0).
Solution Since the vertices are on x-axis, the equation will be of the form
x2 y 2
+ = 1 , where a is the semi-major axis.
a 2 b2

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Given that a = 13, c = ± 5.

Therefore, from the relation c2 = a2 – b2, we get
25 = 169 – b2 , i.e., b = 12

x2 y2
Hence the equation of the ellipse is + = 1.
169 144
Example 12 Find the equation of the ellipse, whose length of the major axis is 20 and
foci are (0, ± 5).
Solution Since the foci are on y-axis, the major axis is along the y-axis. So, equation
x2 y2
of the ellipse is of the form + =1.
b2 a 2
Given that
20
a = semi-major axis = = 10
2
and the relation c 2 = a2 – b2 gives
52 = 102 – b2 i.e., b2 = 75
Therefore, the equation of the ellipse is
x2 y2
+ =1
75 100
Example 13 Find the equation of the ellipse, with major axis along the x-axis and
passing through the points (4, 3) and (– 1,4).

x2 y2
Solution The standard form of the ellipse is + = 1. Since the points (4, 3)
a2 b2
and (–1, 4) lie on the ellipse, we have
16 9
2
+ 2 =1 ... (1)
a b
1 16
and 2
+ 2 =1 ….(2)
a b
247 247
Solving equations (1) and (2), we find that a = and b =
2 2
.
7 15
Hence the required equation is

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x2 y2
+ = 1 , i.e., 7x2 + 15y2 = 247.
 247  247
 
 7  15

EXERCISE 11.3
In each of the Exercises 1 to 9, find the coordinates of the foci, the vertices, the length
of major axis, the minor axis, the eccentricity and the length of the latus rectum of the
ellipse.
x2 y2 x2 y2 x2 y2
1. + =1 2. + =1 3. + =1
36 16 4 25 16 9

x2 y2 x2 y 2 x2 y2
4. + =1 5. + =1 6. + =1
25 100 49 36 100 400
7. 36x2 + 4y2 = 144 8. 16x2 + y2 = 16 9. 4x2 + 9y2 = 36
In each of the following Exercises 10 to 20, find the equation for the ellipse that satisfies
the given conditions:
10. Vertices (± 5, 0), foci (± 4, 0)
11. Vertices (0, ± 13), foci (0, ± 5)
12. Vertices (± 6, 0), foci (± 4, 0)
13. Ends of major axis (± 3, 0), ends of minor axis (0, ± 2)

14. Ends of major axis (0, ± 5 ), ends of minor axis (± 1, 0)

15. Length of major axis 26, foci (± 5, 0)
16. Length of minor axis 16, foci (0, ± 6).
17. Foci (± 3, 0), a = 4
18. b = 3, c = 4, centre at the origin; foci on the x axis.
19. Centre at (0,0), major axis on the y-axis and passes through the points (3, 2) and
(1,6).
20. Major axis on the x-axis and passes through the points (4,3) and (6,2).
11.6 Hyperbola
Definition 7 A hyperbola is the set of all points in a plane, the difference of whose
distances from two fixed points in the plane is a constant.

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Fig 11.29
The term “difference” that is used in the definition means the distance to the
farther point minus the distance to the closer point. The two fixed points are called the
foci of the hyperbola. The mid-point of the line segment joining the foci is called the
centre of the hyperbola. The line through the foci is called the transverse axis and
the line through the centre and perpendicular to the transverse axis is called the conjugate
axis. The points at which the hyperbola
intersects the transverse axis are called the
vertices of the hyperbola (Fig 11.29).
We denote the distance between the
two foci by 2c, the distance between two
vertices (the length of the transverse axis)
by 2a and we define the quantity b as
b = c2 – a2
Also 2b is the length of the conjugate axis
Fig 11.30
(Fig 11.30).
To find the constant P1F2 – P1F1 :
By taking the point P at A and B in the Fig 11.30, we have
BF1 – BF2 = AF2 – AF1 (by the definition of the hyperbola)
BA +AF1– BF2 = AB + BF2– AF1
i.e., AF1 = BF2
So that, BF1 – BF2 = BA + AF1– BF2 = BA = 2a

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11.6.1 Eccentricity
c
Definition 8 Just like an ellipse, the ratio e = is called the eccentricity of the
a
hyperbola. Since c ≥ a, the eccentricity is never less than one. In terms of the
eccentricity, the foci are at a distance of ae from the centre.
11.6.2 Standard equation of Hyperbola The equation of a hyperbola is simplest if
the centre of the hyperbola is at the origin and the foci are on the x-axis or y-axis. The
two such possible orientations are shown in Fig11.31.

(a) (b)

Fig 11.31

We will derive the equation for the hyperbola shown in Fig 11.31(a) with foci on
the x-axis.
Let F1 and F2 be the foci and O be the mid-point of the line segment F1F2. Let O
be the origin and the line through O
through F2 be the positive x-axis and
that through F 1 as the negative
x-axis. The line through O
perpendicular to the x-axis be the
y-axis. Let the coordinates of F1 be
(– c,0) and F2 be (c,0) (Fig 11.32).
Let P(x, y) be any point on the
hyperbola such that the difference
of the distances from P to the farther
point minus the closer point be 2a.
So given, PF1 – PF2 = 2a Fig 11.32

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Using the distance formula, we have

(x + c ) 2 + y 2 – (x – c ) 2 + y 2 = 2a

i.e., (x + c ) 2 + y 2 = 2a + (x – c) 2 + y 2
Squaring both side, we get
(x + c)2 + y2 = 4a2 + 4a (x – c ) 2 + y 2 + (x – c)2 + y2
and on simplifying, we get
cx
–a= (x – c) 2 + y 2
a
On squaring again and further simplifying, we get
x2 y2
– =1
a 2 c2 – a2

x2 y 2
i.e., – =1 (Since c2 – a2 = b2)
a 2 b2

x2 y 2
Hence any point on the hyperbola satisfies – = 1 1.
a 2 b2
Conversely, let P(x, y) satisfy the above equation with 0 < a < c. Then
 x2 – a2 
y 2
= b 2  2 
 a 

Therefore, PF1 = + (x + c ) 2 + y 2

 x2 – a2  c
= + (x + c )2 + b 2  2  = a+ x
 a  a
a
Similarly, PF2 = a – x
c
c
In hyperbola c > a; and since P is to the right of the line x = a, x > a, x > a. Therefore,
a
c c
a– x becomes negative. Thus, PF2 = x – a.
a a

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 CONIC SECTIONS 259

c cx
Therefore PF1 – PF2 = a + x – + a = 2a
a a
Also, note that if P is to the left of the line x = – a, then
 c  c
PF1 = –  a + x  , PF2 = a – x .
 a  a

x2 y 2
In that case P F2 – PF1 = 2a. So, any point that satisfies – = 1 , lies on the
a 2 b2
hyperbola.
Thus, we proved that the equation of hyperbola with origin (0,0) and transverse axis
x2 y 2
along x-axis is – =1.
a 2 b2

ANote A hyperbola in which a = b is called an equilateral hyperbola.

Discussion From the equation of the hyperbola we have obtained, it follows that, we
x2 y2
have for every point (x, y) on the hyperbola, 2 = 1 + ≥ 1.
a b2

x
i.e, ≥ 1, i.e., x ≤ – a or x ≥ a. Therefore, no portion of the curve lies between the
a
lines x = + a and x = – a, (i.e. no real intercept on the conjugate axis).

y 2 x2
Similarly, we can derive the equation of the hyperbola in Fig 11.31 (b) as − =1
a 2 b2
These two equations are known as the standard equations of hyperbolas.

A Note The standard equations of hyperbolas have transverse and conjugate

axes as the coordinate axes and the centre at the origin. However, there are
hyperbolas with any two perpendicular lines as transverse and conjugate axes, but
the study of such cases will be dealt in higher classes.

From the standard equations of hyperbolas (Fig11.29), we have the following

observations:
1. Hyperbola is symmetric with respect to both the axes, since if (x, y) is a point on
the hyperbola, then (– x, y), (x, – y) and (– x, – y) are also points on the hyperbola.

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2. The foci are always on the transverse axis. It is the positive term whose
x2 y 2
denominator gives the transverse axis. For example, – =1
9 16
y 2 x2
has transverse axis along x-axis of length 6, while – =1
25 16
has transverse axis along y-axis of length 10.

11.6.3 Latus rectum

Definition 9 Latus rectum of hyperbola is a line segment perpendicular to the transverse
axis through any of the foci and whose end points lie on the hyperbola.
2b 2
As in ellipse, it is easy to show that the length of the latus rectum in hyperbola is
.
a
Example 14 Find the coordinates of the foci and the vertices, the eccentricity,the
length of the latus rectum of the hyperbolas:
x2 y2
(i) – = 1 , (ii) y2 – 16x2 = 16
9 16
x2 y 2
Solution (i) Comparing the equation – = 1 with the standard equation
9 16

x2 y 2
– =1
a 2 b2
Here, a = 3, b = 4 and c = a 2 + b 2 = 9 + 16 = 5

Therefore, the coordinates of the foci are (± 5, 0) and that of vertices are (± 3, 0).Also,
c 5 2b 2 32
The eccentricity e = = . The latus rectum = =
a 3 a 3
y 2 x2
(ii) Dividing the equation by 16 on both sides, we have – =1
16 1

y 2 x2
Comparing the equation with the standard equation – = 1 , we find that
a 2 b2

a = 4, b = 1 and c = a 2 + b2 = 16 + 1 = 17 .

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 CONIC SECTIONS 261

Therefore, the coordinates of the foci are (0, ± 17 ) and that of the vertices are
(0, ± 4). Also,
c 17 2b2 1
The eccentricity e = = . The latus rectum = = .
a 4 a 2
Example 15 Find the equation of the hyperbola with foci (0, ± 3) and vertices
11
(0, ± ).
2
Solution Since the foci is on y-axis, the equation of the hyperbola is of the form
y 2 x2
– =1
a 2 b2
11 11
Since vertices are (0, ± ), a =
2 2
25
Also, since foci are (0, ± 3); c = 3 and b2 = c2 – a2 = .
4
Therefore, the equation of the hyperbola is

y2 x2
– = 1, i.e., 100 y2 – 44 x2 = 275.
 11   25 
   
4  4 

Example 16 Find the equation of the hyperbola where foci are (0, ±12) and the length
of the latus rectum is 36.
Solution Since foci are (0, ± 12), it follows that c = 12.

2b 2
Length of the latus rectum = = 36 or b2 = 18a
a
Therefore c2 = a2 + b2; gives
144 = a2 + 18a
i.e., a2 + 18a – 144 = 0,
So a = – 24, 6.
Since a cannot be negative, we take a = 6 and so b2 = 108.
y2 x2
Therefore, the equation of the required hyperbola is – = 1 , i.e., 3y2 – x2 = 108
36 108

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EXERCISE 11.4
In each of the Exercises 1 to 6, find the coordinates of the foci and the vertices, the
eccentricity and the length of the latus rectum of the hyperbolas.
x2 y2 y 2 x2
1. – =1 2. – =1 3. 9y2 – 4x2 = 36
16 9 9 27
4. 16x2 – 9y2 = 576 5. 5y2 – 9x2 = 36 6. 49y2 – 16x2 = 784.
In each of the Exercises 7 to 15, find the equations of the hyperbola satisfying the given
conditions.
7. Vertices (± 2, 0), foci (± 3, 0)
8. Vertices (0, ± 5), foci (0, ± 8)
9. Vertices (0, ± 3), foci (0, ± 5)
10. Foci (± 5, 0), the transverse axis is of length 8.
11. Foci (0, ±13), the conjugate axis is of length 24.
12. Foci (± 3 5 , 0), the latus rectum is of length 8.
13. Foci (± 4, 0), the latus rectum is of length 12

4
14. vertices (± 7,0), e = .
3
15. Foci (0, ± 10 ), passing through (2,3)

Miscellaneous Examples
Example 17 The focus of a parabolic mirror as shown in Fig 11.33 is at a distance of
5 cm from its vertex. If the mirror is 45 cm deep, find
the distance AB (Fig 11.33).
Solution Since the distance from the focus to the
vertex is 5 cm. We have, a = 5. If the origin is taken at
the vertex and the axis of the mirror lies along the
positive x-axis, the equation of the parabolic section is
y2 = 4 (5) x = 20 x
Note that x = 45. Thus
y2 = 900
Therefore y = ± 30
Hence AB = 2y = 2 × 30 = 60 cm.
Example 18 A beam is supported at its ends by Fig 11.33
supports which are 12 metres apart. Since the load is concentrated at its centre, there

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 CONIC SECTIONS 263

is a deflection of 3 cm at the centre and the deflected beam is in the shape of a

parabola. How far from the centre is the deflection 1 cm?
Solution Let the vertex be at the lowest point and the axis vertical. Let the coordinate
axis be chosen as shown in Fig 11.34.

Fig 11.34
The equation of the parabola takes the form x2 = 4ay. Since it passes through
 3   3  36 ×100
 6,  , we have (6)2 = 4a   , i.e., a = = 300 m
 100   100  12
1 2
Let AB be the deflection of the beam which is m. Coordinates of B are (x, ).
100 100
2
Therefore x 2 = 4 × 300 × = 24
100
i.e. x= 24 = 2 6 metres

Example 19 A rod AB of length 15 cm rests in between two coordinate axes in such

a way that the end point A lies on x-axis and end point B lies on
y-axis. A point P(x, y) is taken on the rod in such a way
that AP = 6 cm. Show that the locus of P is an ellipse.
Solution Let AB be the rod making an angle θ with
OX as shown in Fig 11.35 and P (x, y) the point on it
such that AP = 6 cm.
Since AB = 15 cm, we have
PB = 9 cm.
From P draw PQ and PR perpendiculars on y-axis and
x-axis, respectively. Fig 11.35

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264 MATHEMATICS

x
From ∆ PBQ, cos θ =
9

y
From ∆ PRA, sin θ =
6
Since cos2 θ + sin2 θ = 1
2 2
 x  y
  +   =1
9 6

x2 y2
or + =1
81 36
Thus the locus of P is an ellipse.

Miscellaneous Exercise on Chapter 11

1. If a parabolic reflector is 20 cm in diameter and 5 cm deep, find the focus.
2. An arch is in the form of a parabola with its axis vertical. The arch is 10 m high
and 5 m wide at the base. How wide is it 2 m from the vertex of the parabola?
3. The cable of a uniformly loaded suspension bridge hangs in the form of a parabola.
The roadway which is horizontal and 100 m long is supported by vertical wires
attached to the cable, the longest wire being 30 m and the shortest being 6 m.
Find the length of a supporting wire attached to the roadway 18 m from the
middle.
4. An arch is in the form of a semi-ellipse. It is 8 m wide and 2 m high at the centre.
Find the height of the arch at a point 1.5 m from one end.
5. A rod of length 12 cm moves with its ends always touching the coordinate axes.
Determine the equation of the locus of a point P on the rod, which is 3 cm from
the end in contact with the x-axis.
6. Find the area of the triangle formed by the lines joining the vertex of the parabola
x2 = 12y to the ends of its latus rectum.
7. A man running a racecourse notes that the sum of the distances from the two flag
posts from him is always 10 m and the distance between the flag posts is 8 m.
Find the equation of the posts traced by the man.
8. An equilateral triangle is inscribed in the parabola y2 = 4 ax, where one vertex is
at the vertex of the parabola. Find the length of the side of the triangle.

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Summary

In this Chapter the following concepts and generalisations are studied.

® A circle is the set of all points in a plane that are equidistant from a fixed point
in the plane.
® The equation of a circle with centre (h, k) and the radius r is
(x – h)2 + (y – k)2 = r2.

® A parabola is the set of all points in a plane that are equidistant from a fixed
line and a fixed point in the plane.
® The equation of the parabola with focus at (a, 0) a > 0 and directrix x = – a is
y2 = 4ax.
® Latus rectum of a parabola is a line segment perpendicular to the axis of the
parabola, through the focus and whose end points lie on the parabola.
® Length of the latus rectum of the parabola y2 = 4ax is 4a.
® An ellipse is the set of all points in a plane, the sum of whose distances from
two fixed points in the plane is a constant.

x2 y 2
® The equation of an ellipse with foci on the x-axis is + =1.
a 2 b2

® Latus rectum of an ellipse is a line segment perpendicular to the major axis

through any of the foci and whose end points lie on the ellipse.

x2 y 2 2b 2
® Length of the latus rectum of the ellipse + = 1 is .
a 2 b2 a

® The eccentricity of an ellipse is the ratio between the distances from the centre
of the ellipse to one of the foci and to one of the vertices of the ellipse.
® A hyperbola is the set of all points in a plane, the difference of whose distances
from two fixed points in the plane is a constant.

x2 y 2
® The equation of a hyperbola with foci on the x-axis is : a 2 − b 2 = 1

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® Latus rectum of hyperbola is a line segment perpendicular to the transverse

axis through any of the foci and whose end points lie on the hyperbola.

x2 y 2 2b2
® Length of the latus rectum of the hyperbola : − = 1 is : .
a 2 b2 a

® The eccentricity of a hyperbola is the ratio of the distances from the centre of
the hyperbola to one of the foci and to one of the vertices of the hyperbola.

Historical Note
Geometry is one of the most ancient branches of mathematics. The Greek
geometers investigated the properties of many curves that have theoretical and
practical importance. Euclid wrote his treatise on geometry around 300 B.C. He
was the first who organised the geometric figures based on certain axioms
suggested by physical considerations. Geometry as initially studied by the ancient
Indians and Greeks, who made essentially no use of the process of algebra. The
synthetic approach to the subject of geometry as given by Euclid and in
Sulbasutras, etc., was continued for some 1300 years. In the 200 B.C., Apollonius
wrote a book called ‘The Conic’ which was all about conic sections with many
important discoveries that have remained unsurpassed for eighteen centuries.
Modern analytic geometry is called ‘Cartesian’ after the name of Rene
Descartes (1596-1650) whose relevant ‘La Geometrie’ was published in 1637.
But the fundamental principle and method of analytical geometry were already
discovered by Pierre de Fermat (1601-1665). Unfortunately, Fermats treatise on
the subject, entitled Ad Locus Planos et So LIDOS Isagoge (Introduction to
Plane and Solid Loci) was published only posthumously in
1679. So, Descartes came to be regarded as the unique inventor of the analytical
geometry.
Isaac Barrow avoided using cartesian method. Newton used method of
undetermined coefficients to find equations of curves. He used several types of
coordinates including polar and bipolar. Leibnitz used the terms ‘abscissa’,
‘ordinate’ and ‘coordinate’. L’ Hospital (about 1700) wrote an important textbook
on analytical geometry.
Clairaut (1729) was the first to give the distance formula although in clumsy
form. He also gave the intercept form of the linear equation. Cramer (1750)

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made formal use of the two axes and gave the equation of a circle as
( y – a)2 + (b – x)2 = r
He gave the best exposition of the analytical geometry of his time. Monge
(1781) gave the modern ‘point-slope’ form of equation of a line as
y – y′ = a (x – x′)
and the condition of perpendicularity of two lines as aa′ + 1 = 0.
S.F. Lacroix (1765–1843) was a prolific textbook writer, but his contributions
to analytical geometry are found scattered. He gave the ‘two-point’ form of
equation of a line as
β′ – β
y –β= (x – α)
α′ – α
(β – a – b )
and the length of the perpendicular from (α, β) on y = ax + b as .
1 + a2

 a′ – a 
His formula for finding angle between two lines was tan θ =  1 + aa′  . It is, of
 
course, surprising that one has to wait for more than 150 years after the invention
of analytical geometry before finding such essential basic formula. In 1818, C.
Lame, a civil engineer, gave mE + m′E′ = 0 as the curve passing through the
points of intersection of two loci E = 0 and E′ = 0.
Many important discoveries, both in Mathematics and Science, have been
linked to the conic sections. The Greeks particularly Archimedes (287–212 B.C.)
and Apollonius (200 B.C.) studied conic sections for their own beauty. These
curves are important tools for present day exploration of outer space and also for
research into behaviour of atomic particles.

—v —

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 Chapter 12

INTRODUCTION TO THREE
DIMENSIONAL GEOMETRY

vMathematics is both the queen and the hand-maiden of

all sciences – E.T. BELLv

12.1 Introduction
You may recall that to locate the position of a point in a
plane, we need two intersecting mutually perpendicular lines
in the plane. These lines are called the coordinate axes
and the two numbers are called the coordinates of the
point with respect to the axes. In actual life, we do not
have to deal with points lying in a plane only. For example,
consider the position of a ball thrown in space at different
points of time or the position of an aeroplane as it flies
from one place to another at different times during its flight.
Similarly, if we were to locate the position of the Leonhard Euler
lowest tip of an electric bulb hanging from the ceiling of a (1707-1783)
room or the position of the central tip of the ceiling fan in a room, we will not only
require the perpendicular distances of the point to be located from two perpendicular
walls of the room but also the height of the point from the floor of the room. Therefore,
we need not only two but three numbers representing the perpendicular distances of
the point from three mutually perpendicular planes, namely the floor of the room and
two adjacent walls of the room. The three numbers representing the three distances
are called the coordinates of the point with reference to the three coordinate
planes. So, a point in space has three coordinates. In this Chapter, we shall study the
basic concepts of geometry in three dimensional space.*

* For various activities in three dimensional geometry one may refer to the Book, “A Hand Book for
designing Mathematics Laboratory in Schools”, NCERT, 2005.

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 INTRODUCTION TO THREE DIMENSIONAL GEOMETRY 269

12.2 Coordinate Axes and Coordinate Planes in Three Dimensional Space

Consider three planes intersecting at a point O
such that these three planes are mutually
perpendicular to each other (Fig 12.1). These
three planes intersect along the lines X′OX, Y′OY
and Z′OZ, called the x, y and z-axes, respectively.
We may note that these lines are mutually
perpendicular to each other. These lines constitute
the rectangular coordinate system. The planes
XOY, YOZ and ZOX, called, respectively the
XY-plane, YZ-plane and the ZX-plane, are
known as the three coordinate planes. We take Fig 12.1
the XOY plane as the plane of the paper and the
line Z′OZ as perpendicular to the plane XOY. If the plane of the paper is considered
as horizontal, then the line Z′OZ will be vertical. The distances measured from
XY-plane upwards in the direction of OZ are taken as positive and those measured
downwards in the direction of OZ′ are taken as negative. Similarly, the distance
measured to the right of ZX-plane along OY are taken as positive, to the left of
ZX-plane and along OY′ as negative, in front of the YZ-plane along OX as positive
and to the back of it along OX′ as negative. The point O is called the origin of the
coordinate system. The three coordinate planes divide the space into eight parts known
as octants. These octants could be named as XOYZ, X′OYZ, X′OY′Z, XOY′Z,
XOYZ′, X′OYZ′, X′OY′Z′ and XOY′Z′. and denoted by I, II, III, ..., VIII , respectively.
12.3 Coordinates of a Point in Space
Having chosen a fixed coordinate system in the
space, consisting of coordinate axes, coordinate
planes and the origin, we now explain, as to how,
given a point in the space, we associate with it three
coordinates (x,y,z) and conversely, given a triplet
of three numbers (x, y, z), how, we locate a point in
the space.
Given a point P in space, we drop a
perpendicular PM on the XY-plane with M as the Fig 12.2
foot of this perpendicular (Fig 12.2). Then, from the point M, we draw a perpendicular
ML to the x-axis, meeting it at L. Let OL be x, LM be y and MP be z. Then x,y and z
are called the x, y and z coordinates, respectively, of the point P in the space. In
Fig 12.2, we may note that the point P (x, y, z) lies in the octant XOYZ and so all x, y,
z are positive. If P was in any other octant, the signs of x, y and z would change

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accordingly. Thus, to each point P in the space there corresponds an ordered triplet
(x, y, z) of real numbers.
Conversely, given any triplet (x, y, z), we would first fix the point L on the x-axis
corresponding to x, then locate the point M in the XY-plane such that (x, y) are the
coordinates of the point M in the XY-plane. Note that LM is perpendicular to the
x-axis or is parallel to the y-axis. Having reached the point M, we draw a perpendicular
MP to the XY-plane and locate on it the point P corresponding to z. The point P so
obtained has then the coordinates (x, y, z). Thus, there is a one to one correspondence
between the points in space and ordered triplet (x, y, z) of real numbers.
Alternatively, through the point P in the
space, we draw three planes parallel to the
coordinate planes, meeting the x-axis, y-axis
and z-axis in the points A, B and C, respectively
(Fig 12.3). Let OA = x, OB = y and OC = z.
Then, the point P will have the coordinates x, y
and z and we write P (x, y, z). Conversely, given
x, y and z, we locate the three points A, B and
C on the three coordinate axes. Through the
points A, B and C we draw planes parallel to
the YZ-plane, ZX-plane and XY-plane, Fig 12.3
respectively. The point of interesection of these three planes, namely, ADPF, BDPE
and CEPF is obviously the point P, corresponding to the ordered triplet (x, y, z). We
observe that if P (x, y, z) is any point in the space, then x, y and z are perpendicular
distances from YZ, ZX and XY planes, respectively.

ANote The coordinates of the origin O are (0,0,0). The coordinates of any point
on the x-axis will be as (x,0,0) and the coordinates of any point in the YZ-plane will
be as (0, y, z).
Remark The sign of the coordinates of a point determine the octant in which the
point lies. The following table shows the signs of the coordinates in eight octants.
Table 12.1
s
ant I II III IV V VI VII VIII
Oct nates
rdi
Coo
x + – – + + – – +
y + + – – + + – –
z + + + + – – – –

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 INTRODUCTION TO THREE DIMENSIONAL GEOMETRY 271

Example 1 In Fig 12.3, if P is (2,4,5), find the coordinates of F.

Solution For the point F, the distance measured along OY is zero. Therefore, the
coordinates of F are (2,0,5).
Example 2 Find the octant in which the points (–3,1,2) and (–3,1,– 2) lie.
Solution From the Table 12.1, the point (–3,1, 2) lies in second octant and the point
(–3, 1, – 2) lies in octant VI.

EXERCISE 12.1
1. A point is on the x -axis. What are its y-coordinate and z-coordinates?
2. A point is in the XZ-plane. What can you say about its y-coordinate?
3. Name the octants in which the following points lie:
(1, 2, 3), (4, –2, 3), (4, –2, –5), (4, 2, –5), (– 4, 2, –5), (– 4, 2, 5),
(–3, –1, 6) (– 2, – 4, –7).
4. Fill in the blanks:
(i) The x-axis and y-axis taken together determine a plane known as_______.
(ii) The coordinates of points in the XY-plane are of the form _______.
(iii) Coordinate planes divide the space into ______ octants.

12.4 Distance between Two Points

We have studied about the distance
between two points in two-dimensional
coordinate system. Let us now extend this
study to three-dimensional system.
Let P(x1, y1, z1) and Q ( x2, y2, z2)
be two points referred to a system of
rectangular axes OX, OY and OZ.
Through the points P and Q draw planes
parallel to the coordinate planes so as to
form a rectangular parallelopiped with one
diagonal PQ (Fig 12.4).
Now, since ∠PAQ is a right Fig 12.4
angle, it follows that, in triangle PAQ,
PQ2 = PA 2 + AQ2 ... (1)
Also, triangle ANQ is right angle triangle with ∠ANQ a right angle.

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Therefore AQ2 = AN2 + NQ2 ... (2)

From (1) and (2), we have
PQ2 = PA2 + AN2 + NQ2
Now PA = y2 – y1, AN = x2 – x1 and NQ = z2 – z1
2
Hence PQ = (x2 – x1)2 + (y2 – y1) + (z2 – z1)2
2

Therefore PQ = ( x2 − x1 ) 2 +( y 2 − y1 ) 2 +( z2 − z1 ) 2
This gives us the distance between two points (x1, y1, z1) and (x2, y2, z2).
2 2 2
In particular, if x1 = y1 = z1 = 0, i.e., point P is origin O, then OQ = x2 + y 2 + z 2 ,
which gives the distance between the origin O and any point Q (x2, y2, z2).
Example 3 Find the distance between the points P(1, –3, 4) and Q (– 4, 1, 2).
Solution The distance PQ between the points P (1,–3, 4) and Q (– 4, 1, 2) is
PQ = (−4 − 1) 2 + (1 + 3) 2 + (2 − 4) 2

= 25 + 16 + 4
= 45 = 3 5 units
Example 4 Show that the points P (–2, 3, 5), Q (1, 2, 3) and R (7, 0, –1) are collinear.
Solution We know that points are said to be collinear if they lie on a line.
Now, PQ = (1 + 2) 2 + ( 2 − 3) 2 + (3 − 5) 2 = 9 + 1 + 4 = 14

QR = (7 − 1) 2 + (0 − 2) 2 + (−1− 3) 2 = 36 + 4 + 16 = 56 = 2 14

and PR = (7 + 2) 2 + (0 − 3) 2 + (−1− 5) 2 = 81 + 9 + 36 = 126 = 3 14

Thus, PQ + QR = PR. Hence, P, Q and R are collinear.
Example 5 Are the points A (3, 6, 9), B (10, 20, 30) and C (25, – 41, 5), the vertices
of a right angled triangle?
Solution By the distance formula, we have
AB2 = (10 – 3)2 + (20 – 6)2 + (30 – 9)2
= 49 + 196 + 441 = 686
BC2 = (25 – 10)2 + (– 41 – 20)2 + (5 – 30)2
= 225 + 3721 + 625 = 4571

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 INTRODUCTION TO THREE DIMENSIONAL GEOMETRY 273

CA 2 = (3 – 25)2 + (6 + 41)2 + (9 – 5)2

= 484 + 2209 + 16 = 2709
We find that CA2 + AB2 ≠ BC2.
Hence, the triangle ABC is not a right angled triangle.
Example 6 Find the equation of set of points P such that PA2 + PB2 = 2k2, where
A and B are the points (3, 4, 5) and (–1, 3, –7), respectively.
Solution Let the coordinates of point P be (x, y, z).
Here PA2 = (x – 3)2 + (y – 4)2 + ( z – 5)2
PB2 = (x + 1)2 + (y – 3)2 + (z + 7)2
By the given condition PA2 + PB2 = 2k2, we have
(x – 3)2 + (y – 4)2 + (z – 5)2 + (x + 1)2 + (y – 3)2 + (z + 7)2 = 2k2
i.e., 2x2 + 2y2 + 2z2 – 4x – 14y + 4z = 2k2 – 109.

EXERCISE 12.2
1. Find the distance between the following pairs of points:
(i) (2, 3, 5) and (4, 3, 1) (ii) (–3, 7, 2) and (2, 4, –1)
(iii) (–1, 3, – 4) and (1, –3, 4) (iv) (2, –1, 3) and (–2, 1, 3).
2. Show that the points (–2, 3, 5), (1, 2, 3) and (7, 0, –1) are collinear.
3. Verify the following:
(i) (0, 7, –10), (1, 6, – 6) and (4, 9, – 6) are the vertices of an isosceles triangle.
(ii) (0, 7, 10), (–1, 6, 6) and (– 4, 9, 6) are the vertices of a right angled triangle.
(iii) (–1, 2, 1), (1, –2, 5), (4, –7, 8) and (2, –3, 4) are the vertices of a parallelogram.
4. Find the equation of the set of points which are equidistant from the points
(1, 2, 3) and (3, 2, –1).
5. Find the equation of the set of points P, the sum of whose distances from
A (4, 0, 0) and B (– 4, 0, 0) is equal to 10.
12.5 Section Formula
In two dimensional geometry, we have learnt how to find the coordinates of a point
dividing a line segment in a given ratio internally. Now, we extend this to three dimensional
geometry as follows:
Let the two given points be P(x1, y1, z1) and Q (x2, y2, z2). Let the point R (x, y, z)
divide PQ in the given ratio m : n internally. Draw PL, QM and RN perpendicular to

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the XY-plane. Obviously PL || RN || QM and feet

of these perpendiculars lie in a XY-plane. The
points L, M and N will lie on a line which is the
intersection of the plane containing PL, RN and
QM with the XY-plane. Through the point R draw
a line ST parallel to the line LM. Line ST will
intersect the line LP externally at the point S and
the line MQ at T, as shown in Fig 12.5.
Also note that quadrilaterals LNRS and
NMTR are parallelograms.
The triangles PSR and QTR are similar. Therefore,
m PR SP SL – PL NR – PL z – z1 Fig 12.5
= = = = =
n QR QT QM – TM QM – NR z 2 – z

mz 2 + nz1
This implies z =
m +n
Similarly, by drawing perpendiculars to the XZ and YZ-planes, we get

my2 + ny1 mx + nx1

y= and x= 2
m+n m+n
Hence, the coordinates of the point R which divides the line segment joining two points
P (x1, y1, z1) and Q (x2, y2, z2) internally in the ratio m : n are

 mx2 + nx1 my 2 + ny1 mz2 + nz1 

 , , 
 m+n m+n m + n 
If the point R divides PQ externally in the ratio m : n, then its coordinates are
obtained by replacing n by – n so that coordinates of point R will be

 mx2 − nx1 my2 − ny1 mz 2 − nz1 

 , , 
 m−n m−n m−n 
Case 1 Coordinates of the mid-point: In case R is the mid-point of PQ, then
x1 + x2 y + y2 z + z2
m : n = 1 : 1 so that x = ,y = 1 and z = 1 .
2 2 2
These are the coordinates of the mid point of the segment joining P (x1, y1, z1)
and Q (x2, y2, z2).

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Case 2 The coordinates of the point R which divides PQ in the ratio k : 1 are obtained
m
by taking k = which are as given below:
n
 k x 2 + x1 ky2 + y1 kz 2 + z1 
 , , 
 1+k 1+k 1+k 

Generally, this result is used in solving problems involving a general point on the line
passing through two given points.
Example 7 Find the coordinates of the point which divides the line segment joining
the points (1, –2, 3) and (3, 4, –5) in the ratio 2 : 3 (i) internally, and (ii) externally.
Solution (i) Let P (x, y, z) be the point which divides line segment joining A(1, – 2, 3)
and B (3, 4, –5) internally in the ratio 2 : 3. Therefore

2(3) + 3(1) 9 2(4) + 3(–2) 2 2(–5) + 3(3) –1

x= = , y= = , z= =
2+3 5 2+3 5 2+3 5
 9 2 −1
Thus, the required point is  , , 
5 5 5 
(ii) Let P (x, y, z) be the point which divides segment joining A (1, –2, 3) and
B (3, 4, –5) externally in the ratio 2 : 3. Then
2(3) + (–3)(1) 2(4) + (–3)(–2) 2(–5) + (–3)(3)
x= = – 3, y = = – 14 , z = =19
2 + (–3) 2 + (–3) 2 + (–3)

Therefore, the required point is (–3, –14, 19).

Example 8 Using section formula, prove that the three points (– 4, 6, 10), (2, 4, 6)
and (14, 0, –2) are collinear.
Solution Let A (– 4, 6, 10), B (2, 4, 6) and C(14, 0, – 2) be the given points. Let the
point P divides AB in the ratio k : 1. Then coordinates of the point P are
 2 k − 4 4 k + 6 6 k + 10 
 , , 
 k +1 k +1 k +1 
Let us examine whether for some value of k, the point P coincides with point C.
2k – 4
On putting = 14 , we get k = − 3
k +1 2

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3
4( − ) + 6
3 4k + 6 2
When k = − , then = =0
2 k +1 3
− +1
2

3
6( − ) + 10
6k + 10 2
= = −2
and k +1 3
− +1
2
Therefore, C (14, 0, –2) is a point which divides AB externally in the ratio 3 : 2 and is
same as P.Hence A, B, C are collinear.
Example 9 Find the coordinates of the centroid of the triangle whose vertices are
(x1, y1, z1), (x2, y2, z2) and (x3, y3, z3).
Solution Let ABC be the triangle. Let the coordinates of the vertices A, B,C be
(x1, y1, z1), (x2, y2, z2) and (x3, y3, z3), respectively. Let D be the mid-point of BC.
Hence coordinates of D are
 x2 + x3 y 2 + y3 z2 + z3 
 , , 
 2 2 2 
Let G be the centroid of the triangle. Therefore, it divides the median AD in the ratio 2 : 1.
Hence, the coordinates of G are

  x2 + x3   y2 + y3   z 2 + z3  
 2  2  + x1 2  2  + y1 2  2  + z1 
   ,   ,   
 2 +1 2 +1 2 +1 
 
 

 x1 + x2 + x3 y1 + y2 + y3 z1 + z2 + z3 
or  , , 
 3 3 3 
Example 10 Find the ratio in which the line segment joining the points (4, 8, 10) and
(6, 10, – 8) is divided by the YZ-plane.
Solution Let YZ-plane divides the line segment joining A (4, 8, 10) and B (6, 10, – 8)
at P (x, y, z) in the ratio k : 1. Then the coordinates of P are
 4 + 6k 8 + 10k 10 − 8k 
 , , 
 k +1 k +1 k +1 

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 INTRODUCTION TO THREE DIMENSIONAL GEOMETRY 277

4 + 6k
Since P lies on the YZ-plane, its x-coordinate is zero, i.e., =0
k +1
2
or k =−
3
Therefore, YZ-plane divides AB externally in the ratio 2 : 3.
EXERCISE 12.3
1. Find the coordinates of the point which divides the line segment joining the points
(– 2, 3, 5) and (1, – 4, 6) in the ratio (i) 2 : 3 internally, (ii) 2 : 3 externally.
2. Given that P (3, 2, – 4), Q (5, 4, – 6) and R (9, 8, –10) are collinear. Find the ratio
in which Q divides PR.
3. Find the ratio in which the YZ-plane divides the line segment formed by joining
the points (–2, 4, 7) and (3, –5, 8).
4. Using section formula, show that the points A (2, –3, 4), B (–1, 2, 1) and
 1 
C  0 , ,2  are collinear.
 3 
5. Find the coordinates of the points which trisect the line segment joining the points
P (4, 2, – 6) and Q (10, –16, 6).

Miscellaneous Examples
Example 11 Show that the points A (1, 2, 3), B (–1, –2, –1), C (2, 3, 2) and
D (4, 7, 6) are the vertices of a parallelogram ABCD, but it is not a rectangle.
Solution To show ABCD is a parallelogram we need to show opposite side are equal
Note that.

AB = (−1 − 1) 2 +(−2 − 2) 2 +(−1 − 3) 2 = 4 + 16 + 16 = 6

BC = (2 + 1) 2 +(3 + 2) 2 +( 2 + 1) 2 = 9 + 25 + 9 = 43

CD = ( 4 − 2) 2 +(7 − 3) 2 +(6 − 2) 2 = 4 + 16 + 16 = 6

DA = (1 − 4) 2 +(2 − 7) 2 +(3 − 6) 2 = 9 + 25 + 9 = 43

Since AB = CD and BC = AD, ABCD is a parallelogram.

Now, it is required to prove that ABCD is not a rectangle. For this, we show that
diagonals AC and BD are unequal. We have

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AC = ( 2 − 1) 2 +(3 − 2) 2 +(2 − 3) 2 = 1 + 1 + 1= 3

BD = ( 4 + 1) 2 +(7 + 2) 2 +(6 + 1) 2 = 25 + 81 + 49 = 155 .

Since AC ≠ BD, ABCD is not a rectangle.

ANote We can also show that ABCD is a parallelogram, using the property that
diagonals AC and BD bisect each other.
Example 12 Find the equation of the set of the points P such that its distances from
the points A (3, 4, –5) and B (– 2, 1, 4) are equal.
Solution If P (x, y, z) be any point such that PA = PB.

Now ( x − 3) 2 + ( y − 4) 2 + ( z + 5) 2 = ( x + 2) 2 + ( y − 1) 2 + ( z − 4) 2

or ( x − 3) 2 + ( y − 4) 2 + ( z + 5) 2 = ( x + 2) 2 + ( y − 1) 2 + ( z − 4) 2
or 10 x + 6y – 18z – 29 = 0.
Example 13 The centroid of a triangle ABC is at the point (1, 1, 1). If the coordinates
of A and B are (3, –5, 7) and (–1, 7, – 6), respectively, find the coordinates of the
point C.
Solution Let the coordinates of C be (x, y, z) and the coordinates of the centroid G be
(1, 1, 1). Then
x + 3−1 y −5+ 7 z+7−6
= 1, i.e., x = 1; = 1, i.e., y = 1; = 1, i.e., z = 2.
3 3 3
Hence, coordinates of C are (1, 1, 2).

Miscellaneous Exercise on Chapter 12

1. Three vertices of a parallelogram ABCD are A(3, – 1, 2), B (1, 2, – 4) and
C (– 1, 1, 2). Find the coordinates of the fourth vertex.
2. Find the lengths of the medians of the triangle with vertices A (0, 0, 6), B (0,4, 0)
and (6, 0, 0).
3. If the origin is the centroid of the triangle PQR with vertices P (2a, 2, 6),
Q (– 4, 3b, –10) and R(8, 14, 2c), then find the values of a, b and c.
4. Find the coordinates of a point on y-axis which are at a distance of 5 2 from
the point P (3, –2, 5).

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5. A point R with x-coordinate 4 lies on the line segment joining the points
P(2, –3, 4) and Q (8, 0, 10). Find the coordinates of the point R.
[Hint Suppose R divides PQ in the ratio k : 1. The coordinates of the point R are given
 8k + 2 − 3 10k + 4 
by  , ,  ].
 k +1 k +1 k +1 
6.If A and B be the points (3, 4, 5) and (–1, 3, –7), respectively, find the equation of the
set of points P such that PA2 + PB2 = k2, where k is a constant.

Summary
® In three dimensions, the coordinate axes of a rectangular Cartesian coordinate
system are three mutually perpendicular lines. The axes are called the x, y
and z-axes.
® The three planes determined by the pair of axes are the coordinate planes,
called XY, YZ and ZX-planes.
® The three coordinate planes divide the space into eight parts known as octants.
® The coordinates of a point P in three dimensional geometry is always written
in the form of triplet like (x, y, z). Here x, y and z are the distances from the
YZ, ZX and XY-planes.
® (i) Any point on x-axis is of the form (x, 0, 0)
(ii) Any point on y-axis is of the form (0, y, 0)
(iii) Any point on z-axis is of the form (0, 0, z).
® Distance between two points P(x1, y1, z1) and Q (x2, y2, z2) is given by

PQ = ( x2 − x1 )2 + ( y2 − y1 )2 + ( z2 − z1 )2
® The coordinates of the point R which divides the line segment joining two
points P (x1 y1 z1) and Q (x2, y2, z2) internally and externally in the ratio m : n
are given by
 mx2 + nx1 my2 + ny1 mz2 + nz1   mx2 – nx1 my2 – ny1 mz2 – nz1 
 , ,  and  , , 
 m+n m+ n m+n   m–n m–n m–n  ,
respectively.
® The coordinates of the mid-point of the line segment joining two points
 x1 + x2 y1 + y2 z1 + z2 
P(x1, y1, z1) and Q(x2, y2, z2) are  , , .
 2 2 2 

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® The coordinates of the centroid of the triangle, whose vertices are (x1, y1, z1)
 x1 + x2 + x3 y1 + y2 + y3 z1 + z2 + x3 
(x2, y2, z2) and (x3, y3, z3), are  , , .
 3 3 3 

Historical Note
Rene’ Descartes (1596–1650), the father of analytical geometry, essentially dealt
with plane geometry only in 1637. The same is true of his co-inventor Pierre
Fermat (1601-1665) and La Hire (1640-1718). Although suggestions for the three
dimensional coordinate geometry can be found in their works but no details.
Descartes had the idea of coordinates in three dimensions but did not develop it.
J.Bernoulli (1667-1748) in a letter of 1715 to Leibnitz introduced the three coor-
dinate planes which we use today. It was Antoinne Parent
(1666-1716), who gave a systematic development of analytical solid geometry
for the first time in a paper presented to the French Academy in 1700.
L.Euler (1707-1783) took up systematically the three dimensional coordinate ge-
ometry, in Chapter 5 of the appendix to the second volume of his “Introduction
to Geometry” in 1748.
It was not until the middle of the nineteenth century that geometry was extended
to more than three dimensions, the well-known application of which is in the
Space-Time Continuum of Einstein’s Theory of Relativity.

—v—

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 Chapter 13

LIMITS AND DERIVATIVES

vWith the Calculus as a key, Mathematics can be successfully applied to the

explanation of the course of Nature – WHITEHEAD v

13.1 Introduction
This chapter is an introduction to Calculus. Calculus is that
branch of mathematics which mainly deals with the study
of change in the value of a function as the points in the
domain change. First, we give an intuitive idea of derivative
(without actually defining it). Then we give a naive definition
of limit and study some algebra of limits. Then we come
back to a definition of derivative and study some algebra
of derivatives. We also obtain derivatives of certain
standard functions.
13.2 Intuitive Idea of Derivatives Sir Issac Newton
Physical experiments have confirmed that the body dropped (1642-1727)
from a tall cliff covers a distance of 4.9t2 metres in t seconds,
i.e., distance s in metres covered by the body as a function of time t in seconds is given
by s = 4.9t2.
The adjoining Table 13.1 gives the distance travelled in metres at various intervals
of time in seconds of a body dropped from a tall cliff.
The objective is to find the veloctiy of the body at time t = 2 seconds from this
data. One way to approach this problem is to find the average velocity for various
intervals of time ending at t = 2 seconds and hope that these throw some light on the
velocity at t = 2 seconds.
Average velocity between t = t1 and t = t2 equals distance travelled between
t = t1 and t = t2 seconds divided by (t2 – t1). Hence the average velocity in the first
two seconds

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Table 13.1
Distance travelled between t2 = 2 and t1 = 0
= t s
Time interval (t2 − t1 )
0 0
(19.6 − 0 ) m 1 4.9
= = 9.8 m / s .
(2 − 0 ) s 1.5 11.025
1.8 15.876
Similarly, the average velocity between t = 1
and t = 2 is 1.9 17.689
1.95 18.63225
(19.6 – 4.9) m 2 19.6
= 14.7 m/s
( 2 − 1) s 2.05 20.59225
Likewise we compute the average velocitiy 2.1 21.609
between t = t1 and t = 2 for various t1. The following 2.2 23.716
Table 13.2 gives the average velocity (v), t = t1 2.5 30.625
seconds and t = 2 seconds. 3 44.1
4 78.4

Table 13.2
t1 0 1 1.5 1.8 1.9 1.95 1.99
v 9.8 14.7 17.15 18.62 19.11 19.355 19.551

From Table 13.2, we observe that the average velocity is gradually increasing.
As we make the time intervals ending at t = 2 smaller, we see that we get a better idea
of the velocity at t = 2. Hoping that nothing really dramatic happens between 1.99
seconds and 2 seconds, we conclude that the average velocity at t = 2 seconds is just
above 19.551m/s.
This conclusion is somewhat strengthened by the following set of computation.
Compute the average velocities for various time intervals starting at t = 2 seconds. As
before the average velocity v between t = 2 seconds and t = t2 seconds is

Distance travelled between 2 seconds and t2 seconds

=
t2 − 2

Distance travelled in t2 seconds − Distance travelled in 2 seconds

=
t2 − 2

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 LIMITS AND DERIVATIVES 283

Distance travelled in t2 seconds − 19.6

=
t2 − 2
The following Table 13.3 gives the average velocity v in metres per second
between t = 2 seconds and t2 seconds.
Table 13.3

t2 4 3 2.5 2.2 2.1 2.05 2.01

v 29.4 24.5 22.05 20.58 20.09 19.845 19.649

Here again we note that if we take smaller time intervals starting at t = 2, we get
better idea of the velocity at t = 2.
In the first set of computations, what we have done is to find average velocities
in increasing time intervals ending at t = 2 and then hope that nothing dramatic happens
just before t = 2. In the second set of computations, we have found the average velocities
decreasing in time intervals ending at t = 2 and then hope that nothing dramatic happens
just after t = 2. Purely on the physical grounds, both these sequences of average
velocities must approach a common limit. We can safely conclude that the velocity of
the body at t = 2 is between 19.551m/s and 19.649 m/s. Technically, we say that the
instantaneous velocity at t = 2 is between 19.551 m/s and 19.649 m/s. As is
well-known, velocity is the rate of change of displacement. Hence what we have
accomplished is the following. From the given data of distance covered at various time
instants we have estimated the rate of
change of the distance at a given instant
of time. We say that the derivative of
the distance function s = 4.9t2 at t = 2
is between 19.551 and 19.649.
An alternate way of viewing this
limiting process is shown in Fig 13.1.
This is a plot of distance s of the body
from the top of the cliff versus the time
t elapsed. In the limit as the sequence
of time intervals h1, h2, ..., approaches
zero, the sequence of average velocities
approaches the same limit as does the
sequence of ratios Fig 13.1

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284 MATHEMATICS

C1B1 C2 B2 C3 B3
, , , ...
AC1 AC2 AC3
where C1B1 = s1 – s0 is the distance travelled by the body in the time interval h1 = AC1,
etc. From the Fig 13.1 it is safe to conclude that this latter sequence approaches the
slope of the tangent to the curve at point A. In other words, the instantaneous velocity
v(t) of a body at time t = 2 is equal to the slope of the tangent of the curve s = 4.9t2 at
t = 2.
13.3 Limits
The above discussion clearly points towards the fact that we need to understand limiting
process in greater clarity. We study a few illustrative examples to gain some familiarity
with the concept of limits.
Consider the function f(x) = x2. Observe that as x takes values very close to 0,
the value of f(x) also moves towards 0 (See Fig 2.10 Chapter 2). We say
lim f ( x ) = 0
x →0

(to be read as limit of f (x) as x tends to zero equals zero). The limit of f (x) as x tends
to zero is to be thought of as the value f (x) should assume at x = 0.
In general as x → a, f (x) → l, then l is called limit of the function f (x) which is

symbolically written as lim f (x) = l .

x →a

Consider the following function g(x) = |x|, x ≠ 0. Observe that g(0) is not defined.
Computing the value of g(x) for values of x very
near to 0, we see that the value of g(x) moves
towards 0. So, lim
x→0
g(x) = 0. This is intuitively
clear from the graph of y = |x| for x ≠ 0.
(See Fig 2.13, Chapter 2).
Consider the following function.
x2 − 4
h(x) = , x≠2.
x−2
Compute the value of h(x) for values of
x very near to 2 (but not at 2). Convince yourself
that all these values are near to 4. This is
somewhat strengthened by considering the graph
of the function y = h(x) given here (Fig 13.2). Fig 13.2

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 LIMITS AND DERIVATIVES 285

In all these illustrations the value which the function should assume at a given
point x = a did not really depend on how is x tending to a. Note that there are essentially
two ways x could approach a number a either from left or from right, i.e., all the
values of x near a could be less than a or could be greater than a. This naturally leads
to two limits – the right hand limit and the left hand limit. Right hand limit of a
function f(x) is that value of f(x) which is dictated by the values of f(x) when x tends
to a from the right. Similarly, the left hand limit. To illustrate this, consider the function
 1, x ≤ 0
f (x) = 
 2, x > 0
Graph of this function is shown in the Fig 13.3. It is
clear that the value of f at 0 dictated by values of f(x) with
x ≤ 0 equals 1, i.e., the left hand limit of f (x) at 0 is
lim f ( x) =1 .
x→0

Similarly, the value of f at 0 dictated by values of

f (x) with x > 0 equals 2, i.e., the right hand limit of f (x)
at 0 is
lim f ( x ) = 2 .
x →0 + Fig 13.3
In this case the right and left hand limits are different, and hence we say that the
limit of f (x) as x tends to zero does not exist (even though the function is defined at 0).

Summary
We say xlim
→a –
f(x) is the expected value of f at x = a given the values of f near
x to the left of a. This value is called the left hand limit of f at a.

We say lim+ f ( x ) is the expected value of f at x = a given the values of

x→a

f near x to the right of a. This value is called the right hand limit of f(x) at a.
If the right and left hand limits coincide, we call that common value as the limit
of f(x) at x = a and denote it by lim
x →a
f(x).

Illustration 1 Consider the function f(x) = x + 10. We want to find the limit of this
function at x = 5. Let us compute the value of the function f(x) for x very near to 5.
Some of the points near and to the left of 5 are 4.9, 4.95, 4.99, 4.995. . ., etc. Values
of the function at these points are tabulated below. Similarly, the real number 5.001,

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5.01, 5.1 are also points near and to the right of 5. Values of the function at these points
are also given in the Table 13.4.
Table 13.4

x 4.9 4.95 4.99 4.995 5.001 5.01 5.1

f(x) 14.9 14.95 14.99 14.995 15.001 15.01 15.1

From the Table 13.4, we deduce that value of f(x) at x = 5 should be greater than
14.995 and less than 15.001 assuming nothing dramatic happens between x = 4.995
and 5.001. It is reasonable to assume that the value of the f(x) at x = 5 as dictated by
the numbers to the left of 5 is 15, i.e.,

lim f ( x ) = 15 .
x →5 –

Similarly, when x approaches 5 from the right, f(x) should be taking value 15, i.e.,

lim f ( x ) = 15 .
x →5+

Hence, it is likely that the left hand limit of f(x) and the right hand limit of f(x) are
both equal to 15. Thus,
lim f ( x ) = lim+ f ( x ) = lim f ( x ) = 15 .
x →5 − x →5 x →5

This conclusion about the limit being equal to 15 is somewhat strengthened by

seeing the graph of this function which is given in Fig 2.16, Chapter 2. In this figure, we
note that as x approaches 5 from either right or left, the graph of the function
f(x) = x +10 approaches the point (5, 15).
We observe that the value of the function at x = 5 also happens to be equal to 15.
Illustration 2 Consider the function f(x) = x3. Let us try to find the limit of this
function at x = 1. Proceeding as in the previous case, we tabulate the value of f(x) at
x near 1. This is given in the Table 13.5.
Table 13.5

x 0.9 0.99 0.999 1.001 1.01 1.1

f(x) 0.729 0.970299 0.997002999 1.003003001 1.030301 1.331

From this table, we deduce that value of f(x) at x = 1 should be greater than
0.997002999 and less than 1.003003001 assuming nothing dramatic happens between

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x = 0.999 and 1.001. It is reasonable to assume that the value of the f(x) at x = 1 as
dictated by the numbers to the left of 1 is 1, i.e.,
lim f ( x ) = 1 .
x →1−

Similarly, when x approaches 1 from the right, f(x) should be taking value 1, i.e.,
lim f ( x ) = 1 .
x →1+

Hence, it is likely that the left hand limit of f(x) and the right hand limit of f(x) are
both equal to 1. Thus,
lim f ( x ) = lim+ f ( x ) = lim f ( x ) = 1 .
x →1− x →1 x →1

This conclusion about the limit being equal to 1 is somewhat strengthened by

seeing the graph of this function which is given in Fig 2.11, Chapter 2. In this figure, we
note that as x approaches 1 from either right or left, the graph of the function
f(x) = x3 approaches the point (1, 1).
We observe, again, that the value of the function at x = 1 also happens to be
equal to 1.
Illustration 3 Consider the function f(x) = 3x. Let us try to find the limit of this
function at x = 2. The following Table 13.6 is now self-explanatory.
Table 13.6

x 1.9 1.95 1.99 1.999 2.001 2.01 2.1

f(x) 5.7 5.85 5.97 5.997 6.003 6.03 6.3

As before we observe that as x approaches 2

from either left or right, the value of f(x) seem to
approach 6. We record this as
lim f ( x ) = lim+ f ( x ) = lim f ( x ) = 6
x →2 − x →2 x →2

Its graph shown in Fig 13.4 strengthens this

fact.
Here again we note that the value of the function
at x = 2 coincides with the limit at x = 2.

Illustration 4 Consider the constant function

f(x) = 3. Let us try to find its limit at x = 2. This
function being the constant function takes the same Fig 13.4

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value (3, in this case) everywhere, i.e., its value at points close to 2 is 3. Hence
lim f ( x ) = lim+ f ( x ) = lim f ( x ) = 3
x→2 x →2 x→2

Graph of f(x) = 3 is anyway the line parallel to x-axis passing through (0, 3) and
is shown in Fig 2.9, Chapter 2. From this also it is clear that the required limit is 3. In

fact, it is easily observed that lim f ( x ) = 3 for any real number a.

x →a

Illustration 5 Consider the function f(x) = x2 + x. We want to find lim f ( x ) . We

x →1

tabulate the values of f(x) near x = 1 in Table 13.7.

Table 13.7
x 0.9 0.99 0.999 1.01 1.1 1.2

f(x) 1.71 1.9701 1.997001 2.0301 2.31 2.64

From this it is reasonable to deduce that

lim f ( x ) = lim+ f ( x ) = lim f ( x ) = 2 .
x →1− x →1 x →1

From the graph of f(x) = x2 + x

shown in the Fig 13.5, it is clear that as x
approaches 1, the graph approaches (1, 2).
Here, again we observe that the
lim f (x) = f (1)
x→1

Now, convince yourself of the

Fig 13.5
following three facts:

lim x 2 = 1, lim x = 1 and lim x + 1 = 2

x →1 x →1 x →1

Then lim x 2 + lim x = 1 + 1 = 2 = lim  x 2 + x  .

x →1 x →1 x →1

Also lim x. lim ( x + 1) = 1.2 = 2 = lim  x ( x + 1) = lim  x 2 + x  .

x →1 x→1 x →1 x →1

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Illustration 6 Consider the function f(x) = sin x. We are interested in limπ sin x ,
x→
2

where the angle is measured in radians.

π
Here, we tabulate the (approximate) value of f(x) near (Table 13.8). From
2
this, we may deduce that
lim− f ( x ) = lim+ f ( x ) = lim f ( x ) = 1
π π π .
x→ x→ x→
2 2 2

Further, this is supported by the graph of f(x) = sin x which is given in the Fig 3.8
(Chapter 3). In this case too, we observe that lim sin x = 1.
π
x→
2

Table 13.8
π π π π
x − 0.1 − 0.01 + 0.01 + 0.1
2 2 2 2
f(x) 0.9950 0.9999 0.9999 0.9950

Illustration 7 Consider the function f(x) = x + cos x. We want to find the lim f (x).
x→0

Here we tabulate the (approximate) value of f(x) near 0 (Table 13.9).

Table 13.9
x – 0.1 – 0.01 – 0.001 0.001 0.01 0.1

f(x) 0.9850 0.98995 0.9989995 1.0009995 1.00995 1.0950

From the Table 13.9, we may deduce that

lim f ( x ) = lim+ f ( x ) = lim f ( x ) = 1
x → 0− x→0 x →0

In this case too, we observe that lim f (x) = f (0) = 1.

x→0

Now, can you convince yourself that

lim [ x + cos x ] = lim x + lim cos x is indeed true?
x →0 x →0 x→0

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1
Illustration 8 Consider the function f ( x ) = for x > 0 . We want to know lim f (x).
x2 x→0

Here, observe that the domain of the function is given to be all positive real
numbers. Hence, when we tabulate the values of f(x), it does not make sense to talk of
x approaching 0 from the left. Below we tabulate the values of the function for positive
x close to 0 (in this table n denotes any positive integer).
From the Table 13.10 given below, we see that as x tends to 0, f(x) becomes
larger and larger. What we mean here is that the value of f(x) may be made larger than
any given number.
Table 13.10

x 1 0.1 0.01 10–n

f(x) 1 100 10000 102n

Mathematically, we say
lim f ( x ) = + ∞
x →0

We also remark that we will not come across such limits in this course.

Illustration 9 We want to find lim f ( x ) , where

x →0

 x − 2, x < 0

f (x) =  0 , x = 0
 x + 2, x > 0

As usual we make a table of x near 0 with f(x). Observe that for negative values of x
we need to evaluate x – 2 and for positive values, we need to evaluate x + 2.
Table 13.11

x – 0.1 – 0.01 – 0.001 0.001 0.01 0.1

f(x) – 2.1 – 2.01 – 2.001 2.001 2.01 2.1

From the first three entries of the Table 13.11, we deduce that the value of the
function is decreasing to –2 and hence.
lim f ( x ) = −2
x →0 −

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From the last three entires of the table we deduce that the value of the function
is increasing from 2 and hence
lim f ( x ) = 2
x → 0+

Since the left and right hand limits at 0 do not coincide,

we say that the limit of the function at 0 does not exist.
Graph of this function is given in the Fig13.6. Here,
we remark that the value of the function at x = 0 is well
defined and is, indeed, equal to 0, but the limit of the function
at x = 0 is not even defined.
Fig 13.6
Illustration 10 As a final illustration, we find lim f (x) ,
x →1

where
x + 2 x ≠ 1
f ( x) = 
 0 x =1

Table 13.12

x 0.9 0.99 0.999 1.001 1.01 1.1

f(x) 2.9 2.99 2.999 3.001 3.01 3.1

As usual we tabulate the values of f(x) for x near 1. From the values of f(x) for
x less than 1, it seems that the function should take value 3 at x = 1., i.e.,
lim f ( x ) = 3 .
x →1−

Similarly, the value of f(x) should be 3 as dic-

tated by values of f(x) at x greater than 1. i.e.
lim f ( x ) = 3 .
x →1+

But then the left and right hand limits coincide

and hence

lim f ( x ) = lim+ f ( x ) = lim f ( x ) = 3 .

x →1− x →1 x →1

Graph of function given in Fig 13.7 strengthens

our deduction about the limit. Here, we Fig 13.7

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note that in general, at a given point the value of the function and its limit may be
different (even when both are defined).
13.3.1 Algebra of limits In the above illustrations, we have observed that the limiting
process respects addition, subtraction, multiplication and division as long as the limits
and functions under consideration are well defined. This is not a coincidence. In fact,
below we formalise these as a theorem without proof.

Theorem 1 Let f and g be two functions such that both lim f (x) and lim g(x) exist.
x →a x →a

Then
(i) Limit of sum of two functions is sum of the limits of the functions, i.e.,
lim [f(x) + g (x)] = lim f(x) + lim g(x).
x →a x →a x →a

(ii) Limit of difference of two functions is difference of the limits of the functions, i.e.,
lim [f(x) – g(x)] = lim f(x) – lim g(x).
x →a x →a x →a

(iii) Limit of product of two functions is product of the limits of the functions, i.e.,
lim [f(x) . g(x)] = lim f(x). lim g(x).
x →a x →a x →a

(iv) Limit of quotient of two functions is quotient of the limits of the functions (whenever
the denominator is non zero), i.e.,

f (x) lim f ( x )
x →a
lim =
x →a g ( x) lim g ( x )
x→ a

A Note In particular as a special case of (iii), when g is the constant function

such that g(x) = λ , for some real number λ , we have

lim (λ. f ) ( x ) = λ.lim f ( x ) .

x→a x →a

In the next two subsections, we illustrate how to exploit this theorem to evaluate
limits of special types of functions.
13.3.2 Limits of polynomials and rational functions A function f is said to be a
polynomial function of degree n f(x) = a0 + a1x + a2x2 +. . . + anxn, where ais are real
numbers such that an ≠ 0 for some natural number n.
We know that lim x = a. Hence
x →a

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lim x 2 = lim ( x. x ) = lim x.lim x = a. a = a 2

x→a x→ a x→a x→ a

An easy exercise in induction on n tells us that

lim x n = a n
x →a

Now, let f ( x ) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + ... + an x n be a polynomial function. Thinking

of each of a0 , a1 x, a2 x 2 ,..., an x n as a function, we have

lim f
x→a
( x ) = lim a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + ... + an x n 
x →a

= lim a0 + lim a1 x + lim a2 x 2 + ... + lim an x n

x →a x→ a x→a x →a

= a0 + a1 lim
x →a
x + a2 lim x 2 + ... + an lim x n
x →a x→ a

= a0 + a1a + a2 a 2 + ... + an a n

= f (a )
(Make sure that you understand the justification for each step in the above!)
g ( x)
( )
A function f is said to be a rational function, if f(x) = h x , where g(x) and h(x)

are polynomials such that h(x) ≠ 0. Then

g ( x) lim g ( x ) g (a )
lim f ( x ) = lim = x →a
=
x →a x→ a h(x) lim h ( x ) h (a)
x→ a

However, if h(a) = 0, there are two scenarios – (i) when g(a) ≠ 0 and (ii) when
g(a) = 0. In the former case we say that the limit does not exist. In the latter case we
can write g(x) = (x – a)k g1 (x), where k is the maximum of powers of (x – a) in g(x)
Similarly, h(x) = (x – a)l h1 (x) as h (a) = 0. Now, if k > l, we have

lim g ( x ) lim ( x − a ) g1 ( x )
k

lim f ( x ) = x→ a
= x→ a
x→a lim h ( x ) lim ( x − a ) h1 ( x )
l
x →a x →a

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( k −l )
lim ( x − a ) g1 ( x ) 0. g1 ( a )
x→a
= = =0
lim h1 ( x ) h1 ( a )
x →a

If k < l, the limit is not defined.

Example 1 Find the limits: (i) lim  x 3 − x 2 + 1 (ii) lim  x ( x + 1)

x →1   x →3 

(iii) lim 1 + x + x 2 + ... + x10  .

x →−1 

Solution The required limits are all limits of some polynomial functions. Hence the
limits are the values of the function at the prescribed points. We have
(i) lim
x→1
[x3 – x2 + 1] = 13 – 12 + 1 = 1

(ii) lim  x ( x + 1) = 3 (3 + 1) = 3 ( 4 ) = 12

x →3 

(iii) lim 1 + x + x 2 + ... + x10  = 1 + ( −1) + ( −1)2 + ... + ( −1)10

x →−1 

= 1 − 1 + 1... + 1 = 1 .
Example 2 Find the limits:

 x2 + 1   x3 − 4 x 2 + 4 x 
(i) lim 
x →1 x + 100
 (ii) lim  
  x →2
 x2 − 4 

 x2 − 4   x3 − 2 x2 
(iii) lim  3  (iv) lim  2 
x →2 x − 4 x + 4 x
2 x →2 x − 5 x + 6
   

 x−2 1 
(v) lim  − 3
x − 3 x + 2 x 
x →1  x − x
2 2 .

Solution All the functions under consideration are rational functions. Hence, we first
0
evaluate these functions at the prescribed points. If this is of the form , we try to
0
rewrite the function cancelling the factors which are causing the limit to be of
0
the form .
0

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x2 + 1 12 + 1 2
(i) We have lim = =
x →1 x + 100 1 + 100 101
0
(ii) Evaluating the function at 2, it is of the form .
0

x ( x − 2)
2
x3 − 4 x 2 + 4 x
Hence lim = lim
x → 2 ( x + 2 )( x − 2 )
x→2 x −4
2

x ( x − 2)
= lim as x ≠ 2
x →2 ( x + 2)
2 (2 − 2) 0
= = = 0.
2+2 4

0
(iii) Evaluating the function at 2, we get it of the form .
0

x2 − 4 ( x + 2 )( x − 2 )
Hence lim = lim
x ( x − 2)
x→2 2
x →2 x3 − 4 x 2 + 4 x

( x + 2) 2+2 4
= lim = =
x →2 x ( x − 2 ) 2 (2 − 2) 0

which is not defined.

0
(iv) Evaluating the function at 2, we get it of the form .
0

x3 − 2 x 2 x2 ( x − 2)
Hence lim 2 = lim
x →2 ( x − 2 )( x − 3 )
x→2 x − 5 x + 6

(2) 4
2
x2
= lim = = = −4.
x →2 ( x − 3) 2 − 3 −1

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(v) First, we rewrite the function as a rational function.

 
 x−2 1   x−2 − 1 
−
   (
 x 2 − x x3 − 3x 2 + 2 x   x ( x − 1) x x − 3 x + 2
= 2
) 


 x−2 1 
=  x x −1 − x x −1 x − 2 
 ( ) ( )( ) 
 x2 − 4x + 4 − 1 
=  x x −1 x − 2 
 ( )( ) 
x2 − 4x + 3
( )( )
= x x −1 x − 2

0
Evaluating the function at 1, we get it of the form .
0

 x2 − 2 1  x2 − 4x + 3
lim  2 − 3 = lim
x − 3x 2 + 2 x  x →1 x ( x − 1)( x − 2 )
Hence x →1 x − x


( x − 3)( x − 1)
= lim
x →1 x ( x − 1)( x − 2 )

x−3 1− 3
= lim
x →1 x ( x − 2 ) = 1(1 − 2 ) = 2.
We remark that we could cancel the term (x – 1) in the above evaluation because
x ≠ 1.
Evaluation of an important limit which will be used in the sequel is given as a
theorem below.
Theorem 2 For any positive integer n,
xn − an
lim = na n−1 .
x →a x − a

Remark The expression in the above theorem for the limit is true even if n is any
rational number and a is positive.

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Proof Dividing (xn – an) by (x – a), we see that

xn – an = (x–a) (xn–1 + xn–2 a + xn–3 a2 + ... + x an–2 + an–1)
xn − an
Thus, lim = lim (xn–1 + xn–2 a + xn–3 a2 + ... + x an–2 + an–1)
x →a x − a x →a

= an – l + a an–2 +. . . + an–2 (a) +an–l

= an–1 + an – 1 +...+an–1 + an–1 (n terms)
n −1
= na
Example 3 Evaluate:

x15 − 1 1+ x −1
(i) lim (ii) lim
x →1 x10 − 1 x →0 x
Solution (i) We have

x15 − 1 lim  x − 1 ÷ x − 1 
15 10
lim =  
x →1 x10 − 1 x →1
 x −1 x −1 

 x15 − 1   x10 − 1 
= x →1 
lim  ÷ lim  
 x − 1  x →1  x − 1 
= 15 (1)14 ÷ 10(1)9 (by the theorem above)

3
= 15 ÷ 10 =
2
(ii) Put y = 1 + x, so that y → 1 as x → 0.

1 + x −1 y −1
Then lim = lim
→
x →0 x y 1 y –1

1 1
y 2 − 12
= lim
y →1 y −1

1
1 2 −1 1
= (1) (by the remark above) =
2 2

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13.4 Limits of Trigonometric Functions

The following facts (stated as theorems) about functions in general come in handy in
calculating limits of some trigonometric functions.
Theorem 3 Let f and g be two real valued functions with the same domain such that

f (x) ≤ g( x) for all x in the domain of definition, For some a, if both lim
x →a
f(x) and

lim g(x) exist, then lim f(x) ≤ lim g(x). This is illustrated in Fig 13.8.
x →a x →a x →a

Fig 13.8

Theorem 4 (Sandwich Theorem) Let f, g and h be real functions such that

f (x) ≤ g( x) ≤ h(x) for all x in the common domain of definition. For some real number

a, if lim
x →a
f(x) = l = lim
x →a
h(x), then lim g(x) = l. This is illustrated in Fig 13.9.
x→ a

Fig 13.9
Given below is a beautiful geometric proof of the following important
inequality relating trigonometric functions.
sin x π
cos x < <1 for 0 < x < (*)
x 2

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Proof We know that sin (– x) = – sin x and cos( – x) = cos x. Hence, it is sufficient
π
to prove the inequality for 0 < x < .
2
In the Fig 13.10, O is the centre of the unit circle such that
π
the angle AOC is x radians and 0 < x < . Line segments B A and
2
CD are perpendiculars to OA. Further, join AC. Then
Area of ∆OAC < Area of sector OAC < Area of ∆ OAB. Fig 13.10
1 x 1
i.e., OA.CD < .π.(OA) 2 < OA.AB .
2 2π 2
i.e., CD < x . OA < AB.
From ∆ OCD,
CD AB
sin x = (since OC = OA) and hence CD = OA sin x. Also tan x = and
OA OA
hence AB = OA. tan x. Thus
OA sin x < OA. x < OA. tan x.
Since length OA is positive, we have
sin x < x < tan x.
π
Since 0 < x < , sinx is positive and thus by dividing throughout by sin x, we have
2
x 1
1< < . Taking reciprocals throughout, we have
sin x cos x
sin x
cos x < <1
x
which complete the proof.
Theorem 5 The following are two important limits.
sin x 1 − cos x
(i) lim =1. (ii) lim =0.
x →0 x x →0 x
sin x
Proof (i) The inequality in (*) says that the function is sandwiched between the
x
function cos x and the constant function which takes value 1.

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Further, since lim

x→0
cos x = 1, we see that the proof of (i) of the theorem is
complete by sandwich theorem.
x
To prove (ii), we recall the trigonometric identity 1 – cos x = 2 sin2   .
2
Then

x x
2sin 2   sin  
1 − cos x  2  = lim  2  .sin  x 
lim = lim 2
x →0 x x →0 x x →0 x  
2

x
sin  
= lim
 2  .lim sin  x  = 1.0 = 0
x 2
x →0 x →0  
2

x
Observe that we have implicitly used the fact that x → 0 is equivalent to → 0 . This
2
x
may be justified by putting y = .
2

sin 4 x tan x
Example 4 Evaluate: (i) lim (ii) lim
x →0 sin 2 x x →0 x

sin 4 x  sin 4 x 2 x 
Solution (i) lim = lim  . .2
x →0 sin 2 x x → 0  4 x sin 2 x 

 sin 4 x   sin 2 x 
= 2.lim
x →0  ÷ 
 4 x   2x 

 sin 4 x   sin 2 x 
= 2. 4lim ÷ lim 
x →0 
 4x 
 2 x → 0  2x 


= 2.1.1 = 2 (as x → 0, 4x → 0 and 2x → 0)

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tan x sin x sin x 1

(ii) We have lim = lim
→
= lim
→
. lim
→
= 1.1 = 1
x →0 x x 0 x cos x x 0 x x 0 cos x
A general rule that needs to be kept in mind while evaluating limits is the following.
f (x)
Say, given that the limit lim
x→a g ( x )
exists and we want to evaluate this. First we check

the value of f (a) and g(a). If both are 0, then we see if we can get the factor which
is causing the terms to vanish, i.e., see if we can write f(x) = f1 (x) f2(x) so that
f1 (a) = 0 and f2 (a) ≠ 0. Similarly, we write g(x) = g1 (x) g2(x), where g1(a) = 0 and
g2(a) ≠ 0. Cancel out the common factors from f(x) and g(x) (if possible) and write
f (x) p (x)
=
g (x) q ( x ) , where q(x) ≠ 0.

f (x) p (a )
lim =
Then x →a g (x) q (a ) .

EXERCISE 13.1
Evaluate the following limits in Exercises 1 to 22.
 22 
1. lim x+3 2. lim  x−  3. lim πr 2
x →3 x→π  7  r →1

4. lim
4x + 3
5. lim
x10 + x 5 + 1
6. lim
( x + 1)5 − 1
x →4 x − 2 x → −1 x −1 x→0 x

3 x 2 − x − 10 x 4 − 81 ax + b
7. lim 8. lim 9. lim
x →2 x2 − 4 x →3 2 x2 − 5x − 3 x →0 cx + 1
1
z3 −1 ax 2 + bx + c
10. lim
z →1 1 11. lim ,a+b+c ≠ 0
x →1 cx 2 + bx + a
z 6 −1

1 1
+ sin ax sin ax
12. lim x 2 13. lim 14. lim , a, b ≠ 0
x →0 bx x →0 sin bx
x →−2 x + 2

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sin ( π − x ) cos x cos 2 x − 1

15. lim
x→π π ( π − x )
16. lim 17. lim
x →0 π−x x →0 cos x − 1

ax + x cos x
18. lim 19. lim
x →0
x sec x
x →0 b sin x
sin ax + bx (cosec x − cot x )
20. lim a, b, a + b ≠ 0 , 21. lim
x →0 ax + sin bx x →0

tan 2 x
lim
22. π π
x→
2 x−
2

 2 x + 3, x ≤ 0
23. Find lim f ( x ) and lim f ( x ) , where f ( x ) = 
x →0 x →1
3 ( x + 1) , x > 0

 x 2 − 1, x ≤1
24. Find x →1 ( ) , where
lim f x f ( x ) =  2
− x − 1, x >1

| x |
 , x≠0
25. Evaluate lim f ( x ) , where f ( x ) =  x
x →0
 0, x = 0

 x
 , x≠0
26. Find lim f ( x ) , where f ( x ) =  | x |
x →0
 0, x = 0


27. Find lim f ( x ) , where f ( x ) = | x | −5

x →5

 a + bx , x <1

28. Suppose f ( x ) =  4, x =1
 b − ax , x >1


and if lim f (x) = f (1) what are possible values of a and b?

x→1

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29. Let a1, a2, . . ., an be fixed real numbers and define a function
f ( x ) = ( x − a1 ) ( x − a2 )... ( x − an ) .

What is xlim
→a
f (x) ? For some a ≠ a1, a2, ..., an, compute lim
x→ a
f (x).
1

 x + 1, x < 0

30. If f ( x ) =  0, x=0 .
 x − 1, x > 0


For what value (s) of a does lim

x →a
f (x) exists?

f (x) − 2
31. If the function f(x) satisfies lim = π , evaluate lim f (x) .
x →1 x2 − 1 x →1

 mx 2 + n , x<0

32. If f ( x ) =  nx + m , 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 . For what integers m and n does both lim f (x)
x →0
 3
 nx + m , x >1

and lim f ( x ) exist?

x →1

13.5 Derivatives
We have seen in the Section 13.2, that by knowing the position of a body at various
time intervals it is possible to find the rate at which the position of the body is changing.
It is of very general interest to know a certain parameter at various instants of time and
try to finding the rate at which it is changing. There are several real life situations
where such a process needs to be carried out. For instance, people maintaining a
reservoir need to know when will a reservoir overflow knowing the depth of the water
at several instances of time, Rocket Scientists need to compute the precise velocity
with which the satellite needs to be shot out from the rocket knowing the height of the
rocket at various times. Financial institutions need to predict the changes in the value of
a particular stock knowing its present value. In these, and many such cases it is desirable
to know how a particular parameter is changing with respect to some other parameter.
The heart of the matter is derivative of a function at a given point in its domain
of definition.

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Definition 1 Suppose f is a real valued function and a is a point in its domain of

definition. The derivative of f at a is defined by
f ( a + h ) − f (a )
lim
h →0 h
provided this limit exists. Derivative of f (x) at a is denoted by f′(a).
Observe that f′ (a) quantifies the change in f(x) at a with respect to x.
Example 5 Find the derivative at x = 2 of the function f(x) = 3x.
Solution We have

f (2 + h ) − f (2) 3(2 + h ) − 3(2)

f′ (2) = lim = lim
h →0 h h →0 h

6 + 3h − 6 3h
= lim = lim = lim 3 = 3 .
h →0 h h → 0 h h →0
The derivative of the function 3x at x = 2 is 3.
Example 6 Find the derivative of the function f(x) = 2x2 + 3x – 5 at x = –1. Also prove
that f ′ (0) + 3f ′ ( –1) = 0.
Solution We first find the derivatives of f(x) at x = –1 and at x = 0. We have

f (−1 + h ) − f ( −1)
f ' ( −1) = lim
h →0 h

 2 ( −1 + h )2 + 3 ( −1 + h ) − 5 −  2 ( −1)2 + 3 ( −1) − 5
= lim    
h →0 h

2h 2 − h
= lim = lim ( 2h − 1) = 2 ( 0 ) − 1 = −1
h →0 h h →0

f (0 + h ) − f (0 )
and f ' ( 0 ) = lim
h →0 h

 2 (0 + h )2 + 3 (0 + h ) − 5 −  2 (0 )2 + 3 (0 ) − 5
= lim    
h →0 h

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2h 2 + 3h
= lim = lim ( 2 h + 3) = 2 (0 ) + 3 = 3
h →0 h h →0

Clearly f ' ( 0 ) + 3 f ' ( −1) = 0

Remark At this stage note that evaluating derivative at a point involves effective use
of various rules, limits are subjected to. The following illustrates this.
Example 7 Find the derivative of sin x at x = 0.
Solution Let f(x) = sin x. Then
f (0 + h ) − f (0 )
f ′(0) = lim
h →0 h

sin (0 + h ) − sin (0 ) sin h

= lim = lim =1
h →0 h h →0 h

Example 8 Find the derivative of f(x) = 3 at x = 0 and at x = 3.

Solution Since the derivative measures the change in function, intuitively it is clear
that the derivative of the constant function must be zero at every point. This is indeed,
supported by the following computation.
f ( 0 + h ) − f (0 ) 3−3 0
f ' ( 0 ) = lim = lim = lim = 0 .
h →0 h h →0 h h →0 h

f (3 + h ) − f (3 ) 3−3
Similarly f ' (3) = lim = lim =0.
h →0 h h →0 h
We now present a geomet-
ric interpretation of derivative of a
function at a point. Let y = f(x) be
a function and let P = (a, f(a)) and
Q = (a + h, f(a + h) be two points
close to each other on the graph
of this function. The Fig 13.11 is
now self explanatory.

Fig 13.11

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f (a + h ) − f (a )
We know that f ′ ( a ) = lim
h →0 h
From the triangle PQR, it is clear that the ratio whose limit we are taking is
precisely equal to tan(QPR) which is the slope of the chord PQ. In the limiting process,
as h tends to 0, the point Q tends to P and we have
f (a + h ) − f (a ) QR
lim = lim
h →0 h Q → P PR

This is equivalent to the fact that the chord PQ tends to the tangent at P of the
curve y = f(x). Thus the limit turns out to be equal to the slope of the tangent. Hence
f ′ ( a ) = tan ψ .
For a given function f we can find the derivative at every point. If the derivative
exists at every point, it defines a new function called the derivative of f . Formally, we
define derivative of a function as follows.
Definition 2 Suppose f is a real valued function, the function defined by
f ( x + h) − f ( x)
lim
h →0 h
wherever the limit exists is defined to be the derivative of f at x and is denoted by
f′(x). This definition of derivative is also called the first principle of derivative.
f ( x + h) − f ( x)
Thus f ' ( x ) = lim
h →0 h
Clearly the domain of definition of f′ (x) is wherever the above limit exists. There
are different notations for derivative of a function. Sometimes f′ (x) is denoted by
d dy
dx
( f ( x )) or if y = f(x), it is denoted by
dx
. This is referred to as derivative of f(x)

or y with respect to x. It is also denoted by D (f (x) ). Further, derivative of f at x = a

d df  df 
is also denoted by f ( x) or or even   .
dx a dx a  dx  x = a

Example 9 Find the derivative of f(x) = 10x.

f ( x + h) − f ( x)
Solution Since f′ ( x) = lim
h →0 h

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10 ( x + h ) − 10 ( x )
= lim
h →0 h
10h
= lim = lim (10 ) = 10 .
h →0 h h→ 0

Example 10 Find the derivative of f(x) = x2.

f ( x + h) − f ( x)
Solution We have, f ′(x) = lim
h →0 h

( x + h) − (x)
2 2

(h + 2 x) = 2 x
= lim
h→0
= lim
h →0
h

Example 11 Find the derivative of the constant function f (x) = a for a fixed real
number a.
f ( x + h) − f ( x)
Solution We have, f ′(x) = lim
h →0 h
a−a 0
= lim = lim = 0 as h ≠ 0
h →0 h h →0 h

1
Example 12 Find the derivative of f(x) =
x

f ( x + h) − f ( x)
Solution We have f ′(x) = lim
h →0 h

1 1
–
= lim ( x + h) x
h →0 h

1  x − ( x + h) 
= lim  
h →0 h
 x ( x + h ) 

1  −h  −1 1
= lim   = lim = −
h →0 h x ( x + h )
  h → 0 x ( x + h) x2

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13.5.1 Algebra of derivative of functions Since the very definition of derivatives

involve limits in a rather direct fashion, we expect the rules for derivatives to follow
closely that of limits. We collect these in the following theorem.
Theorem 5 Let f and g be two functions such that their derivatives are defined in a
common domain. Then
(i) Derivative of sum of two functions is sum of the derivatives of the
functions.
d d d
 f ( x ) + g ( x ) = f ( x) + g ( x) .
dx dx dx
(ii) Derivative of difference of two functions is difference of the derivatives of
the functions.
d d d
 f ( x ) − g ( x ) = f ( x) − g ( x ) .
dx dx dx
(iii) Derivative of product of two functions is given by the following product
rule.
d d d
 f ( x ) . g ( x ) = f ( x ) . g ( x ) + f ( x) . g ( x)
dx dx dx
(iv) Derivative of quotient of two functions is given by the following quotient
rule (whenever the denominator is non–zero).

d d
f ( x ) . g ( x) − f ( x) g ( x)
d  f ( x )  dx dx
 =
dx  g ( x )  ( g ( x) )2
The proofs of these follow essentially from the analogous theorem for limits. We
will not prove these here. As in the case of limits this theorem tells us how to compute
derivatives of special types of functions. The last two statements in the theorem may
be restated in the following fashion which aids in recalling them easily:
Let u = f ( x ) and v = g (x). Then

(uv )′ = u ′v + uv′

This is referred to a Leibnitz rule for differentiating product of functions or the

product rule. Similarly, the quotient rule is

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 u ′ u ′v − uv′
  = v2
v
Now, let us tackle derivatives of some standard functions.
It is easy to see that the derivative of the function f(x) = x is the constant
f ( x + h) − f ( x) x+h−x
function 1. This is because f ′ ( x ) = lim = lim
h →0 h h →0 h

= lim1 =1 .
h→0

We use this and the above theorem to compute the derivative of

f(x) = 10x = x + .... + x (ten terms). By (i) of the above theorem
df ( x ) d
dx
=
dx
( x + ... + x ) (ten terms)

d d
x +. . .+
= x (ten terms)
dx dx
= 1 + ... + 1 (ten terms) = 10.
We note that this limit may be evaluated using product rule too. Write
f(x) = 10x = uv, where u is the constant function taking value 10 everywhere and
v(x) = x. Here, f(x) = 10x = uv we know that the derivative of u equals 0. Also
derivative of v(x) = x equals 1. Thus by the product rule we have

f ′ ( x ) = (10 x )′ = (uv )′ = u ′v + uv′ = 0.x + 10.1 = 10

On similar lines the derivative of f(x) = x2 may be evaluated. We have
f(x) = x2 = x .x and hence
df d d d
= ( x.x ) = ( x ).x + x. ( x )
dx dx dx dx
= 1. x + x.1 = 2 x .
More generally, we have the following theorem.
Theorem 6 Derivative of f(x) = xn is nxn – 1 for any positive integer n.
Proof By definition of the derivative function, we have

f ( x + h) − f ( x) ( x + h )n − x n
f ' ( x ) = lim = lim .
h →0 h h →0 h

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Binomial theorem tells that (x + h)n = ( n

C0 x n +) ( C )x
n
1
n −1
h + ... + ( n
)
C n h n and
n n n–1 n–1
hence (x + h) – x = h(nx +... + h ). Thus

df ( x )
= lim
( x + h) − xn n

dx h →0 h

= lim
(
h nx n −1 + .... + h n−1 )
h →0 h

= lim
h →0
(
nx n−1 + ... + h n−1 = nx n −1 . )
Alternatively, we may also prove this by induction on n and the product rule as
follows. The result is true for n = 1, which has been proved earlier. We have
d n
dx
x =( )
d
dx
x.x n−1 ( )
=
d
dx
( ) d
( )
( x ). xn −1 + x. x n−1 (by product rule)
dx

= 1.x
n −1
( )
+ x. ( n − 1) x n − 2 (by induction hypothesis)

= x n −1 + ( n − 1) x n−1 = nx n−1 .
Remark The above theorem is true for all powers of x, i.e., n can be any real number
(but we will not prove it here).
13.5.2 Derivative of polynomials and trigonometric functions We start with the
following theorem which tells us the derivative of a polynomial function.
Theorem 7 Let f(x) = an x n + an−1 x n−1 + .... + a1 x + a0 be a polynomial function, where
ai s are all real numbers and an ≠ 0. Then, the derivative function is given by
df ( x )
= nan x n−1 + ( n − 1) an −1 x x − 2 + ... + 2a2 x + a1 .
dx
Proof of this theorem is just putting together part (i) of Theorem 5 and Theorem 6.
Example 13 Compute the derivative of 6x100 – x55 + x.
Solution A direct application of the above theorem tells that the derivative of the
above function is 600 x99 − 55 x54 + 1 .

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Example 14 Find the derivative of f(x) = 1 + x + x2 + x3 +... + x50 at x = 1.

Solution A direct application of the above Theorem 6 tells that the derivative of the
above function is 1 + 2x + 3x2 + . . . + 50x49. At x = 1 the value of this function equals
(50 )(51)
1 + 2(1) + 3(1)2 + .. . + 50(1)49 = 1 + 2 + 3 + . . . + 50 = = 1275.
2
x +1
Example 15 Find the derivative of f(x) =
x
Solution Clearly this function is defined everywhere except at x = 0. We use the
quotient rule with u = x + 1 and v = x. Hence u′ = 1 and v′ = 1. Therefore
df ( x) d  x + 1  d  u  u ′v − uv ′ 1( x ) − ( x + 1)1 1
=   =  = = =− 2
dx dx  x  dx  v  v 2
x 2
x

Example 16 Compute the derivative of sin x.

Solution Let f(x) = sin x. Then
df ( x ) f ( x + h) − f ( x) sin ( x + h ) − sin ( x )
= lim = lim
dx h →0 h h →0 h

 2x + h   h 
2cos   sin  
= lim  2   2  (using formula for sin A – sin B)
h →0 h

h
sin
 h 2 = cos x.1 = cos x
lim cos  x +  .lim
= h →0  2  h → 0 h .
2
Example 17 Compute the derivative of tan x.
Solution Let f(x) = tan x. Then
df ( x ) f ( x + h) − f ( x) tan ( x + h ) − tan ( x )
= lim = lim
dx h →0 h h →0 h

1  sin ( x + h ) sin x 
= h→0 h  cos x + h − cos x 
lim
 ( ) 

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 sin ( x + h ) cos x − cos ( x + h ) sin x 

= lim  
h →0
 h cos ( x + h ) cos x 

sin ( x + h − x )
= lim
h →0 h cos ( x + h ) cos x
(using formula for sin (A + B))

sin h 1
= lim
h →0
.lim
h h→0 cos ( x + h ) cos x

1
= 1. = sec2 x .
cos 2 x

Example 18 Compute the derivative of f(x) = sin2 x.

Solution We use the Leibnitz product rule to evaluate this.
df ( x ) d
= (sin x sin x )
dx dx

= (sin x )′ sin x + sin x ( sin x )′

= ( cos x ) sin x + sin x ( cos x )

= 2sin x cos x = sin 2 x .

EXERCISE 13.2
1. Find the derivative of x2 – 2 at x = 10.
2. Find the derivative of x at x = 1.
3. Find the derivative of 99x at x = l00.
4. Find the derivative of the following functions from first principle.
(i) x 3 − 27 (ii) ( x − 1)( x − 2 )
1 x +1
(iii) (iv)
x2 x −1
5. For the function
x100 x 99 x2
f (x) = + +. . .+ + x +1.
100 99 2

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Prove that f ′ (1) = 100 f ′ (0 ) .

6. Find the derivative of x n + ax n −1 + a 2 x n− 2 + . . . + a n −1 x + a n for some fixed real

number a.
7. For some constants a and b, find the derivative of
x−a
(ax )
2
(i) ( x − a) ( x − b) (ii) 2
+b (iii)
x −b

xn − an
8. Find the derivative of for some constant a.
x−a
9. Find the derivative of

(5 x ) ( x − 1)
3
(i) 2 x − + 3x − 1
3
(ii)
4

(iii) x −3 (5 + 3 x ) (
(iv) x 3 − 6 x
5 −9
)
x2
(v) (
x −4 3 − 4 x −5 ) (vi)
2
−
x + 1 3x − 1
10. Find the derivative of cos x from first principle.
11. Find the derivative of the following functions:
(i) sin x cos x (ii) sec x (iii) 5sec x + 4 cos x
(iv) cosec x (v) 3cot x + 5cosec x
(vi) 5sin x − 6 cos x + 7 (vii) 2 tan x − 7 sec x

Miscellaneous Examples
Example 19 Find the derivative of f from the first principle, where f is given by
2x + 3 1
(i) f (x) = (ii) f (x) = x +
x−2 x
Solution (i) Note that function is not defined at x = 2. But, we have

2 ( x + h ) + 3 2x + 3
f ( x + h) − f (x) −
f ′ ( x ) = lim = lim x + h − 2 x−2
h →0 h h →0 h

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( 2 x + 2h + 3)( x − 2 ) − ( 2x + 3)( x + h − 2 )
= lim
h →0 h ( x − 2 )( x + h − 2 )

( 2 x + 3)( x − 2 ) + 2h ( x − 2 ) − ( 2 x + 3)( x − 2 ) − h ( 2 x + 3)
= lim
h →0 h ( x − 2 )( x + h − 2 )

–7 7
= lim =−
h →0 ( x − 2 ) ( x + h − 2 )
( x − 2)
2

Again, note that the function f ′ is also not defined at x = 2.

(ii) The function is not defined at x = 0. But, we have

 1   1
 x+h+  −x+ 
f ( x + h) − f ( x) x+h 
= lim 
x
f ′( x ) = lim
h →0 h h →0 h

1 1 1
= lim  h+ − 
h →0 h x + h x

1 x − x−h 1  1 
lim  h +  = lim  h  1 − 
= h →0 h
 x ( x + h )  h→0 h   x ( x + h )  

 1  1
= lim 1 − =1− 2
 x ( x + h ) 
h →0 x

Again, note that the function f ′ is not defined at x = 0.

Example 20 Find the derivative of f(x) from the first principle, where f(x) is
(i) sin x + cos x (ii) x sin x
f ( x + h) − f ( x)
Solution (i) we have f ' ( x ) =
h

sin ( x + h ) + cos ( x + h ) − sin x − cos x

= lim
h →0 h
sin x cos h + cos x sin h + cos x cos h − sin x sin h − sin x − cos x
= lim
h →0 h

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sin h (cos x − sin x ) + sin x (cos h − 1) + cos x (cos h − 1)

= lim
h →0 h

sin h (cos h − 1) (cos h − 1)

= lim
h →0
(cos x − sin x ) + lim
→
sin x + lim cos x
h h 0 h h →0 h
= cos x − sin x
f ( x + h) − f (x) ( x + h )sin ( x + h ) − x sin x
(ii) f ' ( x ) = lim = lim
h →0 h h →0 h

( x + h )(sin x cos h + sin h cos x ) − x sin x

= lim
h →0 h

x sin x ( cos h − 1) + x cos x sin h + h (sin x cos h + sin h cos x )

= lim
h →0 h

x sin x (cos h − 1) sin h

= lim + lim h→0 x cos x + lim (sin x cos h + sin h cos x )
h →0 h h h→0

= x cos x + sin x
Example 21 Compute derivative of
(i) f(x) = sin 2x (ii) g(x) = cot x
Solution (i) Recall the trigonometric formula sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x. Thus
df ( x ) d d
= ( 2sin x cos x ) = 2 (sin x cos x )
dx dx dx

= 2 (sin x )′ cos x + sin x (cos x )′ 

 

= 2 ( cos x ) cos x + sin x ( − sin x )

(
= 2 cos 2 x − sin 2 x )
cos x
(ii) By definition, g(x) = cot x = . We use the quotient rule on this function
sin x

dg d d  cos x 
= (cot x) = 
dx  sin x 
wherever it is defined.
dx dx

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(cos x)′ (sin x) − (cos x) (sin x)′

=
(sin x )2

( − sin x )(sin x) − (cos x)(cos x)

=
(sin x ) 2

sin 2 x + cos2 x
= − 2
= − cosec 2 x
sin x
1
Alternatively, this may be computed by noting that cot x = . Here, we use the fact
tan x
that the derivative of tan x is sec2 x which we saw in Example 17 and also that the
derivative of the constant function is 0.
dg d d  1 
(cot x ) =
dx  tan x 
=
dx dx

(1)′ (tan x ) − (1) (tan x)′

=
(tan x) 2

(0) (tan x) − (sec x) 2

=
(tan x) 2

− sec 2 x
= = − cosec 2 x
tan 2 x

Example 22 Find the derivative of

x 5 − cos x x + cos x
(i) (ii)
sin x tan x

x 5 − cos x
Solution (i) Let h( x ) = . We use the quotient rule on this function wherever
sin x
it is defined.

( x 5 − cos x)′ sin x − ( x 5 − cos x) (sin x )′

h′( x) =
(sin x ) 2

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(5 x 4 + sin x) sin x − ( x5 − cos x) cos x

=
sin 2 x

− x 5 cos x + 5 x 4 sin x + 1
=
(sin x )2

x + cos x
(ii) We use quotient rule on the function wherever it is defined.
tan x
( x + cos x)′ tan x − ( x + cos x ) (tan x)′
h′( x) =
(tan x) 2

(1 − sin x ) tan x − ( x + cos x) sec2 x

=
(tan x) 2

Miscellaneous Exercise on Chapter 13

1. Find the derivative of the following functions from first principle:
π
(i) − x (ii) (− x) −1 (iii) sin (x + 1) (iv) cos (x –
)
8
Find the derivative of the following functions (it is to be understood that a, b, c, d,
p, q, r and s are fixed non-zero constants and m and n are integers):
r 
2. (x + a) 3. (px + q)  + s  4. ( ax + b )(cx + d )2
x 

1
ax + b 1+ 1
5. 6. x 7.
cx + d 1 ax + bx + c
2
1−
x

ax + b px 2 + qx + r a b
8. 9. 10. − 2 + cos x
px + qx + r
2
ax + b x 4
x

11. 4 x − 2 12. (ax + b) n 13. (ax + b) n (cx + d ) m

cos x
14. sin (x + a) 15. cosec x cot x 16.
1 + sin x

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sin x + cos x sec x − 1

17. 18. 19. sin n x
sin x − cos x sec x + 1
a + b sin x sin( x + a)
20. 21. 22. x 4 (5sin x − 3cos x )
c + d cos x cos x

23. (x 2
)
+ 1 cos x 24. ( ax 2
+ sin x )( p + q cos x )
π 
4 x + 5sin x x 2 cos  
25. ( x + cos x ) ( x − tan x ) 26.
3 x + 7cos x
27. 4
sin x

x x
28.
1 + tan x
29. ( x + sec x ) ( x − tan x ) 30.
sin n x

Summary
® The expected value of the function as dictated by the points to the left of a
point defines the left hand limit of the function at that point. Similarly the right
hand limit.
® Limit of a function at a point is the common value of the left and right hand
limits, if they coincide.

® For a function f and a real number a, lim f(x) and f (a) may not be same (In
x →a

fact, one may be defined and not the other one).

® For functions f and g the following holds:
lim [ f ( x ) ± g ( x) ] = lim f ( x ) ± lim g ( x)
x →a x →a x →a

lim [ f ( x). g ( x) ]= lim f ( x ).lim g ( x )

x →a x→ a x→a

 f ( x)  lim
x →a
f ( x)
lim   =
x → a g ( x)
  lim
x→ a
g ( x)

® Following are some of the standard limits

xn − an
lim = na n−1
x →a x − a

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sin x
lim =1
x →0 x
1 − cos x
lim =0
x →0 x
® The derivative of a function f at a is defined by
f ( a + h) − f ( a)
f ′( a) = lim
h →0 h
® Derivative of a function f at any point x is defined by
df ( x) f ( x + h) − f ( x )
f ′( x) = = lim
dx h → 0 h
® For functions u and v the following holds:
(u ± v )′ = u ′ ± v′
(uv)′ = u ′v + uv′

 u ′ u ′v − uv′
  = provided all are defined.
v v2
® Following are some of the standard derivatives.
d n
( x ) = nx n −1
dx
d
(sin x) = cos x
dx
d
(cos x) = − sin x
dx

Historical Note
In the history of mathematics two names are prominent to share the credit for
inventing calculus, Issac Newton (1642 – 1727) and G.W. Leibnitz (1646 – 1717).
Both of them independently invented calculus around the seventeenth century.
After the advent of calculus many mathematicians contributed for further
development of calculus. The rigorous concept is mainly attributed to the great

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mathematicians, A.L. Cauchy, J.L.Lagrange and Karl Weierstrass. Cauchy gave

the foundation of calculus as we have now generally accepted in our textbooks.
Cauchy used D’ Alembert’s limit concept to define the derivative of a function.
Starting with definition of a limit, Cauchy gave examples such as the limit of

sin α ∆ y f ( x + i ) − f ( x)
for α = 0. He wrote ∆ x = , and called the limit for
α i
i → 0, the “function derive’e, y′ for f ′ (x)”.
Before 1900, it was thought that calculus is quite difficult to teach. So calculus
became beyond the reach of youngsters. But just in 1900, John Perry and others
in England started propagating the view that essential ideas and methods of calculus
were simple and could be taught even in schools. F.L. Griffin, pioneered the
teaching of calculus to first year students. This was regarded as one of the most
daring act in those days.
Today not only the mathematics but many other subjects such as Physics,
Chemistry, Economics and Biological Sciences are enjoying the fruits of calculus.

—v —

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 Chapter 14

MATHEMATICAL REASONING

vThere are few things which we know which are not capable of
mathematical reasoning and when these can not, it is a sign that our
knowledge of them is very small and confused and where a mathematical
reasoning can be had, it is as great a folly to make use of another,
as to grope for a thing in the dark when you have a candle stick
standing by you. – ARTHENBOT v

14.1 Introduction
In this Chapter, we shall discuss about some basic ideas of
Mathematical Reasoning. All of us know that human beings
evolved from the lower species over many millennia. The
main asset that made humans “superior” to other species
was the ability to reason. How well this ability can be used
depends on each person’s power of reasoning. How to
develop this power? Here, we shall discuss the process of
reasoning especially in the context of mathematics.
In mathematical language, there are two kinds of
reasoning – inductive and deductive. We have already
discussed the inductive reasoning in the context of George Boole
mathematical induction. In this Chapter, we shall discuss (1815 - 1864)
some fundamentals of deductive reasoning.
14.2 Statements
The basic unit involved in mathematical reasoning is a mathematical statement.
Let us start with two sentences:
In 2003, the president of India was a woman.
An elephant weighs more than a human being.

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When we read these sentences, we immediately decide that the first sentence is
false and the second is correct. There is no confusion regarding these. In mathematics
such sentences are called statements.
On the other hand, consider the sentence:
Women are more intelligent than men.
Some people may think it is true while others may disagree. Regarding this sentence
we cannot say whether it is always true or false . That means this sentence is ambiguous.
Such a sentence is not acceptable as a statement in mathematics.
A sentence is called a mathematically acceptable statement if it is either
true or false but not both. Whenever we mention a statement here, it is a
“mathematically acceptable” statement.
While studying mathematics, we come across many such sentences. Some examples
are:
Two plus two equals four.
The sum of two positive numbers is positive.
All prime numbers are odd numbers.
Of these sentences, the first two are true and the third one is false. There is no
ambiguity regarding these sentences. Therefore, they are statements.
Can you think of an example of a sentence which is vague or ambiguous? Consider
the sentence:
The sum of x and y is greater than 0
Here, we are not in a position to determine whether it is true or false, unless we
know what x and y are. For example, it is false where x = 1, y = –3 and true when
x = 1 and y = 0. Therefore, this sentence is not a statement. But the sentence:
For any natural numbers x and y, the sum of x and y is greater than 0
is a statement.
Now, consider the following sentences :
How beautiful!
Open the door.
Where are you going?
Are they statements? No, because the first one is an exclamation, the second
an order and the third a question. None of these is considered as a statement in
mathematical language. Sentences involving variable time such as “today”, “tomorrow”
or “yesterday” are not statements. This is because it is not known what time is referred
here. For example, the sentence
Tomorrow is Friday

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is not a statement. The sentence is correct (true) on a Thursday but not on other
days. The same argument holds for sentences with pronouns unless a particular
person is referred to and for variable places such as “here”, “there” etc., For
example, the sentences
She is a mathematics graduate.
Kashmir is far from here.
are not statements.
Here is another sentence
There are 40 days in a month.
Would you call this a statement? Note that the period mentioned in the sentence
above is a “variable time” that is any of 12 months. But we know that the sentence is
always false (irrespective of the month) since the maximum number of days in a month
can never exceed 31. Therefore, this sentence is a statement. So, what makes a sentence
a statement is the fact that the sentence is either true or false but not both.
While dealing with statements, we usually denote them by small letters p, q, r,...
For example, we denote the statement “Fire is always hot” by p. This is also written
as
p: Fire is always hot.
Example 1 Check whether the following sentences are statements. Give reasons for
your answer.
(i) 8 is less than 6. (ii) Every set is a finite set.
(iii) The sun is a star. (iv) Mathematics is fun.
(v) There is no rain without clouds. (vi) How far is Chennai from here?
Solution (i) This sentence is false because 8 is greater than 6. Hence it is a statement.
(ii) This sentence is also false since there are sets which are not finite. Hence it is
a statement.
(iii) It is a scientifically established fact that sun is a star and, therefore, this sentence
is always true. Hence it is a statement.

(iv) This sentence is subjective in the sense that for those who like mathematics, it
may be fun but for others it may not be. This means that this sentence is not always
true. Hence it is not a statement.

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(v) It is a scientifically established natural phenomenon that cloud is formed before it

rains. Therefore, this sentence is always true. Hence it is a statement.
(vi) This is a question which also contains the word “Here”. Hence it is not a statement.
The above examples show that whenever we say that a sentence is a statement
we should always say why it is so. This “why” of it is more important than the answer.

EXERCISE 14.1
1. Which of the following sentences are statements? Give reasons for your answer.
(i) There are 35 days in a month.
(ii) Mathematics is difficult.
(iii) The sum of 5 and 7 is greater than 10.
(iv) The square of a number is an even number.
(v) The sides of a quadrilateral have equal length.
(vi) Answer this question.
(vii) The product of (–1) and 8 is 8.
(viii) The sum of all interior angles of a triangle is 180°.
(ix) Today is a windy day.
(x) All real numbers are complex numbers.
2. Give three examples of sentences which are not statements. Give reasons for the
answers.
14.3 New Statements from Old
We now look into method for producing new statements from those that we already
have. An English mathematician, “George Boole” discussed these methods in his book
“The laws of Thought” in 1854. Here, we shall discuss two techniques.
As a first step in our study of statements, we look at an important technique that
we may use in order to deepen our understanding of mathematical statements. This
technique is to ask not only what it means to say that a given statement is true but also
what it would mean to say that the given statement is not true.
14.3.1 Negation of a statement The denial of a statement is called the negation of
the statement.
Let us consider the statement:
p: New Delhi is a city
The negation of this statement is

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 MATHEMATICAL REASONING 325

It is not the case that New Delhi is a city

This can also be written as
It is false that New Delhi is a city.
This can simply be expressed as
New Delhi is not a city.
Definition 1 If p is a statement, then the negation of p is also a statement and is
denoted by ∼ p, and read as ‘not p’.

ANote While forming the negation of a statement, phrases like, “It is not the
case” or “It is false that” are also used.
Here is an example to illustrate how, by looking at the negation of a statement, we
may improve our understanding of it.
Let us consider the statement
p: Everyone in Germany speaks German.
The denial of this sentence tells us that not everyone in Germany speaks German.
This does not mean that no person in Germany speaks German. It says merely that at
least one person in Germany does not speak German.
We shall consider more examples.
Example 2 Write the negation of the following statements.
(i) Both the diagonals of a rectangle have the same length.

(ii) 7 is rational.

Solution (i) This statement says that in a rectangle, both the diagonals have the same
length. This means that if you take any rectangle, then both the diagonals have the
same length. The negation of this statement is
It is false that both the diagonals in a rectangle have the same length
This means the statement
There is atleast one rectangle whose both diagonals do not
have the same length.
(ii) The negation of the statement in (ii) may also be written as
It is not the case that 7 is rational.
This can also be rewritten as

7 is not rational.

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Example 3 Write the negation of the following statements and check whether the
resulting statements are true,
(i) Australia is a continent.
(ii) There does not exist a quadrilateral which has all its sides equal.
(iii) Every natural number is greater than 0.
(iv) The sum of 3 and 4 is 9.

Solution (i) The negation of the statement is

It is false that Australia is a continent.
This can also be rewritten as
Australia is not a continent.
We know that this statement is false.
(ii) The negation of the statement is
It is not the case that there does not exist a quadrilateral which has all its sides
equal.
This also means the following:
There exists a quadrilateral which has all its sides equal.
This statement is true because we know that square is a quadrilateral such that its four
sides are equal.
(iii) The negation of the statement is
It is false that every natural number is greater than 0.
This can be rewritten as
There exists a natural number which is not greater than 0.
This is a false statement.
(iv) The negation is
It is false that the sum of 3 and 4 is 9.
This can be written as
The sum of 3 and 4 is not equal to 9.
This statement is true.
14.3.2 Compound statements Many mathematical statements are obtained by
combining one or more statements using some connecting words like “and”, “or”, etc.
Consider the following statement
p: There is something wrong with the bulb or with the wiring.
This statement tells us that there is something wrong with the bulb or there is

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something wrong with the wiring. That means the given statement is actually made up
of two smaller statements:
q: There is something wrong with the bulb.
r: There is something wrong with the wiring.
connected by “or”
Now, suppose two statements are given as below:
p: 7 is an odd number.
q: 7 is a prime number.
These two statements can be combined with “and”
r: 7 is both odd and prime number.
This is a compound statement.
This leads us to the following definition:
Definition 2 A Compound Statement is a statement which is made up of two or
more statements. In this case, each statement is called a component statement.
Let us consider some examples.
Example 4 Find the component statements of the following compound statements.
(i) The sky is blue and the grass is green.
(ii) It is raining and it is cold.
(iii) All rational numbers are real and all real numbers are complex.
(iv) 0 is a positive number or a negative number.
Solution Let us consider one by one
(i) The component statements are
p: The sky is blue.
q: The grass is green.
The connecting word is ‘and’.
(ii) The component statements are
p: It is raining.
q: It is cold.
The connecting word is ‘and’.
(iii) The component statements are
p: All rational numbers are real.
q: All real numbers are complex.
The connecting word is ‘and’.
(iv)The component statements are

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p: 0 is a positive number.
q: 0 is a negative number.
The connecting word is ‘or’.
Example 5 Find the component statements of the following and check whether they
are true or not.
(i) A square is a quadrilateral and its four sides equal.
(ii) All prime numbers are either even or odd.
(iii) A person who has taken Mathematics or Computer Science can go for
MCA.
(iv) Chandigarh is the capital of Haryana and UP.
(v) 2 is a rational number or an irrational number.
(vi) 24 is a multiple of 2, 4 and 8.

Solution (i) The component statements are

p: A square is a quadrilateral.
q: A square has all its sides equal.
We know that both these statements are true. Here the connecting word is ‘and’.
(ii) The component statements are
p: All prime numbers are odd numbers.
q: All prime numbers are even numbers.
Both these statements are false and the connecting word is ‘or’.
(iii) The component statements are
p: A person who has taken Mathematics can go for MCA.
q: A person who has taken computer science can go for MCA.
Both these statements are true. Here the connecting word is ‘or’.
(iv) The component statements are
p: Chandigarh is the capital of Haryana.
q: Chandigarh is the capital of UP.
The first statement is true but the second is false. Here the connecting word is ‘and’.
(v) The component statements are

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 MATHEMATICAL REASONING 329

p: 2 is a rational number.

q: 2 is an irrational number.
The first statement is false and second is true. Here the connecting word is ‘or’.
(vi) The component statements are
p: 24 is a multiple of 2.
q: 24 is a multiple of 4.
r: 24 is a multiple of 8.
All the three statements are true. Here the connecting words are ‘and’.
Thus, we observe that compound statements are actually made-up of two or more
statements connected by the words like “and”, “or”, etc. These words have special
meaning in mathematics. We shall discuss this mattter in the following section.

EXERCISE 14.2
1. Write the negation of the following statements:
(i) Chennai is the capital of Tamil Nadu.
(ii) 2 is not a complex number
(iii) All triangles are not equilateral triangle.
(iv) The number 2 is greater than 7.
(v) Every natural number is an integer.
2. Are the following pairs of statements negations of each other:
(i) The number x is not a rational number.
The number x is not an irrational number.
(ii)The number x is a rational number.
The number x is an irrational number.
3. Find the component statements of the following compound statements and check
whether they are true or false.
(i) Number 3 is prime or it is odd.
(ii) All integers are positive or negative.
(iii) 100 is divisible by 3, 11 and 5.
14.4 Special Words/Phrases
Some of the connecting words which are found in compound statements like “And”,

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“Or”, etc. are often used in Mathematical Statements. These are called connectives.
When we use these compound statements, it is necessary to understand the role of
these words. We discuss this below.
14.4.1 The word “And” Let us look at a compound statement with “And”.
p: A point occupies a position and its location can be determined.
The statement can be broken into two component statements as
q: A point occupies a position.
r: Its location can be determined.
Here, we observe that both statements are true.
Let us look at another statement.
p: 42 is divisible by 5, 6 and 7.
This statement has following component statements
q: 42 is divisible by 5.
r: 42 is divisible by 6.
s: 42 is divisible by 7.
Here, we know that the first is false while the other two are true.
We have the following rules regarding the connective “And”

1. The compound statement with ‘And’ is true if all its component

statements are true.
2. The component statement with ‘And’ is false if any of its component
statements is false (this includes the case that some of its component
statements are false or all of its component statements are false).

Example 6 Write the component statements of the following compound statements

and check whether the compound statement is true or false.
(i) A line is straight and extends indefinitely in both directions.
(ii) 0 is less than every positive integer and every negative integer.
(iii) All living things have two legs and two eyes.

Solution (i) The component statements are

p: A line is straight.
q: A line extends indefinitely in both directions.

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Both these statements are true, therefore, the compound statement is true.
(ii) The component statements are
p: 0 is less than every positive integer.
q: 0 is less than every negative integer.
The second statement is false. Therefore, the compound statement is false.
(iii) The two component statements are
p: All living things have two legs.
q: All living things have two eyes.
Both these statements are false. Therefore, the compound statement is false.
Now, consider the following statement.
p: A mixture of alcohol and water can be separated by chemical methods.
This sentence cannot be considered as a compound statement with “And”. Here the
word “And” refers to two things – alcohol and water.
This leads us to an important note.

ANote Do not think that a statement with “And” is always a compound statement
as shown in the above example. Therefore, the word “And” is not used as a connective.
14.4.2 The word “Or” Let us look at the following statement.
p: Two lines in a plane either intersect at one point or they are parallel.
We know that this is a true statement. What does this mean? This means that if two
lines in a plane intersect, then they are not parallel. Alternatively, if the two lines are not
parallel, then they intersect at a point. That is this statement is true in both the situations.
In order to understand statements with “Or” we first notice that the word “Or” is
used in two ways in English language. Let us first look at the following statement.
p: An ice cream or pepsi is available with a Thali in a restaurant.
This means that a person who does not want ice cream can have a pepsi along
with Thali or one does not want pepsi can have an ice cream along with Thali. That is,
who do not want a pepsi can have an ice cream. A person cannot have both ice cream
and pepsi. This is called an exclusive “Or”.
Here is another statement.
A student who has taken biology or chemistry can apply for M.Sc.
microbiology programme.
Here we mean that the students who have taken both biology and chemistry can
apply for the microbiology programme, as well as the students who have taken only
one of these subjects. In this case, we are using inclusive “Or”.
It is important to note the difference between these two ways because we require this
when we check whether the statement is true or not.

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Let us look at an example.

Example 7 For each of the following statements, determine whether an inclusive
“Or” or exclusive “Or” is used. Give reasons for your answer.
(i) To enter a country, you need a passport or a voter registration card.
(ii) The school is closed if it is a holiday or a Sunday.
(iii) Two lines intersect at a point or are parallel.
(iv) Students can take French or Sanskrit as their third language.
Solution (i) Here “Or” is inclusive since a person can have both a passport and a
voter registration card to enter a country.
(ii) Here also “Or” is inclusive since school is closed on holiday as well as on
Sunday.
(iii) Here “Or” is exclusive because it is not possible for two lines to intersect
and parallel together.
(iv) Here also “Or” is exclusive because a student cannot take both French and
Sanskrit.
Rule for the compound statement with ‘Or’
1. A compound statement with an ‘Or’ is true when one component
statement is true or both the component statements are true.
2. A compound statement with an ‘Or’ is false when both the component
statements are false.
For example, consider the following statement.
p: Two lines intersect at a point or they are parallel
The component statements are
q: Two lines intersect at a point.
r: Two lines are parallel.
Then, when q is true r is false and when r is true q is false. Therefore, the
compound statement p is true.
Consider another statement.
p: 125 is a multiple of 7 or 8.
Its component statements are
q: 125 is a multiple of 7.
r: 125 is a multiple of 8.
Both q and r are false. Therefore, the compound statement p is false.

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Again, consider the following statement:

p: The school is closed, if there is a holiday or Sunday.
The component statements are
q: School is closed if there is a holiday.
r: School is closed if there is a Sunday.
Both q and r are true, therefore, the compound statement is true.
Consider another statement.
p: Mumbai is the capital of Kolkata or Karnataka.
The component statements are
q: Mumbai is the capital of Kolkata.
r: Mumbai is the capital of Karnataka.
Both these statements are false. Therefore, the compound statement is false.
Let us consider some examples.
Example 8 Identify the type of “Or” used in the following statements and check
whether the statements are true or false:
(i) 2 is a rational number or an irrational number.
(ii) To enter into a public library children need an identity card from the school
or a letter from the school authorities.
(iii) A rectangle is a quadrilateral or a 5-sided polygon.
Solution (i) The component statements are
p: 2 is a rational number.
q: 2 is an irrational number.
Here, we know that the first statement is false and the second is true and “Or” is
exclusive. Therefore, the compound statement is true.
(ii) The component statements are
p: To get into a public library children need an identity card.
q: To get into a public library children need a letter from the school authorities.
Children can enter the library if they have either of the two, an identity card or the
letter, as well as when they have both. Therefore, it is inclusive “Or” the compound
statement is also true when children have both the card and the letter.
(iii) Here “Or” is exclusive. When we look at the component statements, we get that
the statement is true.

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14.4.3 Quantifiers Quantifiers are phrases like, “There exists” and “For all”.
Another phrase which appears in mathematical statements is “there exists”. For example,
consider the statement. p: There exists a rectangle whose all sides are equal. This
means that there is atleast one rectangle whose all sides are equal.
A word closely connected with “there exists” is “for every” (or for all). Consider
a statement.
p: For every prime number p, p is an irrational number.
This means that if S denotes the set of all prime numbers, then for all the members p of
the set S, p is an irrational number.
In general, a mathematical statement that says “for every” can be interpreted as
saying that all the members of the given set S where the property applies must satisfy
that property.
We should also observe that it is important to know precisely where in the sentence
a given connecting word is introduced. For example, compare the following two
sentences:
1. For every positive number x there exists a positive number y such that
y < x.
2. There exists a positive number y such that for every positive number x, we
have y < x.
Although these statements may look similar, they do not say the same thing. As a
matter of fact, (1) is true and (2) is false. Thus, in order for a piece of mathematical
writing to make sense, all of the symbols must be carefully introduced and each symbol
must be introduced precisely at the right place – not too early and not too late.
The words “And” and “Or” are called connectives and “There exists” and “For
all” are called quantifiers.
Thus, we have seen that many mathematical statements contain some special words
and it is important to know the meaning attached to them, especially when we have to
check the validity of different statements.

EXERCISE 14.3
1. For each of the following compound statements first identify the connecting words
and then break it into component statements.
(i) All rational numbers are real and all real numbers are not complex.
(ii) Square of an integer is positive or negative.
(iii) The sand heats up quickly in the Sun and does not cool down fast at night.
(iv) x = 2 and x = 3 are the roots of the equation 3x2 – x – 10 = 0.

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2. Identify the quantifier in the following statements and write the negation of the
statements.
(i) There exists a number which is equal to its square.
(ii) For every real number x, x is less than x + 1.
(iii) There exists a capital for every state in India.
3. Check whether the following pair of statements are negation of each other. Give
reasons for your answer.
(i) x + y = y + x is true for every real numbers x and y.
(ii) There exists real numbers x and y for which x + y = y + x.
4. State whether the “Or” used in the following statements is “exclusive “or” inclusive.
Give reasons for your answer.
(i) Sun rises or Moon sets.
(ii) To apply for a driving licence, you should have a ration card or a passport.
(iii) All integers are positive or negative.
14.5 Implications
In this Section, we shall discuss the implications of “if-then”, “only if” and “if and only if ”.
The statements with “if-then” are very common in mathematics. For example,
consider the statement.
r: If you are born in some country, then you are a citizen of that country.
When we look at this statement, we observe that it corresponds to two statements p
and q given by
p : you are born in some country.
q : you are citizen of that country.
Then the sentence “if p then q” says that in the event if p is true, then q must be true.
One of the most important facts about the sentence “if p then q” is that it does
not say any thing (or places no demand) on q when p is false. For example, if you are
not born in the country, then you cannot say anything about q. To put it in other words”
not happening of p has no effect on happening of q.
Another point to be noted for the statement “if p then q” is that the statement
does not imply that p happens.
There are several ways of understanding “if p then q” statements. We shall
illustrate these ways in the context of the following statement.
r: If a number is a multiple of 9, then it is a multiple of 3.
Let p and q denote the statements
p : a number is a multiple of 9.
q: a number is a multiple of 3.

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Then, if p then q is the same as the following:

1. p implies q is denoted by p ⇒ q. The symbol ⇒ stands for implies.
This says that a number is a multiple of 9 implies that it is a multiple of 3.
2. p is a sufficient condition for q.
This says that knowing that a number as a multiple of 9 is sufficient to conclude
that it is a multiple of 3.
3. p only if q.
This says that a number is a multiple of 9 only if it is a multiple of 3.
4. q is a necessary condition for p.
This says that when a number is a multiple of 9, it is necessarily a multiple of 3.
5. ∼q implies ∼p.
This says that if a number is not a multiple of 3, then it is not a multiple of 9.
14.5.1 Contrapositive and converse Contrapositive and converse are certain
other statements which can be formed from a given statement with “if-then”.
For example, let us consider the following “if-then” statement.
If the physical environment changes, then the biological environment changes.
Then the contrapositive of this statement is
If the biological environment does not change, then the physical environment
does not change.
Note that both these statements convey the same meaning.
To understand this, let us consider more examples.
Example 9 Write the contrapositive of the following statement:
(i) If a number is divisible by 9, then it is divisible by 3.
(ii) If you are born in India, then you are a citizen of India.
(iii) If a triangle is equilateral, it is isosceles.
Solution The contrapositive of the these statements are
(i) If a number is not divisible by 3, it is not divisible by 9.
(ii) If you are not a citizen of India, then you were not born in India.
(iii) If a triangle is not isosceles, then it is not equilateral.
The above examples show the contrapositive of the statement if p, then q is “if ∼q,
then ∼p”.
Next, we shall consider another term called converse.
The converse of a given statement “if p, then q” is if q, then p.

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For example, the converse of the statement

p: If a number is divisible by 10, it is divisible by 5 is
q: If a number is divisible by 5, then it is divisible by 10.

Example 10 Write the converse of the following statements.

(i) If a number n is even, then n2 is even.
(ii) If you do all the exercises in the book, you get an A grade in the class.
(iii) If two integers a and b are such that a > b, then a – b is always a positive
integer.
Solution The converse of these statements are
(i) If a number n2 is even, then n is even.
(ii) If you get an A grade in the class, then you have done all the exercises of
the book.
(iii) If two integers a and b are such that a – b is always a positive integer, then
a > b.
Let us consider some more examples.
Example 11 For each of the following compound statements, first identify the
corresponding component statements. Then check whether the statements are
true or not.
(i) If a triangle ABC is equilateral, then it is isosceles.
(ii) If a and b are integers, then ab is a rational number.
Solution (i) The component statements are given by
p : Triangle ABC is equilateral.
q : Triangle ABC is Isosceles.
Since an equilateral triangle is isosceles, we infer that the given compound statement
is true.
(ii) The component statements are given by
p : a and b are integers.
q : ab is a rational number.
since the product of two integers is an integer and therefore a rational number, the
compound statement is true.
‘If and only if’, represented by the symbol ‘⇔‘ means the following equivalent forms
for the given statements p and q.
(i) p if and only if q
(ii) q if and only if p

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(iii) p is necessary and sufficient condition for q and vice-versa

(iv) p ⇔ q
Consider an example.
Example 12 Given below are two pairs of statements. Combine these two statements
using “if and only if ”.
(i) p: If a rectangle is a square, then all its four sides are equal.
q: If all the four sides of a rectangle are equal, then the rectangle is a
square.
(ii) p: If the sum of digits of a number is divisible by 3, then the number is
divisible by 3.
q: If a number is divisible by 3, then the sum of its digits is divisible by 3.
Solution (i) A rectangle is a square if and only if all its four sides are equal.
(ii) A number is divisible by 3 if and only if the sum of its digits is divisible by 3.

EXERCISE 14.4
1. Rewrite the following statement with “if-then” in five different ways conveying
the same meaning.
If a natural number is odd, then its square is also odd.
2. Write the contrapositive and converse of the following statements.
(i) If x is a prime number, then x is odd.
(ii) If the two lines are parallel, then they do not intersect in the same plane.
(iii) Something is cold implies that it has low temperature.
(iv) You cannot comprehend geometry if you do not know how to reason
deductively.
(v) x is an even number implies that x is divisible by 4.
3. Write each of the following statements in the form “if-then”
(i) You get a job implies that your credentials are good.
(ii) The Bannana trees will bloom if it stays warm for a month.
(iii) A quadrilateral is a parallelogram if its diagonals bisect each other.
(iv) To get an A+ in the class, it is necessary that you do all the exercises of
the book.

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4. Given statements in (a) and (b). Identify the statements given below as
contrapositive or converse of each other.
(a) If you live in Delhi, then you have winter clothes.
(i) If you do not have winter clothes, then you do not live in Delhi.
(ii) If you have winter clothes, then you live in Delhi.
(b) If a quadrilateral is a parallelogram, then its diagonals bisect each other.
(i) If the diagonals of a quadrilateral do not bisect each other, then the
quadrilateral is not a parallelogram.
(ii) If the diagonals of a quadrilateral bisect each other, then it is a parallelogram.

14.6 Validating Statements

In this Section, we will discuss when a statement is true. To answer this question, one
must answer all the following questions.
What does the statement mean? What would it mean to say that this statement is
true and when this statement is not true?
The answer to these questions depend upon which of the special words and
phrases “and”, “or”, and which of the implications “if and only”, “if-then”, and which
of the quantifiers “for every”, “there exists”, appear in the given statement.
Here, we shall discuss some techniques to find when a statement is valid.
We shall list some general rules for checking whether a statement is true or not.
Rule 1 If p and q are mathematical statements, then in order to show that the
statement “p and q” is true, the following steps are followed.
Step-1 Show that the statement p is true.
Step-2 Show that the statement q is true.
Rule 2 Statements with “Or”
If p and q are mathematical statements , then in order to show that the statement
“p or q” is true, one must consider the following.
Case 1 By assuming that p is false, show that q must be true.
Case 2 By assuming that q is false, show that p must be true.
Rule 3 Statements with “If-then”

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In order to prove the statement “if p then q” we need to show that any one of the
following case is true.
Case 1 By assuming that p is true, prove that q must be true.(Direct method)
Case 2 By assuming that q is false, prove that p must be false.(Contrapositive
method)
Rule 4 Statements with “if and only if ”
In order to prove the statement “p if and only if q”, we need to show.
(i) If p is true, then q is true and (ii) If q is true, then p is true
Now we consider some examples.
Example 13 Check whether the following statement is true or not.
If x, y ∈ Z are such that x and y are odd, then xy is odd.
Solution Let p : x, y ∈ Z such that x and y are odd
q : xy is odd
To check the validity of the given statement, we apply Case 1 of Rule 3. That is
assume that if p is true, then q is true.
p is true means that x and y are odd integers. Then
x = 2m + 1, for some integer m. y = 2n + 1, for some integer n. Thus
xy = (2m + 1) (2n + 1)
= 2(2mn + m + n) + 1
This shows that xy is odd. Therefore, the given statement is true.
Suppose we want to check this by using Case 2 of Rule 3, then we will proceed
as follows.
We assume that q is not true. This implies that we need to consider the negation
of the statement q. This gives the statement
∼q : Product xy is even.
This is possible only if either x or y is even. This shows that p is not true. Thus we
have shown that
∼q ⇒ ∼p

ANote The above example illustrates that to prove p ⇒ q, it is enough to show

∼q ⇒ ∼p which is the contrapositive of the statement p ⇒ q.
Example 14 Check whether the following statement is true or false by proving its
contrapositive. If x, y ∈ Ζ such that xy is odd, then both x and y are odd.
Solution Let us name the statements as below

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p : xy is odd.
q : both x and y are odd.
We have to check whether the statement p ⇒ q is true or not, that is, by checking
its contrapositive statement i.e., ∼q ⇒ ∼p
Now ∼q : It is false that both x and y are odd. This implies that x (or y) is even.
Then x = 2n for some integer n.
Therefore, xy = 2ny for some integer n. This shows that xy is even. That is ∼p is true.
Thus, we have shown that ∼q ⇒ ∼p and hence the given statement is true.
Now what happens when we combine an implication and its converse? Next, we
shall discuss this.
Let us consider the following statements.
p : A tumbler is half empty.
q : A tumbler is half full.
We know that if the first statement happens, then the second happens and also if
the second happens, then the first happens. We can express this fact as
If a tumbler is half empty, then it is half full.
If a tumbler is half full, then it is half empty.
We combine these two statements and get the following:
A tumbler is half empty if and only if it is half full.
Now, we discuss another method.
14.6.1 By Contradiction Here to check whether a statement p is true, we assume
that p is not true i.e. ∼p is true. Then, we arrive at some result which contradicts our
assumption. Therefore, we conclude that p is true.
Example 15 Verify by the method of contradiction.
p: 7 is irrational
Solution In this method, we assume that the given statement is false. That is
we assume that 7 is rational. This means that there exists positive integers a and b
a
such that 7 = , where a and b have no common factors. Squaring the equation,
b

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a2
we get 7 = ⇒ a2 = 7b2 ⇒ 7 divides a. Therefore, there exists an integer c such
b2
that a = 7c. Then a2 = 49c2 and a2 = 7b2
Hence, 7b2 = 49c2 ⇒ b2 = 7c2 ⇒ 7 divides b. But we have already shown that
7 divides a. This implies that 7 is a common factor of both of a and b which contradicts
our earlier assumption that a and b have no common factors. This shows that the
assumption 7 is rational is wrong. Hence, the statement 7 is irrational is true.
Next, we shall discuss a method by which we may show that a statement is false.
The method involves giving an example of a situation where the statement is not
valid. Such an example is called a counter example. The name itself suggests that
this is an example to counter the given statement.
Example 16 By giving a counter example, show that the following statement is false.
If n is an odd integer, then n is prime.
Solution The given statement is in the form “if p then q” we have to show that this is
false. For this purpose we need to show that if p then ∼q. To show this we look for an
odd integer n which is not a prime number. 9 is one such number. So n = 9 is a counter
example. Thus, we conclude that the given statement is false.
In the above, we have discussed some techniques for checking whether a statement
is true or not.

ANote In mathematics, counter examples are used to disprove the statement.

However, generating examples in favour of a statement do not provide validity of
the statement.

EXERCISE 14.5
1. Show that the statement
p: “If x is a real number such that x3 + 4x = 0, then x is 0” is true by
(i) direct method, (ii) method of contradiction, (iii) method of contrapositive
2. Show that the statement “For any real numbers a and b, a2 = b2 implies that
a = b” is not true by giving a counter-example.
3. Show that the following statement is true by the method of contrapositive.
p: If x is an integer and x2 is even, then x is also even.
4. By giving a counter example, show that the following statements are not true.
(i) p: If all the angles of a triangle are equal, then the triangle is an obtuse
angled triangle.
(ii) q: The equation x2 – 1 = 0 does not have a root lying between 0 and 2.

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5. Which of the following statements are true and which are false? In each case
give a valid reason for saying so.
(i) p: Each radius of a circle is a chord of the circle.
(ii) q: The centre of a circle bisects each chord of the circle.
(iii) r: Circle is a particular case of an ellipse.
(iv) s: If x and y are integers such that x > y, then –x < – y.
(v) t : 11 is a rational number.

Miscellaneous Examples
Example 17 Check whether “Or” used in the following compound statement is exclusive
or inclusive? Write the component statements of the compound statements and use
them to check whether the compound statement is true or not. Justify your answer.
t: you are wet when it rains or you are in a river.
Solution “Or” used in the given statement is inclusive because it is possible that it rains
and you are in the river.
The component statements of the given statement are
p : you are wet when it rains.
q : You are wet when you are in a river.
Here both the component statements are true and therefore, the compound statement
is true.
Example 18 Write the negation of the following statements:
(i) p: For every real number x, x2 > x.
(ii) q: There exists a rational number x such that x2 = 2.
(iii) r: All birds have wings.
(iv) s: All students study mathematics at the elementary level.
Solution (i) The negation of p is “It is false that p is” which means that the condition
x2 > x does not hold for all real numbers. This can be expressed as
∼p: There exists a real number x such that x2 < x.
(ii) Negation of q is “it is false that q”, Thus ∼q is the statement.
∼q: There does not exist a rational number x such that x2 = 2.
This statement can be rewritten as
∼q: For all real numbers x, x2 ≠ 2
(iii) The negation of the statement is
∼r: There exists a bird which have no wings.

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(iv) The negation of the given statement is ∼s: There exists a student who does not
study mathematics at the elementary level.
Example 19 Using the words “necessary and sufficient” rewrite the statement “The
integer n is odd if and only if n2 is odd”. Also check whether the statement is true.
Solution The necessary and sufficient condition that the integer n be odd is n2 must be
odd. Let p and q denote the statements
p : the integer n is odd.
q : n2 is odd.
To check the validity of “p if and only if q”, we have to check whether “if p then q”
and “if q then p” is true.
Case 1 If p, then q
If p, then q is the statement:
If the integer n is odd, then n2 is odd. We have to check whether this statement is
true. Let us assume that n is odd. Then n = 2k + 1 when k is an integer. Thus
n2 = (2k + 1)2
= 4k2 + 4k + 1
Therefore, n2 is one more than an even number and hence is odd.
Case 2 If q, then p
If q, then p is the statement
If n is an integer and n2 is odd, then n is odd.
We have to check whether this statement is true. We check this by contrapositive
method. The contrapositive of the given statement is:
If n is an even integer, then n2 is an even integer
n is even implies that n = 2k for some k. Then n2 = 4k2. Therefore, n2 is even.
Example 20 For the given statements identify the necessary and sufficient conditions.
t: If you drive over 80 km per hour, then you will get a fine.
Solution Let p and q denote the statements:
p : you drive over 80 km per hour.
q : you will get a fine.
The implication if p, then q indicates that p is sufficient for q. That is driving over
80 km per hour is sufficient to get a fine.
Here the sufficient condition is “driving over 80 km per hour”:
Similarly, if p, then q also indicates that q is necessary for p. That is

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When you drive over 80 km per hour, you will necessarily get a fine.
Here the necessary condition is “getting a fine”.

Miscellaneous Exercise on Chapter 14

1. Write the negation of the following statements:
(i) p: For every positive real number x, the number x – 1 is also positive.
(ii) q: All cats scratch.
(iii) r: For every real number x, either x > 1 or x < 1.
(iv) s: There exists a number x such that 0 < x < 1.
2. State the converse and contrapositive of each of the following statements:
(i) p: A positive integer is prime only if it has no divisors other than 1 and itself.
(ii) q: I go to a beach whenever it is a sunny day.
(iii) r: If it is hot outside, then you feel thirsty.
3. Write each of the statements in the form “if p, then q”
(i) p: It is necessary to have a password to log on to the server.
(ii) q: There is traffic jam whenever it rains.
(iii) r: You can access the website only if you pay a subsciption fee.
4. Rewrite each of the following statements in the form “p if and only if q”
(i) p: If you watch television, then your mind is free and if your mind is free,
then you watch television.
(ii) q: For you to get an A grade, it is necessary and sufficient that you do all
the homework regularly.
(iii) r: If a quadrilateral is equiangular, then it is a rectangle and if a quadrilateral
is a rectangle, then it is equiangular.
5. Given below are two statements
p : 25 is a multiple of 5.
q : 25 is a multiple of 8.
Write the compound statements connecting these two statements with “And” and
“Or”. In both cases check the validity of the compound statement.
6. Check the validity of the statements given below by the method given against it.
(i) p: The sum of an irrational number and a rational number is irrational (by
contradiction method).
(ii) q: If n is a real number with n > 3, then n2 > 9 (by contradiction method).
7. Write the following statement in five different ways, conveying the same meaning.
p: If a triangle is equiangular, then it is an obtuse angled triangle.

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Summary
® A mathematically acceptable statement is a sentence which is either true or
false.
® Explained the terms:
– Negation of a statement p: If p denote a statement, then the negation of p is
denoted by ∼p.
– Compound statements and their related component statements:
A statement is a compound statement if it is made up of two or more smaller
statements. The smaller statements are called component statements of the
compound statement.
– The role of “And”, “Or”, “There exists” and “For every” in compound
statements.
– The meaning of implications “If ”, “only if ”, “ if and only if ”.
A sentence with if p, then q can be written in the following ways.
– p implies q (denoted by p ⇒ q)
– p is a sufficient condition for q
– q is a necessary condition for p
– p only if q
– ∼q implies ∼p
– The contrapositive of a statement p ⇒ q is the statement ∼ q ⇒ ∼p . The
converse of a statement p ⇒ q is the statement q ⇒ p.
p ⇒ q together with its converse, gives p if and only if q.
® The following methods are used to check the validity of statements:
(i) direct method
(ii) contrapositive method
(iii) method of contradiction
(iv) using a counter example.

Historical Note
The first treatise on logic was written by Aristotle (384 B.C.-322 B.C.). It
was a collection of rules for deductive reasoning which would serve as a basis
for the study of every branch of knowledge. Later, in the seventeenth century,
German mathematician G. W. Leibnitz (1646 – 1716) conceived the idea of using
symbols in logic to mechanise the process of deductive reasoning. His idea was
realised in the nineteenth century by the English mathematician George Boole
(1815–1864) and Augustus De Morgan (1806–1871) , who founded the modern
subject of symbolic logic.

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 Chapter 15

STATISTICS

v“Statistics may be rightly called the science of averages and their

estimates.” – A.L.BOWLEY & A.L. BODDINGTON v

15.1 Introduction
We know that statistics deals with data collected for specific
purposes. We can make decisions about the data by
analysing and interpreting it. In earlier classes, we have
studied methods of representing data graphically and in
tabular form. This representation reveals certain salient
features or characteristics of the data. We have also studied
the methods of finding a representative value for the given
data. This value is called the measure of central tendency.
Recall mean (arithmetic mean), median and mode are three
measures of central tendency. A measure of central
tendency gives us a rough idea where data points are Karl Pearson
(1857-1936)
centred. But, in order to make better interpretation from the
data, we should also have an idea how the data are scattered or how much they are
bunched around a measure of central tendency.
Consider now the runs scored by two batsmen in their last ten matches as follows:
Batsman A : 30, 91, 0, 64, 42, 80, 30, 5, 117, 71
Batsman B : 53, 46, 48, 50, 53, 53, 58, 60, 57, 52
Clearly, the mean and median of the data are
Batsman A Batsman B
Mean 53 53
Median 53 53
Recall that, we calculate the mean of a data (denoted by x ) by dividing the sum
of the observations by the number of observations, i.e.,

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n
1
x=
n
∑ xi
i =1

Also, the median is obtained by first arranging the data in ascending or descending
order and applying the following rule.
th
 n + 1
If the number of observations is odd, then the median is   observation.
 2 
th
n
If the number of observations is even, then median is the mean of   and
2
th
n 
 + 1 observations.
2 
We find that the mean and median of the runs scored by both the batsmen A and
B are same i.e., 53. Can we say that the performance of two players is same? Clearly
No, because the variability in the scores of batsman A is from 0 (minimum) to 117
(maximum). Whereas, the range of the runs scored by batsman B is from 46 to 60.
Let us now plot the above scores as dots on a number line. We find the following
diagrams:
For batsman A

For batsman B Fig 15.1

Fig 15.2
We can see that the dots corresponding to batsman B are close to each other and
are clustering around the measure of central tendency (mean and median), while those
corresponding to batsman A are scattered or more spread out.
Thus, the measures of central tendency are not sufficient to give complete
information about a given data. Variability is another factor which is required to be
studied under statistics. Like ‘measures of central tendency’ we want to have a
single number to describe variability. This single number is called a ‘measure of
dispersion’. In this Chapter, we shall learn some of the important measures of dispersion
and their methods of calculation for ungrouped and grouped data.

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15.2 Measures of Dispersion

The dispersion or scatter in a data is measured on the basis of the observations and the
types of the measure of central tendency, used there. There are following measures of
dispersion:
(i) Range, (ii) Quartile deviation, (iii) Mean deviation, (iv) Standard deviation.
In this Chapter, we shall study all of these measures of dispersion except the
quartile deviation.
15.3 Range
Recall that, in the example of runs scored by two batsmen A and B, we had some idea
of variability in the scores on the basis of minimum and maximum runs in each series.
To obtain a single number for this, we find the difference of maximum and minimum
values of each series. This difference is called the ‘Range’ of the data.
In case of batsman A, Range = 117 – 0 = 117 and for batsman B, Range = 60 – 46 = 14.
Clearly, Range of A > Range of B. Therefore, the scores are scattered or dispersed in
case of A while for B these are close to each other.
Thus, Range of a series = Maximum value – Minimum value.
The range of data gives us a rough idea of variability or scatter but does not tell
about the dispersion of the data from a measure of central tendency. For this purpose,
we need some other measure of variability. Clearly, such measure must depend upon
the difference (or deviation) of the values from the central tendency.
The important measures of dispersion, which depend upon the deviations of the
observations from a central tendency are mean deviation and standard deviation. Let
us discuss them in detail.
15.4 Mean Deviation
Recall that the deviation of an observation x from a fixed value ‘a’ is the difference
x – a. In order to find the dispersion of values of x from a central value ‘a’ , we find the
deviations about a. An absolute measure of dispersion is the mean of these deviations.
To find the mean, we must obtain the sum of the deviations. But, we know that a
measure of central tendency lies between the maximum and the minimum values of
the set of observations. Therefore, some of the deviations will be negative and some
positive. Thus, the sum of deviations may vanish. Moreover, the sum of the deviations
from mean ( x ) is zero.
Sum of deviations 0
Also Mean of deviations = = =0
Number of observations n
Thus, finding the mean of deviations about mean is not of any use for us, as far
as the measure of dispersion is concerned.

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Remember that, in finding a suitable measure of dispersion, we require the distance

of each value from a central tendency or a fixed number ‘a’. Recall, that the absolute
value of the difference of two numbers gives the distance between the numbers when
represented on a number line. Thus, to find the measure of dispersion from a fixed
number ‘a’ we may take the mean of the absolute values of the deviations from the
central value. This mean is called the ‘mean deviation’. Thus mean deviation about a
central value ‘a’ is the mean of the absolute values of the deviations of the observations
from ‘a’. The mean deviation from ‘a’ is denoted as M.D. (a). Therefore,
Sum of absolute values of deviations from 'a'
M.D.(a) = .
Number of observations
Remark Mean deviation may be obtained from any measure of central tendency.
However, mean deviation from mean and median are commonly used in statistical
studies.
Let us now learn how to calculate mean deviation about mean and mean deviation
about median for various types of data
15.4.1 Mean deviation for ungrouped data Let n observations be x1, x2, x3, ...., xn.
The following steps are involved in the calculation of mean deviation about mean or
median:
Step 1 Calculate the measure of central tendency about which we are to find the mean
deviation. Let it be ‘a’.
Step 2 Find the deviation of each xi from a, i.e., x1 – a, x2 – a, x3 – a,. . . , xn– a
Step 3 Find the absolute values of the deviations, i.e., drop the minus sign (–), if it is
there, i.e., x1 − a , x2 − a , x3 − a , ...., xn − a

Step 4 Find the mean of the absolute values of the deviations. This mean is the mean
deviation about a, i.e.,
n
∑ xi − a
i =1
M.D.(a) =
n
n
1
Thus M.D. ( x ) =
n
∑ xi − x , where x = Mean
i =1

n
1
and M.D. (M) =
n
∑ xi − M , where M = Median
i =1

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A Note In this Chapter, we shall use the symbol M to denote median unless stated
otherwise.Let us now illustrate the steps of the above method in following examples.
Example 1 Find the mean deviation about the mean for the following data:
6, 7, 10, 12, 13, 4, 8, 12
Solution We proceed step-wise and get the following:
Step 1 Mean of the given data is
6 + 7 + 10 + 12 + 13 + 4 + 8 + 12 72
x= = = 9
8 8

Step 2 The deviations of the respective observations from the mean x , i.e., xi– x are
6 – 9, 7 – 9, 10 – 9, 12 – 9, 13 – 9, 4 – 9, 8 – 9, 12 – 9,
or –3, –2, 1, 3, 4, –5, –1, 3
Step 3 The absolute values of the deviations, i.e., xi − x are
3, 2, 1, 3, 4, 5, 1, 3
Step 4 The required mean deviation about the mean is
8
∑ xi − x
M.D. ( x ) =
i =1
8
3 + 2 + 1 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 1 + 3 22
= = = 2.75
8 8

A Note Instead of carrying out the steps every time, we can carry on calculation,
step-wise without referring to steps.
Example 2 Find the mean deviation about the mean for the following data :
12, 3, 18, 17, 4, 9, 17, 19, 20, 15, 8, 17, 2, 3, 16, 11, 3, 1, 0, 5

Solution We have to first find the mean ( x ) of the given data

1 20 200
x = ∑
20 i =1
xi =
20
= 10

The respective absolute values of the deviations from mean, i.e., xi − x are
2, 7, 8, 7, 6, 1, 7, 9, 10, 5, 2, 7, 8, 7, 6, 1, 7, 9, 10, 5

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20
Therefore ∑ xi − x = 124
i =1

124
and M.D. ( x ) = = 6.2
20
Example 3 Find the mean deviation about the median for the following data:
3, 9, 5, 3, 12, 10, 18, 4, 7, 19, 21.
Solution Here the number of observations is 11 which is odd. Arranging the data into
ascending order, we have 3, 3, 4, 5, 7, 9, 10, 12, 18, 19, 21
th
 11 + 1 
Now Median =   or 6th observation = 9
 2 
The absolute values of the respective deviations from the median, i.e., xi − M are
6, 6, 5, 4, 2, 0, 1, 3, 9, 10, 12
11
Therefore ∑ xi − M = 58
i =1

1 11 1
and M.D. ( M ) = ∑
11 i =1
xi − M = × 58 = 5.27
11

15.4.2 Mean deviation for grouped data We know that data can be grouped into
two ways :
(a) Discrete frequency distribution,
(b) Continuous frequency distribution.
Let us discuss the method of finding mean deviation for both types of the data.
(a) Discrete frequency distribution Let the given data consist of n distinct values
x1, x2, ..., xn occurring with frequencies f1, f2 , ..., fn respectively. This data can be
represented in the tabular form as given below, and is called discrete frequency
distribution:
x : x1 x2 x3 ... xn
f : f1 f2 f3 ... fn
(i) Mean deviation about mean
First of all we find the mean x of the given data by using the formula

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n
∑ xi fi 1 n
x= i =1
n
=
N
∑ xi fi ,
∑ fi i =1

i =1

n
where ∑x f
i =1
i i denotes the sum of the products of observations xi with their respective

n
frequencies fi and N = ∑f
i =1
i is the sum of the frequencies.

Then, we find the deviations of observations xi from the mean x and take their
absolute values, i.e., xi − x for all i =1, 2,..., n.
After this, find the mean of the absolute values of the deviations, which is the
required mean deviation about the mean. Thus
n

∑f i xi − x
1 n
M.D. ( x ) = i =1
n = ∑ f i xi − x
N i =1
∑f
i =1
i

(ii) Mean deviation about median To find mean deviation about median, we find the
median of the given discrete frequency distribution. For this the observations are arranged
in ascending order. After this the cumulative frequencies are obtained. Then, we identify
N
the observation whose cumulative frequency is equal to or just greater than , where
2
N is the sum of frequencies. This value of the observation lies in the middle of the data,
therefore, it is the required median. After finding median, we obtain the mean of the
absolute values of the deviations from median.Thus,
n
1
M.D.(M) =
N
∑f i =1
i xi − M

Example 4 Find mean deviation about the mean for the following data :
xi 2 5 6 8 10 12
fi 2 8 10 7 8 5
Solution Let us make a Table 15.1 of the given data and append other columns after
calculations.

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Table 15.1

xi fi fixi xi − x f i xi − x

2 2 4 5.5 11
5 8 40 2.5 20
6 10 60 1.5 15
8 7 56 0.5 3.5
10 8 80 2.5 20
12 5 60 4.5 22.5
40 300 92
6 6 6
N = ∑ f i = 40 , ∑ f i xi = 300 , ∑f i xi − x = 92
i =1 i =1 i =1

6
1 1
Therefore x=
N
∑ fi xi =
40
× 300 = 7.5
i =1

6
1 1
and M. D. ( x ) =
N
∑ fi xi − x =
40
× 92 = 2.3
i =1

Example 5 Find the mean deviation about the median for the following data:

xi 3 6 9 12 13 15 21 22
fi 3 4 5 2 4 5 4 3

Solution The given observations are already in ascending order. Adding a row
corresponding to cumulative frequencies to the given data, we get (Table 15.2).

Table 15.2
xi 3 6 9 12 13 15 21 22
fi 3 4 5 2 4 5 4 3
c.f. 3 7 12 14 18 23 27 30

Now, N=30 which is even.

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Median is the mean of the 15th and 16th observations. Both of these observations
lie in the cumulative frequency 18, for which the corresponding observation is 13.
15th observation + 16th observation 13 + 13
Therefore, Median M = = = 13
2 2
Now, absolute values of the deviations from median, i.e., xi − M are shown in
Table 15.3.
Table 15.3

xi − M 10 7 4 1 0 2 8 9

fi 3 4 5 2 4 5 4 3

f i xi − M 30 28 20 2 0 10 32 27

8 8

We have ∑f
i =1
i = 30 and ∑f
i =1
i xi − M = 149

8
1
Therefore M. D. (M) =
N
∑ fi xi − M
i =1

1
= × 149 = 4.97.
30
(b) Continuous frequency distribution A continuous frequency distribution is a series
in which the data are classified into different class-intervals without gaps alongwith
their respective frequencies.
For example, marks obtained by 100 students are presented in a continuous
frequency distribution as follows :

Marks obtained 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60

Number of Students 12 18 27 20 17 6

(i) Mean deviation about mean While calculating the mean of a continuous frequency
distribution, we had made the assumption that the frequency in each class is centred at
its mid-point. Here also, we write the mid-point of each given class and proceed further
as for a discrete frequency distribution to find the mean deviation.
Let us take the following example.

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Example 6 Find the mean deviation about the mean for the following data.

Marks obtained 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60 60-70 70-80

Number of students 2 3 8 14 8 3 2

Solution We make the following Table 15.4 from the given data :
Table 15.4

Marks Number of Mid-points f ix i xi − x fi xi − x

obtained students
fi xi
10-20 2 15 30 30 60
20-30 3 25 75 20 60
30-40 8 35 280 10 80
40-50 14 45 630 0 0
50-60 8 55 440 10 80
60-70 3 65 195 20 60
70-80 2 75 150 30 60
40 1800 400

7 7 7
Here N = ∑ fi = 40, ∑ fi xi = 1800, ∑ fi xi − x = 400
i =1 i =1 i =1

1 7 1800
Therefore x= ∑
N i =1
fi xi =
40
= 45

1 7 1
and M.D. ( x ) = ∑
N i =1
fi xi − x = × 400 = 10
40

Shortcut method for calculating mean deviation about mean We can avoid the
tedious calculations of computing x by following step-deviation method. Recall that in
this method, we take an assumed mean which is in the middle or just close to it in the
data. Then deviations of the observations (or mid-points of classes) are taken from the

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assumed mean. This is nothing but the shifting of origin from zero to the assumed mean
on the number line, as shown in Fig 15.3

Fig 15.3

If there is a common factor of all the deviations, we divide them by this common
factor to further simplify the deviations. These are known as step-deviations. The
process of taking step-deviations is the change of scale on the number line as shown in
Fig 15.4

Fig 15.4

The deviations and step-deviations reduce the size of the observations, so that the
computations viz. multiplication, etc., become simpler. Let, the new variable be denoted
xi − a
by d i = , where ‘a’ is the assumed mean and h is the common factor. Then, the
h
mean x by step-deviation method is given by
n
∑ f i di
x = a + =1
i ×h
N
Let us take the data of Example 6 and find the mean deviation by using step-
deviation method.

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Take the assumed mean a = 45 and h = 10, and form the following Table 15.5.
Table 15.5
xi − 45
Marks Number of Mid-points di = fi d i xi − x f i xi − x
obtained students 10
fi xi
10-20 2 15 –3 –6 30 60
20-30 3 25 –2 –6 20 60
30-40 8 35 –1 –8 10 80
40-50 14 45 0 0 0 0
50-60 8 55 1 8 10 80
60-70 3 65 2 6 20 60
70-80 2 75 3 6 30 60

40 0 400

7
∑ fi d i
Therefore x = a + i=1 ×h
N
0
= 45 + × 10 = 45
40
7
1 400
and M .D. (x ) =
N
∑ fi xi − x =
40
= 10
i =1

A Note The step deviation method is applied to compute x . Rest of the procedure
is same.
(ii) Mean deviation about median The process of finding the mean deviation about
median for a continuous frequency distribution is similar as we did for mean deviation
about the mean. The only difference lies in the replacement of the mean by median
while taking deviations.
Let us recall the process of finding median for a continuous frequency distribution.
The data is first arranged in ascending order. Then, the median of continuous
frequency distribution is obtained by first identifying the class in which median lies
(median class) and then applying the formula

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N
−C
Median = l + 2 ×h
f
where median class is the class interval whose cumulative frequency is just greater
N
than or equal to , N is the sum of frequencies, l, f, h and C are, respectively the lower
2
limit , the frequency, the width of the median class and C the cumulative frequency of
the class just preceding the median class. After finding the median, the absolute values
of the deviations of mid-point xi of each class from the median i.e., xi − M are obtained.

1 n
Then M.D. (M) = ∑ fi xi − M
N i =1
The process is illustrated in the following example:
Example 7 Calculate the mean deviation about median for the following data :

Class 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60

Frequency 6 7 15 16 4 2

Solution Form the following Table 15.6 from the given data :

Table 15.6

Class Frequency Cumulative Mid-points xi − Med. f i xi − Med.

frequency
fi (c.f.) xi
0-10 6 6 5 23 138
10-20 7 13 15 13 91
20-30 15 28 25 3 45
30-40 16 44 35 7 112
40-50 4 48 45 17 68
50-60 2 50 55 27 54
50 508

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th
N
The class interval containing or 25th item is 20-30. Therefore, 20–30 is the median
2
class. We know that
N
−C
Median = l + 2 ×h
f
Here l = 20, C = 13, f = 15, h = 10 and N = 50
25 − 13
Therefore, Median = 20 + × 10 = 20 + 8 = 28
15
Thus, Mean deviation about median is given by
1 6 1
M.D. (M) = ∑
N i =1
fi xi − M =
50
× 508 = 10.16

EXERCISE 15.1
Find the mean deviation about the mean for the data in Exercises 1 and 2.
1. 4, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 17
2. 38, 70, 48, 40, 42, 55, 63, 46, 54, 44
Find the mean deviation about the median for the data in Exercises 3 and 4.
3. 13, 17, 16, 14, 11, 13, 10, 16, 11, 18, 12, 17
4. 36, 72, 46, 42, 60, 45, 53, 46, 51, 49
Find the mean deviation about the mean for the data in Exercises 5 and 6.
5. x i 5 10 15 20 25
fi 7 4 6 3 5
6. x i 10 30 50 70 90
fi 4 24 28 16 8
Find the mean deviation about the median for the data in Exercises 7 and 8.
7. x i 5 7 9 10 12 15
fi 8 6 2 2 2 6
8. x i 15 21 27 30 35
fi 3 5 6 7 8

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Find the mean deviation about the mean for the data in Exercises 9 and 10.
9. Income per 0-100 100-200 200-300 300-400 400-500 500-600 600-700 700-800
day in `
Number 4 8 9 10 7 5 4 3
of persons
10. Height 95-105 105-115 115-125 125-135 135-145 145-155
in cms
Number of 9 13 26 30 12 10
boys
11. Find the mean deviation about median for the following data :
Marks 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60
Number of 6 8 14 16 4 2
Girls
12. Calculate the mean deviation about median age for the age distribution of 100
persons given below:
Age 16-20 21-25 26-30 31-35 36-40 41-45 46-50 51-55
(in years)
Number 5 6 12 14 26 12 16 9

[Hint Convert the given data into continuous frequency distribution by subtracting 0.5
from the lower limit and adding 0.5 to the upper limit of each class interval]
15.4.3 Limitations of mean deviation In a series, where the degree of variability is
very high, the median is not a representative central tendency. Thus, the mean deviation
about median calculated for such series can not be fully relied.
The sum of the deviations from the mean (minus signs ignored) is more than the
sum of the deviations from median. Therefore, the mean deviation about the mean is
not very scientific.Thus, in many cases, mean deviation may give unsatisfactory results.
Also mean deviation is calculated on the basis of absolute values of the deviations and
therefore, cannot be subjected to further algebraic treatment. This implies that we
must have some other measure of dispersion. Standard deviation is such a measure of
dispersion.
15.5 Variance and Standard Deviation
Recall that while calculating mean deviation about mean or median, the absolute values
of the deviations were taken. The absolute values were taken to give meaning to the
mean deviation, otherwise the deviations may cancel among themselves.
Another way to overcome this difficulty which arose due to the signs of deviations,
is to take squares of all the deviations. Obviously all these squares of deviations are

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non-negative. Let x1, x2, x3, ..., xn be n observations and x be their mean. Then
n
(x1 − x)2 + (x2 −x)2 + .......+ (xn − x )2 = ( xi − x)2 .
i =1

If this sum is zero, then each ( xi − x ) has to be zero. This implies that there is no
dispersion at all as all observations are equal to the mean x .
n

If ∑ (x − x)
i =1
i
2
is small , this indicates that the observations x1, x2, x3,...,xn are

close to the mean x and therefore, there is a lower degree of dispersion. On the
contrary, if this sum is large, there is a higher degree of dispersion of the observations
n

from the mean x . Can we thus say that the sum ∑ (x − x)

i =1
i
2
is a reasonable indicator

of the degree of dispersion or scatter?

Let us take the set A of six observations 5, 15, 25, 35, 45, 55. The mean of the
observations is x = 30. The sum of squares of deviations from x for this set is
6

∑ (x − x)
i =1
i
2
= (5–30)2 + (15–30)2 + (25–30)2 + (35–30)2 + (45–30)2 +(55–30)2

= 625 + 225 + 25 + 25 + 225 + 625 = 1750

Let us now take another set B of 31 observations 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23,
24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45. The
mean of these observations is y = 30
Note that both the sets A and B of observations have a mean of 30.
Now, the sum of squares of deviations of observations for set B from the mean y is
given by
31

∑(y
i =1
i − y ) 2 = (15–30)2 +(16–30)2 + (17–30)2 + ...+ (44–30)2 +(45–30)2

= (–15)2 +(–14)2 + ...+ (–1)2 + 02 + 12 + 22 + 32 + ...+ 142 + 152

= 2 [152 + 142 + ... + 12]
15 × (15 + 1) (30 + 1)
= 2× = 5 × 16 × 31 = 2480
6
n (n + 1) (2n + 1)
(Because sum of squares of first n natural numbers = . Here n = 15)
6

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If ∑ (x − x)
i =1
i
2
is simply our measure of dispersion or scatter about mean, we

will tend to say that the set A of six observations has a lesser dispersion about the mean
than the set B of 31 observations, even though the observations in set A are more
scattered from the mean (the range of deviations being from –25 to 25) than in the set
B (where the range of deviations is from –15 to 15).
This is also clear from the following diagrams.
For the set A, we have

Fig 15.5
For the set B, we have

Fig 15.6

Thus, we can say that the sum of squares of deviations from the mean is not a proper
measure of dispersion. To overcome this difficulty we take the mean of the squares of
1 n
the deviations, i.e., we take ∑ ( xi − x ) 2 . In case of the set A, we have
n i =1
1 1
Mean = × 1750 = 291.67 and in case of the set B, it is × 2480 = 80.
6 31
This indicates that the scatter or dispersion is more in set A than the scatter or dispersion
in set B, which confirms with the geometrical representation of the two sets.
1
Thus, we can take
n
∑ ( xi − x ) 2 as a quantity which leads to a proper measure

of dispersion. This number, i.e., mean of the squares of the deviations from mean is
called the variance and is denoted by σ 2 (read as sigma square). Therefore, the
variance of n observations x1, x2,..., xn is given by

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1 n
σ2= ∑
n i =1
( xi − x ) 2

15.5.1 Standard Deviation In the calculation of variance, we find that the units of
individual observations xi and the unit of their mean x are different from that of variance,
since variance involves the sum of squares of (xi– x ). For this reason, the proper
measure of dispersion about the mean of a set of observations is expressed as positive
square-root of the variance and is called standard deviation. Therefore, the standard
deviation, usually denoted by σ , is given by

1 n
σ= ∑
n i =1
( xi − x ) 2 ... (1)

Let us take the following example to illustrate the calculation of variance and
hence, standard deviation of ungrouped data.
Example 8 Find the variance of the following data:
6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24
Solution From the given data we can form the following Table 15.7. The mean is
calculated by step-deviation method taking 14 as assumed mean. The number of
observations is n = 10
Table 15.7

xi − 14 Deviations from mean

xi di = (x i– x )
2 (x i– x )
6 –4 –9 81
8 –3 –7 49
10 –2 –5 25
12 –1 –3 9
14 0 –1 1
16 1 1 1
18 2 3 9
20 3 5 25
22 4 7 49
24 5 9 81
5 330

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∑d i
5
Therefore Mean x = assumed mean +
i =1
×h = 14 + × 2 = 15
n 10
10
1
and Variance ( σ ) =
n
2
∑ ( xi − x )2 = 101 × 330 = 33
i =1

Thus Standard deviation ( σ ) = 33 = 5.74

15.5.2 Standard deviation of a discrete frequency distribution Let the given discrete
frequency distribution be
x: x1, x2, x3 ,. . . , xn
f: f1, f2, f3 ,. . . , fn

1 n
In this case standard deviation (σ ) = ∑ fi (xi − x )2
N i =1
... (2)

n
where N = ∑ fi .
i =1

Let us take up following example.

Example 9 Find the variance and standard deviation for the following data:
xi 4 8 11 17 20 24 32
fi 3 5 9 5 4 3 1
Solution Presenting the data in tabular form (Table 15.8), we get
Table 15.8
xi fi fi x i xi – x ( xi − x ) 2 f i ( xi − x ) 2
4 3 12 –10 100 300
8 5 40 –6 36 180
11 9 99 –3 9 81
17 5 85 3 9 45
20 4 80 6 36 144
24 3 72 10 100 300
32 1 32 18 324 324
30 420 1374

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7 7
∑ fi xi = 420, ∑ fi ( xi − x )
2
N = 30, = 1374
i =1 i =1

7
∑ fi xi 1
Therefore x= i =1
= × 420 = 14
N 30
7
1
Hence variance (σ ) =
N
2 ∑ fi (xi − x )2
i =1

1
= × 1374 = 45.8
30
and Standard deviation (σ ) = 45 .8 = 6.77

15.5.3 Standard deviation of a continuous frequency distribution The given

continuous frequency distribution can be represented as a discrete frequency distribution
by replacing each class by its mid-point. Then, the standard deviation is calculated by
the technique adopted in the case of a discrete frequency distribution.
If there is a frequency distribution of n classes each class defined by its mid-point
xi with frequency fi, the standard deviation will be obtained by the formula
n
1
σ =
N
∑ fi ( xi − x)2 ,
i =1

n
where x is the mean of the distribution and N = ∑ fi .
i =1

Another formula for standard deviation We know that

n n
1 1
Variance (σ ) =
2
N
∑ fi ( xi − x ) 2 =
N
∑ fi ( xi 2 + x 2 − 2 x xi )
i =1 i =1

1  n n n

= N  ∑ fi xi 2 + ∑ x 2 fi − ∑ 2x fi xi 
 i =1 i =1 i =1 

1  n n n

= N  ∑ fi xi 2 + x 2 ∑ fi − 2 x ∑ xi fi 
 i =1 i =1 i =1 

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1 n  1 n n

= fi xi2 + x 2 N − 2 x . N x  Here ∑
N i =1
x f
i i = x or ∑ xi fi = Nx 
N i =1  i =1 
n n
1
∑ fi xi 2 −
1
∑ fi xi 2 + x 2
2
= − 2x
2
= x
N i =1 N i =1

2
 n 
 ∑ fi xi   n 2

 = 1  N ∑ fi xi 2 −  ∑ fi xi  
n n
1
or σ =
2
∑ 2 
fi xi − i =1
 N  N 2  i =1
N i −1
  i =1  
 
 

2
1 n
 n 
Thus, standard deviation (σ ) = ∑fx ∑ f i xi 
2
N − ... (3)
 i =1 
i i
N i =1

Example 10 Calculate the mean, variance and standard deviation for the following
distribution :
Class 30-40 40-50 50-60 60-70 70-80 80-90 90-100
Frequency 3 7 12 15 8 3 2
Solution From the given data, we construct the following Table 15.9.

Table 15.9

Class Frequency Mid-point f ix i (x i– x ) 2 f i (x i – x ) 2

(f i ) (x i)
30-40 3 35 105 729 2187
40-50 7 45 315 289 2023
50-60 12 55 660 49 588
60-70 15 65 975 9 135
70-80 8 75 600 169 1352
80-90 3 85 255 529 1587
90-100 2 95 190 1089 2178
50 3100 10050

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7
1 3100
Thus Mean x =
N
∑fx
i =1
i i =
50
= 62

7
1
( )
Variance σ =
2
N
∑ f i (xi − x )2
i =1

1
= × 10050 = 201
50
and Standard deviation (σ ) = 201 = 14.18

Example 11 Find the standard deviation for the following data :

xi 3 8 13 18 23
fi 7 10 15 10 6

Solution Let us form the following Table 15.10:

Table 15.10
xi fi f ix i x i2 f ix i2
3 7 21 9 63
8 10 80 64 640
13 15 195 169 2535
18 10 180 324 3240
23 6 138 529 3174
48 614 9652

Now, by formula (3), we have

1
N∑ fi xi − ( ∑ fi xi )
2 2
σ =
N
1
= 48 × 9652 − (614) 2
48
1
= 463296 − 376996
48

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1
× 293.77 = 6.12
=
48
Therefore, Standard deviation ( σ ) = 6.12
15.5.4. Shortcut method to find variance and standard deviation Sometimes the
values of xi in a discrete distribution or the mid points xi of different classes in a
continuous distribution are large and so the calculation of mean and variance becomes
tedious and time consuming. By using step-deviation method, it is possible to simplify
the procedure.
1
Let the assumed mean be ‘A’ and the scale be reduced to times (h being the
h
width of class-intervals). Let the step-deviations or the new values be yi.
xi − A
i.e. yi = or xi = A + hyi ... (1)
h
n

∑fx i i
i =1
We know that x = ... (2)
N
Replacing xi from (1) in (2), we get
n

∑ f ( A + hy )
i i
x = i =1

 1 A 
n n
 n n

=  ∑ fi A + ∑ h fi yi  = N  ∑ i ∑ fi yi 
1
f + h
N  i =1 i =1   i =1 i =1 
n
∑ fi yi 
 because
n

∑ fi = N 
= A.N +h i =1
N N  i =1 

Thus x=A+h y ... (3)

n
1
Variance of the variable x, σ x = ∑ fi ( xi − x )
2 2
Now
N i =1

1 n
= ∑ fi (A + hyi − A − h y )2
N i =1
(Using (1) and (3))

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n
1
=
N
∑ fi h2 (yi − y )2
i =1

h2 n
=
N
∑ fi (yi − y )2 = h × variance of the variable y
2
i
i =1

σ x2 = h σ y
2 2
i.e.

or σ x = hσ y ... (4)
From (3) and (4), we have
2
h n
 n 
σx = N ∑ f y
i i
2
−  ∑ fi yi  ... (5)
N i =1  i =1 
Let us solve Example 11 by the short-cut method and using formula (5)
Examples 12 Calculate mean, variance and standard deviation for the following
distribution.
Classes 30-40 40-50 50-60 60-70 70-80 80-90 90-100
Frequency 3 7 12 15 8 3 2

Solution Let the assumed mean A = 65. Here h = 10

We obtain the following Table 15.11 from the given data :
Table 15.11
xi − 65
Class Frequency Mid-point yi= y i2 fi yi f i y i2
10
fi xi
30-40 3 35 –3 9 –9 27
40-50 7 45 –2 4 – 14 28
50-60 12 55 –1 1 – 12 12
60-70 15 65 0 0 0 0
70-80 8 75 1 1 8 8
80-90 3 85 2 4 6 12
9 0-100 2 95 3 9 6 18
N=50 – 15 105

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Therefore x= A+
∑ fi yi × h = 65 − 15 × 10 = 62
50 50

h2  2
 N ∑ fi yi − ( ∑ fi yi )
2
Variance σ2 = 
N2  
2
(10 ) 50 × 105 − (–15)2 
=  
(50) 
2

1
= [5250 − 225] = 201
25
and standard deviation (σ ) = 201 = 14.18

EXERCISE 15.2
Find the mean and variance for each of the data in Exercies 1 to 5.
1. 6, 7, 10, 12, 13, 4, 8, 12
2. First n natural numbers
3. First 10 multiples of 3
4. xi 6 10 14 18 24 28 30
fi 2 4 7 12 8 4 3

5. xi 92 93 97 98 102 104 109

fi 3 2 3 2 6 3 3

6. Find the mean and standard deviation using short-cut method.

xi 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68

fi 2 1 12 29 25 12 10 4 5

Find the mean and variance for the following frequency distributions in Exercises
7 and 8.

7. Classes 0-30 30-60 60-90 90-120 120-150 150-180 180-210

Frequencies 2 3 5 10 3 5 2

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8. Classes 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50

Frequencies 5 8 15 16 6

9. Find the mean, variance and standard deviation using short-cut method

Height 70-75 75-80 80-85 85-90 90-95 95-100 100-105 105-110 110-115
in cms
No. of 3 4 7 7 15 9 6 6 3
children

10. The diameters of circles (in mm) drawn in a design are given below:
Diameters 33-36 37-40 41-44 45-48 49-52
No. of circles 15 17 21 22 25

Calculate the standard deviation and mean diameter of the circles.

[ Hint First make the data continuous by making the classes as 32.5-36.5, 36.5-40.5,
40.5-44.5, 44.5 - 48.5, 48.5 - 52.5 and then proceed.]
15.6 Analysis of Frequency Distributions
In earlier sections, we have studied about some types of measures of dispersion. The
mean deviation and the standard deviation have the same units in which the data are
given. Whenever we want to compare the variability of two series with same mean,
which are measured in different units, we do not merely calculate the measures of
dispersion but we require such measures which are independent of the units. The
measure of variability which is independent of units is called coefficient of variation
(denoted as C.V.)
The coefficient of variation is defined as
σ
C.V. = × 100 , x ≠ 0 ,
x
where σ and x are the standard deviation and mean of the data.
For comparing the variability or dispersion of two series, we calculate the coefficient
of variance for each series. The series having greater C.V. is said to be more variable
than the other. The series having lesser C.V. is said to be more consistent than the
other.

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15.6.1 Comparison of two frequency distributions with same mean Let x1 and σ1
be the mean and standard deviation of the first distribution, and x2 and σ2 be the
mean and standard deviation of the second distribution.
σ
C.V. (1st distribution) = x × 100
1
Then
1

σ2
and C.V. (2nd distribution) = × 100
x2

Given x1 = x2 = x (say)
σ1
Therefore C.V. (1st distribution) = × 100 ... (1)
x
σ2
and C.V. (2nd distribution) = × 100 ... (2)
x
It is clear from (1) and (2) that the two C.Vs. can be compared on the basis of values
of σ 1 and σ 2 only.
Thus, we say that for two series with equal means, the series with greater standard
deviation (or variance) is called more variable or dispersed than the other. Also, the
series with lesser value of standard deviation (or variance) is said to be more consistent
than the other.
Let us now take following examples:
Example 13 Two plants A and B of a factory show following results about the number
of workers and the wages paid to them.
A B
No. of workers 5000 6000
Average monthly wages Rs 2500 Rs 2500
Variance of distribution 81 100
of wages

In which plant, A or B is there greater variability in individual wages?

Solution The variance of the distribution of wages in plant A ( σ 12 ) = 81

Therefore, standard deviation of the distribution of wages in plant A ( σ 1 ) = 9

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Also, the variance of the distribution of wages in plant B ( σ 2 2 ) = 100

Therefore, standard deviation of the distribution of wages in plant B ( σ2 ) = 10
Since the average monthly wages in both the plants is same, i.e., Rs.2500, therefore,
the plant with greater standard deviation will have more variability.
Thus, the plant B has greater variability in the individual wages.
Example 14 Coefficient of variation of two distributions are 60 and 70, and their
standard deviations are 21 and 16, respectively. What are their arithmetic means.

Solution Given C.V. (1st distribution) = 60, σ 1 = 21

C.V. (2nd distribution) = 70, σ 2 = 16
Let x1 and x2 be the means of 1st and 2nd distribution, respectively. Then

σ1
C.V. (1st distribution) =
x1 × 100
21 21
Therefore 60 = ×100 or x1 = × 100 = 35
x1 60

σ2
and C.V. (2nd distribution) =
x2 ×100
16 16
i.e. 70 = × 100 or x2 = × 100 = 22.85
x2 70
Example 15 The following values are calculated in respect of heights and weights of
the students of a section of Class XI :
Height Weight
Mean 162.6 cm 52.36 kg
Variance 127.69 cm2 23.1361 kg2
Can we say that the weights show greater variation than the heights?
Solution To compare the variability, we have to calculate their coefficients of variation.
Given Variance of height = 127.69cm2
Therefore Standard deviation of height = 127.69cm = 11.3 cm
2
Also Variance of weight = 23.1361 kg

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Therefore Standard deviation of weight = 23.1361 kg = 4.81 kg

Now, the coefficient of variations (C.V.) are given by
Standard Deviation
(C.V.) in heights = × 100
Mean

11.3
= × 100 = 6.95
162.6
4.81
and (C.V.) in weights = × 100 = 9.18
52.36
Clearly C.V. in weights is greater than the C.V. in heights
Therefore, we can say that weights show more variability than heights.

EXERCISE 15.3
1. From the data given below state which group is more variable, A or B?

Marks 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60 60-70 70-80

Group A 9 17 32 33 40 10 9
Group B 10 20 30 25 43 15 7

2. From the prices of shares X and Y below, find out which is more stable in value:

X 35 54 52 53 56 58 52 50 51 49
Y 108 107 105 105 106 107 104 103 104 101

3. An analysis of monthly wages paid to workers in two firms A and B, belonging to

the same industry, gives the following results:
Firm A Firm B
No. of wage earners 586 648
Mean of monthly wages Rs 5253 Rs 5253
Variance of the distribution 100 121
of wages
(i) Which firm A or B pays larger amount as monthly wages?
(ii) Which firm, A or B, shows greater variability in individual wages?

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4. The following is the record of goals scored by team A in a football session:

No. of goals scored 0 1 2 3 4

No. of matches 1 9 7 5 3

For the team B, mean number of goals scored per match was 2 with a standard
deviation 1.25 goals. Find which team may be considered more consistent?
5. The sum and sum of squares corresponding to length x (in cm) and weight y
(in gm) of 50 plant products are given below:
50 50 50 50
∑ xi = 212 , ∑ xi2 = 902.8 , ∑ yi = 261 , ∑ yi2 = 1457.6
i =1 i =1 i =1 i =1

Which is more varying, the length or weight?

Miscellaneous Examples
Example 16 The variance of 20 observations is 5. If each observation is multiplied by
2, find the new variance of the resulting observations.
Solution Let the observations be x1, x2, ..., x20 and x be their mean. Given that
variance = 5 and n = 20. We know that
20 1 20
Variance σ ( ) 2
=
1
n
∑ (xi − x ) , i.e., 5 =
i =1
2
∑ (xi − x )2
20 i =1
20

or ∑ (xi − x )2 = 100 ... (1)

i =1

If each observation is multiplied by 2, and the new resulting observations are yi , then
1
yi = 2xi i.e., xi = yi
2

1 20 1 20 1 20
Therefore y= ∑ i 20 ∑ i = 20 ∑ xi
n i =1
y = 2 x 2 .
i =1 i =1

1
i.e. y=2x or x= y
2
Substituting the values of xi and x in (1), we get

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2 20
20
1 1 
∑  2 yi − 2 y  = 100 , i.e.,
i =1
∑(y
i =1
i − y ) 2 = 400

1
Thus the variance of new observations = × 400 = 20 = 22 × 5
20

A Note The reader may note that if each observation is multiplied by a constant
2
k, the variance of the resulting observations becomes k times the original variance.
Example17 The mean of 5 observations is 4.4 and their variance is 8.24. If three of
the observations are 1, 2 and 6, find the other two observations.
Solution Let the other two observations be x and y.
Therefore, the series is 1, 2, 6, x, y.
1+ 2 + 6 + x + y
Now Mean x = 4.4 =
5
or 22 = 9 + x + y
Therefore x + y = 13 ... (1)
1 5
variance = 8.24 = ∑ ( xi −x )
2
Also
n i =1
1
i.e. 8.24 =  (3.4 )2 + ( 2.4 )2 + (1.6 )2 + x2 + y 2 − 2 × 4.4 (x + y) + 2 × ( 4.4 )2 
5
or 41.20 = 11.56 + 5.76 + 2.56 + x2 + y2 –8.8 × 13 + 38.72
Therefore x2 + y2 = 97 ... (2)
But from (1), we have
x2 + y2 + 2xy = 169 ... (3)
From (2) and (3), we have
2xy = 72 ... (4)
Subtracting (4) from (2), we get
x2 + y2 – 2xy = 97 – 72 i.e. (x – y)2 = 25
or x–y= ±5
... (5)
So, from (1) and (5), we get
x = 9, y = 4 when x – y = 5
or x = 4, y = 9 when x – y = – 5
Thus, the remaining observations are 4 and 9.
Example 18 If each of the observation x1, x2, ...,xn is increased by ‘a’, where a is a
negative or positive number, show that the variance remains unchanged.

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Solution Let x be the mean of x1, x2, ...,xn . Then the variance is given by
n
1
σ 12 =
n
∑ (xi − x ) 2

i =1

If ‘a is added to each observation, the new observations will be

yi = xi + a ... (1)
Let the mean of the new observations be y . Then
n n
1 1
y=
n
∑ yi = n ∑ (xi + a)
i =1 i =1

1n n
 1 n
na
= n  ∑
 i =1
xi + ∑ a =
i =1  n
∑x +
i =1
i
n
=x+a

i.e. y = x+a ... (2)

Thus, the variance of the new observations
1 n
1 n
σ2 2
=
n
∑ (yi − y ) 2 =
i =1
∑ ( xi + a − x − a) 2
n i =1
[Using (1) and (2)]

n
1
=
n
∑ (xi − x )2 = σ 12
i =1

Thus, the variance of the new observations is same as that of the original observations.

A Note We may note that adding (or subtracting) a positive number to (or from)
each observation of a group does not affect the variance.
Example 19 The mean and standard deviation of 100 observations were calculated as
40 and 5.1, respectively by a student who took by mistake 50 instead of 40 for one
observation. What are the correct mean and standard deviation?
Solution Given that number of observations (n) = 100
Incorrect mean ( x ) = 40,
Incorrect standard deviation (σ) = 5.1
1 n
We know that x= ∑ xi
n i =1
1 100 100

i.e. 40 = ∑ xi or
100 i =1
∑ xi = 4000
i =1

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i.e. Incorrect sum of observations = 4000

Thus the correct sum of observations = Incorrect sum – 50 + 40
= 4000 – 50 + 40 = 3990

correct sum 3990

Hence Correct mean = = = 39.9
100 100

2
1 n
1 n 
Also Standard deviation σ =
n
∑ xi 2
− 2  ∑ xi 
n  i =1 
i =1

n
1
∑ x − (x )
2 2
= i
n i =1

n
1
× Incorrect ∑ xi − (40) 2
2
i.e. 5.1 =
100 i =1

n
1
∑x
2
or 26.01 = × Incorrect i – 1600
100 i =1

n
Incorrect ∑ xi = 100 (26.01 + 1600) = 162601
2
Therefore
i =1

n n

Now Correct ∑ xi = Incorrect

i =1
2
∑x i =1
i
2
– (50)2 + (40)2

= 162601 – 2500 + 1600 = 161701

Therefore Correct standard deviation

∑x
2
Correct 2
− (Correct mean)
i
=
n

161701
− (39.9)
2
=
100

= 1617.01 − 1592.01 = 25 =5

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Miscellaneous Exercise On Chapter 15

1. The mean and variance of eight observations are 9 and 9.25, respectively. If six
of the observations are 6, 7, 10, 12, 12 and 13, find the remaining two observations.
2. The mean and variance of 7 observations are 8 and 16, respectively. If five of the
observations are 2, 4, 10, 12, 14. Find the remaining two observations.
3. The mean and standard deviation of six observations are 8 and 4, respectively. If
each observation is multiplied by 3, find the new mean and new standard deviation
of the resulting observations.
4. Given that x is the mean and σ2 is the variance of n observations x1, x2, ...,xn.
Prove that the mean and variance of the observations ax1, ax2, ax3, ...., axn are
a x and a2 σ2, respectively, (a ≠ 0).
5. The mean and standard deviation of 20 observations are found to be 10 and 2,
respectively. On rechecking, it was found that an observation 8 was incorrect.
Calculate the correct mean and standard deviation in each of the following cases:
(i) If wrong item is omitted. (ii) If it is replaced by 12.
6. The mean and standard deviation of marks obtained by 50 students of a class in
three subjects, Mathematics, Physics and Chemistry are given below:
Subject Mathematics Physics Chemistry
Mean 42 32 40.9
Standard 12 15 20
deviation
Which of the three subjects shows the highest variability in marks and which
shows the lowest?
7. The mean and standard deviation of a group of 100 observations were found to
be 20 and 3, respectively. Later on it was found that three observations were
incorrect, which were recorded as 21, 21 and 18. Find the mean and standard
deviation if the incorrect observations are omitted.

Summary
® Measures of dispersion Range, Quartile deviation, mean deviation, variance,
standard deviation are measures of dispersion.
Range = Maximum Value – Minimum Value
® Mean deviation for ungrouped data
M.D. (x ) =
∑ xi – x , M.D. (M) =
∑ xi – M
n n

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® Mean deviation for grouped data

M.D. ( x ) =
∑ fi xi x
, M.D. ( M ) =
∑ fi xi M
, where N = ∑ f i
N N
® Variance and standard deviation for ungrouped data
1 1
∑ ∑
2
σ2 = (xi – x )2 , σ= ( xi – x )
n n
® Variance and standard deviation of a discrete frequency distribution
1 1
∑ fi ( xi − x ) , ∑ fi ( xi − x )
2 2
σ2 = σ =
N N
® Variance and standard deviation of a continuous frequency distribution
1 1
∑ fi ( xi − x ) , N ∑ fi xi2 − ( ∑ fi xi )
2 2
σ2 = σ=
N N
® Shortcut method to find variance and standard deviation.
h2  h
N ∑ fi yi2 − ( ∑ fi yi )  , σ N ∑ fi yi2 − ( ∑ fi yi ) ,
2 2
σ2 = 2 
=
N   N
xi − A
where yi =
h
σ
® Coefficient of variation (C.V.) = × 100, x ≠ 0.
x
For series with equal means, the series with lesser standard deviation is more consistent
or less scattered.

Historical Note
‘Statistics’ is derived from the Latin word ‘status’ which means a political
state. This suggests that statistics is as old as human civilisation. In the year 3050
B.C., perhaps the first census was held in Egypt. In India also, about 2000 years
ago, we had an efficient system of collecting administrative statistics, particularly,
during the regime of Chandra Gupta Maurya (324-300 B.C.). The system of
collecting data related to births and deaths is mentioned in Kautilya’s Arthshastra
(around 300 B.C.) A detailed account of administrative surveys conducted during
Akbar’s regime is given in Ain-I-Akbari written by Abul Fazl.

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Captain John Graunt of London (1620-1674) is known as father of vital

statistics due to his studies on statistics of births and deaths. Jacob Bernoulli
(1654-1705) stated the Law of Large numbers in his book “Ars Conjectandi’,
published in 1713.
The theoretical development of statistics came during the mid seventeenth
century and continued after that with the introduction of theory of games and
chance (i.e., probability). Francis Galton (1822-1921), an Englishman, pioneered
the use of statistical methods, in the field of Biometry. Karl Pearson (1857-1936)
contributed a lot to the development of statistical studies with his discovery
of Chi square test and foundation of statistical laboratory in England (1911).
Sir Ronald A. Fisher (1890-1962), known as the Father of modern statistics,
applied it to various diversified fields such as Genetics, Biometry, Education,
Agriculture, etc.

—v —

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 Chapter 16

PROBABILITY

vWhere a mathematical reasoning can be had, it is as great a folly to

make use of any other, as to grope for a thing in the dark, when
you have a candle in your hand. – JOHN ARBUTHNOT v

16.1 Introduction
In earlier classes, we studied about the concept of
probability as a measure of uncertainty of various
phenomenon. We have obtained the probability of getting
3 1
an even number in throwing a die as i.e., . Here the
6 2
total possible outcomes are 1,2,3,4,5 and 6 (six in number).
The outcomes in favour of the event of ‘getting an even
number’ are 2,4,6 (i.e., three in number). In general, to
obtain the probability of an event, we find the ratio of the
number of outcomes favourable to the event, to the total
number of equally likely outcomes. This theory of probability Kolmogorov
is known as classical theory of probability. (1903-1987)
In Class IX, we learnt to find the probability on the basis of observations and
collected data. This is called statistical approach of probability.
Both the theories have some serious difficulties. For instance, these theories can
not be applied to the activities/experiments which have infinite number of outcomes. In
classical theory we assume all the outcomes to be equally likely. Recall that the outcomes
are called equally likely when we have no reason to believe that one is more likely to
occur than the other. In other words, we assume that all outcomes have equal chance
(probability) to occur. Thus, to define probability, we used equally likely or equally
probable outcomes. This is logically not a correct definition. Thus, another theory of
probability was developed by A.N. Kolmogorov, a Russian mathematician, in 1933. He

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laid down some axioms to interpret probability, in his book ‘Foundation of Probability’
published in 1933. In this Chapter, we will study about this approach called axiomatic
approach of probability. To understand this approach we must know about few basic
terms viz. random experiment, sample space, events, etc. Let us learn about these all,
in what follows next.
16.2 Random Experiments
In our day to day life, we perform many activities which have a fixed result no matter
any number of times they are repeated. For example given any triangle, without knowing
the three angles, we can definitely say that the sum of measure of angles is 180°.
We also perform many experimental activities, where the result may not be same,
when they are repeated under identical conditions. For example, when a coin is tossed
it may turn up a head or a tail, but we are not sure which one of these results will
actually be obtained. Such experiments are called random experiments.
An experiment is called random experiment if it satisfies the following two
conditions:
(i) It has more than one possible outcome.
(ii) It is not possible to predict the outcome in advance.
Check whether the experiment of tossing a die is random or not?
In this chapter, we shall refer the random experiment by experiment only unless
stated otherwise.
16.2.1 Outcomes and sample space A possible result of a random experiment is
called its outcome.
Consider the experiment of rolling a die. The outcomes of this experiment are 1,
2, 3, 4, 5, or 6, if we are interested in the number of dots on the upper face of the die.
The set of outcomes {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} is called the sample space of the experiment.
Thus, the set of all possible outcomes of a random experiment is called the sample
space associated with the experiment. Sample space is denoted by the symbol S.
Each element of the sample space is called a sample point. In other words, each
outcome of the random experiment is also called sample point.
Let us now consider some examples.
Example 1 Two coins (a one rupee coin and a two rupee coin) are tossed once. Find
a sample space.
Solution Clearly the coins are distinguishable in the sense that we can speak of the
first coin and the second coin. Since either coin can turn up Head (H) or Tail(T), the
possible outcomes may be

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Heads on both coins = (H,H) = HH

Head on first coin and Tail on the other = (H,T) = HT
Tail on first coin and Head on the other = (T,H) = TH
Tail on both coins = (T,T) = TT
Thus, the sample space is S = {HH, HT, TH, TT}

A Note The outcomes of this experiment are ordered pairs of H and T. For the
sake of simplicity the commas are omitted from the ordered pairs.
Example 2 Find the sample space associated with the experiment of rolling a pair of
dice (one is blue and the other red) once. Also, find the number of elements of this
sample space.
Solution Suppose 1 appears on blue die and 2 on the red die. We denote this outcome
by an ordered pair (1,2). Similarly, if ‘3’ appears on blue die and ‘5’ on red, the outcome
is denoted by the ordered pair (3,5).
In general each outcome can be denoted by the ordered pair (x, y), where x is
the number appeared on the blue die and y is the number appeared on the red die.
Therefore, this sample space is given by
S = {(x, y): x is the number on the blue die and y is the number on the red die}.
The number of elements of this sample space is 6 × 6 = 36 and the sample space is
given below:
{(1,1), (1,2), (1,3), (1,4), (1,5), (1,6), (2,1), (2,2), (2,3), (2,4), (2,5), (2,6)
(3,1), (3,2), (3,3), (3,4), (3,5), (3,6), (4,1), (4,2), (4,3), (4,4), (4,5), (4,6)
(5,1), (5,2), (5,3), (5,4), (5,5), (5,6), (6,1), (6,2), (6,3), (6,4), (6,5), (6,6)}
Example 3 In each of the following experiments specify appropriate sample space
(i) A boy has a 1 rupee coin, a 2 rupee coin and a 5 rupee coin in his pocket. He
takes out two coins out of his pocket, one after the other.
(ii) A person is noting down the number of accidents along a busy highway
during a year.
Solution (i) Let Q denote a 1 rupee coin, H denotes a 2 rupee coin and R denotes a 5
rupee coin. The first coin he takes out of his pocket may be any one of the three coins
Q, H or R. Corresponding to Q, the second draw may be H or R. So the result of two
draws may be QH or QR. Similarly, corresponding to H, the second draw may be
Q or R.
Therefore, the outcomes may be HQ or HR. Lastly, corresponding to R, the second
draw may be H or Q.
So, the outcomes may be RH or RQ.

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Thus, the sample space is S={QH, QR, HQ, HR, RH, RQ}
(ii) The number of accidents along a busy highway during the year of observation
can be either 0 (for no accident ) or 1 or 2, or some other positive integer.
Thus, a sample space associated with this experiment is S= {0,1,2,...}
Example 4 A coin is tossed. If it shows head, we draw a ball from a bag consisting of
3 blue and 4 white balls; if it shows tail we throw a die. Describe the sample space of
this experiment.
Solution Let us denote blue balls by B1, B2, B3 and the white balls by W1, W2, W3, W4.
Then a sample space of the experiment is
S = { HB1, HB2, HB3, HW1, HW2, HW3, HW4, T1, T2, T3, T4, T5, T6}.
Here HBi means head on the coin and ball Bi is drawn, HWi means head on the coin
and ball Wi is drawn. Similarly, Ti means tail on the coin and the number i on the die.
Example 5 Consider the experiment in which a coin is tossed repeatedly until a head
comes up. Describe the sample space.
Solution In the experiment head may come up on the first toss, or the 2nd toss, or the
3rd toss and so on till head is obtained. Hence, the desired sample space is
S= {H, TH, TTH, TTTH, TTTTH,...}

EXERCISE 16.1
In each of the following Exercises 1 to 7, describe the sample space for the indicated
experiment.
1. A coin is tossed three times.
2. A die is thrown two times.
3. A coin is tossed four times.
4. A coin is tossed and a die is thrown.
5. A coin is tossed and then a die is rolled only in case a head is shown on the coin.
6. 2 boys and 2 girls are in Room X, and 1 boy and 3 girls in Room Y. Specify the
sample space for the experiment in which a room is selected and then a person.
7. One die of red colour, one of white colour and one of blue colour are placed in a
bag. One die is selected at random and rolled, its colour and the number on its
uppermost face is noted. Describe the sample space.
8. An experiment consists of recording boy–girl composition of families with 2
children.
(i) What is the sample space if we are interested in knowing whether it is a boy
or girl in the order of their births?

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(ii) What is the sample space if we are interested in the number of girls in the
family?
9. A box contains 1 red and 3 identical white balls. Two balls are drawn at random
in succession without replacement. Write the sample space for this experiment.
10. An experiment consists of tossing a coin and then throwing it second time if a
head occurs. If a tail occurs on the first toss, then a die is rolled once. Find the
sample space.
11. Suppose 3 bulbs are selected at random from a lot. Each bulb is tested and
classified as defective (D) or non – defective(N). Write the sample space of this
experiment.
12. A coin is tossed. If the out come is a head, a die is thrown. If the die shows up
an even number, the die is thrown again. What is the sample space for the
experiment?
13. The numbers 1, 2, 3 and 4 are written separatly on four slips of paper. The slips
are put in a box and mixed thoroughly. A person draws two slips from the box,
one after the other, without replacement. Describe the sample space for the
experiment.
14. An experiment consists of rolling a die and then tossing a coin once if the number
on the die is even. If the number on the die is odd, the coin is tossed twice. Write
the sample space for this experiment.
15. A coin is tossed. If it shows a tail, we draw a ball from a box which contains 2 red
and 3 black balls. If it shows head, we throw a die. Find the sample space for this
experiment.
16. A die is thrown repeatedly untill a six comes up. What is the sample space for
this experiment?
16.3 Event
We have studied about random experiment and sample space associated with an
experiment. The sample space serves as an universal set for all questions concerned
with the experiment.
Consider the experiment of tossing a coin two times. An associated sample space
is S = {HH, HT, TH, TT}.
Now suppose that we are interested in those outcomes which correspond to the
occurrence of exactly one head. We find that HT and TH are the only elements of S
corresponding to the occurrence of this happening (event). These two elements form
the set E = { HT, TH}
We know that the set E is a subset of the sample space S . Similarly, we find the
following correspondence between events and subsets of S.

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Description of events Corresponding subset of ‘S’

Number of tails is exactly 2 A = {TT}
Number of tails is atleast one B = {HT, TH, TT}
Number of heads is atmost one C = {HT, TH, TT}
Second toss is not head D = { HT, TT}
Number of tails is atmost two S = {HH, HT, TH, TT}
Number of tails is more than two φ
The above discussion suggests that a subset of sample space is associated with
an event and an event is associated with a subset of sample space. In the light of this
we define an event as follows.
Definition Any subset E of a sample space S is called an event.
16.3.1 Occurrence of an event Consider the experiment of throwing a die. Let E
denotes the event “ a number less than 4 appears”. If actually ‘1’ had appeared on the
die then we say that event E has occurred. As a matter of fact if outcomes are 2 or 3,
we say that event E has occurred
Thus, the event E of a sample space S is said to have occurred if the outcome
ω of the experiment is such that ω ∈ E. If the outcome ω is such that ω ∉ E, we say
that the event E has not occurred.
16.3.2 Types of events Events can be classified into various types on the basis of the
elements they have.
1. Impossible and Sure Events The empty set φ and the sample space S describe
events. In fact φ is called an impossible event and S, i.e., the whole sample space is
called the sure event.
To understand these let us consider the experiment of rolling a die. The associated
sample space is
S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
Let E be the event “ the number appears on the die is a multiple of 7”. Can you
write the subset associated with the event E?
Clearly no outcome satisfies the condition given in the event, i.e., no element of
the sample space ensures the occurrence of the event E. Thus, we say that the empty
set only correspond to the event E. In other words we can say that it is impossible to
have a multiple of 7 on the upper face of the die. Thus, the event E = φ is an impossible
event.
Now let us take up another event F “the number turns up is odd or even”. Clearly

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F = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,} = S, i.e., all outcomes of the experiment ensure the occurrence of
the event F. Thus, the event F = S is a sure event.
2. Simple Event If an event E has only one sample point of a sample space, it is
called a simple (or elementary) event.
In a sample space containing n distinct elements, there are exactly n simple
events.
For example in the experiment of tossing two coins, a sample space is
S={HH, HT, TH, TT}
There are four simple events corresponding to this sample space. These are
E1= {HH}, E2={HT}, E3= { TH} and E4={TT}.
3. Compound Event If an event has more than one sample point, it is called a
Compound event.
For example, in the experiment of “tossing a coin thrice” the events
E: ‘Exactly one head appeared’
F: ‘Atleast one head appeared’
G: ‘Atmost one head appeared’ etc.
are all compound events. The subsets of S associated with these events are
E={HTT,THT,TTH}
F={HTT,THT, TTH, HHT, HTH, THH, HHH}
G= {TTT, THT, HTT, TTH}
Each of the above subsets contain more than one sample point, hence they are all
compound events.
16.3.3 Algebra of events In the Chapter on Sets, we have studied about different
ways of combining two or more sets, viz, union, intersection, difference, complement
of a set etc. Like-wise we can combine two or more events by using the analogous set
notations.
Let A, B, C be events associated with an experiment whose sample space is S.
1. Complementary Event For every event A, there corresponds another event
A ′ called the complementary event to A. It is also called the event ‘not A’.
For example, take the experiment ‘of tossing three coins’. An associated sample
space is
S = {HHH, HHT, HTH, THH, HTT, THT, TTH, TTT}
Let A={HTH, HHT, THH} be the event ‘only one tail appears’
Clearly for the outcome HTT, the event A has not occurred. But we may say that
the event ‘not A’ has occurred. Thus, with every outcome which is not in A, we say
that ‘not A’ occurs.

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Thus the complementary event ‘not A’ to the event A is

A′ = {HHH, HTT, THT, TTH, TTT}
or A′ = {ω : ω ∈ S and ω ∉A} = S – A.
2. The Event ‘A or B’ Recall that union of two sets A and B denoted by A ∪ B
contains all those elements which are either in A or in B or in both.
When the sets A and B are two events associated with a sample space, then
‘A ∪ B’ is the event ‘either A or B or both’. This event ‘A ∪ B’ is also called ‘A or B’.
Therefore Event ‘A or B’ = A ∪ B
= {ω : ω ∈ A or ω ∈ B}
3. The Event ‘A and B’ We know that intersection of two sets A ∩ B is the set of
those elements which are common to both A and B. i.e., which belong to both
‘A and B’.
If A and B are two events, then the set A ∩ B denotes the event ‘A and B’.
Thus, A ∩ B = {ω : ω ∈ A and ω ∈ B}
For example, in the experiment of ‘throwing a die twice’ Let A be the event
‘score on the first throw is six’ and B is the event ‘sum of two scores is atleast 11’ then
A = {(6,1), (6,2), (6,3), (6,4), (6,5), (6,6)}, and B = {(5,6), (6,5), (6,6)}
so A ∩ B = {(6,5), (6,6)}
Note that the set A ∩ B = {(6,5), (6,6)} may represent the event ‘the score on the first
throw is six and the sum of the scores is atleast 11’.
4. The Event ‘A but not B’ We know that A–B is the set of all those elements
which are in A but not in B. Therefore, the set A–B may denote the event ‘A but not
B’.We know that
A – B = A ∩ B´
Example 6 Consider the experiment of rolling a die. Let A be the event ‘getting a
prime number’, B be the event ‘getting an odd number’. Write the sets representing
the events (i) Aor B (ii) A and B (iii) A but not B (iv) ‘not A’.
Solution Here S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, A = {2, 3, 5} and B = {1, 3, 5}
Obviously
(i) ‘A or B’ = A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3, 5}
(ii) ‘A and B’ = A ∩ B = {3,5}
(iii) ‘A but not B’ = A – B = {2}
(iv) ‘not A’ = A′ = {1,4,6}

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16.3.4 Mutually exclusive events In the experiment of rolling a die, a sample space is
S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}. Consider events, A ‘an odd number appears’ and B ‘an even
number appears’
Clearly the event A excludes the event B and vice versa. In other words, there is
no outcome which ensures the occurrence of events A and B simultaneously. Here
A = {1, 3, 5} and B = {2, 4, 6}
Clearly A ∩ B = φ, i.e., A and B are disjoint sets.
In general, two events A and B are called mutually exclusive events if the
occurrence of any one of them excludes the occurrence of the other event, i.e., if they
can not occur simultaneously. In this case the sets A and B are disjoint.
Again in the experiment of rolling a die, consider the events A ‘an odd number
appears’ and event B ‘a number less than 4 appears’
Obviously A = {1, 3, 5} and B = {1, 2, 3}
Now 3 ∈ A as well as 3 ∈ B
Therefore, A and B are not mutually exclusive events.
Remark Simple events of a sample space are always mutually exclusive.
16.3.5 Exhaustive events Consider the experiment of throwing a die. We have
S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}. Let us define the following events
A: ‘a number less than 4 appears’,
B: ‘a number greater than 2 but less than 5 appears’
and C: ‘a number greater than 4 appears’.
Then A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {3,4} and C = {5, 6}. We observe that
A ∪ B ∪ C = {1, 2, 3} ∪ {3, 4} ∪ {5, 6} = S.
Such events A, B and C are called exhaustive events. In general, if E1, E2, ..., En are n
events of a sample space S and if
n
E1 ∪ E 2 ∪ E 3 ∪ ... ∪ E n = ∪ E i = S
i =1

then E1, E2, ...., En are called exhaustive events.In other words, events E1, E2, ..., En
are said to be exhaustive if atleast one of them necessarily occurs whenever the
experiment is performed.
Further, if Ei ∩ Ej = φ for i ≠ j i.e., events Ei and Ej are pairwise disjoint and
n
∪ E i = S , then events E1, E2, ..., En are called mutually exclusive and exhaustive
i =1

events.

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We now consider some examples.

Example 7 Two dice are thrown and the sum of the numbers which come up on the
dice is noted. Let us consider the following events associated with this experiment
A: ‘the sum is even’.
B: ‘the sum is a multiple of 3’.
C: ‘the sum is less than 4’.
D: ‘the sum is greater than 11’.
Which pairs of these events are mutually exclusive?
Solution There are 36 elements in the sample space S = {(x, y): x, y = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.
Then
A = {(1, 1), (1, 3), (1, 5), (2, 2), (2, 4), (2, 6), (3, 1), (3, 3), (3, 5), (4, 2), (4, 4),
(4, 6), (5, 1), (5, 3), (5, 5), (6, 2), (6, 4), (6, 6)}
B = {(1, 2), (2, 1), (1, 5), (5, 1), (3, 3), (2, 4), (4, 2), (3, 6), (6, 3), (4, 5), (5, 4),
(6, 6)}
C = {(1, 1), (2, 1), (1, 2)} and D = {(6, 6)}
We find that
A ∩ B = {(1, 5), (2, 4), (3, 3), (4, 2), (5, 1), (6, 6)} ≠ φ
Therefore, A and B are not mutually exclusive events.
Similarly A ∩ C ≠ φ, A ∩ D ≠ φ, B ∩ C ≠ φ and B ∩ D ≠ φ.
Thus, the pairs of events, (A, C), (A, D), (B, C), (B, D) are not mutually exclusive
events.
Also C ∩ D = φ and so C and D are mutually exclusive events.
Example 8 A coin is tossed three times, consider the following events.
A: ‘No head appears’, B: ‘Exactly one head appears’ and C: ‘Atleast two heads
appear’.
Do they form a set of mutually exclusive and exhaustive events?
Solution The sample space of the experiment is
S = {HHH, HHT, HTH, THH, HTT, THT, TTH, TTT}
and A = {TTT}, B = {HTT, THT, TTH}, C = {HHT, HTH, THH, HHH}
Now
A ∪ B ∪ C = {TTT, HTT, THT, TTH, HHT, HTH, THH, HHH} = S
Therefore, A, B and C are exhaustive events.
Also, A ∩ B = φ, A ∩ C = φ and B ∩ C = φ
Therefore, the events are pair-wise disjoint, i.e., they are mutually exclusive.
Hence, A, B and C form a set of mutually exclusive and exhaustive events.

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EXERCISE 16.2
1. A die is rolled. Let E be the event “die shows 4” and F be the event “die shows
even number”. Are E and F mutually exclusive?
2. A die is thrown. Describe the following events:
(i) A: a number less than 7 (ii) B: a number greater than 7
(iii) C: a multiple of 3 (iv) D: a number less than 4
(v) E: an even number greater than 4 (vi) F: a number not less than 3
Also find A ∪ B, A ∩ B, B ∪ C, E ∩ F, D ∩ E, A – C, D – E, E ∩ F′, F′
3. An experiment involves rolling a pair of dice and recording the numbers that
come up. Describe the following events:
A: the sum is greater than 8, B: 2 occurs on either die
C: the sum is at least 7 and a multiple of 3.
Which pairs of these events are mutually exclusive?
4. Three coins are tossed once. Let A denote the event ‘three heads show”, B
denote the event “two heads and one tail show”, C denote the event” three tails
show and D denote the event ‘a head shows on the first coin”. Which events are
(i) mutually exclusive? (ii) simple? (iii) Compound?
5. Three coins are tossed. Describe
(i) Two events which are mutually exclusive.
(ii) Three events which are mutually exclusive and exhaustive.
(iii) Two events, which are not mutually exclusive.
(iv) Two events which are mutually exclusive but not exhaustive.
(v) Three events which are mutually exclusive but not exhaustive.
6. Two dice are thrown. The events A, B and C are as follows:
A: getting an even number on the first die.
B: getting an odd number on the first die.
C: getting the sum of the numbers on the dice ≤ 5.
Describe the events
(i) A ′ (ii) not B (iii) A or B
(iv) A and B (v) A but not C (vi) B or C
(vii) B and C (viii) A ∩ B′ ∩ C′
7. Refer to question 6 above, state true or false: (give reason for your answer)
(i) A and B are mutually exclusive
(ii) A and B are mutually exclusive and exhaustive
(iii) A = B′

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(iv) A and C are mutually exclusive

(v) A and B′ are mutually exclusive.
(vi) A′, B′, C are mutually exclusive and exhaustive.
16.4 Axiomatic Approach to Probability
In earlier sections, we have considered random experiments, sample space and
events associated with these experiments. In our day to day life we use many words
about the chances of occurrence of events. Probability theory attempts to quantify
these chances of occurrence or non occurrence of events.
In earlier classes, we have studied some methods of assigning probability to an
event associated with an experiment having known the number of total outcomes.
Axiomatic approach is another way of describing probability of an event. In this
approach some axioms or rules are depicted to assign probabilities.
Let S be the sample space of a random experiment. The probability P is a real
valued function whose domain is the power set of S and range is the interval [0,1]
satisfying the following axioms
(i) For any event E, P (E) ≥ 0 (ii) P (S) = 1
(iii) If E and F are mutually exclusive events, then P(E ∪ F) = P(E) + P(F).
It follows from (iii) that P(φ) = 0. To prove this, we take F = φ and note that E and φ
are disjoint events. Therefore, from axiom (iii), we get
P (E ∪ φ) = P (E) + P (φ) or P(E) = P(E) + P (φ) i.e. P (φ) = 0.
Let S be a sample space containing outcomes ω1 , ω2 ,..., ωn , i.e.,
S = {ω1, ω2, ..., ωn}
It follows from the axiomatic definition of probability that
(i) 0 ≤ P (ωi) ≤ 1 for each ωi ∈ S
(ii) P (ω1) + P (ω2) + ... + P (ωn) = 1
(iii) For any event A, P(A) = ∑ P(ωi ), ωi ∈ A.

A Note It may be noted that the singleton {ω } is called elementary event and
i
for notational convenience, we write P(ω ) for P({ω }).
i i
1
For example, in ‘a coin tossing’ experiment we can assign the number to each
2
of the outcomes H and T.
1 1
i.e. P(H) = and P(T) = (1)
2 2
Clearly this assignment satisfies both the conditions i.e., each number is neither
less than zero nor greater than 1 and

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1 1
P(H) + P(T) = + =1
2 2
1 1
Therefore, in this case we can say that probability of H = , and probability of T =
2 2
1 3
If we take P(H) = and P(T) = ... (2)
4 4
Does this assignment satisfy the conditions of axiomatic approach?
1 3
Yes, in this case, probability of H = and probability of T =
.
4 4
We find that both the assignments (1) and (2) are valid for probability of
H and T.
In fact, we can assign the numbers p and (1 – p) to both the outcomes such that
0 ≤ p ≤ 1 and P(H) + P(T) = p + (1 – p) = 1
This assignment, too, satisfies both conditions of the axiomatic approach of
probability. Hence, we can say that there are many ways (rather infinite) to assign
probabilities to outcomes of an experiment. We now consider some examples.
Example 9 Let a sample space be S = {ω1, ω2,..., ω6}.Which of the following
assignments of probabilities to each outcome are valid?
Outcomes ω 1 ω2 ω3 ω4 ω5 ω6
1 1 1 1 1 1
(a)
6 6 6 6 6 6
(b) 1 0 0 0 0 0
1 2 1 1 1 1
(c) − −
8 3 3 3 4 3
1 1 1 1 1 3
(d)
12 12 6 6 6 2
(e) 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6

Solution (a) Condition (i): Each of the number p(ωi) is positive and less than one.
Condition (ii): Sum of probabilities
1 1 1 1 1 1
= + + + + + =1
6 6 6 6 6 6

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Therefore, the assignment is valid

(b) Condition (i): Each of the number p(ωi) is either 0 or 1.
Condition (ii) Sum of the probabilities = 1 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 = 1
Therefore, the assignment is valid
(c) Condition (i) Two of the probabilities p(ω5) and p(ω6) are negative, the assignment
is not valid
3
(d) Since p(ω6) = > 1, the assignment is not valid
2
(e) Since, sum of probabilities = 0.1 + 0.2 + 0.3 + 0.4 + 0.5 + 0.6 = 2.1, the assignment
is not valid.
16.4.1 Probability of an event Let S be a sample space associated with the experiment
‘examining three consecutive pens produced by a machine and classified as Good
(non-defective) and bad (defective)’. We may get 0, 1, 2 or 3 defective pens as result
of this examination.
A sample space associated with this experiment is
S = {BBB, BBG, BGB, GBB, BGG, GBG, GGB, GGG},
where B stands for a defective or bad pen and G for a non – defective or good pen.
Let the probabilities assigned to the outcomes be as follows
Sample point: BBB BBG BGB GBB BGG GBG GGB GGG
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Probability:
8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8
Let event A: there is exactly one defective pen and event B: there are atleast two
defective pens.
Hence A = {BGG, GBG, GGB} and B = {BBG, BGB, GBB, BBB}
Now P(A) = ∑ P(ωi ),∀ωi ∈ A
1 1 1 3
= P(BGG) + P(GBG) + P(GGB) = + + =
8 8 8 8
and P(B) = ∑ P(ωi ),∀ ωi ∈ B
1 1 1 1 4 1
= P(BBG) + P(BGB) + P(GBB) + P(BBB) = + + + = =
8 8 8 8 8 2
Let us consider another experiment of ‘tossing a coin “twice”
The sample space of this experiment is S = {HH, HT, TH, TT}
Let the following probabilities be assigned to the outcomes

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1 1 2 9
P(HH) = , P(HT) = , P(TH) = , P(TT) =
4 7 7 28
Clearly this assignment satisfies the conditions of axiomatic approach. Now, let
us find the probability of the event E: ‘Both the tosses yield the same result’.
Here E = {HH, TT}
Now P(E) = Σ P(wi), for all wi ∈ E
1 9 4
= P(HH) + P(TT) = + =
4 28 7
For the event F: ‘exactly two heads’, we have F = {HH}
1
and P(F) = P(HH) =
4
16.4.2 Probabilities of equally likely outcomes Let a sample space of an
experiment be
S = {ω1, ω2,..., ωn}.
Let all the outcomes are equally likely to occur, i.e., the chance of occurrence of each
simple event must be same.
i.e. P(ωi) = p, for all ωi ∈ S where 0 ≤ p ≤ 1
n
Since ∑ P(ωi ) =1 i.e., p + p + ... + p (n times) = 1
i=1

1
or np = 1 i.e., p =
n
Let S be a sample space and E be an event, such that n(S) = n and n(E) = m. If
each out come is equally likely, then it follows that
m Number of outcomes favourable to E
P(E) = =
n Total possible outcomes

16.4.3 Probability of the event ‘A or B’ Let us now find the probability of event
‘A or B’, i.e., P (A ∪ B)
Let A = {HHT, HTH, THH} and B = {HTH, THH, HHH} be two events associated
with ‘tossing of a coin thrice’
Clearly A ∪ B = {HHT, HTH, THH, HHH}
Now P (A ∪ B) = P(HHT) + P(HTH) + P(THH) + P(HHH)

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If all the outcomes are equally likely, then

1 1 1 1 4 1
P ( A ∪ B) = + + + = =
8 8 8 8 8 2
3
Also P(A) = P(HHT) + P(HTH) + P(THH) =
8
3
and P(B) = P(HTH) + P(THH) + P(HHH) =
8
3 3 6
Therefore P(A) + P(B) = + =
8 8 8
It is clear that P(A ∪ B) ≠ P(A) + P(B)
The points HTH and THH are common to both A and B. In the computation of
P(A) + P(B) the probabilities of points HTH and THH, i.e., the elements of A ∩B are
included twice. Thus to get the probability P(A ∪ B) we have to subtract the probabilities
of the sample points in A ∩ B from P(A) + P(B)
i.e. P(A ∪ B) = P(A) + P(B) − ∑ P(ωi ), ∀ωi ∈ A ∩ B
= P( A ) + P(B) − P( A ∩ B)
Thus we observe that, P( A ∪ B) = P( A) + P( B) − P (A ∩ B)
In general, if A and B are any two events associated with a random experiment,
then by the definition of probability of an event, we have
P ( A ∪ B ) = ∑ p ( ωi ) , ∀ωi ∈ A ∪ B .
Since A ∪ B = (A–B) ∪ (A ∩ B) ∪ (B–A) ,
we have
P(A ∪ B) = [ ∑ P(ωi )∀ ωi ∈ (A–B)] + [ ∑ P(ωi )∀ ωi ∈ A ∩ B ] + [ ∑ P(ωi )∀ ωi ∈ B – A ]
(because A–B, A ∩ B and B – A are mutually exclusive) ... (1)
Also P(A) + P(B) = [ ∑ p(ωi ) ∀ ωi ∈ A ] + [ ∑ p(ωi ) ∀ ωi ∈ B ]
= [ ∑ P(ωi )∀ωi ∈ (A–B) ∪ (A ∩ B)] + [ ∑ P(ωi )∀ωi ∈ (B – A) ∪ (A ∩ B)]
= [ ∑ P(ωi )∀ωi ∈ (A – B)] + [ ∑ P(ωi )∀ωi ∈ (A ∩ B)] + [ ∑ P(ωi )∀ωi ∈ (B–A)] +

[ ∑ P(ωi )∀ωi ∈ (A ∩ B)]

= P(A ∪ B) + [ ∑ P(ωi )∀ ωi ∈ A ∩ B ] [using (1)]
= P(A ∪ B) + P(A ∩ B) .

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Hence P(A ∪ B) = P (A) +P(B) – P(A ∩ B) .

Alternatively, it can also be proved as follows:
A ∪ B = A ∪ (B – A), where A and B – A are mutually exclusive,
and B = (A ∩ B) ∪ (B – A), where A ∩ B and B – A are mutually exclusive.
Using Axiom (iii) of probability, we get
P (A ∪B) = P (A) + P (B – A) ... (2)
and P(B) = P ( A ∩ B) + P (B – A) ... (3)
Subtracting (3) from (2) gives
P (A ∪ B) – P(B) = P(A) – P (A ∩ B)
or P(A ∪ B) = P(A) + P (B) – P (A ∩ B)
The above result can further be verified by observing the Venn Diagram (Fig 16.1)

Fig 16.1

If A and B are disjoint sets, i.e., they are mutually exclusive events, then A ∩ B = φ
Therefore P(A ∩ B) = P (φ) = 0
Thus, for mutually exclusive events A and B, we have
P( A ∪ B) = P ( A) + P (B) ,
which is Axiom (iii) of probability.
16.4.4 Probability of event ‘not A’ Consider the event A = {2, 4, 6, 8} associated
with the experiment of drawing a card from a deck of ten cards numbered from
1 to 10. Clearly the sample space is S = {1, 2, 3, ...,10}
If all the outcomes 1, 2, ...,10 are considered to be equally likely, then the probability
1
of each outcome is
10

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400 MATHEMATICS

Now P(A) = P(2) + P(4) + P(6) + P(8)

1 1 1 1 4 2
= + + + = =
10 10 10 10 10 5
Also event ‘not A’ = A ′ = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 10}
Now P(A′) = P(1) + P(3) + P(5) + P(7) + P(9) + P(10)
6 3
= =
10 5
3 2
Thus, P(A′) = = 1 − = 1 − P ( A)
5 5
Also, we know that A′ and A are mutually exclusive and exhaustive events i.e.,
A ∩ A′ = φ and A ∪ A′ = S
or P(A ∪ A′) = P(S)
Now P(A) + P(A′) = 1, by using axioms (ii) and (iii).
or P( A ′ ) = P(not A) = 1 – P(A)
We now consider some examples and exercises having equally likely outcomes
unless stated otherwise.
Example 10 One card is drawn from a well shuffled deck of 52 cards. If each outcome
is equally likely, calculate the probability that the card will be
(i) a diamond (ii) not an ace
(iii) a black card (i.e., a club or, a spade) (iv) not a diamond
(v) not a black card.
Solution When a card is drawn from a well shuffled deck of 52 cards, the number of
possible outcomes is 52.
(i) Let A be the event 'the card drawn is a diamond'
Clearly the number of elements in set A is 13.
13 1
Therefore, P(A) = =
52 4
1
i.e. probability of a diamond card =
4
(ii) We assume that the event ‘Card drawn is an ace’ is B
Therefore ‘Card drawn is not an ace’ should be B′.
4 1 12
We know that P(B′) = 1 – P(B) = 1 − =1 − =
52 13 13

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 PROBABILITY 401

(iii) Let C denote the event ‘card drawn is black card’

Therefore, number of elements in the set C = 26
26 1
i.e. P(C) = =
52 2
1
Thus, probability of a black card = .
2
(iv) We assumed in (i) above that A is the event ‘card drawn is a diamond’,
so the event ‘card drawn is not a diamond’ may be denoted as A' or ‘not A’
1 3
Now P(not A) = 1 – P(A) = 1 − =
4 4
(v) The event ‘card drawn is not a black card’ may be denoted as C′ or ‘not C’.
1 1
We know that P(not C) = 1 – P(C) = 1 − =
2 2
1
Therefore, probability of not a black card =
2
Example 11 A bag contains 9 discs of which 4 are red, 3 are blue and 2 are yellow.
The discs are similar in shape and size. A disc is drawn at random from the bag.
Calculate the probability that it will be (i) red, (ii) yellow, (iii) blue, (iv) not blue,
(v) either red or blue.
Solution There are 9 discs in all so the total number of possible outcomes is 9.
Let the events A, B, C be defined as
A: ‘the disc drawn is red’
B: ‘the disc drawn is yellow’
C: ‘the disc drawn is blue’.
(i) The number of red discs = 4, i.e., n (A) = 4
4
Hence P(A) =
9
(ii) The number of yellow discs = 2, i.e., n (B) = 2
2
Therefore, P(B) =
9
(iii) The number of blue discs = 3, i.e., n(C) = 3

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402 MATHEMATICS

3 1
Therefore, P(C) = =
9 3
(iv) Clearly the event ‘not blue’ is ‘not C’. We know that P(not C) = 1 – P(C)
1 2
Therefore P(not C) = 1 − =
3 3
(v) The event ‘either red or blue’ may be described by the set ‘A or C’
Since, A and C are mutually exclusive events, we have
4 1 7
P(A or C) = P (A ∪ C) = P(A) + P(C) = + =
9 3 9
Example 12 Two students Anil and Ashima appeared in an examination. The probability
that Anil will qualify the examination is 0.05 and that Ashima will qualify the examination
is 0.10. The probability that both will qualify the examination is 0.02. Find the
probability that
(a) Both Anil and Ashima will not qualify the examination.
(b) Atleast one of them will not qualify the examination and
(c) Only one of them will qualify the examination.
Solution Let E and F denote the events that Anil and Ashima will qualify the examination,
respectively. Given that
P(E) = 0.05, P(F) = 0.10 and P(E ∩ F) = 0.02.
Then
(a) The event ‘both Anil and Ashima will not qualify the examination’ may be
expressed as E´ ∩ F´.
Since, E´ is ‘not E’, i.e., Anil will not qualify the examination and F´ is ‘not F’, i.e.,
Ashima will not qualify the examination.
Also E´ ∩ F´ = (E ∪ F)´ (by Demorgan's Law)
Now P(E ∪ F) = P(E) + P(F) – P(E ∩ F)
or P(E ∪ F) = 0.05 + 0.10 – 0.02 = 0.13
Therefore P(E´ ∩ F´) = P(E ∪ F)´ = 1 – P(E ∪ F) = 1 – 0.13 = 0.87
(b) P (atleast one of them will not qualify)
= 1 – P(both of them will qualify)
= 1 – 0.02 = 0.98

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 PROBABILITY 403

(c) The event only one of them will qualify the examination is same as the event
either (Anil will qualify, and Ashima will not qualify) or (Anil will not qualify and Ashima
will qualify) i.e., E ∩ F´ or E´ ∩ F, where E ∩ F´ and E´ ∩ F are mutually exclusive.
Therefore, P(only one of them will qualify) = P(E ∩ F´ or E´ ∩ F)
= P(E ∩ F´) + P(E´ ∩ F) = P (E) – P(E ∩ F) + P(F) – P (E ∩ F)
= 0.05 – 0.02 + 0.10 – 0.02 = 0.11
Example 13 A committee of two persons is selected from two men and two women.
What is the probability that the committee will have (a) no man? (b) one man? (c) two
men?
Solution The total number of persons = 2 + 2 = 4. Out of these four person, two can
be selected in 4 C 2 ways.
(a) No men in the committee of two means there will be two women in the committee.
Out of two women, two can be selected in 2 C 2 = 1 way.
2
C 2 1× 2 × 1 1
Therefore P ( no man ) = = =
4
C2 4×3 6

(b) One man in the committee means that there is one woman. One man out of 2
can be selected in 2 C1 ways and one woman out of 2 can be selected in 2 C1 ways.

Together they can be selected in 2 C1 × 2 C1 ways.

2
C1 × 2 C1 2 × 2 2
Therefore P (One man ) = = =
4
C2 2×3 3

(c) Two men can be selected in 2 C 2 way.

2
C2 1 1
Hence P (Two men ) = 4
= 4 =
C2 C2 6

EXERCISE 16.3
1. Which of the following can not be valid assignment of probabilities for outcomes
of sample Space S = {ω1 , ω2 , ω3 , ω4 , ω5 , ω6 , ω7 }

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404 MATHEMATICS

Assignment ω 1
ω 2
ω 3
ω 4
ω 5
ω 6
ω 7

(a) 0.1 0.01 0.05 0.03 0.01 0.2 0.6

1 1 1 1 1 1 1
(b)
7 7 7 7 7 7 7
(c) 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
(d) – 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 – 0.2 0.1 0.3
1 2 3 4 5 6 15
(e)
14 14 14 14 14 14 14
2. A coin is tossed twice, what is the probability that atleast one tail occurs?
3. A die is thrown, find the probability of following events:
(i) A prime number will appear,
(ii) A number greater than or equal to 3 will appear,
(iii) A number less than or equal to one will appear,
(iv) A number more than 6 will appear,
(v) A number less than 6 will appear.
4. A card is selected from a pack of 52 cards.
(a) How many points are there in the sample space?
(b) Calculate the probability that the card is an ace of spades.
(c) Calculate the probability that the card is (i) an ace (ii) black card.
5. A fair coin with 1 marked on one face and 6 on the other and a fair die are both
tossed. find the probability that the sum of numbers that turn up is (i) 3 (ii) 12
6. There are four men and six women on the city council. If one council member is
selected for a committee at random, how likely is it that it is a woman?
7. A fair coin is tossed four times, and a person win Re 1 for each head and lose
Rs 1.50 for each tail that turns up.
From the sample space calculate how many different amounts of money you can
have after four tosses and the probability of having each of these amounts.
8. Three coins are tossed once. Find the probability of getting
(i) 3 heads (ii) 2 heads (iii) atleast 2 heads
(iv) atmost 2 heads (v) no head (vi) 3 tails
(vii) exactly two tails (viii) no tail (ix) atmost two tails
2
9. If is the probability of an event, what is the probability of the event ‘not A’.
11
10. A letter is chosen at random from the word ‘ASSASSINATION’. Find the
probability that letter is (i) a vowel (ii) a consonant

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 PROBABILITY 405

11. In a lottery, a person choses six different natural numbers at random from 1 to 20,
and if these six numbers match with the six numbers already fixed by the lottery
committee, he wins the prize. What is the probability of winning the prize in the
game? [Hint order of the numbers is not important.]
12. Check whether the following probabilities P(A) and P(B) are consistently defined
(i) P(A) = 0.5, P(B) = 0.7, P(A ∩ B) = 0.6
(ii) P(A) = 0.5, P(B) = 0.4, P(A ∪ B) = 0.8
13. Fill in the blanks in following table:
P(A) P(B) P(A ∩ B) P(A ∪ B)
1 1 1
(i) ...
3 5 15
(ii) 0.35 ... 0.25 0.6
(iii) 0.5 0.35 ... 0.7
3 1
14. Given P(A) = and P(B) = . Find P(A or B), if A and B are mutually exclusive
5 5
events.
1 1 1
15. If E and F are events such that P(E) = , P(F) = and P(E and F) = , find
4 2 8
(i) P(E or F), (ii) P(not E and not F).
16. Events E and F are such that P(not E or not F) = 0.25, State whether E and F are
mutually exclusive.
17. A and B are events such that P(A) = 0.42, P(B) = 0.48 and P(A and B) = 0.16.
Determine (i) P(not A), (ii) P(not B) and (iii) P(A or B)
18. In Class XI of a school 40% of the students study Mathematics and 30% study
Biology. 10% of the class study both Mathematics and Biology. If a student is
selected at random from the class, find the probability that he will be studying
Mathematics or Biology.
19. In an entrance test that is graded on the basis of two examinations, the probability
of a randomly chosen student passing the first examination is 0.8 and the probability
of passing the second examination is 0.7. The probability of passing atleast one of
them is 0.95. What is the probability of passing both?
20. The probability that a student will pass the final examination in both English and
Hindi is 0.5 and the probability of passing neither is 0.1. If the probability of
passing the English examination is 0.75, what is the probability of passing the
Hindi examination?

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21. In a class of 60 students, 30 opted for NCC, 32 opted for NSS and 24 opted for
both NCC and NSS. If one of these students is selected at random, find the
probability that
(i) The student opted for NCC or NSS.
(ii) The student has opted neither NCC nor NSS.
(iii) The student has opted NSS but not NCC.

Miscellaneous Examples
Example 14 On her vacations Veena visits four cities (A, B, C and D) in a random
order. What is the probability that she visits
(i) A before B? (ii) A before B and B before C?
(iii) A first and B last? (iv) A either first or second?
(v) A just before B?
Solution The number of arrangements (orders) in which Veena can visit four cities A,
B, C, or D is 4! i.e., 24.Therefore, n (S) = 24.
Since the number of elements in the sample space of the experiment is 24 all of these
outcomes are considered to be equally likely. A sample space for the
experiment is
S = {ABCD, ABDC, ACBD, ACDB, ADBC, ADCB
BACD, BADC, BDAC, BDCA, BCAD, BCDA
CABD, CADB, CBDA, CBAD, CDAB, CDBA
DABC, DACB, DBCA, DBAC, DCAB, DCBA}
(i) Let the event ‘she visits A before B’ be denoted by E
Therefore, E = {ABCD, CABD, DABC, ABDC, CADB, DACB
ACBD, ACDB, ADBC, CDAB, DCAB, ADCB}
n (E ) 12 1
Thus P (E ) = = =
n (S) 24 2
(ii) Let the event ‘Veena visits A before B and B before C’ be denoted by F.
Here F = {ABCD, DABC, ABDC, ADBC}
n ( F) 4 1
Therefore, P ( F) = n S = 24 = 6
( )
Students are advised to find the probability in case of (iii), (iv) and (v).

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Example 15 Find the probability that when a hand of 7 cards is drawn from a well
shuffled deck of 52 cards, it contains (i) all Kings (ii) 3 Kings (iii) atleast 3 Kings.
52
Solution Total number of possible hands = C7
(i) Number of hands with 4 Kings = 4 C 4 × 48
C3 (other 3 cards must be chosen
from the rest 48 cards)
4
C 4 × 48 C3 1
Hence P (a hand will have 4 Kings) = 52
=
C7 7735

(ii) Number of hands with 3 Kings and 4 non-King cards = 4 C3 × 48 C 4

4
C3 × 48 C 4 9
Therefore P (3 Kings) = 52
=
C7 1547
(iii) P(atleast 3 King) = P(3 Kings or 4 Kings)
= P(3 Kings) + P(4 Kings)
9 1 46
= + =
1547 7735 7735

Example 16 If A, B, C are three events associated with a random experiment,

prove that
P ( A ∪ B ∪ C ) = P ( A ) + P ( B ) +P ( C ) − P ( A ∩ B ) − P ( A ∩ C )
– P ( B ∩ C) + P ( A ∩ B ∩ C)
Solution Consider E = B ∪ C so that
P (A ∪ B ∪ C ) = P (A ∪ E )
= P (A) + P (E) − P (A ∩ E ) ... (1)
Now
P (E ) = P (B ∪ C)

= P ( B) + P (C ) − P ( B ∩ C ) ... (2)

Also A ∩ E = A ∩ ( B ∪ C ) = ( A ∩ B ) ∪ ( A ∩ C ) [using distribution property of

intersection of sets over the union]. Thus
P ( A ∩ E ) = P ( A ∩ B ) + P (A ∩ C ) – P ( A ∩ B ) ∩ ( A ∩ C )

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408 MATHEMATICS

= P ( A ∩ B ) + P ( A ∩ C ) – P [A ∩ B ∩ C ] ... (3)
Using (2) and (3) in (1), we get
P [A ∪ B ∪ C] = P (A ) + P ( B) + P (C ) − P ( B ∩ C )

– P ( A ∩ B) − P ( A ∩ C ) + P ( A ∩ B ∩ C )

Example 17 In a relay race there are five teams A, B, C, D and E.

(a) What is the probability that A, B and C finish first, second and third,
respectively.
(b) What is the probability that A, B and C are first three to finish (in any order)
(Assume that all finishing orders are equally likely)
Solution If we consider the sample space consisting of all finishing orders in the first
5!
three places, we will have 5 P3 , i.e., = 5 × 4 × 3 = 60 sample points, each with
(5 − 3)!
1
a probability of .
60
(a) A, B and C finish first, second and third, respectively. There is only one finishing
order for this, i.e., ABC.
1
Thus P(A, B and C finish first, second and third respectively) = .
60
(b) A, B and C are the first three finishers. There will be 3! arrangements for A, B
and C. Therefore, the sample points corresponding to this event will be 3! in
number.
3! 6 1
So P (A, B and C are first three to finish) = = =
60 60 10

Miscellaneous Exercise on Chapter 16

1. A box contains 10 red marbles, 20 blue marbles and 30 green marbles. 5 marbles
are drawn from the box, what is the probability that
(i) all will be blue? (ii) atleast one will be green?
2. 4 cards are drawn from a well – shuffled deck of 52 cards. What is the probability
of obtaining 3 diamonds and one spade?

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3. A die has two faces each with number ‘1’, three faces each with number ‘2’ and
one face with number ‘3’. If die is rolled once, determine
(i) P(2) (ii) P(1 or 3) (iii) P(not 3)
4. In a certain lottery 10,000 tickets are sold and ten equal prizes are awarded.
What is the probability of not getting a prize if you buy (a) one ticket (b) two
tickets (c) 10 tickets.
5. Out of 100 students, two sections of 40 and 60 are formed. If you and your friend
are among the 100 students, what is the probability that
(a) you both enter the same section?
(b) you both enter the different sections?
6. Three letters are dictated to three persons and an envelope is addressed to each
of them, the letters are inserted into the envelopes at random so that each envelope
contains exactly one letter. Find the probability that at least one letter is in its
proper envelope.
7. A and B are two events such that P(A) = 0.54, P(B) = 0.69 and P(A ∩ B) = 0.35.
Find (i) P(A ∪ B) (ii) P(A´ ∩ B´) (iii) P(A ∩ B´) (iv) P(B ∩ A´)
8. From the employees of a company, 5 persons are selected to represent them in
the managing committee of the company. Particulars of five persons are as follows:
S. No. Name Sex Age in years
1. Harish M 30
2. Rohan M 33
3. Sheetal F 46
4. Alis F 28
5. Salim M 41
A person is selected at random from this group to act as a spokesperson. What is
the probability that the spokesperson will be either male or over 35 years?
9. If 4-digit numbers greater than 5,000 are randomly formed from the digits
0, 1, 3, 5, and 7, what is the probability of forming a number divisible by 5 when,
(i) the digits are repeated? (ii) the repetition of digits is not allowed?
10. The number lock of a suitcase has 4 wheels, each labelled with ten digits i.e.,
from 0 to 9. The lock opens with a sequence of four digits with no repeats. What
is the probability of a person getting the right sequence to open the suitcase?

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Summary
In this Chapter, we studied about the axiomatic approach of probability. The main
features of this Chapter are as follows:
® Sample space: The set of all possible outcomes
® Sample points: Elements of sample space
® Event: A subset of the sample space
® Impossible event : The empty set
® Sure event: The whole sample space
® Complementary event or ‘not event’ : The set A′ or S – A
® Event A or B: The set A ∪ B
® Event A and B: The set A ∩ B
® Event A and not B: The set A – B
® Mutually exclusive event: A and B are mutually exclusive if A ∩ B = φ
® Exhaustive and mutually exclusive events: Events E1, E2,..., En are mutually
exclusive and exhaustive if E1 ∪ E2 ∪ ...∪ En = S and Ei ∩ Ej = φ V i ≠ j
® Probability: Number P (ωi) associated with sample point ω i such that
(i) 0 ≤ P (ωi) ≤ 1 (ii) ∑ P (ω ) for all ω ∈ S = 1
i i

(iii) P(A) = ∑ P (ω ) for all ω ∈ A. The number P (ω ) is called probability

i i i

of the outcome ωi.

® Equally likely outcomes: All outcomes with equal probability
® Probability of an event: For a finite sample space with equally likely outcomes
n(A)
Probability of an event P(A) = , where n(A) = number of elements in
n(S)
the set A, n(S) = number of elements in the set S.
® If A and B are any two events, then
P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) – P(A and B)
equivalently, P(A ∪ B) = P(A) + P(B) – P(A ∩ B)
® If A and B are mutually exclusive, then P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B)
® If A is any event, then
P(not A) = 1 – P(A)

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Historical Note
Probability theory like many other branches of mathematics, evolved out of
practical consideration. It had its origin in the 16th century when an Italian physician
and mathematician Jerome Cardan (1501–1576) wrote the first book on the subject
“Book on Games of Chance” (Biber de Ludo Aleae). It was published in 1663
after his death.
In 1654, a gambler Chevalier de Metre approached the well known French
Philosopher and Mathematician Blaise Pascal (1623–1662) for certain dice
problem. Pascal became interested in these problems and discussed with famous
French Mathematician Pierre de Fermat (1601–1665). Both Pascal and Fermat
solved the problem independently. Besides, Pascal and Fermat, outstanding
contributions to probability theory were also made by Christian Huygenes (1629–
1665), a Dutchman, J. Bernoulli (1654–1705), De Moivre (1667–1754), a
Frenchman Pierre Laplace (1749–1827), the Russian P.L Chebyshev (1821–1897),
A. A Markov (1856–1922) and A. N Kolmogorove (1903–1987). Kolmogorov is
credited with the axiomatic theory of probability. His book ‘Foundations of
Probability’ published in 1933, introduces probability as a set function and is
considered a classic.

—v —

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 Contents
PART I
Foreword v
Preface vii
1. Relations and Functions 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Types of Relations 2
1.3 Types of Functions 7
1.4 Composition of Functions and Invertible Function 12
1.5 Binary Operations 19
2. Inverse Trigonometric Functions 33
2.1 Introduction 33
2.2 Basic Concepts 33
2.3 Properties of Inverse Trigonometric Functions 42
3. Matrices 56
3.1 Introduction 56
3.2 Matrix 56
3.3 Types of Matrices 61
3.4 Operations on Matrices 65
3.5 Transpose of a Matrix 83
3.6 Symmetric and Skew Symmetric Matrices 85
3.7 Elementary Operation (Transformation) of a Matrix 90
3.8 Invertible Matrices 91
4. Determinants 103
4.1 Introduction 103
4.2 Determinant 103
4.3 Properties of Determinants 109
4.4 Area of a Triangle 121
4.5 Minors and Cofactors 123
4.6 Adjoint and Inverse of a Matrix 126
4.7 Applications of Determinants and Matrices 133
 xiv

5. Continuity and Differentiability 147

5.1 Introduction 147
5.2 Continuity 147
5.3 Differentiability 161
5.4 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions 170
5.5 Logarithmic Differentiation 174
5.6 Derivatives of Functions in Parametric Forms 179
5.7 Second Order Derivative 181
5.8 Mean Value Theorem 184
6. Application of Derivatives 194
6.1 Introduction 194
6.2 Rate of Change of Quantities 194
6.3 Increasing and Decreasing Functions 199
6.4 Tangents and Normals 206
6.5 Approximations 213
6.6 Maxima and Minima 216
Appendix 1: Proofs in Mathematics 247
A.1.1 Introduction 247
A.1.2 What is a Proof? 247
Appendix 2: Mathematical Modelling 256
A.2.1 Introduction 256
A.2.2 Why Mathematical Modelling? 256
A.2.3 Principles of Mathematical Modelling 257
Answers 268
 Chapter 1
RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS
There is no permanent place in the world for ugly mathematics ... . It may
be very hard to define mathematical beauty but that is just as true of
beauty of any kind, we may not know quite what we mean by a
beautiful poem, but that does not prevent us from recognising
one when we read it. — G. H. HARDY

1.1 Introduction
Recall that the notion of relations and functions, domain,
co-domain and range have been introduced in Class XI
along with different types of specific real valued functions
and their graphs. The concept of the term ‘relation’ in
mathematics has been drawn from the meaning of relation
in English language, according to which two objects or
quantities are related if there is a recognisable connection
or link between the two objects or quantities. Let A be
the set of students of Class XII of a school and B be the
set of students of Class XI of the same school. Then some
of the examples of relations from A to B are
✂
(i) {(a, b) A × B: a is brother of b},
✂
Lejeune Dirichlet
(ii) {(a, b) A × B: a is sister of b}, (1805-1859)
✂
(iii) {(a, b) A × B: age of a is greater than age of b},
✂
(iv) {(a, b) A × B: total marks obtained by a in the final examination is less than
the total marks obtained by b in the final examination},
✂
(v) {(a, b) A × B: a lives in the same locality as b}. However, abstracting from
this, we define mathematically a relation R from A to B as an arbitrary subset
of A × B.
✂
✂
If (a, b) R, we say that a is related to b under the relation R and we write as
a R b. In general, (a, b) R, we do not bother whether there is a recognisable
connection or link between a and b. As seen in Class XI, functions are special kind of
relations.
In this chapter, we will study different types of relations and functions, composition
of functions, invertible functions and binary operations.
 2 MATHEMATICS

1.2 Types of Relations

In this section, we would like to study different types of relations. We know that a
relation in a set A is a subset of A × A. Thus, the empty set ✄ and A × A are two
extreme relations. For illustration, consider a relation R in the set A = {1, 2, 3, 4} given by
R = {(a, b): a – b = 10}. This is the empty set, as no pair (a, b) satisfies the condition
a – b = 10. Similarly, R☎ = {(a, b) : | a – b | ✆ 0} is the whole set A × A, as all pairs
(a, b) in A × A satisfy | a – b | ✆ 0. These two extreme examples lead us to the
following definitions.
Definition 1 A relation R in a set A is called empty relation, if no element of A is
related to any element of A, i.e., R = ✄ A × A.
Definition 2 A relation R in a set A is called universal relation, if each element of A
is related to every element of A, i.e., R = A × A.
Both the empty relation and the universal relation are some times called trivial
relations.
Example 1 Let A be the set of all students of a boys school. Show that the relation R
in A given by R = {(a, b) : a is sister of b} is the empty relation and R☎ = {(a, b) : the
difference between heights of a and b is less than 3 meters} is the universal relation.
Solution Since the school is boys school, no student of the school can be sister of any
student of the school. Hence, R = ✄, showing that R is the empty relation. It is also
obvious that the difference between heights of any two students of the school has to be
less than 3 meters. This shows that R☎ = A × A is the universal relation.
Remark In Class XI, we have seen two ways of representing a relation, namely
roaster method and set builder method. However, a relation R in the set {1, 2, 3, 4}
defined by R = {(a, b) : b = a + 1} is also expressed as a R b if and only if
b = a + 1 by many authors. We may also use this notation, as and when convenient.
If (a, b) ✂ R, we say that a is related to b and we denote it as a R b.
One of the most important relation, which plays a significant role in Mathematics,
is an equivalence relation. To study equivalence relation, we first consider three
types of relations, namely reflexive, symmetric and transitive.
Definition 3 A relation R in a set A is called
(i) reflexive, if (a, a) ✂ R, for every a ✂ A,
(ii) symmetric, if (a1, a2) ✂ R implies that (a2, a1) ✂ R, for all a1, a2 ✂ A.
(iii) transitive, if (a1, a2) ✂ R and (a2, a3) ✂ R implies that (a1, a3) ✂ R, for all a1, a2✱
a3 ✂ A.
 RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS 3

Definition 4 A relation R in a set A is said to be an equivalence relation if R is

reflexive, symmetric and transitive.
Example 2 Let T be the set of all triangles in a plane with R a relation in T given by
R = {(T1, T2) : T1 is congruent to T2}. Show that R is an equivalence relation.
Solution R is reflexive, since every triangle is congruent to itself. Further,
(T1, T2) ✂ R ✞ T1 is congruent to T2 ✞ T2 is congruent to T1 ✞ (T2, T1) ✂ R. Hence,
R is symmetric. Moreover, (T1, T2), (T2, T3) ✂ R ✞ T1 is congruent to T2 and T2 is
congruent to T3 ✞ T1 is congruent to T3 ✞ (T1, T3) ✂ R. Therefore, R is an equivalence
relation.
Example 3 Let L be the set of all lines in a plane and R be the relation in L defined as
R = {(L1, L2) : L1 is perpendicular to L2}. Show that R is symmetric but neither
reflexive nor transitive.
Solution R is not reflexive, as a line L1 can not be perpendicular to itself, i.e., (L1, L1)
✟ R. R is symmetric as (L1, L2) ✂ R
✞ L1 is perpendicular to L2
✞ L2 is perpendicular to L1
✞ (L2, L1) ✂ R.
R is not transitive. Indeed, if L1 is perpendicular to L2 and Fig 1.1
L2 is perpendicular to L3, then L1 can never be perpendicular to
L3. In fact, L1 is parallel to L3, i.e., (L1, L2) ✂ R, (L2, L3) ✂ R but (L1, L3) ✟ R.
Example 4 Show that the relation R in the set {1, 2, 3} given by R = {(1, 1), (2, 2),
(3, 3), (1, 2), (2, 3)} is reflexive but neither symmetric nor transitive.
Solution R is reflexive, since (1, 1), (2, 2) and (3, 3) lie in R. Also, R is not symmetric,
as (1, 2) ✂ R but (2, 1) ✟ R. Similarly, R is not transitive, as (1, 2) ✂ R and (2, 3) ✂ R
but (1, 3) ✟ R.
Example 5 Show that the relation R in the set Z of integers given by
R = {(a, b) : 2 divides a – b}
is an equivalence relation.
Solution R is reflexive, as 2 divides (a – a) for all a ✂ Z. Further, if (a, b) ✂ R, then
2 divides a – b. Therefore, 2 divides b – a. Hence, (b, a) ✂ R, which shows that R is
symmetric. Similarly, if (a, b) ✂ R and (b, c) ✂ R, then a – b and b – c are divisible by
2. Now, a – c = (a – b) + (b – c) is even (Why?). So, (a – c) is divisible by 2. This
shows that R is transitive. Thus, R is an equivalence relation in Z.
 4 MATHEMATICS

In Example 5, note that all even integers are related to zero, as (0, ± 2), (0, ± 4)
etc., lie in R and no odd integer is related to 0, as (0, ± 1), (0, ± 3) etc., do not lie in R.
Similarly, all odd integers are related to one and no even integer is related to one.
Therefore, the set E of all even integers and the set O of all odd integers are subsets of
Z satisfying following conditions:
(i) All elements of E are related to each other and all elements of O are related to
each other.
(ii) No element of E is related to any element of O and vice-versa.
(iii) E and O are disjoint and Z = E ✠ O.
The subset E is called the equivalence class containing zero and is denoted by
[0]. Similarly, O is the equivalence class containing 1 and is denoted by [1]. Note that
[0] ✡ [1], [0] = [2r] and [1] = [2r + 1], r ✂ Z. Infact, what we have seen above is true
for an arbitrary equivalence relation R in a set X. Given an arbitrary equivalence
relation R in an arbitrary set X, R divides X into mutually disjoint subsets Ai called
partitions or subdivisions of X satisfying:
(i) all elements of Ai are related to each other, for all i.
(ii) no element of Ai is related to any element of Aj , i ✡ j.
(iii) ✠ Aj = X and Ai ☛ Aj = ✄, i ✡ j.
The subsets Ai are called equivalence classes. The interesting part of the situation
is that we can go reverse also. For example, consider a subdivision of the set Z given
by three mutually disjoint subsets A1, A2 and A3 whose union is Z with
A1 = {x ✂ Z : x is a multiple of 3} = {..., – 6, – 3, 0, 3, 6, ...}
A2 = {x ✂ Z : x – 1 is a multiple of 3} = {..., – 5, – 2, 1, 4, 7, ...}
A3 = {x ✂ Z : x – 2 is a multiple of 3} = {..., – 4, – 1, 2, 5, 8, ...}
Define a relation R in Z given by R = {(a, b) : 3 divides a – b}. Following the
arguments similar to those used in Example 5, we can show that R is an equivalence
relation. Also, A1 coincides with the set of all integers in Z which are related to zero, A2
coincides with the set of all integers which are related to 1 and A3 coincides with the
set of all integers in Z which are related to 2. Thus, A1 = [0], A2 = [1] and A3 = [2].
In fact, A1 = [3r], A2 = [3r + 1] and A3 = [3r + 2], for all r ✂ Z.
Example 6 Let R be the relation defined in the set A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} by
R = {(a, b) : both a and b are either odd or even}. Show that R is an equivalence
relation. Further, show that all the elements of the subset {1, 3, 5, 7} are related to each
other and all the elements of the subset {2, 4, 6} are related to each other, but no
element of the subset {1, 3, 5, 7} is related to any element of the subset {2, 4, 6}.
 RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS 5

Solution Given any element a in A, both a and a must be either odd or even, so
that (a, a) ✂ R. Further, (a, b) ✂ R ✞ both a and b must be either odd or even
✞ (b, a) ✂ R. Similarly, (a, b) ✂ R and (b, c) ✂ R ✞ all elements a, b, c, must be
either even or odd simultaneously ✞ (a, c) ✂ R. Hence, R is an equivalence relation.
Further, all the elements of {1, 3, 5, 7} are related to each other, as all the elements
of this subset are odd. Similarly, all the elements of the subset {2, 4, 6} are related to
each other, as all of them are even. Also, no element of the subset {1, 3, 5, 7} can be
related to any element of {2, 4, 6}, as elements of {1, 3, 5, 7} are odd, while elements
of {2, 4, 6} are even.

EXERCISE 1.1
1. Determine whether each of the following relations are reflexive, symmetric and
transitive:
(i) Relation R in the set A = {1, 2, 3, ..., 13, 14} defined as
R = {(x, y) : 3x – y = 0}
(ii) Relation R in the set N of natural numbers defined as
R = {(x, y) : y = x + 5 and x < 4}
(iii) Relation R in the set A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} as
R = {(x, y) : y is divisible by x}
(iv) Relation R in the set Z of all integers defined as
R = {(x, y) : x – y is an integer}
(v) Relation R in the set A of human beings in a town at a particular time given by
(a) R = {(x, y) : x and y work at the same place}
(b) R = {(x, y) : x and y live in the same locality}
(c) R = {(x, y) : x is exactly 7 cm taller than y}
(d) R = {(x, y) : x is wife of y}
(e) R = {(x, y) : x is father of y}
2. Show that the relation R in the set R of real numbers, defined as
R = {(a, b) : a ☞ b2} is neither reflexive nor symmetric nor transitive.
3. Check whether the relation R defined in the set {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} as
R = {(a, b) : b = a + 1} is reflexive, symmetric or transitive.
4. Show that the relation R in R defined as R = {(a, b) : a ☞ b}, is reflexive and
transitive but not symmetric.
5. Check whether the relation R in R defined by R = {(a, b) : a ☞ b3} is reflexive,
symmetric or transitive.
6 MATHEMATICS

6. Show that the relation R in the set {1, 2, 3} given by R = {(1, 2), (2, 1)} is
symmetric but neither reflexive nor transitive.
7. Show that the relation R in the set A of all the books in a library of a college,
given by R = {(x, y) : x and y have same number of pages} is an equivalence
relation.
8. Show that the relation R in the set A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} given by
R = {(a, b) : |a – b| is even}, is an equivalence relation. Show that all the
elements of {1, 3, 5} are related to each other and all the elements of {2, 4} are
related to each other. But no element of {1, 3, 5} is related to any element of {2, 4}.
9. Show that each of the relation R in the set A = {x ✂ Z : 0 ☞ x ☞ 12}, given by
(i) R = {(a, b) : |a – b| is a multiple of 4}
(ii) R = {(a, b) : a = b}
is an equivalence relation. Find the set of all elements related to 1 in each case.
10. Give an example of a relation. Which is
(i) Symmetric but neither reflexive nor transitive.
(ii) Transitive but neither reflexive nor symmetric.
(iii) Reflexive and symmetric but not transitive.
(iv) Reflexive and transitive but not symmetric.
(v) Symmetric and transitive but not reflexive.
11. Show that the relation R in the set A of points in a plane given by
R = {(P, Q) : distance of the point P from the origin is same as the distance of the
point Q from the origin}, is an equivalence relation. Further, show that the set of
all points related to a point P ✡ (0, 0) is the circle passing through P with origin as
centre.
12. Show that the relation R defined in the set A of all triangles as R = {(T1, T2) : T1
is similar to T2}, is equivalence relation. Consider three right angle triangles T1
with sides 3, 4, 5, T2 with sides 5, 12, 13 and T3 with sides 6, 8, 10. Which
triangles among T1, T2 and T3 are related?
13. Show that the relation R defined in the set A of all polygons as R = {(P1, P2) :
P1 and P2 have same number of sides}, is an equivalence relation. What is the
set of all elements in A related to the right angle triangle T with sides 3, 4 and 5?
14. Let L be the set of all lines in XY plane and R be the relation in L defined as
R = {(L1, L2) : L1 is parallel to L2}. Show that R is an equivalence relation. Find
the set of all lines related to the line y = 2x + 4.
 RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS 7

15. Let R be the relation in the set {1, 2, 3, 4} given by R = {(1, 2), (2, 2), (1, 1), (4,4),
(1, 3), (3, 3), (3, 2)}. Choose the correct answer.
(A) R is reflexive and symmetric but not transitive.
(B) R is reflexive and transitive but not symmetric.
(C) R is symmetric and transitive but not reflexive.
(D) R is an equivalence relation.
16. Let R be the relation in the set N given by R = {(a, b) : a = b – 2, b > 6}. Choose
the correct answer.
(A) (2, 4) ✂ R (B) (3, 8) ✂ R (C) (6, 8) ✂ R (D) (8, 7) ✂ R

1.3 Types of Functions

The notion of a function along with some special functions like identity function, constant
function, polynomial function, rational function, modulus function, signum function etc.
along with their graphs have been given in Class XI.
Addition, subtraction, multiplication and division of two functions have also been
studied. As the concept of function is of paramount importance in mathematics and
among other disciplines as well, we would like to extend our study about function from
where we finished earlier. In this section, we would like to study different types of
functions.
Consider the functions f1, f2, f3 and f4 given by the following diagrams.
In Fig 1.2, we observe that the images of distinct elements of X1 under the function
f1 are distinct, but the image of two distinct elements 1 and 2 of X1 under f2 is same,
namely b. Further, there are some elements like e and f in X2 which are not images of
any element of X1 under f1, while all elements of X3 are images of some elements of X1
under f3. The above observations lead to the following definitions:
Definition 5 A function f : X ✌ Y is defined to be one-one (or injective), if the images
of distinct elements of X under f are distinct, i.e., for every x1, x2 ✂ X, f (x1) = f (x2)
implies x1 = x2. Otherwise, f is called many-one.
The function f1 and f4 in Fig 1.2 (i) and (iv) are one-one and the function f2 and f3
in Fig 1.2 (ii) and (iii) are many-one.
Definition 6 A function f : X ✌ Y is said to be onto (or surjective), if every element
of Y is the image of some element of X under f, i.e., for every y ✂ Y, there exists an
element x in X such that f (x) = y.
The function f3 and f4 in Fig 1.2 (iii), (iv) are onto and the function f1 in Fig 1.2 (i) is
not onto as elements e, f in X2 are not the image of any element in X1 under f1.
 8 MATHEMATICS

Fig 1.2 (i) to (iv)

Remark f : X ✌ Y is onto if and only if Range of f = Y.

Definition 7 A function f : X ✌ Y is said to be one-one and onto (or bijective), if f is
both one-one and onto.
The function f4 in Fig 1.2 (iv) is one-one and onto.
Example 7 Let A be the set of all 50 students of Class X in a school. Let f : A ✌ N be
function defined by f (x) = roll number of the student x. Show that f is one-one
but not onto.
Solution No two different students of the class can have same roll number. Therefore,
f must be one-one. We can assume without any loss of generality that roll numbers of
students are from 1 to 50. This implies that 51 in N is not roll number of any student of
the class, so that 51 can not be image of any element of X under f. Hence, f is not onto.
Example 8 Show that the function f : N ✌ N, given by f (x) = 2x, is one-one but not
onto.
Solution The function f is one-one, for f (x1) = f (x2) ✞ 2x1 = 2x2 ✞ x1 = x2. Further,
f is not onto, as for 1 ✂ N, there does not exist any x in N such that f (x) = 2x = 1.
 RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS 9

Example 9 Prove that the function f : R ✌ R, given by f (x) = 2x, is one-one and onto.
Solution f is one-one, as f (x1) = f (x2) ✞ 2x1 = 2x2 ✞ x1 = x2. Also, given any real
y y y
number y in R, there exists in R such that f ( ) = 2 . ( ) = y. Hence, f is onto.
2 2 2

Fig 1.3
Example 10 Show that the function f : N ✌ N, given by f (1) = f (2) = 1 and f (x) = x – 1,
for every x > 2, is onto but not one-one.
Solution f is not one-one, as f (1) = f (2) = 1. But f is onto, as given any y ✂ N, y ✡ 1,
we can choose x as y + 1 such that f (y + 1) = y + 1 – 1 = y. Also for 1 ✂ N, we
have f (1) = 1.
Example 11 Show that the function f : R ✌ R,
defined as f (x) = x2, is neither one-one nor onto.
Solution Since f (– 1) = 1 = f (1), f is not one-
one. Also, the element – 2 in the co-domain R is
not image of any element x in the domain R
(Why?). Therefore f is not onto.
Example 12 Show that f : N ✌ N, given by

✁ x 1,if x is odd,
f ( x) ✄ ☎
✝ x ✆ 1,if x is even
is both one-one and onto. Fig 1.4
 10 MATHEMATICS

Solution Suppose f (x1) = f (x2). Note that if x1 is odd and x2 is even, then we will have
x1 + 1 = x2 – 1, i.e., x2 – x1 = 2 which is impossible. Similarly, the possibility of x1 being
even and x2 being odd can also be ruled out, using the similar argument. Therefore,
both x1 and x2 must be either odd or even. Suppose both x1 and x2 are odd. Then
✞ ✞
f (x1) = f (x2) x1 + 1 = x2 + 1 x1 = x2. Similarly, if both x1 and x2 are even, then also
✞
f (x1) = f (x2) ✞
x1 – 1 = x2 – 1 x1 = x2. Thus, f is one-one. Also, any odd number
2r + 1 in the co-domain N is the image of 2r + 2 in the domain N and any even number
2r in the co-domain N is the image of 2r – 1 in the domain N. Thus, f is onto.
Example 13 Show that an onto function f : {1, 2, 3} ✌ {1, 2, 3} is always one-one.
Solution Suppose f is not one-one. Then there exists two elements, say 1 and 2 in the
domain whose image in the co-domain is same. Also, the image of 3 under f can be
only one element. Therefore, the range set can have at the most two elements of the
co-domain {1, 2, 3}, showing that f is not onto, a contradiction. Hence, f must be one-one.
Example 14 Show that a one-one function f : {1, 2, 3} ✌ {1, 2, 3} must be onto.
Solution Since f is one-one, three elements of {1, 2, 3} must be taken to 3 different
elements of the co-domain {1, 2, 3} under f. Hence, f has to be onto.
Remark The results mentioned in Examples 13 and 14 are also true for an arbitrary
finite set X, i.e., a one-one function f : X ✌X is necessarily onto and an onto map
✌
f : X X is necessarily one-one, for every finite set X. In contrast to this, Examples 8
and 10 show that for an infinite set, this may not be true. In fact, this is a characteristic
difference between a finite and an infinite set.

EXERCISE 1.2

✍ ✌ R✍ defined by f (x) =
1
1. Show that the function f : R is one-one and onto,
x
✍
where R is the set of all non-zero real numbers. Is the result true, if the domain
✍
R is replaced by N with co-domain being same as R ? ✍
2. Check the injectivity and surjectivity of the following functions:
(i) f : N ✌
N given by f (x) = x2
(ii) f : Z ✌
Z given by f (x) = x2
(iii) f : R ✌
R given by f (x) = x2
(iv) f : N ✌
N given by f (x) = x3
(v) f : Z ✌
Z given by f (x) = x3
✌
3. Prove that the Greatest Integer Function f : R R, given by f (x) = [x], is neither
one-one nor onto, where [x] denotes the greatest integer less than or equal to x.
 RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS 11

4. Show that the Modulus Function f : R ✌ R, given by f (x) = | x |, is neither one-

one nor onto, where | x | is x, if x is positive or 0 and | x | is – x, if x is negative.
5. Show that the Signum Function f : R ✌ R, given by

✁1, if x 0
✂
f ( x) ✄ ☎0, if x ✄ 0
✂ –1, if x ✆ 0
✝
is neither one-one nor onto.
6. Let A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {4, 5, 6, 7} and let f = {(1, 4), (2, 5), (3, 6)} be a function
from A to B. Show that f is one-one.
7. In each of the following cases, state whether the function is one-one, onto or
bijective. Justify your answer.
(i) f : R ✌ R defined by f (x) = 3 – 4x
(ii) f : R ✌ R defined by f (x) = 1 + x2
8. Let A and B be sets. Show that f : A × B ✌ B × A such that f (a, b) = (b, a) is
bijective function.

✟n ✞1
✠✠ 2 , if n is odd
9. Let f : N ✌ N be defined by f (n) = ✡ for all n ☞ N.
✠ n , if n is even
✠☛ 2
State whether the function f is bijective. Justify your answer.
10. Let A = R – {3} and B = R – {1}. Consider the function f : A ✌ B defined by
✎ x✍2✏
f (x) = ✑ ✒ . Is f one-one and onto? Justify your answer.
✓ x✍3✔
11. Let f : R ✌ R be defined as f(x) = x4. Choose the correct answer.
(A) f is one-one onto (B) f is many-one onto
(C) f is one-one but not onto (D) f is neither one-one nor onto.
12. Let f : R ✌ R be defined as f (x) = 3x. Choose the correct answer.
(A) f is one-one onto (B) f is many-one onto
(C) f is one-one but not onto (D) f is neither one-one nor onto.
 12 MATHEMATICS

1.4 Composition of Functions and Invertible Function

In this section, we will study composition of functions and the inverse of a bijective
function. Consider the set A of all students, who appeared in Class X of a Board
Examination in 2006. Each student appearing in the Board Examination is assigned a
roll number by the Board which is written by the students in the answer script at the
time of examination. In order to have confidentiality, the Board arranges to deface the
roll numbers of students in the answer scripts and assigns a fake code number to each
roll number. Let B ✝ N be the set of all roll numbers and C ✝ N be the set of all code
numbers. This gives rise to two functions f : A ✌ B and g : B ✌ C given by f (a) = the
roll number assigned to the student a and g (b) = the code number assigned to the roll
number b. In this process each student is assigned a roll number through the function f
and each roll number is assigned a code number through the function g. Thus, by the
combination of these two functions, each student is eventually attached a code number.
This leads to the following definition:
Definition 8 Let f : A ✌ B and g : B ✌ C be two functions. Then the composition of
f and g, denoted by gof, is defined as the function gof : A ✌ C given by
gof (x) = g(f (x)), x ✂ A.

Fig 1.5

Example 15 Let f : {2, 3, 4, 5} ✌ {3, 4, 5, 9} and g : {3, 4, 5, 9} ✌ {7, 11, 15} be

functions defined as f (2) = 3, f (3) = 4, f (4) = f (5) = 5 and g (3) = g (4) = 7 and
g (5) = g (9) = 11. Find gof.
Solution We have gof (2) = g (f (2)) = g (3) = 7, gof (3) = g (f (3)) = g (4) = 7,
gof (4) = g (f (4)) = g (5) = 11 and gof (5) = g (5) = 11.
Example 16 Find gof and fog, if f : R ✌ R and g : R ✌ R are given by f (x) = cos x
and g (x) = 3x2. Show that gof ✡ fog.
Solution We have gof (x) = g (f (x)) = g (cos x) = 3 (cos x)2 = 3 cos2 x. Similarly,
fog (x) = f (g (x)) = f (3x2) = cos (3x2). Note that 3cos2 x ✡ cos 3x2, for x = 0. Hence,
gof ✡ fog.
 RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS 13

7✁ 3✁ 3x ✟ 4
Example 17 Show that if f : R ✂ ☎ ✆ ✄ R ✂ ☎ ✆ is defined by f ( x ) ✠ and
✝5✞ ✝ 5✞ 5x ✡ 7

☛3☞ ☛7☞ 7x ✟ 4
g : R ✌ ✎ ✏ ✍ R ✌ ✎ ✏ is defined by g ( x) ✠ , then fog = IA and gof = IB, where,
✑5✒ ✑ 5✒ 5x ✡ 3

3✁ 7✁
A = R – ☎ ✆ , B = R – ☎ ✆ ; IA (x) = x, ✓ x ✔ A, IB (x) = x, ✓ x ✔ B are called identity
✝ ✞
5 ✝5✞
functions on sets A and B, respectively.
Solution We have

✖ (3x ✕ 4) ✗
7✘ ✙✕4 21x ✣ 28 ✣ 20 x ✤ 28 41x
✖ 3x ✕ 4 ✗
gof ( x) ✢ g ✘ ✢ ✛ (5 x ✚ 7) ✜ ✥ ✥x
✙ =
✛ 5 x ✚ 7 ✜ ✖ (3 x ✕ 4) ✗ 15 x ✣ 20 ✤ 15 x ✣ 21 41
5✘ ✙✚3
✛ (5 x ✚ 7) ✜

✖ (7 x ✕ 4) ✗
3✘ ✙ ✕ 4 21x ✟ 12 ✟ 20 x ✡ 12 41x
✢
✖ 7x ✕ 4 ✗
✢ ✛ (5 x ✚ 3) ✜ ✠ ✠x
Similarly, fog ( x ) f ✘ ✙ =
✛ 5x ✚ 3 ✜ ✖ (7 x ✕ 4) ✗ 35 x ✟ 20 ✡ 35 x ✟ 21 41
5✘ ✙✚7
✛ (5 x ✚ 3) ✜
Thus, gof (x) = x, ✓ x ✔ B and fog (x) = x, ✓ x ✔ A, which implies that gof = IB
and fog = IA.

Example 18 Show that if f : A ✦ B and g : B ✦ C are one-one, then gof : A ✦ C is

also one-one.
Solution Suppose gof (x1) = gof (x2)
✧ g (f (x1)) = g(f (x 2))
✧ f (x1) = f (x2), as g is one-one
✧ x1 = x2, as f is one-one
Hence, gof is one-one.

Example 19 Show that if f : A ✦ B and g : B ✦ C are onto, then gof : A ✦ C is

also onto.
Solution Given an arbitrary element z ✔ C, there exists a pre-image y of z under g
such that g (y) = z, since g is onto. Further, for y ✔ B, there exists an element x in A
 14 MATHEMATICS

with f (x) = y, since f is onto. Therefore, gof (x) = g (f (x)) = g (y) = z, showing that gof
is onto.
Example 20 Consider functions f and g such that composite gof is defined and is one-
one. Are f and g both necessarily one-one.
Solution Consider f : {1, 2, 3, 4} ✌ {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} defined as f (x) = x, x and
g : {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} ✌ {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} as g (x) = x, for x = 1, 2, 3, 4 and g (5) = g (6) = 5.
Then, gof (x) = x x, which shows that gof is one-one. But g is clearly not one-one.
Example 21 Are f and g both necessarily onto, if gof is onto?
Solution Consider f : {1, 2, 3, 4} ✌ {1, 2, 3, 4} and g : {1, 2, 3, 4} ✌ {1, 2, 3} defined
as f (1) = 1, f (2) = 2, f (3) = f (4) = 3, g (1) = 1, g (2) = 2 and g (3) = g (4) = 3. It can be
seen that gof is onto but f is not onto.
Remark It can be verified in general that gof is one-one implies that f is one-one.
Similarly, gof is onto implies that g is onto.
Now, we would like to have close look at the functions f and g described in the
beginning of this section in reference to a Board Examination. Each student appearing
in Class X Examination of the Board is assigned a roll number under the function f and
each roll number is assigned a code number under g. After the answer scripts are
examined, examiner enters the mark against each code number in a mark book and
submits to the office of the Board. The Board officials decode by assigning roll number
back to each code number through a process reverse to g and thus mark gets attached
to roll number rather than code number. Further, the process reverse to f assigns a roll
number to the student having that roll number. This helps in assigning mark to the
student scoring that mark. We observe that while composing f and g, to get gof, first f
and then g was applied, while in the reverse process of the composite gof, first the
reverse process of g is applied and then the reverse process of f.

Example 22 Let f : {1, 2, 3} ✌ {a, b, c} be one-one and onto function given by

f (1) = a, f (2) = b and f (3) = c. Show that there exists a function g : {a, b, c} ✌ {1, 2, 3}
such that gof = IX and fog = IY, where, X = {1, 2, 3} and Y = {a, b, c}.
Solution Consider g : {a, b, c} ✌ {1, 2, 3} as g (a) = 1, g (b) = 2 and g (c) = 3. It is
easy to verify that the composite gof = IX is the identity function on X and the composite
fog = IY is the identity function on Y.
Remark The interesting fact is that the result mentioned in the above example is true
for an arbitrary one-one and onto function f : X ✌ Y. Not only this, even the converse
is also true , i.e., if f : X ✌ Y is a function such that there exists a function g : Y ✌ X
such that gof = IX and fog = IY, then f must be one-one and onto.
The above discussion, Example 22 and Remark lead to the following definition:
 RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS 15

Definition 9 A function f : X ✌ Y is defined to be invertible, if there exists a function

g : Y ✌ X such that gof = IX and fog = IY. The function g is called the inverse of f and
is denoted by f –1.
Thus, if f is invertible, then f must be one-one and onto and conversely, if f is
one-one and onto, then f must be invertible. This fact significantly helps for proving a
function f to be invertible by showing that f is one-one and onto, specially when the
actual inverse of f is not to be determined.
Example 23 Let f : N ✌ Y be a function defined as f (x) = 4x + 3, where,
Y = {y ✂ N : y = 4x + 3 for some x ✂ N }. Show that f is invertible. Find the inverse.
Solution Consider an arbitrary element y of Y. By the definition of Y, y = 4x + 3,
( y 3)
for some x in the domain N . This shows that x ✁ . Define g : Y ✌ N by
4
( y 3) (4 x ✄ 3 3)
g ( y) ✁ . Now, gof (x) = g (f (x)) = g (4x + 3) = ✁ x and
4 4

✆ ( y ☎ 3) ✝ ✞ 4 ( y ☎ 3) ✟ 3 = y – 3 + 3 = y. This shows that gof = I

fog (y) = f (g (y)) = f ✠ ✡
☛ 4 ☞ 4 N

and fog = IY, which implies that f is invertible and g is the inverse of f.
Example 24 Let Y = {n2 : n ✂ N } ✍ N . Consider f : N ✌ Y as f (n) = n2. Show that
f is invertible. Find the inverse of f.
Solution An arbitrary element y in Y is of the form n2, for some n ✂ N . This
implies that n = y . This gives a function g : Y ✌ N , defined by g (y) = y . Now,
2
gof (n) = g (n2) = n 2 = n and fog (y) = f ✎ y ✏ ✑ ✎ y ✏ ✑ y , which shows that
gof = IN and fog = IY. Hence, f is invertible with f –1 = g.
Example 25 Let f : N ✌ R be a function defined as f (x) = 4x2 + 12x + 15. Show that
f : N ✌ S, where, S is the range of f, is invertible. Find the inverse of f.
Solution Let y be an arbitrary element of range f. Then y = 4x2 + 12x + 15, for some

✔✒ y ✖ 6 ✓ ✖ 3✕
x in N, which implies that y = (2x + 3)2 + 6. This gives x ✑ , as y ✗ 6.
2
 16 MATHEMATICS

✂ y ☎ 6 ✁ ☎ 3✄
Let us define g : S ✌ N by g (y) = .
2
Now gof (x) = g (f (x)) = g (4x2 + 12x + 15) = g ((2x + 3)2 + 6)

✟✝ (2 x ☛ 3) 2 ☛ 6 ☞ 6 ✆ ☞ 3✞ ✠ 2 x ☛ 3 ☞ 3✡
= ✍ ✍ x
2 2
2
✓
✑✎ y ✕ 6 ✏ ✕ 3✒ ✔ ✓
2 ✑✎ y ✕ 6 ✏ ✕ 3✒ ✔
and fog (y) = f ✖ ✗ ✖ 3 ✗✗ 6
✖ ✗ ✘✖ ✙ ✙
✚ 2 ✛ ✚ 2 ✛

2 2
= ✣✜ y ✦ 6 ✢ ✦ 3 ✧ 3✤✥ ✧ 6 ★ ✜ y ✦ 6✢ ✧ 6 = y – 6 + 6 = y.
Hence, gof = IN and fog =IS. This implies that f is invertible with f –1 = g.

Example 26 Consider f : N ✌ N, g : N ✌ N and h : N ✌ R defined as f (x) = 2x,

g (y) = 3y + 4 and h (z) = sin z, ✩ x, y and z in N. Show that ho(gof ) = (hog) of.
Solution We have
ho(gof) (x) = h(gof (x)) = h(g (f (x))) = h (g (2x))
= h(3(2x) + 4) = h(6x + 4) = sin (6x + 4) ✪ x ✫ N.
Also, ((hog) o f ) (x) = (hog) ( f (x)) = (hog) (2x) = h ( g (2x))
= h(3(2x) + 4) = h(6x + 4) = sin (6x + 4), ✩ x ✬ N.
This shows that ho(gof) = (hog) o f.
This result is true in general situation as well.
Theorem 1 If f : X ✌ Y, g : Y ✌ Z and h : Z ✌ S are functions, then
ho(gof ) = (hog) o f.
Proof We have
ho(gof ) (x) = h(gof (x)) = h(g (f (x))), ✩ x in X
and (hog) of (x) = hog (f (x)) = h(g (f (x))), ✩ x in X.
Hence, ho(gof) = (hog) o f.
Example 27 Consider f : {1, 2, 3} ✌ {a, b, c} and g : {a, b, c} ✌ {apple, ball, cat}
defined as f (1) = a, f (2) = b, f (3) = c, g(a) = apple, g(b) = ball and g(c) = cat.
Show that f, g and gof are invertible. Find out f –1, g–1 and (gof)–1 and show that
(gof) –1 = f –1o g–1.
 RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS 17

Solution Note that by definition, f and g are bijective functions. Let

f –1: {a, b, c} ✌ (1, 2, 3} and g–1 : {apple, ball, cat} ✌ {a, b, c} be defined as
f {a} = 1, f {b} = 2, f –1{c} = 3, g –1{apple} = a, g –1{ball} = b and g –1{cat} = c.
–1 –1

It is easy to verify that f –1 o f = I{1, 2, 3}, f o f –1 = I{a, b, c}, g –1og = I{a, b, c} and g o g–1 = ID,
where, D = {apple, ball, cat}. Now, gof : {1, 2, 3} ✌ {apple, ball, cat} is given by
gof (1) = apple, gof (2) = ball, gof (3) = cat. We can define
✌
(gof)–1 : {apple, ball, cat} {1, 2, 3} by (gof)–1 (apple) = 1, (gof)–1 (ball) = 2 and
(g o f)–1 (cat) = 3. It is easy to see that (g o f)–1 o (g o f) = I{1, 2, 3} and
(gof) o (gof)–1 = ID. Thus, we have seen that f, g and gof are invertible.
Now, f –1og–1 (apple)= f –1(g–1(apple)) = f –1(a) = 1 = (gof)–1 (apple)
f –1og–1 (ball) = f –1(g–1(ball)) = f –1(b) = 2 = (gof)–1 (ball) and
f –1og–1 (cat) = f –1(g–1(cat)) = f –1(c) = 3 = (gof)–1 (cat).
Hence (gof)–1 = f –1 og–1 .
The above result is true in general situation also.
✌ ✌
Theorem 2 Let f : X Y and g : Y Z be two invertible functions. Then gof is also
invertible with (gof)–1 = f –1og–1.
Proof To show that gof is invertible with (gof)–1 = f –1og–1, it is enough to show that
( f –1og–1)o(gof) = IX and (gof)o( f –1og–1) = IZ.
Now, (f –1og –1) o (gof) = ((f –1og–1) og) of, by Theorem 1
= (f –1o(g–1og)) of, by Theorem 1
= (f –1 o IY) of, by definition of g–1
= IX.
Similarly, it can be shown that (gof ) o (f –1 o g –1) = IZ.

Example 28 Let S = {1, 2, 3}. Determine whether the functions f : S ✌ S defined as

below have inverses. Find f –1, if it exists.
(a) f = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3)}
(b) f = {(1, 2), (2, 1), (3, 1)}
(c) f = {(1, 3), (3, 2), (2, 1)}

Solution
(a) It is easy to see that f is one-one and onto, so that f is invertible with the inverse
f –1 of f given by f –1 = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3)} = f.
(b) Since f (2) = f (3) = 1, f is not one-one, so that f is not invertible.
(c) It is easy to see that f is one-one and onto, so that f is invertible with
f –1 = {(3, 1), (2, 3), (1, 2)}.
18 MATHEMATICS

EXERCISE 1.3
1. Let f : {1, 3, 4} ✌ {1, 2, 5} and g : {1, 2, 5} ✌ {1, 3} be given by
f = {(1, 2), (3, 5), (4, 1)} and g = {(1, 3), (2, 3), (5, 1)}. Write down gof.
2. Let f, g and h be functions from R to R. Show that
(f + g) o h = foh + goh
(f . g) o h = (foh) . (goh)
3. Find gof and fog, if
(i) f (x) = | x | and g(x) = | 5x – 2 |
1

(ii) f (x) = 8x and g(x) = x 3 .

3

(4 x 3) 2 2
4. If f (x) = , x ✂ , show that fof (x) = x, for all x ✄ . What is the
(6 x ✁ 4) 3 3
inverse of f ?
5. State with reason whether following functions have inverse
(i) f : {1, 2, 3, 4} ✌ {10} with
f = {(1, 10), (2, 10), (3, 10), (4, 10)}
(ii) g : {5, 6, 7, 8} ✌ {1, 2, 3, 4} with
g = {(5, 4), (6, 3), (7, 4), (8, 2)}
(iii) h : {2, 3, 4, 5} ✌ {7, 9, 11, 13} with
h = {(2, 7), (3, 9), (4, 11), (5, 13)}
x
6. Show that f : [–1, 1] ✌ R, given by f (x) = is one-one. Find the inverse
( x ☎ 2)
of the function f : [–1, 1] ✌ Range f.
x 2y
(Hint: For y ✆ Range f, y = f (x) = , for some x in [–1, 1], i.e., x = )
x✝2 (1 ✞ y )
7. Consider f : R ✌ R given by f (x) = 4x + 3. Show that f is invertible. Find the
inverse of f.
8. Consider f : R+ ✌ [4, ✎) given by f (x) = x2 + 4. Show that f is invertible with the
inverse f –1 of f given by f –1(y) = y ✟ 4 , where R+ is the set of all non-negative
real numbers.
 RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS 19

9. Consider f : R+ ✌ [– 5, ✎) given by f (x) = 9x2 + 6x – 5. Show that f is invertible

✂ y ☎ 6✁ ✆1✄
with f –1(y) = ✝ ✞.
✟ 3 ✠

10. Let f : X ✌ Y be an invertible function. Show that f has unique inverse.

(Hint: suppose g1 and g2 are two inverses of f. Then for all y ✡ Y,
fog1(y) = 1Y(y) = fog2(y). Use one-one ness of f).
11. Consider f : {1, 2, 3} ✌ {a, b, c} given by f (1) = a, f (2) = b and f (3) = c. Find
f –1 and show that (f –1)–1 = f.
12. Let f : X ✌ Y be an invertible function. Show that the inverse of f –1 is f, i.e.,
(f –1)–1 = f.
1
3 3
13. If f : R ✌ R be given by f (x) = (3 ☛ x ) , then fof (x) is
1
(A) x 3 (B) x 3 (C) x (D) (3 – x3).

☞ 4✍ 4x
14. Let f : R – ✑✏ ✒ ✌ R be a function defined as f (x) = . The inverse of
✓ 3✔ 3x ✕ 4

✖ 4✗
f is the map g : Range f ✌ R – ✙✘ ✚ given by
✛ 3✜

3y 4y
(A) g ( y) ✢ (B) g ( y) ✢
3✘ 4y 4 ✘ 3y

4y 3y
(C) g ( y) ✣ (D) g ( y) ✣
3 ✏ 4y 4 ✏ 3y

1.5 Binary Operations

Right from the school days, you must have come across four fundamental operations
namely addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. The main feature of these
operations is that given any two numbers a and b, we associate another number a + b
a
or a – b or ab or , b ✤ 0. It is to be noted that only two numbers can be added or
b
multiplied at a time. When we need to add three numbers, we first add two numbers
and the result is then added to the third number. Thus, addition, multiplication, subtraction
 20 MATHEMATICS

and division are examples of binary operation, as ‘binary’ means two. If we want to
have a general definition which can cover all these four operations, then the set of
numbers is to be replaced by an arbitrary set X and then general binary operation is
nothing but association of any pair of elements a, b from X to another element of X.
This gives rise to a general definition as follows:
Definition 10 A binary operation ✍ on a set A is a function ✍ : A × A ✌ A. We denote
✍ (a, b) by a ✍ b.

Example 29 Show that addition, subtraction and multiplication are binary operations
on R, but division is not a binary operation on R. Further, show that division is a binary
operation on the set R of nonzero real numbers.
Solution + : R × R ✌ R is given by
(a, b) ✌ a + b
– : R × R ✌ R is given by
(a, b) ✌ a – b
× : R × R ✌ R is given by
(a, b) ✌ ab
Since ‘+’, ‘–’ and ‘×’ are functions, they are binary operations on R.
a
But ÷: R × R ✌ R, given by (a, b) ✌ , is not a function and hence not a binary
b
a
operation, as for b = 0, is not defined.
b
a
However, ÷ : R × R ✌ R , given by (a, b) ✌ is a function and hence a
b
binary operation on R .
Example 30 Show that subtraction and division are not binary operations on N.
Solution – : N × N ✌ N, given by (a, b) ✌ a – b, is not binary operation, as the image
of (3, 5) under ‘–’ is 3 – 5 = – 2 ✟ N. Similarly, ÷ : N × N ✌ N, given by (a, b) ✌ a ÷ b
3
is not a binary operation, as the image of (3, 5) under ÷ is 3 ÷ 5 = ✟ N.
5
Example 31 Show that ✍ :R× R ✌ R given by (a, b) ✌ a + 4b2 is a binary
operation.
Solution Since ✍ carries each pair (a, b) to a unique element a + 4b2 in R, ✍ is a binary
operation on R.
 RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS 21

Example 32 Let P be the set of all subsets of a given set X. Show that ✠ : P × P ✌ P
given by (A, B) ✌ A ✠ B and ☛ : P × P ✌ P given by (A, B) ✌ A ☛ B are binary
operations on the set P.
Solution Since union operation ✠ carries each pair (A, B) in P × P to a unique element
A ✠ B in P, ✠ is binary operation on P. Similarly, the intersection operation ☛ carries
each pair (A, B) in P × P to a unique element A ☛ B in P, ☛ is a binary operation on P.
Example 33 Show that the : R × R ✌ R given by (a, b) ✌ max {a, b} and the
✁ : R × R ✌ R given by (a, b) ✌ min {a, b} are binary operations.
Solution Since ✂ carries each pair (a, b) in R × R to a unique element namely
maximum of a and b lying in R, ✂ is a binary operation. Using the similar argument,
one can say that ✄ is also a binary operation.
Remark ✂ (4, 7) = 7, ✂ (4, – 7) = 4, ✁ (4, 7) = 4 and ✁ (4, – 7) = – 7.
When number of elements in a set A is small, we can express a binary operation ✍ on
the set A through a table called the operation table for the operation ✍. For example
consider A = {1, 2, 3}. Then, the operation on A defined in Example 33 can be expressed
by the following operation table (Table 1.1) . Here, (1, 3) = 3, (2, 3) = 3, (1, 2) = 2.
Table 1.1

Here, we are having 3 rows and 3 columns in the operation table with (i, j) the
entry of the table being maximum of ith and jth elements of the set A. This can be
generalised for general operation ✍ : A × A ✌ A. If A = {a1, a2, ..., an}. Then the
operation table will be having n rows and n columns with (i, j)th entry being ai ✍ aj.
Conversely, given any operation table having n rows and n columns with each entry
being an element of A = {a1, a2, ..., an}, we can define a binary operation ✍ : A × A ✌ A
given by ai ✍ aj = the entry in the ith row and jth column of the operation table.
One may note that 3 and 4 can be added in any order and the result is same, i.e.,
3 + 4 = 4 + 3, but subtraction of 3 and 4 in different order give different results, i.e.,
3 – 4 ✡ 4 – 3. Similarly, in case of multiplication of 3 and 4, order is immaterial, but
division of 3 and 4 in different order give different results. Thus, addition and
multiplication of 3 and 4 are meaningful, but subtraction and division of 3 and 4 are
meaningless. For subtraction and division we have to write ‘subtract 3 from 4’, ‘subtract
4 from 3’, ‘divide 3 by 4’ or ‘divide 4 by 3’.
 22 MATHEMATICS

This leads to the following definition:

Definition 11 A binary operation ✍ on the set X is called commutative, if a ✍ b = b ✍ a,
for every a, b ✂ X.
Example 34 Show that + : R × R ✌ R and × : R × R ✌ R are commutative binary
operations, but – : R × R ✌ R and ÷ : R × R ✌ R are not commutative.
Solution Since a + b = b + a and a × b = b × a, ✁ a, b ✂ R, ‘+’ and ‘×’ are
commutative binary operation. However, ‘–’ is not commutative, since 3 – 4 ✡ 4 – 3.
Similarly, 3 ÷ 4 ✡ 4 ÷ 3 shows that ‘÷’ is not commutative.
Example 35 Show that ✍ : R × R ✌ R defined by a ✍ b = a + 2b is not commutative.
Solution Since 3 ✍ 4 = 3 + 8 = 11 and 4 ✍ 3 = 4 + 6 = 10, showing that the operation ✍
is not commutative.
If we want to associate three elements of a set X through a binary operation on X,
we encounter a natural problem. The expression a ✍ b ✍ c may be interpreted as
(a ✍ b) ✍ c or a ✍ (b ✍ c) and these two expressions need not be same. For example,
(8 – 5) – 2 ✡ 8 – (5 – 2). Therefore, association of three numbers 8, 5 and 3 through
the binary operation ‘subtraction’ is meaningless, unless bracket is used. But in case
of addition, 8 + 5 + 2 has the same value whether we look at it as ( 8 + 5) + 2 or as
8 + (5 + 2). Thus, association of 3 or even more than 3 numbers through addition is
meaningful without using bracket. This leads to the following:
Definition 12 A binary operation ✍ : A × A ✌ A is said to be associative if
(a ✍ b) ✍ c = a ✍ (b ✍ c), ✁ a, b, c, ✂ A.
Example 36 Show that addition and multiplication are associative binary operation on
R. But subtraction is not associative on R. Division is not associative on R .
Solution Addition and multiplication are associative, since (a + b) + c = a + (b + c) and
(a × b) × c = a × (b × c) ✁ a, b, c ✂ R. However, subtraction and division are not
associative, as (8 – 5) – 3 ✡ 8 – (5 – 3) and (8 ÷ 5) ÷ 3 ✡ 8 ÷ (5 ÷ 3).
Example 37 Show that ✍ :R×R ✌ R given by a ✍ b ✌ a + 2b is not associative.
Solution The operation ✍ is not associative, since
(8 ✍ 5) ✍ 3 = (8 + 10) ✍ 3 = (8 + 10) + 6 = 24,
while 8 ✍ (5 ✍ 3) = 8 ✍ (5 + 6) = 8 ✍ 11 = 8 + 22 = 30.
Remark Associative property of a binary operation is very important in the sense that
with this property of a binary operation, we can write a1 ✍ a2 ✍ ... ✍ an which is not
ambiguous. But in absence of this property, the expression a1 ✍ a2 ✍ ... ✍ an is ambiguous
unless brackets are used. Recall that in the earlier classes brackets were used whenever
subtraction or division operations or more than one operation occurred.
 RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS 23

For the binary operation ‘+’ on R, the interesting feature of the number zero is that
a + 0 = a = 0 + a, i.e., any number remains unaltered by adding zero. But in case of
multiplication, the number 1 plays this role, as a × 1 = a = 1 × a, a in R. This leads
to the following definition:
Definition 13 Given a binary operation ✍ : A × A ✌ A, an element e ✂ A, if it exists,
is called identity for the operation ✍, if a ✍ e = a = e ✍ a, a ✂ A.

Example 38 Show that zero is the identity for addition on R and 1 is the identity for
multiplication on R. But there is no identity element for the operations
–:R×R ✌ R and ÷ : R✁ × R✁ ✌ R✁.
Solution a + 0 = 0 + a = a and a × 1 = a = 1 × a, a ✂ R implies that 0 and 1 are
identity elements for the operations ‘+’ and ‘×’ respectively. Further, there is no element
e in R with a – e = e – a, a. Similarly, we can not find any element e in R✁ such that
a ÷ e = e ÷ a, a in R✁. Hence, ‘–’ and ‘÷’ do not have identity element.
Remark Zero is identity for the addition operation on R but it is not identity for the
addition operation on N, as 0 ✟ N. In fact the addition operation on N does not have
any identity.
One further notices that for the addition operation + : R × R ✌ R, given any
a ✂ R, there exists – a in R such that a + (– a) = 0 (identity for ‘+’) = (– a) + a.
1
Similarly, for the multiplication operation on R, given any a ✡ 0 in R, we can choose
a
1 1
in R such that a × = 1(identity for ‘×’) = × a. This leads to the following definition:
a a
Definition 14 Given a binary operation ✍ : A × A ✌ A with the identity element e in A,
an element a ✂ A is said to be invertible with respect to the operation ✍, if there exists
an element b in A such that a ✍ b = e = b ✍ a and b is called the inverse of a and is
denoted by a–1.

Example 39 Show that – a is the inverse of a for the addition operation ‘+’ on R and
1
is the inverse of a ✡ 0 for the multiplication operation ‘×’ on R.
a
Solution As a + (– a) = a – a = 0 and (– a) + a = 0, – a is the inverse of a for addition.
1 1 1
Similarly, for a ✡ 0, a × = 1 = × a implies that is the inverse of a for multiplication.
a a a
 24 MATHEMATICS

Example 40 Show that – a is not the inverse of a ✂ N for the addition operation + on
1
N and is not the inverse of a ✂ N for multiplication operation × on N, for a ✡ 1.
a
Solution Since – a ✟ N, – a can not be inverse of a for addition operation on N,
although – a satisfies a + (– a) = 0 = (– a) + a.
1
Similarly, for a ✡ 1 in N, ✟ N, which implies that other than 1 no element of N
a
has inverse for multiplication operation on N.
Examples 34, 36, 38 and 39 show that addition on R is a commutative and associative
binary operation with 0 as the identity element and – a as the inverse of a in R a.

EXERCISE 1.4
1. Determine whether or not each of the definition of ✍ given below gives a binary
operation. In the event that ✍ is not a binary operation, give justification for this.
(i) On Z+, define ✍ by a ✍ b = a – b
(ii) On Z+, define ✍ by a ✍ b = ab
(iii) On R, define ✍ by a ✍ b = ab2
(iv) On Z+, define ✍ by a ✍ b = | a – b |
(v) On Z+, define ✍ by a ✍ b = a
2. For each binary operation ✍ defined below, determine whether ✍ is commutative
or associative.
(i) On Z, define a ✍ b = a – b
(ii) On Q, define a ✍ b = ab + 1
ab
(iii) On Q, define a ✍ b =
2
(iv) On Z+, define a ✍ b = 2ab
(v) On Z+, define a ✍ b = ab
a
(vi) On R – {– 1}, define a ✍ b =
b ✁1
3. Consider the binary operation ✄ on the set {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} defined by
a ☎ b = min {a, b}. Write the operation table of the operation ☎ .
 RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS 25

4. Consider a binary operation ✍ on the set {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} given by the following

multiplication table (Table 1.2).
(i) Compute (2 ✍ 3) ✍ 4 and 2 ✍ (3 ✍ 4)
(ii) Is ✍ commutative?
(iii) Compute (2 ✍ 3) ✍ (4 ✍ 5).
(Hint: use the following table)
Table 1.2

5. Let ✍ be the binary operation on the set {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} defined by

a ✍ b = H.C.F. of a and b. Is the operation ✍ same as the operation ✍ defined
in Exercise 4 above? Justify your answer.
6. Let ✍ be the binary operation on N given by a ✍ b = L.C.M. of a and b. Find
(i) 5 ✍ 7, 20 ✍ 16 (ii) Is ✍ commutative?
(iii) Is ✍ associative? (iv) Find the identity of ✍ in N
(v) Which elements of N are invertible for the operation ✍?
7. Is ✍ defined on the set {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} by a ✍ b = L.C.M. of a and b a binary
operation? Justify your answer.
8. Let ✍ be the binary operation on N defined by a ✍ b = H.C.F. of a and b.
Is ✍ commutative? Is ✍ associative? Does there exist identity for this binary
operation on N?
9. Let ✍ be a binary operation on the set Q of rational numbers as follows:
(i) a ✍ b = a – b (ii) a ✍ b = a2 + b2
(iii) a ✍ b = a + ab (iv) a ✍ b = (a – b)2
ab
(v) a ✍ b = (vi) a ✍ b = ab2
4
Find which of the binary operations are commutative and which are associative.
10. Show that none of the operations given above has identity.
11. Let A = N × N and ✍ be the binary operation on A defined by
(a, b) ✍ (c, d) = (a + c, b + d)
 26 MATHEMATICS

Show that ✍ is commutative and associative. Find the identity element for ✍ on
A, if any.
12. State whether the following statements are true or false. Justify.
(i) For an arbitrary binary operation ✍ on a set N, a ✍ a = a a ✂ N.
(ii) If ✍ is a commutative binary operation on N, then a ✍ (b ✍ c) = (c ✍ b) ✍ a
13. Consider a binary operation ✍ on N defined as a ✍ b = a3 + b3. Choose the
correct answer.
(A) Is ✍ both associative and commutative?
(B) Is ✍ commutative but not associative?
(C) Is ✍ associative but not commutative?
(D) Is ✍ neither commutative nor associative?

Miscellaneous Examples
Example 41 If R1 and R2 are equivalence relations in a set A, show that R1 ☛ R2 is
also an equivalence relation.
Solution Since R1 and R2 are equivalence relations, (a, a) ✂ R1, and (a, a) ✂ R2 a ✂ A.
This implies that (a, a) ✂ R1 ☛ R2, a, showing R1 ☛ R2 is reflexive. Further,
(a, b) ✂ R1 ☛ R2 ✞ (a, b) ✂ R1 and (a, b) ✂ R2 ✞ (b, a) ✂ R1 and (b, a) ✂ R2 ✞
(b, a) ✂ R1 ☛ R2, hence, R1 ☛ R2 is symmetric. Similarly, (a, b) ✂ R1 ☛ R2 and
(b, c) ✂ R1 ☛ R2 ✞ (a, c) ✂ R1 and (a, c) ✂ R2 ✞ (a, c) ✂ R1 ☛ R2. This shows that
R1 ☛ R2 is transitive. Thus, R1 ☛ R2 is an equivalence relation.
Example 42 Let R be a relation on the set A of ordered pairs of positive integers
defined by (x, y) R (u, v) if and only if xv = yu. Show that R is an equivalence relation.
Solution Clearly, (x, y) R (x, y), (x, y) ✂ A, since xy = yx. This shows that R is
reflexive. Further, (x, y) R (u, v) ✞ xv = yu ✞ uy = vx and hence (u, v) R (x, y). This
shows that R is symmetric. Similarly, (x, y) R (u, v) and (u, v) R (a, b) ✞ xv = yu and

✁ yu a ✞ xv v ✁ yu u ✞ xb = ya and hence (x, y) R (a, b). Thus, R

b a
ub = va ✞ xv
a
u u
is transitive. Thus, R is an equivalence relation.
Example 43 Let X = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}. Let R1 be a relation in X given
by R1 = {(x, y) : x – y is divisible by 3} and R2 be another relation on X given by
R2 = {(x, y): {x, y} ✝ {1, 4, 7}} or {x, y} ✝ {2, 5, 8} or {x, y} ✝ {3, 6, 9}}. Show that
R1 = R2.
 RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS 27

Solution Note that the characteristic of sets {1, 4, 7}, {2, 5, 8} and {3, 6, 9} is
that difference between any two elements of these sets is a multiple of 3. Therefore,
(x, y) ✂ R1 ✞ x – y is a multiple of 3 ✞ {x, y} ✝ {1, 4, 7} or {x, y} ✝ {2, 5, 8}
or {x, y} ✝ {3, 6, 9} ✞ (x, y) ✂ R2. Hence, R1 ✝ R2. Similarly, {x, y} ✂ R2 ✞ {x, y}
✝ {1, 4, 7} or {x, y} ✝ {2, 5, 8} or {x, y} ✝ {3, 6, 9} ✞ x – y is divisible by
3 ✞ {x, y} ✂ R1. This shows that R2 ✝ R1. Hence, R1 = R2.
Example 44 Let f : X ✌ Y be a function. Define a relation R in X given by
R = {(a, b): f(a) = f(b)}. Examine if R is an equivalence relation.
Solution For every a ✂ X, (a, a) ✂ R, since f (a) = f (a), showing that R is reflexive.
Similarly, (a, b) ✂ R ✞ f (a) = f (b) ✞ f (b) = f (a) ✞ (b, a) ✂ R. Therefore, R is
symmetric. Further, (a, b) ✂ R and (b, c) ✂ R ✞ f (a) = f (b) and f (b) = f (c) ✞ f (a)
= f (c) ✞ (a, c) ✂ R, which implies that R is transitive. Hence, R is an equivalence
relation.
Example 45 Determine which of the following binary operations on the set N are
associative and which are commutative.
(a ✁ b )
(a) a ✍b=1 a, b ✂N (b) a ✍ b =
2
a, b ✂N
Solution
(a) Clearly, by definition a ✍ b = b ✍ a = 1, a, b ✂ N. Also
(a ✍ b) ✍ c = (1 ✍ c) =1 and a ✍ (b ✍ c) = a ✍ (1) = 1, a, b, c ✂ N. Hence
R is both associative and commutative.
a✄b b✄a
(b) a ✍b= ☎ = b ✍ a, shows that ✍ is commutative. Further,
2 2
a✆b
(a ✍ b) ✍ c = ✟✡☞ 2 ✠☛✎ ✍ c.
✑✓ a ✏ b ✒✔ ✏ c
=
✕ 2 ✖ ✗ a ✏ b ✏ 2c .
2 4
b✆ c
But a ✍ (b ✍ c) = a ✘ ✟✡☞ 2 ✠☛✎
b✙c
a✙
= 2 ✚ 2a ✙ b ✙ c ✛ a ✙ b ✙ 2c in general.
2 4 4
Hence, ✍ is not associative.
 28 MATHEMATICS

Example 46 Find the number of all one-one functions from set A = {1, 2, 3} to itself.
Solution One-one function from {1, 2, 3} to itself is simply a permutation on three
symbols 1, 2, 3. Therefore, total number of one-one maps from {1, 2, 3} to itself is
same as total number of permutations on three symbols 1, 2, 3 which is 3! = 6.
Example 47 Let A = {1, 2, 3}. Then show that the number of relations containing (1, 2)
and (2, 3) which are reflexive and transitive but not symmetric is four.
Solution The smallest relation R1 containing (1, 2) and (2, 3) which is reflexive and
transitive but not symmetric is {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (1, 2), (2, 3), (1, 3)}. Now, if we add
the pair (2, 1) to R1 to get R2, then the relation R2 will be reflexive, transitive but not
symmetric. Similarly, we can obtain R3 and R4 by adding (3, 2) and (3, 1) respectively,
to R1 to get the desired relations. However, we can not add any two pairs out of (2, 1),
(3, 2) and (3, 1) to R1 at a time, as by doing so, we will be forced to add the remaining
third pair in order to maintain transitivity and in the process, the relation will become
symmetric also which is not required. Thus, the total number of desired relations is four.
Example 48 Show that the number of equivalence relation in the set {1, 2, 3} containing
(1, 2) and (2, 1) is two.
Solution The smallest equivalence relation R1 containing (1, 2) and (2, 1) is {(1, 1),
(2, 2), (3, 3), (1, 2), (2, 1)}. Now we are left with only 4 pairs namely (2, 3), (3, 2),
(1, 3) and (3, 1). If we add any one, say (2, 3) to R1, then for symmetry we must add
(3, 2) also and now for transitivity we are forced to add (1, 3) and (3, 1). Thus, the only
equivalence relation bigger than R1 is the universal relation. This shows that the total
number of equivalence relations containing (1, 2) and (2, 1) is two.
Example 49 Show that the number of binary operations on {1, 2} having 1 as identity
and having 2 as the inverse of 2 is exactly one.
Solution A binary operation ✍ on {1, 2} is a function from {1, 2} × {1, 2} to {1, 2}, i.e.,
a function from {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2)} ✌ {1, 2}. Since 1 is the identity for the
desired binary operation ✍, ✍ ✁✂ ✁✄ ☎ ✁✂ ✍ (1, 2) = 2, ✍ (2, 1) = 2 and the only choice
left is for the pair (2, 2). Since 2 is the inverse of 2, i.e., ✍ (2, 2) must be equal to 1. Thus,
the number of desired binary operation is only one.
Example 50 Consider the identity function IN : N ✌ N defined as IN (x) = x ✆x ✝ N.
Show that although IN is onto but IN + IN : N ✌ N defined as
(IN + IN) (x) = IN (x) + IN (x) = x + x = 2x is not onto.
Solution Clearly IN is onto. But IN + IN is not onto, as we can find an element 3
in the co-domain N such that there does not exist any x in the domain N with
(IN + IN) (x) = 2x = 3.
 RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS 29

✁ ✂
Example 51 Consider a function f : ☎ 0, ✆ ✄ R given by f (x) = sin x and
✝ 2✞

g : ✁ 0, ✂ ✄ R given by g(x) = cos x. Show that f and g are one-one, but f + g is not
☎✝ 2 ✆✞
one-one.
✁ ✂
Solution Since for any two distinct elements x1 and x2 in ☎ 0, ✆ , sin x1 ✡ sin x2 and
✝ 2✞
cos x1 ✡ cos x2, both f and g must be one-one. But (f + g) (0) = sin 0 + cos 0 = 1 and

✟ ✠ ✎ ✎
(f + g) ☛ ☞ = sin ✏ cos ✑ 1 . Therefore, f + g is not one-one.
✌ 2✍ 2 2

Miscellaneous Exercise on Chapter 1

1. Let f : R ✒ R be defined as f (x) = 10x + 7. Find the function g : R ✒ R such
that g o f = f o g = 1R.
2. Let f : W ✒ W be defined as f (n) = n – 1, if n is odd and f (n) = n + 1, if n is
even. Show that f is invertible. Find the inverse of f. Here, W is the set of all
whole numbers.
3. If f : R ✒ R is defined by f(x) = x2 – 3x + 2, find f (f (x)).

x
4. Show that the function f : R ✒ {x ✓ R : – 1 < x < 1} defined by f ( x ) ✔ ,
1✕ | x |
x ✓ R is one one and onto function.
5. Show that the function f : R ✒ R given by f (x) = x3 is injective.
6. Give examples of two functions f : N ✒ Z and g : Z ✒ Z such that g o f is
injective but g is not injective.
(Hint : Consider f (x) = x and g (x) = | x |).
7. Give examples of two functions f : N ✒ N and g : N ✒ N such that g o f is onto
but f is not onto.

✘ x ✖ 1 if x ✗ 1
(Hint : Consider f (x) = x + 1 and g ( x ) ✙ ✚
✛ 1 if x ✙ 1
8. Given a non empty set X, consider P(X) which is the set of all subsets of X.
30 MATHEMATICS

Define the relation R in P(X) as follows:

For subsets A, B in P(X), ARB if and only if A ✝ B. Is R an equivalence relation
on P(X)? Justify your answer.
9. Given a non-empty set X, consider the binary operation ✍ : P(X) × P(X) ✌ P(X)
given by A ✍ B = A ☛ B A, B in P(X), where P(X) is the power set of X.
Show that X is the identity element for this operation and X is the only invertible
element in P(X) with respect to the operation ✍.
10. Find the number of all onto functions from the set {1, 2, 3, ... , n} to itself.
11. Let S = {a, b, c} and T = {1, 2, 3}. Find F–1 of the following functions F from S
to T, if it exists.
(i) F = {(a, 3), (b, 2), (c, 1)} (ii) F = {(a, 2), (b, 1), (c, 1)}
12. Consider the binary operations ✍ : R × R ✌ R and o : R × R ✌ R defined as
a ✍b = |a – b| and a o b = a, a, b ✂ R. Show that ✍ is commutative but not
associative, o is associative but not commutative. Further, show that a, b, c ✂ R,
a ✍ (b o c) = (a ✍ b) o (a ✍ b). [If it is so, we say that the operation ✍ distributes
over the operation o]. Does o distribute over ✍? Justify your answer.
13. Given a non-empty set X, let ✍ : P(X) × P(X) ✌ P(X) be defined as
A * B = (A – B) ✠ (B – A), A, B ✂ P(X). Show that the empty set ✄ is the
identity for the operation ✍ and all the elements A of P(X) are invertible with
A–1 = A. (Hint : (A – ✄) ✠ (✄ – A) = A and (A – A) ✠ (A – A) = A ✍ A = ✄).
14. Define a binary operation ✍ on the set {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} as

a✞b ✟ ✡
✆ a ✁ b, if a ✁ b ☎ 6
✏a ✁ b ☞ 6 if a ✁ b ✎ 6
Show that zero is the identity for this operation and each element a of the set is
invertible with 6 – a being the inverse of a.
15. Let A = {– 1, 0, 1, 2}, B = {– 4, – 2, 0, 2} and f, g : A ✌ B be functions defined

g ( x) ✑ 2 x ✒
✒ 1, x ✂ A. Are f and g equal?
1
by f (x) = x2 – x, x ✂ A and 2
Justify your answer. (Hint: One may note that two functions f : A ✌ B and
g : A ✌ B such that f (a) = g (a) a ✂ A, are called equal functions).
16. Let A = {1, 2, 3}. Then number of relations containing (1, 2) and (1, 3) which are
reflexive and symmetric but not transitive is
(A) 1 (B) 2 (C) 3 (D) 4
17. Let A = {1, 2, 3}. Then number of equivalence relations containing (1, 2) is
(A) 1 (B) 2 (C) 3 (D) 4
 RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS 31

18. Let f : R ✌ R be the Signum Function defined as

✁ 1, x 0
✂
f ( x ) ✄ ☎ 0, x ✄ 0
✂✆1, x ✝ 0
✞
and g : R ✌ R be the Greatest Integer Function given by g (x) = [x], where [x] is
greatest integer less than or equal to x. Then, does fog and gof coincide in (0, 1]?
19. Number of binary operations on the set {a, b} are
(A) 10 (B) 16 (C) 20 (D ) 8

Summary
In this chapter, we studied different types of relations and equivalence relation,
composition of functions, invertible functions and binary operations. The main features
of this chapter are as follows:
✟ Empty relation is the relation R in X given by R = ✠ ✡ X × X.
✟ Universal relation is the relation R in X given by R = X × X.
✟ Reflexive relation R in X is a relation with (a, a) ☛ R ☞ a ☛ X.
✟ Symmetric relation R in X is a relation satisfying (a, b) ☛ R implies (b, a) ☛ R.
✟ Transitive relation R in X is a relation satisfying (a, b) ☛ R and (b, c) ☛ R
implies that (a, c) ☛ R.
✟ Equivalence relation R in X is a relation which is reflexive, symmetric and
transitive.
✟ Equivalence class [a] containing a ☛ X for an equivalence relation R in X is
the subset of X containing all elements b related to a.
✟ A function f : X ✌ Y is one-one (or injective) if
f (x1) = f (x2) ✍ x1 = x2 ☞ x1, x2 ☛ X.
✟ A function f : X ✌ Y is onto (or surjective) if given any y ☛ Y, ✏ x ☛ X such
that f (x) = y.
✟ A function f : X ✌ Y is one-one and onto (or bijective), if f is both one-one
and onto.
✟ The composition of functions f : A ✌ B and g : B ✌ C is the function
gof : A ✌ C given by gof (x) = g(f (x)) ☞ x ☛ A.
✟ A function f : X ✌ Y is invertible if ✏ g : Y ✌ X such that gof = IX and
fog = IY.
✟ A function f : X ✌ Y is invertible if and only if f is one-one and onto.
32 MATHEMATICS

✌
Given a finite set X, a function f : X X is one-one (respectively onto) if and
only if f is onto (respectively one-one). This is the characteristic property of a
finite set. This is not true for infinite set
✍ ✍
A binary operation on a set A is a function from A × A to A.
✂ ✍
An element e X is the identity element for binary operation : X × X X, ✌
✍ ✍ ✁ ✂
if a e = a = e a a X.
✂
An element a X is invertible for binary operation : X × X ✍ ✌ X, if
✂ ✍ ✍
there exists b X such that a b = e = b a where, e is the identity for the
✍
binary operation . The element b is called inverse of a and is denoted by a–1.
✍ ✍ ✍ ✁
An operation on X is commutative if a b = b a a, b in X.
✍ ✍ ✍ ✍ ✍ ✁
An operation on X is associative if (a b) c = a (b c) a, b, c in X.

Historical Note
The concept of function has evolved over a long period of time starting from
R. Descartes (1596-1650), who used the word ‘function’ in his manuscript
“Geometrie” in 1637 to mean some positive integral power xn of a variable x
while studying geometrical curves like hyperbola, parabola and ellipse. James
Gregory (1636-1675) in his work “ Vera Circuli et Hyperbolae Quadratura”
(1667) considered function as a quantity obtained from other quantities by
successive use of algebraic operations or by any other operations. Later G. W.
Leibnitz (1646-1716) in his manuscript “Methodus tangentium inversa, seu de
functionibus” written in 1673 used the word ‘function’ to mean a quantity varying
from point to point on a curve such as the coordinates of a point on the curve, the
slope of the curve, the tangent and the normal to the curve at a point. However,
in his manuscript “Historia” (1714), Leibnitz used the word ‘function’ to mean

✄
quantities that depend on a variable. He was the first to use the phrase ‘function

✄✑
of x’. John Bernoulli (1667-1748) used the notation x for the first time in 1718 to
indicate a function of x. But the general adoption of symbols like f, F, , ... to
represent functions was made by Leonhard Euler (1707-1783) in 1734 in the first
part of his manuscript “Analysis Infinitorium”. Later on, Joeph Louis Lagrange
(1736-1813) published his manuscripts “Theorie des functions analytiques” in

✄
1793, where he discussed about analytic function and used the notion f (x), F(x),
(x) etc. for different function of x. Subsequently, Lejeunne Dirichlet
(1805-1859) gave the definition of function which was being used till the set
theoretic definition of function presently used, was given after set theory was
developed by Georg Cantor (1845-1918). The set theoretic definition of function
known to us presently is simply an abstraction of the definition given by Dirichlet
in a rigorous manner.
—☎ —
 Chapter 2
INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC
FUNCTIONS
Mathematics, in general, is fundamentally the science of
self-evident things. — FELIX KLEIN
2.1 Introduction
In Chapter 1, we have studied that the inverse of a function
f, denoted by f –1, exists if f is one-one and onto. There are
many functions which are not one-one, onto or both and
hence we can not talk of their inverses. In Class XI, we
studied that trigonometric functions are not one-one and
onto over their natural domains and ranges and hence their
inverses do not exist. In this chapter, we shall study about
the restrictions on domains and ranges of trigonometric
functions which ensure the existence of their inverses and
observe their behaviour through graphical representations.
Besides, some elementary properties will also be discussed.
The inverse trigonometric functions play an important Arya Bhatta
(476-550 A. D.)
role in calculus for they serve to define many integrals.
The concepts of inverse trigonometric functions is also used in science and engineering.
2.2 Basic Concepts
In Class XI, we have studied trigonometric functions, which are defined as follows:
✂
sine function, i.e., sine : R [– 1, 1]
✂
cosine function, i.e., cos : R [– 1, 1]

tangent function, i.e., tan : R – { x : x = (2n + 1)

✁ , n ✥ Z} ✂ R
cotangent function, i.e., cot : R – { x : x = n☎, n ✥ Z} ✂ R
2

✁
secant function, i.e., sec : R – { x : x = (2n + 1) , n ✥ Z} ✂ R – (– 1, 1)
cosecant function, i.e., cosec : R – { x : x = n☎, n ✥ Z} ✂ R – (– 1, 1)
2
34 MATHEMATICS

We have also learnt in Chapter 1 that if f : X✂Y such that f (x) = y is one-one and
onto, then we can define a unique function g : Y✂X such that g (y) = x, where x ✄ X
and y = f (x), y ✄ Y. Here, the domain of g = range of f and the range of g = domain
of f. The function g is called the inverse of f and is denoted by f –1. Further, g is also
one-one and onto and inverse of g is f. Thus, g –1 = (f –1)–1 = f. We also have
(f –1 o f ) (x) = f –1 (f (x)) = f –1(y) = x
and (f o f –1) (y) = f (f –1(y)) = f (x) = y
Since the domain of sine function is the set of all real numbers and range is the
✁ ✁✆
closed interval [–1, 1]. If we restrict its domain to ☎✝ , , then it becomes one-one
✟ 2 2 ✞✠
and onto with range [– 1, 1]. Actually, sine function restricted to any of the intervals
☞ ✡3☛ – ☛ ✌ , ☞ ✡☛ ☛✌ , ✓ ✒ 3✒ ✔ etc., is one-one and its range is [–1, 1]. We can,
✍✏ 2 , 2 ✎✑ ✍✏ 2 , 2 ✎✑ ✕✗ 2 , 2 ✖✘
therefore, define the inverse of sine function in each of these intervals. We denote the
inverse of sine function by sin–1 (arc sine function). Thus, sin–1 is a function whose
✙3✒ ✙✒ ✔ ✓ ✙✒ ✒ ✔
domain is [– 1, 1] and range could be any of the intervals ✓✕ , , , or
✗ 2 2 ✖✘ ✕✗ 2 2 ✖✘
☞ ☛ 3☛ ✌
✍✏ 2 , 2 ✎✑ , and so on. Corresponding to each such interval, we get a branch of the
✓ ✙✒ ✒ ✔
function sin–1. The branch with range ✕ , ✖ is called the principal value branch,
✗ 2 2✘
whereas other intervals as range give different branches of sin–1. When we refer
to the function sin–1, we take it as the function whose domain is [–1, 1] and range is
✓ ✙✒ ✒ ✔ ✓ ✙✒ ✒ ✔
✕✗ 2 , 2 ✖✘ . We write sin : [–1, 1] ✂ ✕✗ 2 , 2 ✖✘
–1

From the definition of the inverse functions, it follows that sin (sin–1 x) = x
✛ ✛
if – 1 ✚ x ✚ 1 and sin–1 (sin x) = x if ✜ ✢ x ✢ . In other words, if y = sin–1 x, then
2 2
sin y = x.
Remarks
(i) We know from Chapter 1, that if y = f (x) is an invertible function, then x = f –1 (y).
Thus, the graph of sin–1 function can be obtained from the graph of original
function by interchanging x and y axes, i.e., if (a, b) is a point on the graph of
sine function, then (b, a) becomes the corresponding point on the graph of inverse
 INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 35

of sine function. Thus, the graph of the function y = sin–1 x can be obtained from
the graph of y = sin x by interchanging x and y axes. The graphs of y = sin x and
y = sin–1 x are as given in Fig 2.1 (i), (ii), (iii). The dark portion of the graph of
y = sin–1 x represent the principal value branch.
(ii) It can be shown that the graph of an inverse function can be obtained from the
corresponding graph of original function as a mirror image (i.e., reflection) along
the line y = x. This can be visualised by looking the graphs of y = sin x and
y = sin–1 x as given in the same axes (Fig 2.1 (iii)).

Fig 2.1 (i)

Fig 2.1 (ii) Fig 2.1 (iii)

Like sine function, the cosine function is a function whose domain is the set of all
real numbers and range is the set [–1, 1]. If we restrict the domain of cosine function
to [0, ☎], then it becomes one-one and onto with range [–1, 1]. Actually, cosine function
36 MATHEMATICS

restricted to any of the intervals [– ☎, 0], [0,☎], [☎, 2☎] etc., is bijective with range as
[–1, 1]. We can, therefore, define the inverse of cosine function in each of these
intervals. We denote the inverse of the cosine function by cos–1 (arc cosine function).
Thus, cos–1 is a function whose domain is [–1, 1] and range
could be any of the intervals [–☎ , 0], [0, ☎ ], [☎ , 2☎ ] etc.
Corresponding to each such interval, we get a branch of the
function cos–1. The branch with range [0, ☎] is called the principal
value branch of the function cos–1. We write
cos–1 : [–1, 1] ✂ [0, ☎].
The graph of the function given by y = cos–1 x can be drawn
in the same way as discussed about the graph of y = sin–1 x. The
graphs of y = cos x and y = cos–1 x are given in Fig 2.2 (i) and (ii).

Fig 2.2 (i) Fig 2.2 (ii)

Let us now discuss cosec–1x and sec–1x as follows:

1
Since, cosec x = , the domain of the cosec function is the set {x : x ✄ R and
sin x
x ✝ n☎, n ✄ Z} and the range is the set {y : y ✄ R, y ✞ 1 or y ✆ –1} i.e., the set
R – (–1, 1). It means that y = cosec x assumes all real values except –1 < y < 1 and is
not defined for integral multiple of ☎. If we restrict the domain of cosec function to
✁ ✟
✡☞ ✠ 2 , 2 ☛✌ – {0}, then it is one to one and onto with its range as the set R – (– 1, 1). Actually,
✏ ✍3✎ ✍✎ ✑ ✏ ✍✎ ✎ ✑
cosec function restricted to any of the intervals ✒ , ✓ ✍ {✍✎} , ✒ , ✓ – {0},
✔ 2 2✕ ✔ 2 2✕
✁ 3 ✟
✡☞ 2 , 2 ☛✌ ✠ { } etc., is bijective and its range is the set of all real numbers R – (–1, 1).
 INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 37

Thus cosec–1 can be defined as a function whose domain is R – (–1, 1) and range could
✂ ✁ ✁✄ ✂ 3✁ ✁ ✄
be any of the intervals ☎ , ✆ {0} , ☎ , ✆ { ✁} , ✠ ✟ , 3✟ ✡ ☛ {✟} etc. The
✝ 2 2 ✞ ✝ 2 2✞ ☞✍ 2 2 ✌✎
✂ ✁ ✁✄
function corresponding to the range ☎ , ✆ {0} is called the principal value branch
✝ 2 2✞
of cosec–1. We thus have principal branch as
✂ ✁ ✁✄
cosec–1 : R – (–1, 1) ✏ ☎ , ✆ {0}
✝ 2 2✞
The graphs of y = cosec x and y = cosec–1 x are given in Fig 2.3 (i), (ii).

Fig 2.3 (i) Fig 2.3 (ii)

1 ✑
Also, since sec x = , the domain of y = sec x is the set R – {x : x = (2n + 1) ,
cos x 2
n ✒ Z} and range is the set R – (–1, 1). It means that sec (secant function) assumes
✑
all real values except –1 < y < 1 and is not defined for odd multiples of . If we
2
✑
restrict the domain of secant function to [0, ✓] – { }, then it is one-one and onto with
2
38 MATHEMATICS

its range as the set R – (–1, 1). Actually, secant function restricted to any of the
✁ ✄✂✆ 3✁
intervals [–☎, 0] – { }, [0, ✂] – ✝ ✞ , [☎, 2☎] – { } etc., is bijective and its range
2
–1
✟2✠ 2
is R – {–1, 1}. Thus sec can be defined as a function whose domain is R– (–1, 1) and
✁ ✁ 3✁
range could be any of the intervals [– ☎, 0] – { }, [0, ☎] – { }, [☎, 2☎] – { } etc.
2 2 2
Corresponding to each of these intervals, we get different branches of the function sec–1.
✁
The branch with range [0, ☎] – { } is called the principal value branch of the
2
function sec–1. We thus have
✁
sec–1 : R – (–1,1) ✡ [0, ☎] – { }
2
The graphs of the functions y = sec x and y = sec-1 x are given in Fig 2.4 (i), (ii).

Fig 2.4 (i) Fig 2.4 (ii)

Finally, we now discuss tan–1 and cot–1

We know that the domain of the tan function (tangent function) is the set
✁
{x : x ☛ R and x ☞ (2n +1) , n ☛ Z} and the range is R. It means that tan function
2
✁
is not defined for odd multiples of . If we restrict the domain of tangent function to
2
 INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 39

✂ ✁ ✁✄
☎ 2 , 2 ✆ , then it is one-one and onto with its range as R. Actually, tangent function
✝ ✞
✡ ✟3✠ , ✟✠ ☛ ✡ ✟✠ , ✠ ☛ ✡ ✠ , 3 ✠ ☛
restricted to any of the intervals ☞ ✌, ☞ ✌, ☞ ✌ etc., is bijective
✍ 2 2 ✎ ✍ 2 2✎ ✍2 2 ✎
and its range is R. Thus tan–1 can be defined as a function whose domain is R and
✂ 3✁ ✁ ✄ ✂ ✁ ✁ ✄ ✂ ✁ 3✁ ✄
range could be any of the intervals ☎ , ✆, ☎ , ✆ , ☎ , ✆ and so on. These
✝ 2 2 ✞ ✝ 2 2✞ ✝ 2 2 ✞
✂ ✁,✁ ✄
intervals give different branches of the function tan–1. The branch with range ☎ ✆
✝ 2 2✞
is called the principal value branch of the function tan–1.
We thus have
✂ ✁ ✁✄
tan–1 : R ✏ ☎ , ✆
✝ 2 2✞
The graphs of the function y = tan x and y = tan–1x are given in Fig 2.5 (i), (ii).

Fig 2.5 (i) Fig 2.5 (ii)

We know that domain of the cot function (cotangent function) is the set
{x : x ✑ R and x ✒ n✓, n ✑ Z} and range is R. It means that cotangent function is not
defined for integral multiples of ✓. If we restrict the domain of cotangent function to
(0, ✓), then it is bijective with and its range as R. In fact, cotangent function restricted
to any of the intervals (–✓, 0), (0, ✓), (✓, 2✓) etc., is bijective and its range is R. Thus
cot –1 can be defined as a function whose domain is the R and range as any of the
40 MATHEMATICS

intervals (–☎, 0), (0, ☎), (☎, 2☎) etc. These intervals give different branches of the
function cot –1. The function with range (0, ☎) is called the principal value branch of
the function cot –1. We thus have
cot–1 : R ✂ (0, ☎)
The graphs of y = cot x and y = cot–1x are given in Fig 2.6 (i), (ii).

Fig 2.6 (i) Fig 2.6 (ii)

The following table gives the inverse trigonometric function (principal value
branches) along with their domains and ranges.
✁ , ✄
sin–1 : [–1, 1] ✂ ✝✟ ✆ 2 2 ✞✠
cos –1 : [–1, 1] ✂ [0, ☎]

☛ ✡ , ✡☞
cosec–1 : R – (–1,1) ✂ ✍✏ ✌ 2 2 ✎✑ – {0}

✒
sec –1 : R – (–1, 1) ✂ [0, ☎] – { }
2
✓ ✌✡ , ✡ ✔
tan–1 : R ✂ ✕ 2 2✖
✗ ✘
cot–1 : R ✂ (0, ☎)
 INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 41

Note
1
1. sin–1x should not be confused with (sin x)–1. In fact (sin x)–1 = and
sin x
similarly for other trigonometric functions.
2. Whenever no branch of an inverse trigonometric functions is mentioned, we
mean the principal value branch of that function.
3. The value of an inverse trigonometric functions which lies in the range of
principal branch is called the principal value of that inverse trigonometric
functions.
We now consider some examples:
✁✄✆ ✂☎✝
1

✁✄✆ ✂☎✝
Example 1 Find the principal value of sin–1 .
2

✟☛✌ ✡ ✞ ✞ ✠☞✍
1 1
Solution Let sin–1 = y. Then, sin y = .
2 2

✏✒✔ ✎ ✑✓✕ ✁✄✆ ✂☎✝ ✖

We know that the range of the principal value branch of sin–1 is , and
2 2
1 1

✁✄✆ ✗ ✂☎✝
sin = . Therefore, principal value of sin–1 is
4 2 2 4

✁✄✆ ✗ ✂☎✝
1
Example 2 Find the principal value of cot–1
3
1

✙ ✘ ✙✘ ✏✒✔ ✎ ✑✓✕ ✛✣✥ ✚✢ ✚ ✜✤✦ ✛✣✥ ✚ ✜✤✦

Solution Let cot–1 = y. Then,
3

✧
1 2
cot y cot = cot = cot

✁✄✆ ✗ ✂☎✝ ✖
3 3

✏✒✔ ✎ ✑✓✕ ★
3 3
We know that the range of principal value branch of cot –1 is (0, ) and
2 1 1 2
cot = . Hence, principal value of cot–1 is
3 3 3 3

EXERCISE 2.1

✟☛✌ ✡ ✠☞✍ ✩✫ ✪✬
Find the principal values of the following:

1. sin–1
1
2. cos–1
✭ ✮ 3
3. cosec–1 (2)

✟☛✌ ✡ ✠☞✍
2 2

4. tan–1 ( ✯ 3) 5. cos–1
1
2
6. tan–1 (–1)
42 MATHEMATICS

2 ✁ 1 ✁
7. sec–1 ✂ ✄ 8. cot–1 ( 3) 9. cos–1 ✂✝ ✄
☎ 3✆ ☎ 2✆
10. cosec–1 ( ✞ 2 )
Find the values of the following:
✟ 1✠ ✎ 1✏ ✟ 1✠ ✎ 1✏
11. tan–1(1) + cos–1 ☛✡ ✒✑
–1
☞ + sin ✓ 12. cos–1 ☛ ☞ + 2 sin–1 ✒ ✓
✌ 2✍ ✔ 2✕ ✌ 2✍ ✔ 2✕
13. If sin–1 x = y, then
✘ ✘
(A) 0 ✖ y ✖ ✗ (B) ✙ ✚ y✚
2 2
✛ ✛
(C) 0 < y < ✗ (D) ✜ ✢ y✢
2 2
14. tan–1 3 ✦ sec ✥1 ✣ ✦ 2 ✤ is equal to

✘ ✘ 2✘
(A) ✗ (B) ✙ (C) (D)
3 3 3
2.3 Properties of Inverse Trigonometric Functions
In this section, we shall prove some important properties of inverse trigonometric
functions. It may be mentioned here that these results are valid within the principal
value branches of the corresponding inverse trigonometric functions and wherever
they are defined. Some results may not be valid for all values of the domains of inverse
trigonometric functions. In fact, they will be valid only for some values of x for which
inverse trigonometric functions are defined. We will not go into the details of these
values of x in the domain as this discussion goes beyond the scope of this text book.
Let us recall that if y = sin–1x, then x = sin y and if x = sin y, then y = sin–1x. This is
equivalent to
✩ ★ ★✪
sin (sin–1 x) = x, x ✧ [– 1, 1] and sin–1 (sin x) = x, x ✧ ✫ ,
✬ ✭
✮ 2 2✯
Same is true for other five inverse trigonometric functions as well. We now prove
some properties of inverse trigonometric functions.
1
1. (i) sin–1 = cosec–1 x, x ✰ 1 or x ✖ – 1
x
1
(ii) cos–1 = sec–1x, x ✰ 1 or x ✖ –1
x
 INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 43

1
(iii) tan–1 = cot–1 x, x > 0
x
To prove the first result, we put cosec–1 x = y, i.e., x = cosec y
1
Therefore = sin y
x
1
Hence sin–1 = y
x
1
or sin–1 = cosec–1 x
x
Similarly, we can prove the other parts.
2. (i) sin–1 (–x) = – sin–1 x, x ✄ [– 1, 1]
(ii) tan–1 (–x) = – tan–1 x, x ✄ R
(iii) cosec–1 (–x) = – cosec–1 x, | x | ✞ 1
Let sin–1 (–x) = y, i.e., –x = sin y so that x = – sin y, i.e., x = sin (–y).
Hence sin–1 x = – y = – sin–1 (–x)
Therefore sin–1 (–x) = – sin–1x
Similarly, we can prove the other parts.
3. (i) cos–1 (–x) = ☎ – cos–1 x, x ✄ [– 1, 1]
(ii) sec–1 (–x) = ☎ – sec–1 x, | x | ✞ 1
(iii) cot–1 (–x) = ☎ – cot–1 x, x ✄ R
Let cos–1 (–x) = y i.e., – x = cos y so that x = – cos y = cos (☎ – y)
Therefore cos–1 x = ☎ – y = ☎ – cos–1 (–x)
Hence cos–1 (–x) = ☎ – cos–1 x
Similarly, we can prove the other parts.

4. (i) sin–1 x + cos–1 x = , x ✄ [– 1, 1]

2

(ii) tan–1 x + cot–1 x = ,x✄R

2

(iii) cosec–1 x + sec–1 x = , |x| ✞ 1

2
✁ ✂
Let sin–1 x = y. Then x = sin y = cos ✝ ✆ y ✟
✠2 ✡
☛ ☛
Therefore cos–1 x = ☞y = ☞ sin –1 x
2 2
44 MATHEMATICS

Hence sin–1 x + cos–1 x =

2
Similarly, we can prove the other parts.
x+y
5. (i) tan–1x + tan–1 y = tan–1 , xy < 1
1 – xy

x–y
(ii) tan–1x – tan–1 y = tan–1 , xy > – 1
1 + xy

2x
(iii) 2tan–1x = tan–1 , |x| < 1
1 – x2

Let tan–1 x = ✟ and tan–1 y = ✠. Then x = tan ✟, y = tan ✠

tan ✁✂ tan ✄ x ✂ y
Now tan(✁✂ ✄) ☎ ☎
1✆ tan ✁ tan ✄ 1✆ xy

x✂ y
This gives ✟ + ✠ = tan–1 1✆ xy

x✝ y
Hence tan–1 x + tan–1 y = tan–1 1✞ xy

In the above result, if we replace y by – y, we get the second result and by replacing
y by x, we get the third result.
2x
6. (i) 2tan–1 x = sin–1 , |x| ✡ 1
1 + x2

1 – x2
(ii) 2tan–1 x = cos–1 ,x☛ 0
1 + x2
2x
(iii) 2 tan–1 x = tan–1 ,–1<x<1
1 – x2

Let tan–1 x = y, then x = tan y. Now

2x 2 tan y
sin–1 2 = sin
–1
1☞ x 1 ✂ tan 2 y
= sin–1 (sin 2y) = 2y = 2tan–1 x
 INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 45

1 x2 1✂ tan 2 y
Also cos–1 = cos –1
= cos–1 (cos 2y) = 2y = 2tan–1 x
1 ✁ x2 1 ✄ tan 2 y
(iii) Can be worked out similarly.
We now consider some examples.

Example 3 Show that

1 1
(i) sin–1 ☎ 2 x 1 ✝ x 2 ✆ = 2 sin–1 x, ✞ ✟ x✟
2 2
1
(ii) sin–1 ☎ 2 x 1 ✝ x 2 ✆ = 2 cos–1 x, ✟ x ✟1
2
Solution
(i) Let x = sin ✠. Then sin–1 x = ✠. We have
sin–1 ✡ 2 x 1 ☞ x 2 ☛ = sin–1 ✌ 2sin ✎ 1 ✏ sin 2 ✎ ✍

= sin–1 (2sin✠ cos✠ ) = sin–1 (sin2✠ ) = 2✠

= 2 sin–1 x
(ii) Take x = cos ✠, then proceeding as above, we get, sin–1 ✡ 2 x 1 ☞ x 2 ☛ = 2 cos–1 x
1 2 3
Example 4 Show that tan–1 ✑ tan –1 ✒ tan –1
2 11 4
Solution By property 5 (i), we have

1 2
✕
✙1 3 = R.H.S.
✖ tan ✔ 1
1 –1 2 –1 2 11 15
L.H.S. = tan ✓ tan
–1
✖ tan = tan
2 11 1 2 20 4
1✗ ✘
2 11

✛ cos x ✜ ✧ ✧
Example 5 Express tan ✚1 ✢ , ★ ✩ x ✩ in the simplest form.
✤ 1 ✦ sin x ✣✥ 2 2
Solution We write

✫ x
cos2 ✭ sin 2
x ✬
✪ 1 ✰ cos x ✱ –1 ✮ 2 2 ✯
tan ✳ ✴ ✲ tan ✮ 2 x ✯
✵ 1 ✭ sin x ✶ ✮ cos ✷ sin 2 x ✭ 2sin x cos x ✯
✸ 2 2 2 2 ✹
46 MATHEMATICS

✂ x x ✄✂ x x ✄✁
✟ ✝ cos ☎ sin ✞ ✝ cos ✆ sin
2 2 ☛✡ 2 2 ✞☛ ✠
= tan –1 ✟ ✡ ✠
✟ ✂ x x ✄2 ✠
✟ ✝ cos ✆ sin ✞ ✠
☞ ✡ 2 2☛ ✌

✍ x x✎ ✍ x✎
✑
cos ✏ sin ✒ ✑
1 ✏ tan
tan –1 ✑ 2 2 ✖ tan –1 ✑ 2✒
=
x x✒ x✒
✑ cos ✓ sin ✒ ✑1 ✓ tan ✒
✔ 2 2✕ ✔ 2✕

–1 ✗ ✚✙ x ✛✘ ✙ x
= tan ✥ tan ✣ ✜
✤✦ ✢ ✜
✩ ✧ 4 2 ★✪ 4 2
Alternatively,

✫ ✯✭ ✰ ✬ ✫ ✯ ✭ ✮ 2x ✰ ✬
✳ sin ✱ ✮ x ✲ ✳ sin ✱
✯ cos x ✰ ✵2 ✶
✴
✵ 2 ✶✲ ✴
tan –1 ✱ ✲
–1
✷ tan ✳ ✴ ✷ tan –1 ✳ ✴
✵ 1 ✮ sin x ✶ ✳ ✯✭ ✰ ✴ ✳ ✯ ✭ ✮ 2x ✰ ✴
1 ✮ cos ✱ ✮ x ✲ 1 ✮ cos ✱
✳
✸ ✵ 2 ✶ ✴
✹
✳
✸ ✵ 2 ✶✲ ✹✴

✫ ✯ ✭ ✮ 2x ✰ ✯ ✭ ✮ 2x ✰ ✬
✳ 2sin ✱ ✲ cos ✱
✵ 4 ✶ ✵ 4 ✲✶ ✴
= tan –1 ✳ ✴
✳ ✯ ✭ ✮ 2x ✰ ✴
2sin 2 ✱
✳
✸ ✵ 4 ✲✶ ✴
✹

–1 ✺ ✾ ✼ ✽ 2 x ✿✻ –1 ✺ ✾ ✼ ✼ ✽ 2 x ✿✻
= tan ❂ cot ❀ ❈ tan ❂ tan ❀ ✽
❆ ❄ 4 ❅❇ ❁❃
❆ ❄2 4 ❁❅ ❃❇

–1 ✗ ✚✙ x ✛✘ ❉ x
= tan ✥ tan ✣ ✜ ✤✦ ❊ ❋
✩ ✧4 2 ★✪ 4 2

–1 ● 1 ❍
Example 6 Write cot ■ 2 ❏, | x | > 1 in the simplest form.
▲ x ❑1 ▼

Solution Let x = sec ◆, then x2 ❖ 1 = sec 2 P ❑ 1 ◗ tan P

 INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 47

1
= cot–1 (cot ✟) = ✟ = sec–1 x, which is the simplest form.
–1
Therefore, cot
x2 1

2x ✂ 3 x ✁ x3 ✄ 1
Example 7 Prove that tan–1 x + tan
–1
= tan–1 ☎ 2 ✆, | x|✠
1 ✁ x2 ✝ 1 ✁ 3 x ✞ 3
Solution Let x = tan ✟ . Then ✟ = tan–1 x. We have

✂ 3x ✁ x 3 ✄ –1 ✂ 3tan ✡✁ tan ✡ ✄
3
–1
R.H.S. = tan ☎ 2 ✆
☛ tan ☎ ✆
✝ 1 ✁ 3x ✞ ✝ 1 ✁ 3tan ✡ ✞
2

= tan–1 (tan3✟) = 3✟ = 3tan–1 x = tan–1 x + 2 tan–1 x

2x
= tan–1 x + tan–1
= L.H.S. (Why?)
1 ✁ x2
Example 8 Find the value of cos (sec–1 x + cosec–1 x), | x | ☞ 1
✍✌✎
Solution We have cos (sec–1 x + cosec–1 x) = cos ✏ ✑ = 0
✒ 2✓

EXERCISE 2.2
Prove the following:
✔ 1 1✕
1. 3sin–1 x = sin–1 (3x – 4x3), x ✖ ✗ – , ✘
✙ 2 2✚
✔1 ✕
2. 3cos–1 x = cos–1 (4x3 – 3x), x ✖ ✗ , 1✘
✙2 ✚

✜ tan ✛1 ✢ tan ✛1
2 7 1
3. tan –1
11 24 2
2 tan ✣1 ✤ tan ✣1 ✥ tan ✣1
1 1 31
4.
2 7 17
Write the following functions in the simplest form:

tan ✪1
1 ✧ x2 ★ 1 1
5. tan ✦1 ,x✩0 6. 2 , |x| > 1
x x 1
✬ 1 ✮ cos x ✭ ✶ cos x ✸ sin x ✷
7. tan ✫1 ✯✯ ✰✰ , x < ✴ 8. tan ✵ 1 ✹ ✺, x < ✴
✲ 1 ✱ cos x ✳ ✼ cos x ✻ sin x ✽
48 MATHEMATICS

1 x
9. tan , |x| < a
2
a ✁ x2

✄ 3a 2 x ✆ x 3 ☎ ✡a a
10. tan ✂1 ✝ 3 2 ✞, a > 0; ☛ x☛
✟ a ✆ 3ax ✠
3 3
Find the values of each of the following:
☞ ✍ 1 ✎✌
11. tan –1 ✒ 2 cos ✏ 2 sin –1 ✑ 12. cot (tan–1a + cot–1a)
✖ ✔ 2 ✕ ✓✗
2
1 ✘ –1 2 x –1 1 ✆ y ✙
13. tan ✛ sin ✚ cos ✜ , | x | < 1, y > 0 and xy < 1
2✢ 1 ✚ x2 1 ✚ y2 ✣

–1 ✤ 1 –1 ✥
14. If sin ★ sin ✦ cos x ✩ ✧1 , then find the value of x
✪ 5 ✫

–1 x ✬1 –1 x ✭ 1 ✮
15. If tan ✭ tan ✯ , then find the value of x
x✬2 x✭2 4
Find the values of each of the expressions in Exercises 16 to 18.
–1 ✱ 2✰ ✲ ✤ 3✷ ✥
16. sin ✳ sin ✴ 17. tan –1 ★ tan
✵ 3 ✶ ✪ 4 ✩✫
✤ –1 3 –1 3 ✥
18. tan ★ sin ✦ cot
✪ 5 2 ✩✫
✸1 ✺ 7✹ ✻
19. cos ✼ cos ✽ is equal to
✾ 6 ✿
7✮ 5✮ ✮ ✮
(A) (B) (C) (D)
6 6 3 6
✺✹ ✸1 1 ✻
20. sin ✼ ❀ sin (❀ ) ✽ is equal to
3 ✾ 2 ✿
1 1 1
(A) (B) (C) (D) 1
2 3 4
21. tan ✂1 3 ✆ cot ✂1 (✆ 3) is equal to
✮
(A) ❁ (B) ✬ (C) 0 (D) 2 3
2
 INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 49

Miscellaneous Examples

1 3✁
Example 9 Find the value of sin (sin )
5

1 3✁ 3✁
Solution We know that sin ✂1 (sin x) ✄ x . Therefore, sin (sin )☎
5 5
3✆ ✝ ✆ ✆ ✞
But ✟ ✠ , , which is the principal branch of sin–1 x
5 ✡☞ 2 2 ☛✌
3✁ 3✁ 2✁ 2✎ ✏ ✎ ✎ ✑
However sin ( ) ☎ sin(✁ ✍ ) ☎ sin and ✒ ✓ ,
5 5 5 5 ✔✖ 2 2 ✕✗

3✙ 2✙ 2✙
Therefore sin ✘1 (sin ) ✚ sin ✘1 (sin ) ✚
5 5 5
1 3 1 8 1 84
Example 10 Show that sin ✍ sin ☎ cos
5 17 85
1 3 1 8
Solution Let sin ☎ x and sin ☎ y
5 17

3 8
Therefore sin x ☎ and sin y ☎
5 17

9 4
Now cos x ✛ 1 ✜ sin 2 x ✛ 1 ✜ ✛ (Why?)
25 5

64 15
and cos y ✢ 1 ✣ sin 2 y ✢ 1✣ ✢
289 17
We have cos (x–y) = cos x cos y + sin x sin y
4 15 3 8 84
= ✤ ✥ ✤ ☎
5 17 5 17 85
✧ 84 ★
Therefore x ✣ y ✢ cos✦1 ✩ ✪
✫ 85 ✬

1 3 1 8 1 84
Hence sin ✍ sin ☎ cos
5 17 85
50 MATHEMATICS

1 12 1 4 1 63
Example 11 Show that sin ✁ cos ✁ tan ✂✄
13 5 16

1 12 1 4 1 63
Solution Let sin ✂ x, cos ✂ y , tan ✂ z
13 5 16

12 4 63
Then sin x ✂ , cos y ✂ , tan z ✂
13 5 16

5 3 12 3
Therefore cos x ✂ , sin y ✂ , tan x ✂ and tan y ✂
13 5 5 4
12 3
✞
tan x ☎ tan y 5 4 63
We have tan( x ☎ y) ✆ ✟ ✟ ✠
1 ✝ tan x tan y 12 3 16
1✠ ✡
5 4
Hence tan( x ☛ y ) ☞ ✌ tan z
i.e., tan (x + y) = tan (–z) or tan (x + y) = tan (✍ – z)
Therefore x + y = – z or x + y = ✍ – z
Since x, y and z are positive, x + y ✎ – z (Why?)

–1 12 –1 4 –1 63
Hence x + y + z = ✍ or sin ✁ cos ✁ tan ✂✄
13 5 16

–1 ✏ a cos x ✌ b sin x ✑ a
Example 12 Simplify tan ✒ ✓ , if tan x > –1
✔ b cos x ☛ a sin x ✕ b

Solution We have,

✤ a cos x ✣ b sin x ✥ ✤ a ✥
✣ tan x
✖ a cos x ✘ b sin x ✗ ✦ b cos x ✧ –1 ✦ b ✧
tan –1 ✙ = tan –1 ✦ = tan ✦
✚
✜ b cos x ✛ a sin x ✢ b cos x ★ a sin x ✧ a ✧
✦ ✧ ✦ 1 ★ tan x ✧
✩ b cos x ✪ ✩ b ✪

–1 a –1 a
= tan ✫ tan (tan x) = tan –1 ✬x
b b
 INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 51

Example 13 Solve tan–1 2x + tan–1 3x =

4

Solution We have tan–1 2x + tan–1 3x =

4
✁ 2 x ✄ 3x ✂
or tan –1 ☎ ✆=
✟ 1 ✝ 2 x ✞ 3x ✠ 4

tan –1 ☞
✡ 5x ☛ ✑
i.e. ✌ =
✎ 1 ✍ 6x 2 ✏ 4
5x
Therefore = tan ✓ 1
1 ✒ 6 x2 4
or 6x2 + 5x – 1 = 0 i.e., (6x – 1) (x + 1) = 0
1
which gives x=
or x = – 1.
6
Since x = – 1 does not satisfy the equation, as the L.H.S. of the equation becomes
1
negative, x ✓ is the only solution of the given equation.
6

Miscellaneous Exercise on Chapter 2

Find the value of the following:

–1 ✕ 13✔ ✖ ✕ 7✔ ✖
1. cos ✗ cos ✘ 2. tan –1 ✗ tan ✘
✙ 6 ✚ ✙ 6 ✚
Prove that
3 24 8 3 77
3. 2sin –1 ✓ tan –1 4. sin
–1
✛ sin –1 ✓ tan –1
5 7 17 5 36

–1 4 12 33 12 3 56
5. cos ✛ cos –1 ✓ cos –1 6. cos
–1
✛ sin –1 ✓ sin –1
5 13 65 13 5 65
63 5 3
7. tan –1 ✓ sin –1 ✛ cos –1
16 13 5

tan –1 ✛ tan ✜1 ✛ tan ✜1 ✛ tan ✜1 ✓

1 1 1 1
8.
5 7 3 8 4
52 MATHEMATICS

Prove that
1 ✁1 x✂
tan –1 x ✄ cos –1 ☎ , x ✠ [0, 1]
✝ 1 ✟ x ✆✞
9.
2

✡ 1 ☞ sin x ☞ 1 ✌ sin x ☛ x ✔ ✓✕
10. cot –1 ✎
✎ ✏ ✍ , x ✖ ✗✙ 0, 4 ✘✚
✏
✑ 1 ☞ sin x ✌ 1 ✌ sin x ✒ 2

✡ 1 ☞ x ✌ 1 ✌ x ☛ ✛ 1 –1 1
11. tan –1 ✎
✎ ✏✏ ✍ ✌ cos x , ✜ ✢ x ✢ 1 [Hint: Put x = cos 2✣]
✑ 1☞ x ☞ 1✌ x ✒ 4 2 2

9✓ 9
✜ sin ✤1 ✥ sin ✤1
1 9 2 2
12.
8 4 3 4 3
Solve the following equations:
1 ✦ x 1 –1
13. 2tan–1 (cos x) = tan–1 (2 cosec x) 14. tan –1 ✧ tan x,( x ★ 0)
1✩ x 2
15. sin (tan–1 x), | x | < 1 is equal to
x 1 1 x
(A) (B) (C) (D)
1 ✪ x2 1✪ x 2
1✫ x2 1✫ x2

✬
16. sin–1 (1 – x) – 2 sin–1 x = , then x is equal to
2

1 1 1
(A) 0, (B) 1, (C) 0 (D)
2 2 2

✮ x✯ x✪ y
17. tan ✭1 ✰ ✱ ✪ tan ✭1 is equal to
✲ y✳ x✫ y

✬ ✬ ✬ ✦ 3✬
(A) (B) (C) (D)
2 3 4 4
 INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 53

Summary
The domains and ranges (principal value branches) of inverse trigonometric
functions are given in the following table:
Functions Domain Range
(Principal Value Branches)
✄✆ ✁✂ , ✂ ☎✝
y = sin–1 x [–1, 1]
✞ 2 2✟
y = cos–1 x [–1, 1] [0, ✠]
☞ ✡☛ , ☛ ✌ – {0}
y = cosec–1 x R – (–1,1) ✍✏ 2 2 ✎✑
y = sec–1 x R – (–1, 1) [0, ✠] – { }
✒
2
✓✕ ✁ ✂ , ✂ ✔✖
y = tan–1 x R
✗ 2 2✘
y = cot–1 x R (0, ✠)
1
sin–1x should not be confused with (sin x)–1. In fact (sin x)–1 = and
sin x
similarly for other trigonometric functions.
The value of an inverse trigonometric functions which lies in its principal
value branch is called the principal value of that inverse trigonometric
functions.
For suitable values of domain, we have
y = sin–1 x ✙ x = sin y x = sin y ✙y = sin–1 x
–1 –1
sin (sin x) = x sin (sin x) = x

sin–1
1
x
= cosec–1 x cos–1 (–x) = ✠ – cos –1
x

cos–1
1
x
= sec–1x cot–1 (–x) = ✠ – cot –1
x

tan–1
1
x
= cot–1 x sec–1 (–x) = ✠ – sec –1
x
54 MATHEMATICS

sin–1 (–x) = – sin–1 x tan–1 (–x) = – tan–1 x

tan–1 x + cot–1 x =
✁ cosec–1 (–x) = – cosec–1 x
2

sin–1 x + cos–1 x =
✁ cosec–1 x + sec–1 x =
✁
2 2
x ✂y 2x
tan–1x + tan–1y = tan–1
✄
1 xy
2tan–1x = tan–1
☎
1 x2
x✆ y
1 ✝ xy
tan–1x – tan–1y = tan–1

2x 1 x2 ✟
2tan–1 x = sin–1
✞ ✠
–1
2 = cos
1 x 1 x2

Historical Note
The study of trigonometry was first started in India. The ancient Indian
Mathematicians, Aryabhatta (476A.D.), Brahmagupta (598 A.D.), Bhaskara I
(600 A.D.) and Bhaskara II (1114 A.D.) got important results of trigonometry. All
this knowledge went from India to Arabia and then from there to Europe. The
Greeks had also started the study of trigonometry but their approach was so
clumsy that when the Indian approach became known, it was immediately adopted
throughout the world.
In India, the predecessor of the modern trigonometric functions, known as
the sine of an angle, and the introduction of the sine function represents one of
the main contribution of the siddhantas (Sanskrit astronomical works) to
mathematics.
Bhaskara I (about 600 A.D.) gave formulae to find the values of sine functions
for angles more than 90°. A sixteenth century Malayalam work Yuktibhasa
contains a proof for the expansion of sin (A + B). Exact expression for sines or
cosines of 18°, 36°, 54°, 72°, etc., were given by Bhaskara II.
The symbols sin–1 x, cos–1 x, etc., for arc sin x, arc cos x, etc., were suggested
by the astronomer Sir John F.W. Hersehel (1813) The name of Thales
(about 600 B.C.) is invariably associated with height and distance problems. He
is credited with the determination of the height of a great pyramid in Egypt by
measuring shadows of the pyramid and an auxiliary staff (or gnomon) of known
 INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 55

height, and comparing the ratios:

H h
= tan (sun’s altitude)
S s
Thales is also said to have calculated the distance of a ship at sea through
the proportionality of sides of similar triangles. Problems on height and distance
using the similarity property are also found in ancient Indian works.

—✁ —
 Chapter 3
MATRICES

The essence of Mathematics lies in its freedom. — CANTOR

3.1 Introduction
The knowledge of matrices is necessary in various branches of mathematics. Matrices
are one of the most powerful tools in mathematics. This mathematical tool simplifies
our work to a great extent when compared with other straight forward methods. The
evolution of concept of matrices is the result of an attempt to obtain compact and
simple methods of solving system of linear equations. Matrices are not only used as a
representation of the coefficients in system of linear equations, but utility of matrices
far exceeds that use. Matrix notation and operations are used in electronic spreadsheet
programs for personal computer, which in turn is used in different areas of business
and science like budgeting, sales projection, cost estimation, analysing the results of an
experiment etc. Also, many physical operations such as magnification, rotation and
reflection through a plane can be represented mathematically by matrices. Matrices
are also used in cryptography. This mathematical tool is not only used in certain branches
of sciences, but also in genetics, economics, sociology, modern psychology and industrial
management.
In this chapter, we shall find it interesting to become acquainted with the
fundamentals of matrix and matrix algebra.
3.2 Matrix
Suppose we wish to express the information that Radha has 15 notebooks. We may
express it as [15] with the understanding that the number inside [ ] is the number of
notebooks that Radha has. Now, if we have to express that Radha has 15 notebooks
and 6 pens. We may express it as [15 6] with the understanding that first number
inside [ ] is the number of notebooks while the other one is the number of pens possessed
by Radha. Let us now suppose that we wish to express the information of possession
 MATRICES 57

of notebooks and pens by Radha and her two friends Fauzia and Simran which
is as follows:
Radha has 15 notebooks and 6 pens,
Fauzia has 10 notebooks and 2 pens,
Simran has 13 notebooks and 5 pens.
Now this could be arranged in the tabular form as follows:
Notebooks Pens
Radha 15 6
Fauzia 10 2
Simran 13 5
and this can be expressed as

or
Radha Fauzia Simran
Notebooks 15 10 13
Pens 6 2 5
which can be expressed as:

In the first arrangement the entries in the first column represent the number of
note books possessed by Radha, Fauzia and Simran, respectively and the entries in the
second column represent the number of pens possessed by Radha, Fauzia and Simran,
58 MATHEMATICS

respectively. Similarly, in the second arrangement, the entries in the first row represent
the number of notebooks possessed by Radha, Fauzia and Simran, respectively. The
entries in the second row represent the number of pens possessed by Radha, Fauzia
and Simran, respectively. An arrangement or display of the above kind is called a
matrix. Formally, we define matrix as:
Definition 1 A matrix is an ordered rectangular array of numbers or functions. The
numbers or functions are called the elements or the entries of the matrix.
We denote matrices by capital letters. The following are some examples of matrices:

✞ 1✟
☛
2✠i 3 ✡
–2 5 ✁ 2☞
✂ ✄ ☛ ☞ ✏1 ✒ x x3 3 ✑
A☎✂ 0 5✄ , B ✌ ☛ 3.5 –1 2 ☞, C✓✔ ✕
☛ ✖ cos x sin x ✒ 2 tan x✗
✂
✆ 3 6 ✄✝ 5 ☞
☛ 3 5 ☞
✍ 7 ✎

In the above examples, the horizontal lines of elements are said to constitute, rows
of the matrix and the vertical lines of elements are said to constitute, columns of the
matrix. Thus A has 3 rows and 2 columns, B has 3 rows and 3 columns while C has 2
rows and 3 columns.
3.2.1 Order of a matrix
A matrix having m rows and n columns is called a matrix of order m × n or simply m × n
matrix (read as an m by n matrix). So referring to the above examples of matrices, we
have A as 3 × 2 matrix, B as 3 × 3 matrix and C as 2 × 3 matrix. We observe that A has
3 × 2 = 6 elements, B and C have 9 and 6 elements, respectively.
In general, an m × n matrix has the following rectangular array:

or A = [aij]m × n, 1✘ i ✘ m, 1✘ j ✘ n i, j ✙ N
Thus the ith row consists of the elements ai1, ai2, ai3,..., ain, while the jth column
consists of the elements a1j, a2j, a3j,..., amj ,
In general aij, is an element lying in the ith row and jth column. We can also call
it as the (i, j)th element of A. The number of elements in an m × n matrix will be
equal to mn.
 MATRICES 59

Note In this chapter

1. We shall follow the notation, namely A = [aij]m × n to indicate that A is a matrix
of order m × n.
2. We shall consider only those matrices whose elements are real numbers or
functions taking real values.

✁✄✆ ✂☎✝
We can also represent any point (x, y) in a plane by a matrix (column or row) as
x
(or [x, y]). For example point P(0, 1) as a matrix representation may be given as

✠ ✞✡☞ ✟☛✌
y

0
P or [0 1].
1
Observe that in this way we can also express the vertices of a closed rectilinear
figure in the form of a matrix. For example, consider a quadrilateral ABCD with vertices
A (1, 0), B (3, 2), C (1, 3), D (–1, 2).

✘✚ ✙✛
Now, quadrilateral ABCD in the matrix form, can be represented as

✒ ✏✓✕
A B C D
✎ ✑✔✖ ✜ ✚✚✚
A 1 0

✛✛
✍ ✛✤ ✗
1 3 1 1 B 3 2

✣✢
X or Y
0 2 3 2 2 4
C 1 3
D 1 2 4 2

Thus, matrices can be used as representation of vertices of geometrical figures in

a plane.
Now, let us consider some examples.
Example 1 Consider the following information regarding the number of men and women
workers in three factories I, II and III
Men workers Women workers
I 30 25
II 25 31
III 27 26
Represent the above information in the form of a 3 × 2 matrix. What does the entry
in the third row and second column represent?
60 MATHEMATICS

Solution The information is represented in the form of a 3 × 2 matrix as follows:

30 25✁
✂
A ☎ 25
✂
31✄✄
✂
✆ 27 26 ✄✝
The entry in the third row and second column represents the number of women
workers in factory III.
Example 2 If a matrix has 8 elements, what are the possible orders it can have?
Solution We know that if a matrix is of order m × n, it has mn elements. Thus, to find
all possible orders of a matrix with 8 elements, we will find all ordered pairs of natural
numbers, whose product is 8.
Thus, all possible ordered pairs are (1, 8), (8, 1), (4, 2), (2, 4)
Hence, possible orders are 1 × 8, 8 ×1, 4 × 2, 2 × 4
1
Example 3 Construct a 3 × 2 matrix whose elements are given by aij ✞ |i ✟3j |.
2

✠ a11 a12 ✡
Solution In general a 3 × 2 matrix is given by A ✌ ☛ a21 a22 ☞ .
☛ ☞
☛✍ a31 a32 ☞✎
1
Now aij ✏ | i ✑ 3 j | , i = 1, 2, 3 and j = 1, 2.
2
1 1 5
Therefore a11 ✞ |1 ✟ 3 ✒ 1| ✞ 1 a12 ✞ |1 ✟ 3 ✒ 2 | ✞
2 2 2
1 1 1
a21 ✞ | 2 ✟ 3 ✒ 1| ✞ a22 ✞ | 2 ✟ 3✒ 2 | ✞ 2
2 2 2
1 1 3
a31 ✏ | 3 ✑ 3 ✓ 1| ✏ 0 a32 ✏ | 3 ✑ 3✓ 2 | ✏
2 2 2

✔ 5✕
1
✖ 2✗
✖1 ✗
Hence the required matrix is given by A ✘✖ 2✗ .
✖
2
3✗
✖0 ✗
✙ 2✚
 MATRICES 61

3.3 Types of Matrices

In this section, we shall discuss different types of matrices.
(i) Column matrix
A matrix is said to be a column matrix if it has only one column.

0 ✁
✂ ✄
✂ 3✄
For example, A ☎ ✂ ✆1 ✄ is a column matrix of order 4 × 1.
✂ ✄
✝1/ 2 ✄✞
✂

In general, A = [aij] m × 1 is a column matrix of order m × 1.

(ii) Row matrix
A matrix is said to be a row matrix if it has only one row.

1
For example, B ☛ ✠✌ ☞ 5 2 3✍
✡
is a row matrix.
✎ 2 ✏1✟ 4

In general, B = [bij] 1 × n is a row matrix of order 1 × n.

(iii) Square matrix
A matrix in which the number of rows are equal to the number of columns, is
said to be a square matrix. Thus an m × n matrix is said to be a square matrix if
m = n and is known as a square matrix of order ‘n’.

✒3 ✑1 0✓
✔ ✕
3
For example A✖✔ 3 2 1 ✕ is a square matrix of order 3.
✔2 ✕
✔4 3 ✑1✕
✗ ✘

In general, A = [aij] m × m is a square matrix of order m.

✙
Note If A = [aij] is a square matrix of order n, then elements (entries) a11, a22, ..., ann

✛1 ✚3 1✜
are said to constitute the diagonal, of the matrix A. Thus, if A ✤ ✢✢ 2 4 ✚1
✣
✣
.
✢
✥3 5 6 ✣✦
Then the elements of the diagonal of A are 1, 4, 6.
62 MATHEMATICS

(iv) Diagonal matrix

A square matrix B = [bij] m × m is said to be a diagonal matrix if all its non
diagonal elements are zero, that is a matrix B = [bij] m × m is said to be a diagonal
matrix if bij = 0, when i ☎ j.

✡ ✠1.1 0 0☛
✁ 1 0✂
For example, A = [4], B ✄ ✆ ✝ , C ✍ ☞☞ 0 2 0✌ , are diagonal matrices
✌
✞ 0 2✟ ☞✎ 0 0 3✌✏
of order 1, 2, 3, respectively.
(v) Scalar matrix
A diagonal matrix is said to be a scalar matrix if its diagonal elements are equal,
that is, a square matrix B = [bij] n × n is said to be a scalar matrix if
bij = 0, when i ☎ j
bij = k, when i = j, for some constant k.
For example

✑ 3 0 0✒
✁ 1 0✂, ✓ ✔
A = [3], B✄ ✆ C✕✓ 0 0✔
1✝✟
3
✞0 ✓ ✔
✖0 0 3✗
are scalar matrices of order 1, 2 and 3, respectively.
(vi) Identity matrix
A square matrix in which elements in the diagonal are all 1 and rest are all zero
is called an identity matrix. In other words, the square matrix A = [aij] n × n is an
✘1 if i ✄ j
identity matrix, if aij ✄ ✙ .
✛0 if i ✚ j
We denote the identity matrix of order n by In. When order is clear from the
context, we simply write it as I.
✜1 0 0✢
✁ 1 0 ✂ ✣0 1 0✤
For example [1], ✆ ✝, ✣ ✤ are identity matrices of order 1, 2 and 3,
✞ 0 1 ✟ ✣✥0 0 1✤✦
respectively.
Observe that a scalar matrix is an identity matrix when k = 1. But every identity
matrix is clearly a scalar matrix.
 MATRICES 63

(vii) Zero matrix

A matrix is said to be zero matrix or null matrix if all its elements are zero.
0 0✁ 0 0 0✁
For example, [0], ✂ , , [0, 0] are all zero matrices. We denote
☎0 0 ✄✆ ✂☎ 0 0 0 ✄✆
zero matrix by O. Its order will be clear from the context.
3.3.1 Equality of matrices
Definition 2 Two matrices A = [aij] and B = [bij] are said to be equal if
(i) they are of the same order
(ii) each element of A is equal to the corresponding element of B, that is aij = bij for
all i and j.
2 3✁ 2 3✁ 3 2✁ 2 3✁
For example, ✂ and ✂ ✄ are equal matrices but ✂ ✄ and ✂ are
☎0 1✄✆ ☎ 0 1 ✆ ☎ 0 1 ✆ ☎ 0 1 ✄✆
not equal matrices. Symbolically, if two matrices A and B are equal, we write A = B.

✞x y ✟ ✞ ✝1.5 0 ✟
✠ ✠ ✡
If z a✡ ☛ ✠ 2 6✡ , then x = – 1.5, y = 0, z = 2, a = 6 , b = 3, c = 2
✠ ✡
✠
☞b c ✡✌ ✠☞ 3 2 ✡✌

✏x ✍ 3 z ✍ 4 2 y ✎ 7✑ ✏ 0 6 3y ✎ 2 ✑
✒ ✓ ✒
Example 4 If ✒
✎6 a ✎1 0 ✔ ✎6
✓ ✒
✎3 2c ✍ 2✓✓
✒
✕b ✎ 3 ✎ 21 0 ✓
✖ ✒✕ 2b ✍ 4 ✎ 21 0 ✓
✖
Find the values of a, b, c, x, y and z.
Solution As the given matrices are equal, therefore, their corresponding elements
must be equal. Comparing the corresponding elements, we get
x + 3 = 0, z + 4 = 6, 2y – 7 = 3y – 2
a – 1 = – 3, 0 = 2c + 2 b – 3 = 2b + 4,
Simplifying, we get
a = – 2, b = – 7, c = – 1, x = – 3, y = –5, z = 2
Example 5 Find the values of a, b, c, and d from the following equation:
2a ✗ b a ✘ 2b ✁ 4 ✘3✁
✂ ✄✙✂
☎ 5c ✘ d 4c ✗ 3d ✆ ☎11 24✄✆
64 MATHEMATICS

Solution By equality of two matrices, equating the corresponding elements, we get

2a + b = 4 5c – d = 11
a – 2b = – 3 4c + 3d = 24
Solving these equations, we get
a = 1, b = 2, c = 3 and d = 4

EXERCISE 3.1

2 5 19 ✂7 ✁
✄ ☎
5
1. In the matrix A ✆ ✄ 35 ✂2 12 ☎ , write:
✄ 2 ☎
✄
✝ 3 1 ✂5 17 ☎✞
(i) The order of the matrix, (ii) The number of elements,
(iii) Write the elements a13, a21, a33, a24, a23.
2. If a matrix has 24 elements, what are the possible orders it can have? What, if it
has 13 elements?
3. If a matrix has 18 elements, what are the possible orders it can have? What, if it
has 5 elements?
4. Construct a 2 × 2 matrix, A = [aij], whose elements are given by:

(i ✟ j ) 2 i (i ✟ 2 j )2
(i) aij ✠ (ii) aij ✡ (iii) aij ✠
2 j 2
5. Construct a 3 × 4 matrix, whose elements are given by:
1
(i) aij ☛ | ☞3i ✌ j | (ii) aij ✆ 2i ✂ j
2
6. Find the values of x, y and z from the following equations:

✗x ✖ y ✖ z✘ ✗9 ✘
✍4 3✎ ✍y z✎ ✍x ✕ y 2✎ ✍6 2✎ ✙ ✚ ✙ ✚
(i) ✑ ✒✏✑ (ii) ✒✏✑ (iii) x✖ z ✛ 5
✓x 5✔ ✓ 1 5✒✔ ✑
✓5 ✕ z xy ✔ ✓5 8 ✒✔ ✙ ✚ ✙ ✚
✙
✜ y✖z ✚
✢ ✙✜7 ✚
✢
7. Find the value of a, b, c and d from the equation:
✥ a✣b 2 a ✤ c ✦ ✥✣ 1 5 ✦
★ ✧
✪ 2a ✣ b 3c ✤ d ✩✫ ★✪ 0 13✩✫
 MATRICES 65

8. A = [aij]m × n\ is a square matrix, if

(A) m < n (B) m > n (C) m = n (D) None of these
9. Which of the given values of x and y make the following pair of matrices equal
✁ 3x 7 5 ✂ ✁ 0 y ✆ 2✂
✄ y 1 2 ✆ 3x☎ , ✄ 8 4 ☎✞
✝ ✞ ✝
✟1
(A) x ✠ , y✠7 (B) Not possible to find
3
✡2 ✡1 ✡2
(C) y = 7, x☛ (D) x ☛ , y☛
3 3 3
10. The number of all possible matrices of order 3 × 3 with each entry 0 or 1 is:
(A) 27 (B) 18 (C) 81 (D) 512
3.4 Operations on Matrices
In this section, we shall introduce certain operations on matrices, namely, addition of
matrices, multiplication of a matrix by a scalar, difference and multiplication of matrices.
3.4.1 Addition of matrices
Suppose Fatima has two factories at places A and B. Each factory produces sport
shoes for boys and girls in three different price categories labelled 1, 2 and 3. The
quantities produced by each factory are represented as matrices given below:

Suppose Fatima wants to know the total production of sport shoes in each price
category. Then the total production
In category 1 : for boys (80 + 90), for girls (60 + 50)
In category 2 : for boys (75 + 70), for girls (65 + 55)
In category 3 : for boys (90 + 75), for girls (85 + 75)

✌80 ☞ 90 60 ☞ 50✍
This can be represented in the matrix form as ✎ 75 ☞ 70 65 ☞ 55✏ .
✎ ✏
✎✑ 90 ☞ 75 85 ☞ 75 ✏✒
66 MATHEMATICS

This new matrix is the sum of the above two matrices. We observe that the sum of
two matrices is a matrix obtained by adding the corresponding elements of the given
matrices. Furthermore, the two matrices have to be of the same order.

a11 a12 a13 ✁ b11 b12 b13 ✁

Thus, if A ✂ ✄ is a 2 × 3 matrix and B ✂ ✄ is another
✆ a21 a22 a23 ☎✝ ✆b21 b22 b23 ☎✝

a11 ✞ b11 a12 ✞ b12 a13 ✞ b13 ✁

2×3 matrix. Then, we define A + B ✂ ✄ ☎ .
✆ a21 ✞ b21 a22 ✞ b22 a23 ✞ b23 ✝

In general, if A = [aij] and B = [bij] are two matrices of the same order, say m × n.
Then, the sum of the two matrices A and B is defined as a matrix C = [cij]m × n, where
cij = aij + bij, for all possible values of i and j.

✏2 5 1✑
✟ 3 1 ✡ 1✠
Example 6 Given A ☛ ☞ ✌ and B✔ ✒ ✓
1 ✓ , find A + B
2 3 0✎ ✒ ✕2 3
✍
✒
✖ 2 ✗✓
Since A, B are of the same order 2 × 3. Therefore, addition of A and B is defined
and is given by

✏2 ✘ 3 1 ✘ 5 1 ✕ 1✑ ✏2 ✘ 3 1 ✘ 5 0✑
A+B ✔ ✒ 1
✓ ✒
✔ 1✓
✓
✒2 ✕ 2 3✘3 0✘ ✓ ✒ 0 6
✖✒ 2✓✗ ✒✖ 2 ✓✗

✙
Note
1. We emphasise that if A and B are not of the same order, then A + B is not

✚2 3✛ ✦1 2 3✧
defined. For example if A ✜ ✢ ✣, B★ ✩ ✪,
then A + B is not defined.
✤ 1 0✥ ✫1 0 1 ✬

2. We may observe that addition of matrices is an example of binary operation

on the set of matrices of the same order.

3.4.2 Multiplication of a matrix by a scalar

Now suppose that Fatima has doubled the production at a factory A in all categories
(refer to 3.4.1).
 MATRICES 67

Previously quantities (in standard units) produced by factory A were

Revised quantities produced by factory A are as given below:

Boys Girls
1 ✁ 2 80 2 60 ✂
2 ✄ 2 75 2 65☎
✄ ☎
3 ✄✆ 2 90 2 85 ☎✝

✞160 120✟
This can be represented in the matrix form as ✠150 130✡ . We observe that
✠ ✡
✠☛180 170✡☞
the new matrix is obtained by multiplying each element of the previous matrix by 2.
In general, we may define multiplication of a matrix by a scalar as follows: if
A = [aij] m × n is a matrix and k is a scalar, then kA is another matrix which is obtained
by multiplying each element of A by the scalar k.
In other words, kA = k [aij] m × n = [k (aij)] m × n, that is, (i, j)th element of kA is kaij
for all possible values of i and j.

✌ 3 1 1.5✍
✎ ✏
For example, if A = ✎ 5 7 ✑3 ✏ , then
✎✒ 2 0 5 ✏✓

✌ 3 1 1.5✍ ✌ 9 3 4.5✍
✎ ✏ ✎ ✏
3A = 3 ✎ 5 7 ✑3 ✏ ✔ ✎3 5 21 ✑9 ✏
✎2 0 5✏ ✎ 6 0 15 ✏✓
✒ ✓ ✒
Negative of a matrix The negative of a matrix is denoted by – A. We define
– A = (– 1) A.
68 MATHEMATICS

3 1✁
For example, let A= ✂ , then – A is given by
✆ ☎5 x ✄✝

✟ 3 1✠ ✟ ✞3 ✞1 ✠
– A = (– 1) A ✡ (✞1) ☛ ☞✡☛ ☞
✌ ✞5 x✍ ✌ 5 ✞ x✍

Difference of matrices If A = [aij], B = [bij] are two matrices of the same order,
say m × n, then difference A – B is defined as a matrix D = [dij], where dij = aij – bij,
for all value of i and j. In other words, D = A – B = A + (–1) B, that is sum of the matrix
A and the matrix – B.
✟1 2 3✠ ✟ 3 ✞1 3 ✠
Example 7 If A ✡ ☛ ☞ and B ✡ ☛ ☞ , then find 2A – B.
✌ 2 3 1✍ ✌ ✞1 0 2 ✍

Solution We have
1 2 3✁ 3 ☎1 3 ✁
2A – B = 2 ✂ ✄☎✂ ✄
✆ 2 3 1✝ ✆ ☎1 0 2✝
2 4 6✁ ☎3 1 ☎3✁
= ✂ ✄✎✂ ✄
✆4 6 2✝ ✆ 1 0 ☎2 ✝

2☎3 4 ✎ 1 6 ☎ 3 ✁ ☎ 1 5 3✁
= ✂ ✏
✆4 ✎ 1 6 ✎ 0 2 ☎ 2 ✝✄ ✂✆ 5 6 0 ✄✝

3.4.3 Properties of matrix addition

The addition of matrices satisfy the following properties:
(i) Commutative Law If A = [aij], B = [bij] are matrices of the same order, say
m × n, then A + B = B + A.
Now A + B = [aij] + [bij] = [aij + bij]
= [bij + aij] (addition of numbers is commutative)
= ([bij] + [aij]) = B + A
(ii) Associative Law For any three matrices A = [aij], B = [bij], C = [cij] of the
same order, say m × n, (A + B) + C = A + (B + C).
Now (A + B) + C = ([aij] + [bij]) + [cij]
= [aij + bij] + [cij] = [(aij + bij) + cij]
= [aij + (bij + cij)] (Why?)
= [aij] + [(bij + cij)] = [aij] + ([bij] + [cij]) = A + (B + C)
 MATRICES 69

(iii) Existence of additive identity Let A = [a ij] be an m × n matrix and

O be an m × n zero matrix, then A + O = O + A = A. In other words, O is the
additive identity for matrix addition.
(iv) The existence of additive inverse Let A = [aij]m × n be any matrix, then we
have another matrix as – A = [– aij]m × n such that A + (– A) = (– A) + A= O. So
– A is the additive inverse of A or negative of A.
3.4.4 Properties of scalar multiplication of a matrix
If A = [aij] and B = [bij] be two matrices of the same order, say m × n, and k and l are
scalars, then
(i) k(A +B) = k A + kB, (ii) (k + l)A = k A + l A
(ii) k (A + B) = k ([aij] + [bij])
= k [aij + bij] = [k (aij + bij)] = [(k aij) + (k bij)]
= [k aij] + [k bij] = k [aij] + k [bij] = kA + kB
(iii) ( k + l) A = (k + l) [aij]
= [(k + l) aij] + [k aij] + [l aij] = k [aij] + l [aij] = k A + l A

✁8 0 ✂ ✁ 2 2✂
Example 8 If A ✆ ✄ 4 2☎ and B ✆ ✄✄ 4 2 ☎☎ , then find the matrix X, such that
✄ ☎

✝✄ 3 6 ☎✞ ✄✝ 5 1 ☎✞
2A + 3X = 5B.

Solution We have 2A + 3X = 5B
or 2A + 3X – 2A = 5B – 2A
or 2A – 2A + 3X = 5B – 2A (Matrix addition is commutative)
or O + 3X = 5B – 2A (– 2A is the additive inverse of 2A)
or 3X = 5B – 2A (O is the additive identity)
1
or X= (5B – 2A)
3

✟ ☛ 2 ✡2 ☞ ☛8 0 ☞ ✠ ✟ ☛ 10 ✡ 10☞ ☛ ✡16 0 ☞ ✠
1✌ ✎ ✏ ✎ ✏ ✍ 1 ✌ ✎ 20 10 ✏ ✖ ✎ ✡8 4 ✏ ✍
or X ✑ ✌ 5 4 2 ✡ 2 4 ✡2 ✍ = ✌ ✎ ✏ ✎ ✏✍
3✌ ✎ ✏ ✎ ✏ 3✌
✔ ✎✒ ✡5 1 ✏✓ ✎✒ 3 6 ✏✓ ✍✕ ✔ ✎✒ ✡25 5 ✏✓ ✎✒ ✡6 ✡12✏✓ ✍✕
70 MATHEMATICS

✠ ✟10 ✡
☛ ✟2 3 ☞
✂ 10 16 10 ✁ 0✄ ✂ 6 10✄ ☛ ☞
1☎ ✆ 1☎ ✆ ☛ 14 ☞
= ☎ 20 8 10 ✁ 4 ✆ = ☎ 12 14 ✆ = ☛ 4
3 3 3 ☞
✝☎ 25 6 5 12 ✆✞ ☎✝ 31 7 ✆✞ ☛ ☞
☛ ✟31 ✟7 ☞
✌☛ 3 3 ✍☞

✎ 5 2✏ ✎3 6 ✏
Example 9 Find X and Y, if X ✑ Y ✒ ✓ ✔ and X ✗ Y ✒ ✓ ✔.
✕ 0 9 ✖ ✕ 0 ✗1✖
✎ 5 2✏ ✎ 3 6 ✏
Solution We have ✘ X ✑ Y ✙ ✑ ✘ X ✗ Y ✙ ✒ ✓ ✔✑✓ ✔.
✕0 9✖ ✕ 0 ✗1✖
✎ 8 8✏ ✎8 8✏
or (X + X) + (Y – Y) = ✓ ✔ ✚ 2X ✒ ✓ ✔
✕ 0 8✖ ✕0 8✖
1 ✎ 8 8✏ ✎ 4 4✏
✒
2 ✓✕ 0 8✔✖ ✓✕ 0 4✔✖
or X=

✛5 2✜ ✛ 3 6✜
Also (X + Y) – (X – Y) = ✣ ✤✢✣ ✤
✥ 0 9 ✦ ✥ 0 ✢1✦
✛ 5 ✢ 3 2 ✢ 6✜ ✛ 2 ✢4 ✜
or (X – X) + (Y + Y) = ✣ ✤ ✚ 2Y ★ ✣ ✤
✥ 0 9 ✧ 1✦ ✥ 0 10 ✦
1 ✛ 2 ✢ 4✜ ✛1 ✢2✜
or Y= ✣0 10✤ ★ ✣0 5 ✤
2 ✥ ✦ ✥ ✦
Example 10 Find the values of x and y from the following equation:

✎x 5 ✏ ✎3 ✗ 4✏ ✎7 6✏
2✓ ✔ ✑✓ ✔ = ✓ ✔
✕ 7 y ✗ 3✖ ✕1 2✖ ✕15 14✖
Solution We have

✛x 5 ✜ ✛ 3 ✢4 ✜ ✎7 6✏ ✎ 2 x 10 ✏ ✎ 3 ✗ 4✏ ✎ 7 6 ✏
2✣
✢ ✤ ✧ ✣1 2 ✤ = ✓ ✔ ✚ ✓ ✔✑✓ ✔✒✓ ✔
✥ 7 y 3✦ ✥ ✦ ✕15 14✖ ✕14 2 y ✗ 6✖ ✕1 2 ✖ ✕15 14✖
 MATRICES 71

✂ 2 x 3 10 ✁ 4 ✄ ✂7 6✄ ✂2x 3 6 ✄ ✂7 6✄
☎ 14 1 2 y ✁ 6 2 ✆ = ☎ ✟ ☎ ✠
✆ 2 y ✁ 4✆✞ ☎✝15 14✆✞
or
✝ ✞ ✝15 14✞ ✝ 15
or 2x + 3 = 7 and 2y – 4 = 14 (Why?)
or 2x = 7 – 3 and 2y = 18
4 18
or x= and y=
2 2
i.e. x =2 and y = 9.

Example 11 Two farmers Ramkishan and Gurcharan Singh cultivates only three
varieties of rice namely Basmati, Permal and Naura. The sale (in Rupees) of these
varieties of rice by both the farmers in the month of September and October are given
by the following matrices A and B.

(i) Find the combined sales in September and October for each farmer in each
variety.
(ii) Find the decrease in sales from September to October.
(iii) If both farmers receive 2% profit on gross sales, compute the profit for each
farmer and for each variety sold in October.
Solution
(i) Combined sales in September and October for each farmer in each variety is
given by
72 MATHEMATICS

(ii) Change in sales from September to October is given by

2
(iii) 2% of B = B = 0.02 × B
100

= 0.02

Thus, in October Ramkishan receives Rs 100, Rs 200 and Rs 120 as profit in the
sale of each variety of rice, respectively, and Grucharan Singh receives profit of Rs
400, Rs 200 and Rs 200 in the sale of each variety of rice, respectively.
3.4.5 Multiplication of matrices
Suppose Meera and Nadeem are two friends. Meera wants to buy 2 pens and 5 story
books, while Nadeem needs 8 pens and 10 story books. They both go to a shop to
enquire about the rates which are quoted as follows:
Pen – Rs 5 each, story book – Rs 50 each.
How much money does each need to spend? Clearly, Meera needs Rs (5 × 2 + 50 × 5)
that is Rs 260, while Nadeem needs (8 × 5 + 50 × 10) Rs, that is Rs 540. In terms of
matrix representation, we can write the above information as follows:
Requirements Prices per piece (in Rupees) Money needed (in Rupees)

✁2 5 ✂ ✁5✂ ✁ 5 ✞ 2 ✟ 5 ✞ 50 ✂ ✁ 260 ✂
✄ 8 10 ☎ ✄ 50 ☎ ✄ 8 ✞ 5 ✟ 10 ✞ 50☎ ✠ ✄ 540 ☎
✆ ✝ ✆ ✝ ✆ ✝ ✆ ✝
Suppose that they enquire about the rates from another shop, quoted as follows:
pen – Rs 4 each, story book – Rs 40 each.
Now, the money required by Meera and Nadeem to make purchases will be
respectively Rs (4 × 2 + 40 × 5) = Rs 208 and Rs (8 × 4 + 10 × 40) = Rs 432
 MATRICES 73

Again, the above information can be represented as follows:

Requirements Prices per piece (in Rupees) Money needed (in Rupees)

2 5✁ 4✁ 4 ✝ 2 ✞ 40 ✝ 5 ✁ 208✁
✂ ✄✟✂
☎8 10 ✄✆ ✂ ✄
☎ 40 ✆
✂ ✄
☎ 8 ✝ 4 ✞ 10 ✝ 4 0✆ ☎ 432 ✆

Now, the information in both the cases can be combined and expressed in terms of
matrices as follows:
Requirements Prices per piece (in Rupees) Money needed (in Rupees)

2 5✁ 5 4✁ 5 ✝ 2 ✞ 5 ✝ 50 4 ✝ 2 ✞ 40 ✝ 5 ✁
✂
☎8 10 ✄✆ ✂
☎ 50 40✄✆ ✂
☎ 8 ✝ 5 ✞ 10 ✝ 5 0 8 ✝ 4 ✞ 10 ✝ 4 0✄✆

✠ 260 208 ✡
= ☛
✌ 540 432 ☞✍
The above is an example of multiplication of matrices. We observe that, for
multiplication of two matrices A and B, the number of columns in A should be equal to
the number of rows in B. Furthermore for getting the elements of the product matrix,
we take rows of A and columns of B, multiply them element-wise and take the sum.
Formally, we define multiplication of matrices as follows:
The product of two matrices A and B is defined if the number of columns of A is
equal to the number of rows of B. Let A = [aij] be an m × n matrix and B = [bjk] be an
n × p matrix. Then the product of the matrices A and B is the matrix C of order m × p.
To get the (i, k)th element cik of the matrix C, we take the ith row of A and kth column
of B, multiply them elementwise and take the sum of all these products. In other words,
if A = [aij]m × n, B = [bjk]n × p, then the ith row of A is [ai1 ai2 ... ain] and the kth column of

✎ b1k ✏
✑
b ✒
✑ 2k ✒
n

B is ✑ ✒ , then cik = ai1 b1k + ai2 b2k + ai3 b3k + ... + ain bnk = ✖ aij b jk .
j ✕1
✑ ✒
✑b ✒
✓ nk ✔

The matrix C = [cik]m × p is the product of A and B.

✘ 2 7✙
1 ✗1 2✁ ✚ ✛
For example, if C ✟ ✂ and D ✜ ✢1 1 , then the product CD is defined
☎0 3 4 ✄✆ ✚ ✛
✚
✣ 5 ✢ 4 ✛
✤
74 MATHEMATICS

2 7✁
1 ✂1 2✁ ✄
and is given by CD ✆ ✄ ✂1 1☎ . This is a 2 × 2 matrix in which each
✝0 3 4 ✞☎ ✄ ☎
✄✝ 5 ✂ 4✞☎

entry is the sum of the products across some row of C with the corresponding entries
down some column of D. These four computations are

✠13 ✟2 ✡
Thus CD ☛ ☞ ✌
✍17 ✟13✎

✠6 9✡ ✠2 6 0✡
Example 12 Find AB, if A ☛ ☞ and B☛ ☞ .
✍2 3 ✌✎ ✍7 9 8 ✌✎

Solution The matrix A has 2 columns which is equal to the number of rows of B.
Hence AB is defined. Now

✑ 6(2) ✏ 9(7) 6(6) ✏ 9(9) 6(0) ✏ 9(8)✒

AB ✓ ✔ ✕
✖ 2(2) ✏ 3(7) 2(6) ✏ 3(9) 2(0) ✏ 3(8) ✗

✠12 ✘ 63 36 ✘ 81 0 ✘ 72 ✡ ✑ 75 117 72✒

= ☞ =
✍ 4 ✘ 21 12 ✘ 27 0 ✘ 24✌✎ ✔
✖ 25 39 24 ✕✗
 MATRICES 75

Remark If AB is defined, then BA need not be defined. In the above example, AB is

defined but BA is not defined because B has 3 column while A has only 2 (and not 3)
rows. If A, B are, respectively m × n, k × l matrices, then both AB and BA are defined
if and only if n = k and l = m. In particular, if both A and B are square matrices of the
same order, then both AB and BA are defined.
Non-commutativity of multiplication of matrices
Now, we shall see by an example that even if AB and BA are both defined, it is not
necessary that AB = BA.

2 3✁
1 ✂2 3✁
Example 13 If A ✆ ✄ and B ✆ ✄ 4 5☎☎ , then find AB, BA. Show that
✄
✝✂ 4 2 5 ☎✞
✄
✝ 2 1☎✞
AB ✟ BA.
Solution Since A is a 2 × 3 matrix and B is 3 × 2 matrix. Hence AB and BA are both
defined and are matrices of order 2 × 2 and 3 × 3, respectively. Note that

✠2 3✡
✠ 1 ☛2 3✡ ☞ ✓ 2✑8✒ 6 3 ✑ 10 ✒ 3 ✔ ✓ 0 ✑4✔
AB ✍ ☞ 4 5✌✌ = ✖ ✗✕✖
✎☛ 4 2 5 ✌✏ ☞ ✘ ✑8 ✒ 8 ✒ 10 ✑12 ✒ 10 ✒ 5✙ ✘10 3 ✗✙
☞✎ 2 1✌✏

2 3✁ 2 ✂ 12 ✂4✚ 6 6 ✚ 15 ✁ ✠ ☛10 2 21✡

1 ✂2 3✁ ✄ ☞
and BA ✆ ✄✄ 4 5☎☎ ✄ ✆ 4 ✂ 20 ✂8 ✚ 10
☎
12 ✚ 25☎ ✍ ☞ ☛16 2 37✌✌
✝✂ 4 2 5 ☎✞ ✄
✄✝ 2 1☎✞ ✄
✝ 2✂4 ✂4✚ 2 6 ✚ 5 ☎✞ ☞✎ ☛2 ☛2 11✌✏
Clearly AB ✟ BA
In the above example both AB and BA are of different order and so AB ✟ BA. But
one may think that perhaps AB and BA could be the same if they were of the same
order. But it is not so, here we give an example to show that even if AB and BA are of
same order they may not be same.

✛1 0✜ ✛0 1✜ ✛ 0 1✜
Example 14 If A ✢ ✣ ✤ and B ✢ ✣ , then AB ✢ ✣ .
✦0 ✥ 1✧ ✦1 0✤✧ ✦ ✥1 0✤✧

✓0 ✑ 1✔
and BA ✕ ✖ . Clearly AB ✟ BA.
✘1 0✗✙
Thus matrix multiplication is not commutative.
 ☎
76 MATHEMATICS

Note This does not mean that AB BA for every pair of matrices A, B for

✄ ✁✆✞ ✂✝✟ ✄ ✁✆✞ ✂✝✟ ✁✆✞ ✂✝✟

which AB and BA, are defined. For instance,
1 0 3 0 3 0
If A , B , then AB = BA =
0 2 0 4 0 8
Observe that multiplication of diagonal matrices of same order will be commutative.
Zero matrix as the product of two non zero matrices
We know that, for real numbers a, b if ab = 0, then either a = 0 or b = 0. This need

☞ ✡✌✎ ✠ ☛✍✏ ☞ ✡✌✎ ☛✍✏

not be true for matrices, we will observe this through an example.

0 1 3 5
Example 15 Find AB, if A and B .

✄ ✁✆✞ ✑ ✝✆✟✞✂✁ ✂✝✟ ✄ ✁✆✞ ✂✝✟

0 2 0 0

0 1 3 5 0 0
Solution We have AB .
0 2 0 0 0 0
Thus, if the product of two matrices is a zero matrix, it is not necessary that one of
the matrices is a zero matrix.
3.4.6 Properties of multiplication of matrices
The multiplication of matrices possesses the following properties, which we state without
proof.
1. The associative law For any three matrices A, B and C. We have
(AB) C = A (BC), whenever both sides of the equality are defined.
2. The distributive law For three matrices A, B and C.
(i) A (B+C) = AB + AC
(ii) (A+B) C = AC + BC, whenever both sides of equality are defined.
3. The existence of multiplicative identity For every square matrix A, there
exist an identity matrix of same order such that IA = AI = A.

✓✗ ✕ ✒ ✔✖ ✗ ✓✕ ✔✖ ✗ ✓✕ ✒ ✔✖
Now, we shall verify these properties by examples.

✘✕✕ ✒ ✖✖✙ ✘✕✕✒ ✖✖✙ ✘ ✒ ✙

1 1 1 1 3
1 2 3 4
Example 16 If A 2 0 3 , B 0 2 and C , find
2 0 2 1
3 1 2 1 4
A(BC), (AB)C and show that (AB)C = A(BC).
 MATRICES 77

✂1 1 1✄ ✂ 1 3 ✄ ✂ 1 ✁ 0 ✁ 1 3 ✁ 2 4 ✄ ✂ 2 1 ✄
☎
Solution We have AB ✝ 2 0 3 ✆✆ ☎☎ 0 2 ✆✆ ✝ ☎☎ 2 ✁ 0 3 6 ✁ 0 ✁ 12 ✆✆ ✝ ☎☎ 1 18✆✆
☎
☎✞ 3 1 2 ✆✟ ☎✞ 1 4 ✆✟ ☎✞3 ✁ 0 2 9 2 ✁ 8 ✆✟ ☎✞ 1 15✆✟

☛2 1☞ ☛ 2✠ 2 4 ✠ 0 6 ✡ 2 ✡ 8 ✠1 ☞
✌ ✍ ☛1 2 3 ✡ 4☞ ✌ ✍
(AB) (C) ✎ ✡1 18 ✌
✌ ✍ ✏ 2 0 ✡2 1✍✑ ✎ ✌ ✡1 ✠ 36 ✡2 ✠ 0 ✡3 ✡ 36 4 ✠ 18✍
✌✏ 1 15✍✑ ✌✏ 1 ✠ 30 2 ✠ 0 3 ✡ 30 ✡ 4 ✠ 15✍✑

✂4 4 4 7 ✄
☎ 39 22 ✆✆
= ☎35 2
☎✞31 2 27 11✆✟

☛ 1 3☞ ☛ 1 ✠ 6 2 ✠ 0 3 ✡ 6 ✡4 ✠ 3☞
☛1 2 3 ✡4 ☞ ✌ ✍
BC = ✌ 0 2✍ ✌
✍ ✏2 0 ✡2 1✍✑ ✎ ✌ 0 ✠ 4 0 ✠ 0 0 ✡ 4 0 ✠ 2✍
Now
✌
✏✌ ✡1 4✑✍ ✏✌ ✡1 ✠ 8 ✡2 ✠ 0 ✡3 ✡ 8 4 ✠ 4✑✍

✂7 2 3 1 ✄
☎ 4 2 ✆✆
= ☎4 0
☎✞7 2 11 8 ✆✟

☛1 1 ✡1 ☞ ☛ 7 2 ✡3 ✡1 ☞
Therefore A(BC) = ✌✌ 2 0 3 ✍✍ ✌✌ 4 0 ✡4 2 ✍✍
✌✏ 3 ✡1 2 ✍✑ ✌✏ 7 ✡2 ✡11 8 ✍✑

✂ 7✁4 7 2✁0✁ 2 3 4 ✁ 11 1✁ 2 8 ✄
☎ 2 ✁ 0 ✁ 24 ✆✆
= ☎14 ✁ 0 ✁ 21 4 ✁ 0 6 6 ✁ 0 33
✞☎ 21 4 ✁ 14 6 ✁ 0 4 9 ✁ 4 22 3 2 ✁ 16 ✆✟

☛4 4 4 ✡7 ☞
✌35 ✡2 ✡39 22✍
= ✌ ✍ . Clearly, (AB) C = A (BC)
✏✌31 2 ✡27 11✍✑
78 MATHEMATICS

0 6 7✁ 0 1 1✁ 2✁
Example 17 If A ☎ ✂✂ ✆ 6 0 8 ✄✄ , B ☎ ✂✂ 1 0 2✄✄ , C ☎ ✂✂✆2 ✄✄
✂✝ 7 ✆8 0✄✞ ✂✝ 1 2 0✄✞ ✂
✝ 3✄ ✞
Calculate AC, BC and (A + B)C. Also, verify that (A + B)C = AC + BC

✟ 0 7 8✠
✡
Solution Now, A + B ☞ ✡✌5 0 10☛☛
✍✡ 8 ✌ 6 0 ✎☛

✟ 0 7 8✠ ✟ 2 ✠ ✟ 0 ✌ 14 ✏ 24 ✠ ✟10 ✠
✡
So (A + B) C = ✡
✌5 0 10☛☛ ✡
✌2
✡
☛ ✡
☛ ✡
☛ ✡ ☛
☞ ✌10 ✏ 0 ✏ 30 ☞ 20
☛ ✡ ☛
✡✍ 8 ✌ 6 0 ☛✎ ✡
✍ 3 ☛
✎ ✡ ✍ 16 ✏ 12 ✏ 0 ☛
✎ ✡
✍ 28☛
✎

0 6 7✁ 2✁ 0 ✆ 12 ✑ 21 ✁ 9✁
✂
Further AC = ✂
✆6 0 8 ✄✄ ✂
✆2
✂
✄ ✂
☎ ✆12 ✑ 0 ✑ 24
✄ ✂
✄ ✂ ✄
☎ 12
✄ ✂ ✄
✝✂ 7 ✆ 8 0✞✄ ✂
✝ 3 ✞✄ ✝✂ 14 ✑ 16 ✑ 0 ✄
✞ ✂✝30✄✞

✟0 1 1✠ ✟ 2 ✠ ✟ 0 ✌ 2 ✏ 3✠ ✟ 1 ✠
✡
and BC = ✡
1 0 2 ☛☛ ✡
✌2
✡
☛ ✡
☛ ✡
☛ ✡ ☛
☞ 2✏ 0✏ 6 ☞ 8
☛ ✡ ☛
✡✍ 1 2 0 ☛✎ ✡
✍ 3 ☛
✎ ✡✍ 2 ✌ 4 ✏ 0☛
✎ ✡
✍✌ 2 ☛
✎

✟9 ✠ ✟ 1 ✠ ✟10 ✠
✡ ☛ ✡ ☛ ✡ ☛
So AC + BC = 12 ✏
✡ ☛
8 ☞ 20
✡ ☛ ✡ ☛
✡✍30☛✎ ✡✍✌2 ☛
✎ ✡
✍ 28☛
✎
Clearly, (A + B) C = AC + BC
1 2 3✁
✂
Example 18 If A ☎ 3 ✆2
✂
1✄✄ , then show that A3 – 23A – 40 I = O
✂✝ 4 2 1✞✄

✟1 2 3✠ ✟ 1 2 3✠ ✟19 4 8✠
✡
Solution We have A 2 ☞ A.A ☞ 3 ✌2
✡
1☛☛ ✡
✡
3 ✌2 ☛ ✡
1☛ ☞ ✡1 12 8 ☛☛
✡
✍4 2 1☛✎ ✡
✍4 2 1☛✎ ✡✍14 6 15 ☛✎
 MATRICES 79

1 2 3✁ 19 4 8✁ 63 46 69✁
So A3 = A A2 = ✂✂ 3 ☎2 1✄✄ ✂✂1 12 8 ✄✄ ✆ ✂✂ 69 ☎6 23✄✄
✂
✝4 2 1✄✞ ✂✝14 6 15 ✄✞ ✂✝ 92 46 63✄✞
Now

✟ 63 46 69✠ ✟1 2 3✠ ✟1 0 0✠
✡
3
A – 23A – 40I = ✡
69 ☞6 23☛☛ ✡
– 23 ✡ 3 ☞2 1☛☛ – 40 ✡✡ 0 1 0☛☛
✡✌ 92 46 63✍☛ ✡4
✌ 2 1✍☛ ✡
✌0 0 1✍☛

✟ 63 46 69✠ ✟ ☞23 ☞46 ☞ 69 ✠ ✟☞40 0 0 ✠

✡ ☛ ✡ ☛ ✡
= ✡
69 ☞6 23☛ ✎ ✡☞69 46 ☞ 23 ✎
☛ ✡
0 ☞ 40 0 ☛☛
✡✌ 92 46 63☛✍ ✡✌☞92 ☞46 ☞23☛ ✍ ✡
✌ 0 0 ☞ 40 ☛
✍

63 ☎ 23 ☎ 40 46 ☎ 46 ✏ 0 69 ☎ 69 ✏ 0 ✁
✂
= ✂
69 ☎ 69 ✏ 0 ☎6 ✏ 46 ☎ 40 23 ☎ 23 ✏ 0 ✄✄
✂✝ 92 ☎ 92 ✏ 0 46 ☎ 46 ✏ 0 63 ☎ 23 ☎ 40✄✞

✟0 0 0✠
✡
= ✡
0 0 0☛☛ ✑ O
✡✌ 0 0 0☛✍

Example 19 In a legislative assembly election, a political group hired a public relations

firm to promote its candidate in three ways: telephone, house calls, and letters. The
cost per contact (in paise) is given in matrix A as
Cost per contact
✒ 40 ✓ Telephone
✔ ✕
A= ✔
100 ✕
Housecall
✔✖ 50 ✕✗ Letter

The number of contacts of each type made in two cities X and Y is given by
Telephone Housecall Letter
✙1000 500 5000 ✚ ✘ X
B✛ ✜ . Find the total amount spent by the group in the two
✣3000 1000 10,000✢✤ ✘ Y
cities X and Y.
80 MATHEMATICS

Solution We have
✂ 40,000 50,000 250, 000 ✄ ✁ X
BA = ☎ ✆
✝120,000 + 100,000 +500,000 ✞ ✁ Y
✂ 340, 000 ✄ ✁ X
= ☎ ✆
✝ 720,000 ✞ ✁ Y
So the total amount spent by the group in the two cities is 340,000 paise and
720,000 paise, i.e., Rs 3400 and Rs 7200, respectively.

EXERCISE 3.2

✂2 4 ✄ ✂1 3✄ ✂✟2 5✄
1. Let A ✠ ☎ ✆ , B ✠ ☎✟2 ,C✠ ☎
✝ 3 2 ✞ ✝ 5✆✞ ✝3 4 ✆✞
Find each of the following:
(i) A + B (ii) A – B (iii) 3A – C
(iv) AB (v) BA
2. Compute the following:
✂a b✄ ✂a b✄ ✡a2 ☞ b2 b2 ☞ c 2 ☛
✡ 2ab 2bc ☛
(i) ☎ ✌ ✍☞✌ ✍
a ✆✞ ☎b a ✆ (ii)
✝✟b ✝ ✞ ✏✌ a ☞ c
2 2
a ☞ b ✑✍ ✏✎2ac ✎2ab ✑
2 2

✓✒1 4 ✒6✔ ✓12 7 6✔

✕ ✚cos 2 x sin 2 x ✛ ✚ sin 2 x cos 2 x ✛
(iii) ✕ 8 5 16 ✖✖ ✗ ✕✕ 8 0 5✖✖ (iv) ✢ ✣ ✜ ✢ ✣
✕✘ 2 8 5 ✖✙ ✕✘ 3 2 4✖✙ ✢✤ sin 2 x cos 2 x ✣✥ ✢✤ cos 2 x sin 2 x ✣✥

3. Compute the indicated products.

✦ 1✧
✂a b ✄ ✂ a ✟b ✄ ★ 2✩ ✂1 ✟2 ✄ ✂1 2 3✄
(i) ☎ (ii) ★ ✩ [2 3 4]
a ✆✞ ☎✝ b a ✆✞
(iii) ☎ ✆☎ ✆
✝✟b ✪★ 3✫✩ ✝ 2 3 ✞ ✝ 2 3 1✞

✦ 2 3 4 ✧ ✦1 ✬ 3 5✧ ✦ 2 1✧
✦ 1 0 1✧
(iv) ★ 3 4 5✩ ★ 0 2 4✩✩ (v) ★★ 3 2✩✩ ★
★ ✩ ★ ✬1 2 1✩✫
✪★ 4 5 6✫✩ ★✪ 3 0 5✫✩ ★✪✬1 1✩✫ ✪

✓ 2 ✒3✔
✓ 3 ✒1 3 ✔ ✕
(vi) ✕ ✖ ✕ 1 0✖✖
✘✒1 0 2✙ ✕ 3 1✖
✘ ✙
 MATRICES 81

✁1 2 3✂ ✁3 1 2✂ ✁4 1 2✂
✄
4. If A ✆ ✄5 0 2 ☎☎ , B ✆ ✄✄ 4 2 5☎☎ and C ✆ ✄✄ 0 3 2☎☎ , then compute
✄✝1 1 1 ☎✞ ✄✝ 2 0 3☎✞ ✄✝ 1 2 3☎✞
(A+B) and (B – C). Also, verify that A + (B – C) = (A + B) – C.

✟2 1
5✠ ✟2 3
1☛
✠
✡3 3☛ ✡5 5
✡ ☛ ✡ ☛
5. If A ☞ ✡1 2 4☛
and B ☞ ✡
1 2 4☛
, then compute 3A – 5B.
✡3 3 3☛ ✡5 5 5☛
✡ ☛ ✡ ☛
✡7 2
2☛ ✡7 6 2☛
✌✡ 3 3 ✍☛ ✌✡ 5 5 5 ✍☛

✑ cos ✎ sin ✎ ✒ ✑ sin ✎ ✏ cos ✎ ✒

6. Simplify cos✎ ✓ ✔ + sin✎ ✓
✕ ✏ sin ✎ cos ✎✖ ✕ cos ✎ sin ✎✔✖
7. Find X and Y, if
✑ 7 0✒ ✑ 3 0✒
(i) X + Y ✗ ✓ ✔ and X – Y ✗ ✓ 0 3✔
✕ 2 5✖ ✕ ✖
✑ 2 3✒ ✑ 2 ✏2✒
(ii) 2X + 3Y ✗ ✓ ✔ and 3X ✘ 2Y ✗ ✓ ✔
✕ 4 0✖ ✕ ✏1 5 ✖
✙ 3 2✚ ✙ 1 0✚
8. Find X, if Y = ✛ ✜ and 2X + Y = ✛ ✜
✢ 1 4✣ ✢ ✤3 2 ✣
✙ 1 3 ✚ ✙ y 0 ✚ ✙ 5 6✚
9. Find x and y, if 2 ✛ ✜✥✛ ✜✦✛ ✜
✢ 0 x ✣ ✢ 1 2✣ ✢ 1 8 ✣
✙ x z✚ ✙ 1 ✤1 ✚ ✙ 3 5✚
10. Solve the equation for x, y, z and t, if 2 ✛ ✜ ✥ 3✛ ✜ ✦3✛ ✜
✢y t✣ ✢0 2 ✣ ✢ 4 6✣
✑ 2✒ ✑✏1 ✒ ✑10✒
11. If x ✓ ✔ ✘ y✓ ✔ ✗ ✓ ✔ , find the values of x and y.
✕ 3✖ ✕ 1 ✖ ✕5 ✖
✑x y✒ ✑ x 6 ✒ ✑ 4 x ✘ y✒
12. Given 3 ✓ ✔ ✗✓ ✔ ✘✓
3 ✔✖
, find the values of x, y, z and w.
✕ z w✖ ✕ ✏1 2 w✖ ✕ z ✘ w
82 MATHEMATICS

✁ cos x sin x 0✂
13. If F ( x ) ✆ ✄ sin x cos x 0☎☎ , show that F(x) F(y) = F(x + y).
✄
✄✝ 0 0 1☎✞
14. Show that
✠ 5 ✟1✡ ✠2 1 ✡ ✠ 2 1 ✡ ✠5 ✟1✡
(i) ☞ ✌☞ ✌☛☞ ✌☞ ✌
✍ 6 7 ✎ ✍3 4 ✎ ✍ 3 4 ✎ ✍6 7 ✎
✑ 1 2 3✒ ✑✏1 1 0✒ ✑ ✏1 1 0✒ ✑ 1 2 3✒
✓ ✔✓ ✔ ✓
(ii) ✓ 0 1 0✔ ✓ 0 ✏1 1 ✔ ✕ ✓ 0 ✏1 1✔✔ ✓✓ 0 1 0✔✔
✓✖ 1 1 0✔✗ ✓✖ 2 3 4✔✗ ✓✖ 2 3 4✔✗ ✓✖ 1 1 0✔✗

✑2 0 1✒
15. Find A2 – 5A + 6I, if A ✘ ✓✓ 2 1 3✔✔
✓✖1 ✏1 0✔✗

✁1 0 2✂
16. If A ✆ ✄✄0 2 1☎☎ , prove that A3 – 6A2 + 7A + 2I = 0
✄✝2 0 3☎✞

✠ 3 ✟2 ✡ ✠1 0 ✡
17. If A ✙ ☞ ✌ and I= ☞ ✌ , find k so that A = kA – 2I
2

✍ 4 ✟2 ✎ ✍0 1 ✎

✛ ✚✜
✣ 0 ✢ tan ✤
18. If A ✥ ✣ 2 and I is the identity matrix of order 2, show that
✤
✣ tan ✚ 0 ✤
✣✦ 2 ✤✧

✠ cos ★ ✟ sin ★ ✡
I + A = (I – A) ☞ ✌
✍ sin ★ cos ★ ✎
19. A trust fund has Rs 30,000 that must be invested in two different types of bonds.
The first bond pays 5% interest per year, and the second bond pays 7% interest
per year. Using matrix multiplication, determine how to divide Rs 30,000 among
the two types of bonds. If the trust fund must obtain an annual total interest of:
(a) Rs 1800 (b) Rs 2000
 MATRICES 83

20. The bookshop of a particular school has 10 dozen chemistry books, 8 dozen
physics books, 10 dozen economics books. Their selling prices are Rs 80, Rs 60
and Rs 40 each respectively. Find the total amount the bookshop will receive
from selling all the books using matrix algebra.
Assume X, Y, Z, W and P are matrices of order 2 × n, 3 × k, 2 × p, n × 3 and p × k,
respectively. Choose the correct answer in Exercises 21 and 22.
21. The restriction on n, k and p so that PY + WY will be defined are:
(A) k = 3, p = n (B) k is arbitrary, p = 2
(C) p is arbitrary, k = 3 (D) k = 2, p = 3
22. If n = p, then the order of the matrix 7X – 5Z is:
(A) p × 2 (B) 2 × n (C) n × 3 (D) p × n
3.5. Transpose of a Matrix
In this section, we shall learn about transpose of a matrix and special types of matrices
such as symmetric and skew symmetric matrices.
Definition 3 If A = [aij] be an m × n matrix, then the matrix obtained by interchanging
the rows and columns of A is called the transpose of A. Transpose of the matrix A is
denoted by A✝ or (AT). In other words, if A = [aij]m × n, then A✝ = [aji]n × m. For example,

✁ 3 5✂ ✁3 3 0✂
✄ ☎
if A ✆✄ 3 1☎ , then A✞ ✆ ✄ ☎
✟1 ☎
✄
✄ 5 1
0 ✟1 ☎ ✄
✠ 5 ☎✡ 2 3
✄ ☎
✠ 5 ✡3 2

3.5.1 Properties of transpose of the matrices

We now state the following properties of transpose of matrices without proof. These
may be verified by taking suitable examples.
For any matrices A and B of suitable orders, we have
(i) (A✝)✝ = A, (ii) (kA)✝ = kA✝ (where k is any constant)
(iii) (A + B)✝ = A✝ + B✝ (iv) (A B)✝ = B✝ A✝

☛3 3 2☞ ☛2 ✌12☞
Example 20 If A ✍ ✎ ✏ and B ✍ ✎ , verify that
✑4 2 0✒ ✑1 2 4 ✏✒
(i) (A✝)✝ = A, (ii) (A + B)✝ = A✝ + B✝,
(iii) (kB)✝ = kB✝, where k is any constant.
84 MATHEMATICS

Solution
(i) We have

✂ 3 4✄
✂3 3 2✄ ☎ ✆ ✂3 3 2✄
A= ☎ ✆ ✞ A✝ ✟ ☎ 3 2✆ ✞ A✝✁✝ ✟ ☎ ✆ ✟A
✠4 2 0✡ ☎ ✆ ✠4 2 0✡
✠ 2 0✡
Thus (A☛)☛ = A
(ii) We have
☞3 3 2✌ ☞2 ✒12✌ ☞5 3 ✒ 1 4✌
A= ✍ ✎, B= ✍ ✎✓A✔B✕✍ ✎
✏4 2 0✑ ✏1 2 4✑ ✏5 4 4✑

✂ 5 5✄
☎ ✆
Therefore (A + B)☛ = ☎ 3 ✖ 1 4✆
☎ 4 4✆✡
✠

✗ 3 4✘ ✗ 2 1✘
✙ ✚
Now A☛ = ✙ 3 2✚ , B✛ ✜ ✙✙✢1 2✚✚ ,
✙ 2 0✚✤ ✙ 2 4✚✤
✣ ✣

✂ 5 5✄
☎ ✆
So A☛ + B☛ = ☎ 3 ✖ 1 4✆
☎ 4 4✆✡
✠

Thus (A + B)☛ = A☛ + B☛
(iii) We have

✦2 ✥1 2✧ ✦ 2k ✥k 2k ✧
kB = k ✩ ✪★✩
✫1 2 4 ✬ ✫k 2k 4 k ✪✬

✭ 2k k ✮ ✭ 2 1✮
✯
Then (kB)☛ = ✲k 2k ✰ ✳ k ✯
✲1 2✰ ✳ kB✱
✯ ✰ ✯ ✰
✴ 2k
✯ 4k ✰✵ ✴ 2
✯ 4✰✵

Thus (kB)☛ = kB ☛
 MATRICES 85

✄ ✂2 ☎

Example 21 If A ✞ ✆✆ 4 ✝✝ , B ✞ 1 3 ✂6✁ , verify that (AB)✡ = B✡A✡.

✟ 5✝
✆ ✠

Solution We have

✍ ✌2 ✎
✏
A= ✏
4 ✑✑ , B ✒ ☛1 3 ✌ 6☞

✏ 5✔
✓ ✑

✍ ✌2 ✎ ✍✌ 2 ✌6 12 ✎
✏ ✏ ✑
then AB = ✏
4 ✑✑ ✕1 3 ✌ 6✖ = ✏
4 12 ✌24
✑
✏
✓ 5✑ ✔ ✓ 5
✏ 15 ✌30✑
✔

✍ 1✎
Now A✡ = [–2 4 5] , B✗ ✒ ✏ 3 ✑
✏ ✑
✏
✓✌ 6 ✑
✔

✄ 1☎ ✄ ✂2 4 5☎
✆
B✡A✡ = ✆
3 ✝✝ ✘ ✂2 4 5✙ ✞ ✆✆ ✂6 12 15 ✝✝ ✞ (AB)✚
✟✂ 6 ✝
✆ ✠ ✟ 12
✆ ✂24 ✂30✝ ✠

Clearly (AB)✡ = B ✡ A ✡

3.6 Symmetric and Skew Symmetric Matrices

Definition 4 A square matrix A = [aij] is said to be symmetric if A✡ = A, that is,
[aij] = [aji] for all possible values of i and j.

✛ 3 2 3✜
✢ ✣
For example A ✤✢ 2 ✥ 1.5 ✥ 1 ✣ is a symmetric matrix as A✡ = A
✢ 3 ✥1 1 ✣✧
✦

Definition 5 A square matrix A = [aij] is said to be skew symmetric matrix if

A✡ = – A, that is aji = – aij for all possible values of i and j. Now, if we put i = j, we
have aii = – aii. Therefore 2aii = 0 or aii = 0 for all i’s.
This means that all the diagonal elements of a skew symmetric matrix are zero.
86 MATHEMATICS

0 e f✁
For example, the matrix B ☎ ✂ ✆e 0 g ✄ is a skew symmetric matrix as B✟= –B
✂ ✄
✂
✝✆ f ✆g 0 ✄✞

Now, we are going to prove some results of symmetric and skew-symmetric

matrices.
Theorem 1 For any square matrix A with real number entries, A + A✟ is a symmetric
matrix and A – A✟ is a skew symmetric matrix.
Proof Let B = A + A✟, then
B✟ = (A + A✟)✟
= A✟ + (A✟ )✟ (as (A + B)✟ = A✟ + B✟ )
= A✟ + A (as (A✟)✟ = A)
= A + A✟ (as A + B = B + A)
= B
Therefore B = A + A✟ is a symmetric matrix
Now let C = A – A✟
C✟ = (A – A✟ )✟ = A✟ – (A✟)✟ (Why?)
= A✟ – A (Why?)
= – (A – A✟) = – C
Therefore C = A – A✟ is a skew symmetric matrix.
Theorem 2 Any square matrix can be expressed as the sum of a symmetric and a
skew symmetric matrix.
Proof Let A be a square matrix, then we can write
1 1
A ✡ (A ☛ A✠) ☛ (A ☞ A✠)
2 2
From the Theorem 1, we know that (A + A✟ ) is a symmetric matrix and (A – A✟) is
1
a skew symmetric matrix. Since for any matrix A, (kA)✟ = kA✟, it follows that (A ☛ A✠)
2
1
is symmetric matrix and (A ☞ A✠) is skew symmetric matrix. Thus, any square
2
matrix can be expressed as the sum of a symmetric and a skew symmetric matrix.
 MATRICES 87

✁ 2 2 4✂
Example 22 Express the matrix B ✆ ✄ 1 3 4☎☎ as the sum of a symmetric and a
✄
✄✝ 1 2 3☎✞
skew symmetric matrix.
Solution Here
✡ 2 ✠1 1 ☛
B✟ = ☞✠ 2 3 ✠2✌
☞ ✌
✍☞ ✠4 4 ✠3✌✎
✡ 2 ✠3 ✠3 ☛
☞ 2 2✌
✡ 4 ✠3 ✠3☛ ☞ ✌
☞ ✠3
Let
1 1☞
P = (B + B✏) ✑ ✠ 3 6 ✌
2 = ☞ 3 1 ✌,
2 2☞ ✌ 2 ✌
✍☞ ✠3 2 ✠6 ✌✎ ☞ ✠3 ✌
☞ 1 ✠3 ✌
☞✍ 2 ✌✎
✡ 2 ✠3 ✠3 ☛
☞ 2 2✌
☞ ✌
✠3
Now P✟ = ☞ 3 1 ✌= P
☞2 ✌
☞ ✠3 ✌
☞ 1 ✠3 ✌
✍☞ 2 ✌✎
1
Thus P= (B + B✒) is a symmetric matrix.
2
✡ 0 ✠1 ✠5 ☛
☞ 2 2✌
✡0 ✠1 ✠5☛ ☞ ✌
1 1☞ ✌ ☞ 1 ✌
Also, let Q= (B – B✏ ) ✑ 1 0 6 ✑ 0 3
2 2☞ ✌ ☞2 ✌
☞✍5 ✠6 0 ✌✎ ☞ ✌
☞ 5 ✠3 0 ✌
☞✍ 2 ✌✎
✡0 1 5☛
☞ 2 3✌
☞ ✌
✠1
Then Q✟ = ☞ 0 ✠3✌ ✑ ✠ Q
☞2 ✌
☞ 5 ✌
☞ ✠ 3 0✌
✍☞ 2 ✎✌
88 MATHEMATICS

1
Thus Q= (B – B ) is a skew symmetric matrix.
2

✂ ✁3 ✁3✄ ✂ ✁1 5✄
✁

☎
2 0
2 2✆ ☎
2 2✆ ✂ 2 ✁ 2 ✁ 4✄
☎ ✆ ☎ ✆
3 ☎✁
1 ☎
Now P+Q✝ 3 1 ✞ ✆ ☎
0 3 ✆
✝ ✁ 1 3 4✆ ✝ B
☎ 2 ✆ ☎2 ✆ ☎ ✆

☎ ✆ ☎ ✆ ☎
✟
1 ✁2 ✁ 3✆
✠
✁3 5
☎ 1 ✁3 ✆ ☎ ✁ 3 0✆
☎ 2
✟ ✆
✠ ☎2
✟ ✆
✠

Thus, B is represented as the sum of a symmetric and a skew symmetric matrix.

EXERCISE 3.3
1. Find the transpose of each of the following matrices:
✡ 5☛
☞
✙✘ 1 5 6✚
1✌ ✒1 ✑ 1✓ ✛ ✜
(i) ☞ ✌ (ii) ✔ (iii) 3 5 6✜
☞ 2 ✌ ✖
2 3✕✗ ✛
✛ ✜
☞
✍1
✌ ✢
2 3 ✘1
✣
✎ ✏

✂✁ 1 2 3✄ ✂✁ 4 1 ✁ 5✄
☎ ✆ ☎
2. If A ✝ 5 7 9 and B ✝ 1 2 0✆ , then verify that
☎ ✆ ☎ ✆
☎✁
✟
2 1 1✆✠ ☎
✟
1 3 1✆✠
(i) (A + B)✤ = A✤ + B✤, (ii) (A – B)✤ = A✤ – B✤

✥ 3 4✦
★ ✥ ✧1 2 1✦
3. If A ✪✫ ✧ 1 2 ✩ and B ✫ ★ , then verify that
★ ✩
✬
1 2 3✭✩
★ 0 1✩
✬ ✭

(i) (A + B)✤ = A✤ + B✤ (ii) (A – B)✤ = A✤ – B✤

2 3✓
✒✑ ✒ ✑1 0✓
4. If A✮ ✯ ✔ ✕
and B ✯ ✔ , then find (A + 2B)✤
✖
1 2✗ ✖
1 2✕✗
5. For the matrices A and B, verify that (AB)✤ = B✤A✤, where
✂ 1✄ ✂ 0✄
☎ ✆
(i) A ✝ ✁ 4 , B ✝ ✰ ✁1 2 1✱ (ii) A ✝ 1✆ , B ✝ ✲1 5 7 ✳ ☎
☎ ✆ ☎ ✆
☎
✟
3 ✆✠ ☎ 2✆
✟ ✠
 MATRICES 89

✁ cos sin ✂
6. If (i) A ✄ ☎ ✆ , then verify that A✠ A = I
✞ ✝ sin cos ✟
☛ sin ✡ cos ✡ ☞
(ii) If A ✌ ✍ , then verify that A✠ A = I
✑ ✏ cos ✡ sin ✡ ✎✒

✔ 1 ✓1 5 ✕
7. (i) Show that the matrix A ✘ ✖✓1 2 1✗ is a symmetric matrix.
✖ ✗
✖✙ 5 1 3✗✚

✔ 0 ✓1 ✕
1
(ii) Show that the matrix A ✘ ✖✓1 0 1 ✗✗ is a skew symmetric matrix.
✖
✖✙ 1 ✓1 0 ✗✚

8. For the matrix A ✌ ✍

☛1 5☞
7 ✎✒
, verify that
✑6
(i) (A + A✠) is a symmetric matrix
(ii) (A – A✠) is a skew symmetric matrix

✔ 0 a b✕
, when A ✘ ✖✓ a c✗
1 1
9. Find ✛ A ✣ A ✢ ✜ and ✛ A ✤ A ✢ ✜ 0
2 2 ✖ ✗
✖✙✓b ✓ c 0 ✗✚
10. Express the following matrices as the sum of a symmetric and a skew symmetric
matrix:

✦ 6 ✥2 2 ✧
☛ 3 5☞ ★✥2 3 ✥1 ✩
(i) ✍ 1 ✏1✎ (ii) ★ ✩
✑ ✒ ★✪ 2 ✥1 3 ✩✫

✔ 3 3 ✓1✕ ✁ 1 5✂
✖✓2 ✓2 1✗ ☎ ✝1
✖ ✗ 2✆✟
(iii) (iv)
✖✙✓4 ✓5 2✗✚ ✞
90 MATHEMATICS

Choose the correct answer in the Exercises 11 and 12.

11. If A, B are symmetric matrices of same order, then AB – BA is a
(A) Skew symmetric matrix (B) Symmetric matrix
(C) Zero matrix (D) Identity matrix
✂ cos ✁ sin ✄
12. If A ☎ ✆ A + A✠ = I, if the value of ✡ is
cos ✝✟
, then
✞sin
☛ ☛
(A) (B)
6 3
3☛
(C) ☞ (D)
2
3.7 Elementary Operation (Transformation) of a Matrix
There are six operations (transformations) on a matrix, three of which are due to rows
and three due to columns, which are known as elementary operations or
transformations.
(i) The interchange of any two rows or two columns. Symbolically the interchange
of ith and jth rows is denoted by Ri ✌ Rj and interchange of ith and jth column is
denoted by Ci ✌ Cj.
✍1 2 1✎ ✍✓1 3 1✎
For example, applying R1 ✌ R2 to
✏ ✑ ✏ ✑
A ✒ ✏✓1 3 1✑ , we get ✏1 2 1✑ .
✏✔ 5 6 7✑✕ ✏✔ 5 6 7✑✕
(ii) The multiplication of the elements of any row or column by a non zero
number. Symbolically, the multiplication of each element of the ith row by k,
where k ✖ 0 is denoted by Ri ✗ k Ri.
The corresponding column operation is denoted by Ci ✗ kCi
✦1 1✧
1 ✙ 1 2 1✚ ★ 2
7✩
For example, applying C3 ✘ C3 , to B ✛ ✜ ✢ , we get ★ ✩
7 ✤ ✣1 3 1✥ ★ ✪1 3
1✩
★✫ 7 ✩✬
(iii) The addition to the elements of any row or column, the corresponding
elements of any other row or column multiplied by any non zero number.
Symbolically, the addition to the elements of ith row, the corresponding elements
of jth row multiplied by k is denoted by Ri ✗ Ri + kRj.
 MATRICES 91

The corresponding column operation is denoted by Ci ✡ Ci + kCj.

1 2✁ 1 2✁
For example, applying R2 ✡ R2 – 2R1, to C ✂ ✄ ☎, we get ✄ ☎ .
✝2 ✆1✞ ✝0 ✆5✞

3.8 Invertible Matrices

Definition 6 If A is a square matrix of order m, and if there exists another square
matrix B of the same order m, such that AB = BA = I, then B is called the inverse
matrix of A and it is denoted by A– 1. In that case A is said to be invertible.
✟2 3✠ ✟ 2 ✎3 ✠
For example, let A= ☛ and B = be two matrices.
✌1 2☞✍ ☛ ☞
✌ ✎1 2 ✍

✟2 3✠ ✟ 2 ✎3 ✠
Now AB = ☛
✌1 2☞✍ ☛✌ ✎1 2 ☞✍

✟4 ✎ 3 ✎6 ✏ 6 ✠ ✟ 1 0✠
= ☛ ☞✑☛ ✑I
✌2 ✎ 2 ✎3 ✏ 4 ✍ ✌ 0 1☞✍

✟10✠
Also BA = ☛ ✑ I . Thus B is the inverse of A, in other
✌01☞✍
words B = A– 1 and A is inverse of B, i.e., A = B–1

✒
Note
1. A rectangular matrix does not possess inverse matrix, since for products BA
and AB to be defined and to be equal, it is necessary that matrices A and B
should be square matrices of the same order.
2. If B is the inverse of A, then A is also the inverse of B.

Theorem 3 (Uniqueness of inverse) Inverse of a square matrix, if it exists, is unique.

Proof Let A = [aij] be a square matrix of order m. If possible, let B and C be two
inverses of A. We shall show that B = C.
Since B is the inverse of A
AB = BA = I ... (1)
Since C is also the inverse of A
AC = CA = I ... (2)
Thus B = BI = B (AC) = (BA) C = IC = C
Theorem 4 If A and B are invertible matrices of the same order, then (AB)–1 = B–1 A–1.
92 MATHEMATICS

Proof From the definition of inverse of a matrix, we have

(AB) (AB)–1 = 1
or A–1 (AB) (AB)–1 = A –1 I (Pre multiplying both sides by A–1)
or (A–1A) B (AB)–1 = A –1 (Since A–1 I = A–1)
or IB (AB)–1 = A –1
or B (AB)–1 = A –1
or B–1 B (AB)–1 = B–1 A–1
or I (AB)–1 = B–1 A–1
Hence (AB)–1 = B–1 A–1

3.8.1 Inverse of a matrix by elementary operations

Let X, A and B be matrices of, the same order such that X = AB. In order to apply a
sequence of elementary row operations on the matrix equation X = AB, we will apply
these row operations simultaneously on X and on the first matrix A of the product AB
on RHS.
Similarly, in order to apply a sequence of elementary column operations on the
matrix equation X = AB, we will apply, these operations simultaneously on X and on the
second matrix B of the product AB on RHS.
In view of the above discussion, we conclude that if A is a matrix such that A–1
exists, then to find A–1 using elementary row operations, write A = IA and apply a
sequence of row operation on A = IA till we get, I = BA. The matrix B will be the
inverse of A. Similarly, if we wish to find A–1 using column operations, then, write
A = AI and apply a sequence of column operations on A = AI till we get, I = AB.
Remark In case, after applying one or more elementary row (column) operations on
A = IA (A = AI), if we obtain all zeros in one or more rows of the matrix A on L.H.S.,
then A–1 does not exist.
Example 23 By using elementary operations, find the inverse of the matrix
1 2✁
A=✂ ✄ .
✆2 ☎1✝

Solution In order to use elementary row operations we may write A = IA.

1 2 ✁ 1 0✁ 1 2✁ 1 0✁
or ✂ ✄✞✂ ✄ A, then ✂ ✄✞✂ ✄ A (applying R2 ✡ R2 – 2R1)
✆2 ☎1✝ ✆ 0 1✝ ✆0 ☎ 5 ✝ ✆ ☎ 2 1✝
 MATRICES 93

✝1 0✞
1 2✁ ✟ ✠ 1
or ✂ = 2 ✡1 A (applying R2 ✌ – R)
☎0 1 ✄✆ ✟ ✠ 5 2
☛5 5☞
✍1 2✎
1 0✁ ✏5 5✑
or ✂ ✄ ✥ ✏ ✑ A (applying R1 ✌ R1 – 2R2)
☎0 1✆ ✏2 ✒1 ✑
✏
✓5 5 ✑✔
✍1
2✎
✏5
5✑
Thus A–1 = ✏ ✑
✒1 ✑
✏2
✏5 ✑✔
✓5
Alternatively, in order to use elementary column operations, we write A = AI, i.e.,
1 2✁ 1 0✁
✂ ✄ = A✂
☎2 ✕ 1✆ ☎0 1 ✄✆
Applying C2 ✌ C2 – 2C1, we get
1 0✁ 1 ✕2✁
✂ ✄ = A✂
☎2 ✕ 5✆ ☎0 1 ✄✆
1
Now applying C2 ✌ ✖ C2 , we have
5
✍ 2✎
✏
1
✗1 0✘ 5✑
✙ = A ✏ ✑
✛2 1 ✚✜ ✏ ✒1 ✑
0
✏
✓ 5 ✑✔
Finally, applying C1 ✌ C1 – 2C2, we obtain
✍1 2✎
✏
1 0✁ 5 5✑
✂ = A ✏ ✑
☎0 1 ✄✆ ✏2 ✒1 ✑
✏
✓5 5 ✑✔
✍1 2✎
✏5 5✑
Hence A–1 = ✏ ✑
✏2 ✒1 ✑
✏
✓5 5 ✔✑
94 MATHEMATICS

Example 24 Obtain the inverse of the following matrix using elementary operations
0 1 2✁
A ☎ ✂1 2 3✄ .
✂ ✄
✂✆ 3 1 1 ✄✝

0 1 2✁ 1 0 0✁
✂
Solution Write A = I A, i.e.,
✂
1 2 3✄ = ✂
0 1 0✄✄ A
✂ ✄
✂
✆3 1 1 ✄✝ ✂
✆0 0 1 ✝✄

1 2 3✁ ✞0 1 0✟
or ✂
0 1 2 ✥ ✠1
✄
0 0✡ A (applying R1 ✌ R2)
✂ ✄ ✠ ✡
✂✆ 3 1 1 ✄✝ ✠☛ 0 0 1✡☞

1 2 3✁ 0 1 0✁
✂
or ✂
0 1 2 ✄✄ ✥ ✂ 1 0 0 ✄ A (applying R3 ✎ R3 – 3R1)
✂ ✄
✂✆ 0 ✍5 ✍8 ✄✝ ✂
✆ 0 ✍3 1 ✄✝

1 0 ✍1 ✁ ✍2 1 0✁
✂ ✄ ✥ ✂
or
✂
0 1 2✄ 1 0 0✄ A (applying R1 ✎ R1 – 2R2)
✂ ✄
✂✆ 0 ✍5 ✄
✍8 ✝ ✂ 0 ✍3
✆ 1 ✝✄

1 0 ✍1 ✁ ✞ ✏2 1 0✟
✂
or 0 1 2✄ ✥ ✠1 0 0✡ A (applying R3 ✎ R3 + 5R2)
✂ ✄ ✠ ✡
✂✆ 0 0 2 ✄✝ ✠
☛ 5 ✏3 1✡☞

✒ ✑2 1 0✓
✞1 0 ✏1 ✟
✔
✠ 1 0 0 ✕✕ A 1
or 0 1 2✡ = ✔ (applying R3 ✎ R)
✠ ✡ ✔ 5 ✑3 1✕ 2 3
✠☛ 0 0 1 ☞✡ ✔ ✕
✖ 2 2 2✗

✙1 ✘1 1✚
1 0 0✁ ✛2 2 2✜
or ✂ ✄ ✥ ✛1 0
✜
0 ✜ A (applying R1 ✎ R1 + R3)
0 1 2 ✛
✂ ✄
✂✆ 0 0 1✝ ✛ 5
✄ ✘3 1✜
✛ ✜
✢2 2 2✣
 MATRICES 95

✞ 1 ✝1 1✟
1 0 0✁ ✠ 2
✂ 2 2✡
0 1 0✄ ✥ ✠ ✡
or ✂ ✄ ✠✝ 43 ✝ 1✡ A (applying R2 ✌ R2 – 2R3)
✂☎ 0 0 1 ✄✆ ✠ 5✝3 1✡
✠ ✡
☛ 2 2 2☞
✞ 1 ✝1 1✟
✠ 2 2 2✡
✠ ✡
Hence A = ✠ ✝4 3
–1 ✝1 ✡
✠ 5 ✝3 1✡
✠ ✡
☛ 2 2 2☞
Alternatively, write A = AI, i.e.,

✍0 1 2✎ ✍1 0 0✎
✏
1 2 3✑ = A
✏
0 1 0✑
✏ ✑ ✏ ✑
✏✒3 1 1 ✑✓ ✏
✒0 0 1✑✓

1 0 2✁ 0 1 0✁
✂
or ✂
2 1 3✄✄ = A
✂
✂
1 0 0✄✄ (C1 ✔ C2)
✂☎1 3 1 ✄✆ ✂
☎0 0 1✄✆

✍1 0 0✎ ✍0 1 0✎
✏ ✑ ✏ ✑
or 2 1 ✕1 = A 1 0 ✕2 (C3 ✌ C3 – 2C1)
✏ ✑ ✏ ✑
✏✒1 3 ✕1✑✓ ✏
✒0 0 1 ✑✓

✍1 0 0✎ ✍0 1 1✎
✏
or 2 1 0✑ = A
✏
1 0 ✕2
✑
(C3 ✌ C3 + C2)
✏ ✑ ✏ ✑
✏✒1 3 2 ✑✓ ✏
✒0 0 1 ✑✓

✖ 1✗
✘
0 1
1 0 0✁ 2✙
✂ ✘ ✙ 1
or 2 1 0✄ = A ✘1 0 ✚1✙ (C3 ✌ C)
✂ ✄ 2 3
✂☎1 3 1 ✄✆ ✘ 1✙
✘0 0 ✙
✛ 2✜
96 MATHEMATICS

✞ 1✟
✠2 1
1 0 0✁ ✡ 2☛
✂ ✡ ☛
or 0 1 0✄ = A✡ 1 0 ✠1☛ (C1 ✍ C1 – 2C2)
✂ ✄
✂✆ ☎5 3 1 ✝✄ ✡ 1☛
✡0 0 ☛
☞ 2✌

✕ 1 1✖
✗ 2
1
✎1 0 0✏ 2✘
✑ ✗ ✘
or ✑
0 1 0✒✒ = A ✗✙ 4 0 ✙1 ✘ (C1 ✍ C1 + 5C3)
✑✓ 0 3 1✒✔ ✗ 5 1✘
✗ 0 ✘
✚ 2 2✛

✞ 1 ✠1
1✟
✎1 0 0✏ ✡ 2 2 2☛
✑ ✡ ☛
or ✑
0 1 0✒✒ = A ✡✠4 3 ✠1 ☛ (C2 ✍ C2 – 3C3)
✑✓ 0 0 1✒✔ ✡ 5 ✠3 1☛
✡ ☛
☞ 2 2 2✌

✕1 ✙1 1✖
✗2 2 2✘
✗ ✘
✗✙ 4 3 ✙1 ✘
–1
Hence A =
✗ 5 ✙3 1✘
✗ ✘
✚ 2 2 2✛

✢10 ✜ 2✣
Example 25 Find P – 1, if it exists, given P ✤ ✥ .
✧ ✜5 1✦★

✢10 ✜ 2✣ ✢ 1 0✣
Solution We have P = I P, i.e., ✥ ✤ P.
✧ ✜5 1✦★ ✥✧ 0 1✦★

✪ ✩1 ✫ ✪ 1 ✫
✬
1 0✭ 1
or 5✭ = ✬ 10 P (applying R1 ✍ R)
✬ ✭ ✬ ✭ 10 1
✮ ✩5 1✯ ✮ 0 1✯
 MATRICES 97

✁ 1✂ ✞ 1 0✟
✄1 ✠ ✡
or 5 ☎ = ✠ 10 ✡ P (applying R2 ✌ R2 + 5R1)
✄ ☎ ✠1
✆0 0✝ 1✡
✠☛ 2 ✡☞
We have all zeros in the second row of the left hand side matrix of the above
equation. Therefore, P–1 does not exist.

EXERCISE 3.4
Using elementary transformations, find the inverse of each of the matrices, if it exists
in Exercises 1 to 17.

✎ 1 ✍1✏ ✎ 2 1✏ ✎ 1 3✏
1. ✑ ✒ 2. ✑ ✒ 3. ✑ ✒
✓ 2 3✔ ✓ 1 1✔ ✓ 2 7✔

✕ 2 3✖ ✎ 2 1✏ ✎ 2 5✏
4. ✗ ✘ 5. ✑ ✒ 6. ✑ ✒
✙ 5 7✚ ✓ 7 4✔ ✓ 1 3✔

✕ 3 1✖ ✕ 4 5✖ ✕ 3 10 ✖
7. ✗ ✘ 8. ✗ ✘ 9. ✗ ✘
✙ 5 2✚ ✙ 3 4✚ ✙2 7✚

✎ 3 ✍1✏ ✎ 2 ✍ 6✏ ✎ 6 ✍3✏
10. ✑ ✒ 11. ✑ ✒ 12. ✑ ✒
✓ ✍4 2 ✔ ✓ 1 ✍ 2✔ ✓✍2 1 ✔

✢ 2 ✜3 3 ✣
✕ 2 ✛3✖ ✕ 2 1✖ ✤ ✥
13. ✗ ✘ 14. ✗ ✘. 15. ✤ 2 2 3✥
✙ ✛1 2 ✚ ✙ 4 2✚ ✤✦ 3 ✜2 2✥✧

✩1 3 ★2 ✪ ✩ 2 0 ★1 ✪
✫ 0 ★5 ✬✬ ✫ ✬
16. ✫★3 17. ✫ 5 1 0 ✬
✫✭ 2 5 0 ✬✮ ✭✫ 0 1 3 ✬✮
18. Matrices A and B will be inverse of each other only if
(A) AB = BA (B) AB = BA = 0
(C) AB = 0, BA = I (D) AB = BA = I
98 MATHEMATICS

Miscellaneous Examples

✁ cos sin ✂ ✁ cos n sin n ✂

Example 26 If A ✄ ☎ ✆ , then prove that A n ✄ ☎ , n ✠ N.
✞ ✝ sin cos ✟ ✞✝ sin n cos n ✆✟

Solution We shall prove the result by using principle of mathematical induction.

✁ cos sin ✂ ✁ cos n sin n ✂
We have P(n) : If A ✄ ☎ ✆ ✱ then A n ✄ ☎ ,n✠N
✞ ✝ sin cos ✟ ✞ ✝ sin n cos n ✆✟

✁ cos sin ✂ ✁ cos sin ✂

P(1) : A ✄ ☎ , so A ✄ ☎
1

✞ ✝ sin cos ✟✆
✞ ✝ sin cos ✆✟
Therefore, the result is true for n = 1.
Let the result be true for n = k. So

✁ cos sin ✂ ✁ cos k sin k ✂

, then A ✄ ☎
k
P(k) : A ✄ ☎
✞ ✝ sin
✆
cos ✟ ✞ ✝ sin k cos k ✆✟
Now, we prove that the result holds for n = k +1

☛ cos ✡ sin ✡ ☞ ☛ cos k ✡ sin k ✡ ☞

Ak + 1 = A ✌ A ✍ ✎
k
Now ✏✎ ✏
✒ ✑ sin ✡ cos ✡ ✓ ✒ ✑ sin k ✡ cos k ✡ ✓

✁ cos cos k – sin sin k cos sin k ✔ sin cos k ✂

= ☎
✞ ✝ sin cos k ✔ cos sin k ✝ sin sin k ✔ cos cos k ✆✟

☛ cos (✡ ✕ k✡ ) sin (✡ ✕ k ✡) ☞ ☛ cos( k ✕ 1)✡ sin (k ✕ 1)✡ ☞

= ✎ ✏✍✎ ✏
✒ ✑ sin (✡ ✕ k ✡) cos (✡ ✕ k✡) ✓ ✒ ✑ sin (k ✕ 1)✡ cos (k ✕ 1)✡ ✓
Therefore, the result is true for n = k + 1. Thus by principle of mathematical induction,
☛ cos n ✡ sin n ✡ ☞
we have A ✍ ✎
n
cos n ✡ ✏✓
, holds for all natural numbers.
✒✑ sin n ✡

Example 27 If A and B are symmetric matrices of the same order, then show that AB
is symmetric if and only if A and B commute, that is AB = BA.
Solution Since A and B are both symmetric matrices, therefore A✖ = A and B✖ = B.
Let AB be symmetric, then (AB)✖ = AB
 MATRICES 99

But (AB)✝ = B✝ A✝= BA (Why?)

Therefore BA = AB
Conversely, if AB = BA, then we shall show that AB is symmetric.
Now (AB)✝ = B✝ A✝
= B A (as A and B are symmetric)
= AB
Hence AB is symmetric.

✁2 1✂ ✁ 5 2✂ ✁ 2 5✂
Example 28 Let A ✄ ☎ ,B✄ ☎ ✆ , C ✄ ☎ 3 8✆ . Find a matrix D such that
✞3 4✟✆ ✞ 7 4 ✟ ✞ ✟
CD – AB = O.
Solution Since A, B, C are all square matrices of order 2, and CD – AB is well
defined, D must be a square matrix of order 2.
✠a b✡
Let D= ☛ ☞ . Then CD – AB = 0 gives
✌c d✍

✠ 2 5✡ ✠ a b ✡ ✠ 2 ✎1✡ ✠ 5 2✡
or ☛ 3 8☞ ☛ c d ☞ ✎ ☛ 3 4☞ ☛ 7 4☞ = O
✌ ✍✌ ✍ ✌ ✍✌ ✍

✠ 2a ✏ 5c 2b ✏ 5d ✡ ✠ 3 0 ✡ ✠ 0 0✡
or ☛ 3a ✏ 8c 3b ✏ 8d ☞ ✎ ☛ 43 22☞ = ☛ 0 0☞
✌ ✍ ✌ ✍ ✌ ✍

✁ 2a ✑ 5c 3 2b ✑ 5d ✂ ✁ 0 0 ✂
or ☎ 3a ✑ 8c 43 3b ✑ 8d 22✆ = ☎ 0 0✆
✞ ✟ ✞ ✟
By equality of matrices, we get
2a + 5c – 3 = 0 ... (1)
3a + 8c – 43 = 0 ... (2)
2b + 5d = 0 ... (3)
and 3b + 8d – 22 = 0 ... (4)
Solving (1) and (2), we get a = –191, c = 77. Solving (3) and (4), we get b = – 110,
d = 44.
✁ a b ✂ ✁ 191 110 ✂
Therefore D= ☎ ✆✄☎ 44 ✆✟
✞ c d ✟ ✞ 77
100 MATHEMATICS

Miscellaneous Exercise on Chapter 3

0 1✁
1. Let A ✂ ✄ n n
☎ , show that (aI + bA) = a I + na
n–1
bA, where I is the identity
✆ 0 0 ✝
matrix of order 2 and n ✞ N.

✟1 1 1✠ ✏3n ✎1 3n✎1 3n✎1 ✑

✒ ✓
2. If A ☞ ✡✡1 1 1☛☛ , prove that A n ✔ ✒3n✎1 3n✎1 3n✎1 ✓ , n ✕ N.
✒ n ✎1 ✓
✡
✌1 1 1☛✍
✖3 3n✎1 3n✎1 ✗

3 ✘4 ✁ 1 ✙ 2n ✘ 4 n ✁
3. If A ✂ ✄ ☎, then prove that A n ✂✄ , where n is any positive
✆1 ✘ 1✝ ✆ n 1 ✘ 2n ☎✝
integer.
4. If A and B are symmetric matrices, prove that AB – BA is a skew symmetric
matrix.
5. Show that the matrix B✚AB is symmetric or skew symmetric according as A is
symmetric or skew symmetric.

✟0 2y z✠
6. Find the values of x, y, z if the matrix A ☞ ✡✡ x y ✛z
☛
☛
satisfy the equation
✡
✌x ✛y z ☛✍
A✚A = I.

✟1 2 0✠ ✟ 0✠
7. For what values of x : ✜1 2 1✢ ✡ 2 0 1 ☛ ✡ 2☛ = O?
✡ ☛ ✡ ☛
✡1
✌ 0 2✍☛ ✌✡ x✍☛

3 1✁
8. If A ✂ ✄ , show that A2 – 5A + 7I = 0.
✆✘1 2 ☎✝

✥1 0 2✦ ✥ x✦
✧
9. Find x, if ✣ x ✩5 ✩ 1✤ 0 2 1 ★ ✧ 4★ ✪ O
✧ ★✧ ★
✧
✫2 0 3★✬ ✧✫ 1★✬
 MATRICES 101

10. A manufacturer produces three products x, y, z which he sells in two markets.

Annual sales are indicated below:
Market Products
I 10,000 2,000 18,000
II 6,000 20,000 8,000
(a) If unit sale prices of x, y and z are Rs 2.50, Rs 1.50 and Rs 1.00, respectively,
find the total revenue in each market with the help of matrix algebra.
(b) If the unit costs of the above three commodities are Rs 2.00, Rs 1.00 and 50
paise respectively. Find the gross profit.

✁1 2 3✂ ✁ 7 8 9✂
11. Find the matrix X so that X ☎ ✆✄☎ 6 ✆✞
✝ 4 5 6✞ ✝ 2 4
12. If A and B are square matrices of the same order such that AB = BA, then prove
by induction that ABn = BnA. Further, prove that (AB)n = AnBn for all n ✟ N.
Choose the correct answer in the following questions:

✁✠ ✡ ✂
13. If A = ☎
✝☛ ✠ ✆✞ is such that A² = I, then
(A) 1 + ☞² + ✌✍ = 0 (B) 1 – ☞ ² + ✌✍ = 0
(C) 1 – ☞² – ✌✍ = 0 (D) 1 + ☞ ² – ✌✍ = 0
14. If the matrix A is both symmetric and skew symmetric, then
(A) A is a diagonal matrix (B) A is a zero matrix
(C) A is a square matrix (D) None of these
15. If A is square matrix such that A2 = A, then (I + A)³ – 7 A is equal to
(A) A (B) I – A (C) I (D) 3A

Summary
✎ A matrix is an ordered rectangular array of numbers or functions.
✎ A matrix having m rows and n columns is called a matrix of order m × n.
✎ [aij]m × 1 is a column matrix.
✎ [aij]1 × n is a row matrix.
✎ An m × n matrix is a square matrix if m = n.
✎ A = [aij]m × m is a diagonal matrix if aij = 0, when i ✏ j.
102 MATHEMATICS

A = [aij]n × n is a scalar matrix if aij = 0, when i ☎ j, a ij

= k, (k is some
constant), when i = j.
A = [aij]n × n is an identity matrix, if aij = 1, when i = j, aij = 0, when i ☎ j.
A zero matrix has all its elements as zero.
A = [aij] = [bij] = B if (i) A and B are of same order, (ii) aij = bij for all
possible values of i and j.
kA = k[aij]m × n = [k(aij)]m × n
– A = (–1)A
A – B = A + (–1) B
A+ B = B +A
(A + B) + C = A + (B + C), where A, B and C are of same order.
k(A + B) = kA + kB, where A and B are of same order, k is constant.
(k + l ) A = kA + lA, where k and l are constant.

✂ ✄a
n
If A = [aij]m × n and B = [bjk]n × p , then AB = C = [cik]m × p, where cik
✁ ij b jk
j 1

(i) A(BC) = (AB)C, (ii) A(B + C) = AB + AC, (iii) (A + B)C = AC + BC

✝
If A = [aij]m × n, then A or AT = [aji]n × m
✝✝ ✝ ✝ ✝ ✝ ✝
(i) (A ) = A, (ii) (kA) = kA , (iii) (A + B) = A + B , (iv) (AB) = B A ✝ ✝✝
A is a symmetric matrix if A = A. ✝
A is a skew symmetric matrix if A = – A. ✝
Any square matrix can be represented as the sum of a symmetric and a
skew symmetric matrix.
Elementary operations of a matrix are as follows:
(i) Ri✠ Rj or Ci ✠ Cj
(ii) Ri✡ kRi or Ci ✡ kCi
(iii) Ri✡ Ri + kRj or Ci ✡
Ci + kCj
If A and B are two square matrices such that AB = BA = I, then B is the
inverse matrix of A and is denoted by A–1 and A is the inverse of B.
Inverse of a square matrix, if it exists, is unique.

—✆—
 Chapter 4
DETERMINANTS

All Mathematical truths are relative and conditional. — C.P. STEINMETZ

4.1 Introduction
In the previous chapter, we have studied about matrices
and algebra of matrices. We have also learnt that a system
of algebraic equations can be expressed in the form of
matrices. This means, a system of linear equations like
a1 x + b 1 y = c 1
a2 x + b 2 y = c 2
✁☎ a b1 ✂✆ ✁☎ x ✂✆ ✄ ✁☎ c ✂✆ . Now, this
✝a ✞ ✝ y ✞ ✝c ✞
1 1
can be represented as
2 b2 2
system of equations has a unique solution or not, is
determined by the number a1 b2 – a2 b1. (Recall that if

✟
a1 b1
a2 b2
✠
or, a1 b2 – a2 b1 0, then the system of linear
P.S. Laplace
(1749-1827)
equations has a unique solution). The number a1 b2 – a2 b1

which determines uniqueness of solution is associated with the matrix A ✄ ✝✁☎ aa1

2
b1
b2
✂✆
✞
and is called the determinant of A or det A. Determinants have wide applications in
Engineering, Science, Economics, Social Science, etc.
In this chapter, we shall study determinants up to order three only with real entries.
Also, we will study various properties of determinants, minors, cofactors and applications
of determinants in finding the area of a triangle, adjoint and inverse of a square matrix,
consistency and inconsistency of system of linear equations and solution of linear
equations in two or three variables using inverse of a matrix.
4.2 Determinant
To every square matrix A = [aij] of order n, we can associate a number (real or
complex) called determinant of the square matrix A, where aij = (i, j)th element of A.
104 MATHEMATICS

This may be thought of as a function which associates each square matrix with a
unique number (real or complex). If M is the set of square matrices, K is the set of
numbers (real or complex) and f : M ✄ K is defined by f (A) = k, where A ☎ M and
k ☎ K, then f (A) is called the determinant of A. It is also denoted by | A | or det A or ✆.
a b✁ a b
If A = ✂ , then determinant of A is written as | A| = = det (A)
✞c d ✝✟ c d
Remarks
(i) For matrix A, | A | is read as determinant of A and not modulus of A.
(ii) Only square matrices have determinants.
4.2.1 Determinant of a matrix of order one
Let A = [a ] be the matrix of order 1, then determinant of A is defined to be equal to a
4.2.2 Determinant of a matrix of order two
a11 a12 ✁
Let A= ✂ be a matrix of order 2 × 2,
✞ a21 a22 ✝✟
then the determinant of A is defined as:

det (A) = |A| = ✆ = = a11a22 – a21a12

2 4
Example 1 Evaluate .
–1 2

2 4
Solution We have = 2 (2) – 4(–1) = 4 + 4 = 8.
–1 2

x x✠1
Example 2 Evaluate
x –1 x
Solution We have
x x ✡1
= x (x) – (x + 1) (x – 1) = x2 – (x2 – 1) = x2 – x2 + 1 = 1
x –1 x

4.2.3 Determinant of a matrix of order 3 × 3

Determinant of a matrix of order three can be determined by expressing it in terms of
second order determinants. This is known as expansion of a determinant along
a row (or a column). There are six ways of expanding a determinant of order
 DETERMINANTS 105

3 corresponding to each of three rows (R1, R2 and R3) and three columns (C1, C2 and
C3) giving the same value as shown below.
Consider the determinant of square matrix A = [aij]3 × 3

a 11 a12 a13
i.e., | A | = a21 a22 a23
a31 a32 a33
Expansion along first Row (R1)
Step 1 Multiply first element a11 of R1 by (–1)(1 + 1) [(–1)sum of suffixes in a11] and with the
second order determinant obtained by deleting the elements of first row (R1) and first
column (C1) of | A | as a11 lies in R1 and C1,
a22 a23
i.e., (–1)1 + 1 a11
a32 a33
Step 2 Multiply 2nd element a12 of R1 by (–1)1 + 2 [(–1)sum of suffixes in a12] and the second
order determinant obtained by deleting elements of first row (R1) and 2nd column (C2)
of | A | as a12 lies in R1 and C2,
a21 a23
i.e., (–1)1 + 2 a12
a31 a33
Step 3 Multiply third element a13 of R1 by (–1)1 + 3 [(–1)sum of suffixes in a ] and the second
13

order determinant obtained by deleting elements of first row (R1) and third column (C3)
of | A | as a13 lies in R1 and C3,
a21 a22
i.e., (–1)1 + 3 a13 a a32
31

Step 4 Now the expansion of determinant of A, that is, | A | written as sum of all three
terms obtained in steps 1, 2 and 3 above is given by
a22 a23 a21 a23
det A = |A| = (–1)1 + 1 a11 a ✁ (–1)1 2
a12
32 a33 a31 a33

1 3 a21 a22
+ (–1) a13
a31 a32
or |A| = a11 (a22 a33 – a32 a23) – a12 (a21 a33 – a31 a23)
+ a13 (a21 a32 – a31 a22)
106 MATHEMATICS

= a11 a22 a33 – a11 a32 a23 – a12 a21 a33 + a12 a31 a23 + a13 a21 a32
– a13 a31 a22 ... (1)

Note We shall apply all four steps together.

Expansion along second row (R2)

a 11 a 12 a 13
a
| A | = 21 a 22 a 23
a 31 a 32 a 33

✁ ✂ ✁
Expanding along R2, we get

2 1 a12 a13 a11 a13

| A | = (–1) a21 (–1)2 2
a22

✂ ✁
a32 a33 a31 a33

a11 a12
(–1) 2 3
a23
a31 a32
= – a21 (a12 a33 – a32 a13) + a22 (a11 a33 – a31 a13)
– a23 (a11 a32 – a31 a12)
| A | = – a21 a12 a33 + a21 a32 a13 + a22 a11 a33 – a22 a31 a13 – a23 a11 a32
+ a23 a31 a12
= a11 a22 a33 – a11 a23 a32 – a12 a21 a33 + a12 a23 a31 + a13 a21 a32
– a13 a31 a22 ... (2)
Expansion along first Column (C1)
a11 a12 a13
| A | = a21 a22 a23
a31 a32 a33

✁ ✂ ✄✁
By expanding along C1, we get

1 1 a22 a23 a12 a13

| A | = a11 (–1) a21 ( 1) 2 1

✁
a32 a33 a32 a33

3 1 a 12 a13
+ a31 (–1) a22 a23
= a11 (a22 a33 – a23 a32) – a21 (a12 a33 – a13 a32) + a31 (a12 a23 – a13 a22)
 DETERMINANTS 107

| A | = a11 a22 a33 – a11 a23 a32 – a21 a12 a33 + a21 a13 a32 + a31 a12 a23
– a31 a13 a22
= a11 a22 a33 – a11 a23 a32 – a12 a21 a33 + a12 a23 a31 + a13 a21 a32
– a13 a31 a22 ... (3)
Clearly, values of | A | in (1), (2) and (3) are equal. It is left as an exercise to the
reader to verify that the values of |A| by expanding along R3, C2 and C3 are equal to the
value of | A | obtained in (1), (2) or (3).
Hence, expanding a determinant along any row or column gives same value.
Remarks
(i) For easier calculations, we shall expand the determinant along that row or column
which contains maximum number of zeros.
(ii) While expanding, instead of multiplying by (–1)i + j, we can multiply by +1 or –1
according as (i + j) is even or odd.

2 2✁ 1 1✁
(iii) Let A = ✂ ✄ and B = ✂ ✄ . Then, it is easy to verify that A = 2B. Also
☎ 4 0✆ ☎2 0✆
| A | = 0 – 8 = – 8 and | B | = 0 – 2 = – 2.
Observe that, | A | = 4 (– 2) = 22 | B | or | A | = 2n | B |, where n = 2 is the order of
square matrices A and B.
In general, if A = kB where A and B are square matrices of order n, then | A| = kn
| B |, where n = 1, 2, 3
1 2 4
Example 3 Evaluate the determinant ✝ = –1 3 0 .
4 1 0

Solution Note that in the third column, two entries are zero. So expanding along third
column (C3), we get

–1 3 1 2 1 2
✝ = 4 –0 ✞ 0
4 1 4 1 –1 3
= 4 (–1 – 12) – 0 + 0 = – 52

0 sin ✟ – cos ✟
Example 4 Evaluate ✝ = – sin ✟ 0 sin ✠ .
cos ✟ – sin ✠ 0
108 MATHEMATICS

Solution Expanding along R1, we get

0 sin – sin ✁ sin – sin ✁ 0

✆= 0 – sin ✁ – cos ✁
– sin 0 cos ✁ 0 cos ✁ – sin
= 0 – sin ✝ (0 – sin ✞ cos ✝) – cos ✝ (sin ✝ sin ✞ – 0)
= sin ✝ sin ✞ cos ✝ – cos ✝ sin ✝ sin ✞ = 0
3 x 3 2
Example 5 Find values of x for which ✂ .
x 1 4 1

3 x 3 2
Solution We have ✂
x 1 4 1
i.e. 3 – x2 = 3 – 8
i.e. x2 = 8

Hence x= ✄2 2

EXERCISE 4.1
Evaluate the determinants in Exercises 1 and 2.
2 4
1.
–5 –1

cos ☎ – sin ☎ x2 – x ✟ 1 x – 1
2. (i) (ii)
sin ☎ cos ☎ x✟1 x ✟1

✠ 1 2✡
3. If A= ☛ ☞ , then show that | 2A | = 4 | A |
✌ 4 2✍
✎1 0 1✏
✑ ✒
4. If A = ✑ 0 1 2 ✒ , then show that | 3 A | = 27 | A |
✑✓ 0 0 4 ✒✔
5. Evaluate the determinants
3 –1 –2 3 –4 5
(i) 0 0 –1 (ii) 1 1 –2
3 –5 0 2 3 1
 DETERMINANTS 109

0 1 2 2 –1 –2
(iii) –1 0 –3 (iv) 0 2 –1
–2 3 0 3 –5 0

1 1 –2 ✁
✂
6. If A = ✂
2 1 –3 ✄✄ , find | A |
✂
☎5 4 –9 ✄✆
7. Find values of x, if
2 4 2x 4 2 3 x 3
(i) ✝ (ii) ✝
5 1 6 x 4 5 2x 5
x 2 6 2
8. If ✝ , then x is equal to
18 x 18 6
(A) 6 (B) ± 6 (C) – 6 (D) 0
4.3 Properties of Determinants
In the previous section, we have learnt how to expand the determinants. In this section,
we will study some properties of determinants which simplifies its evaluation by obtaining
maximum number of zeros in a row or a column. These properties are true for
determinants of any order. However, we shall restrict ourselves upto determinants of
order 3 only.
Property 1 The value of the determinant remains unchanged if its rows and columns
are interchanged.
a1 a2 a3
Verification Let ✥ = b1 b2 b3
c1 c2 c3
Expanding along first row, we get
b2 b3 b1 b3 b1 b2
✥ = a1 ✞ a2 ✟ a3
c2 c3 c1 c3 c1 c2
= a1 (b2 c3 – b3 c2) – a2 (b1 c3 – b3 c1) + a3 (b1 c2 – b2 c1)
By interchanging the rows and columns of ✥, we get the determinant
a1 b1 c1
✥1 = a2 b2 c2
a3 b3 c3
 ✆✆ ✆ ✆
110 MATHEMATICS

Expanding 1
along first column, we get
1
= a 1
(b2 c3 – c2 b3) – a2 (b1 c3 – b3 c1) + a3 (b1 c2 – b2 c1)
Hence = 1

✟ ✟
Remark It follows from above property that if A is a square matrix, then
det (A) = det (A ), where A = transpose of A.

columns, we will symbolically write Ci Ri

Let us verify the above property by example.
✠
Note If Ri = ith row and Ci = ith column, then for interchange of row and

Example 6 Verify Property 1 for = 6 0

1 5 –7
4✆ 2 –3 5

✁
Solution Expanding the determinant along first row, we have

✆ = 2
0
5 –7
4
– (–3)
6
1
4
–7
5
6 0
1 5
= 2 (0 – 20) + 3 (– 42 – 4) + 5 (30 – 0)
= – 40 – 138 + 150 = – 28
By interchanging rows and columns, we get

✆ 1
2 6 1
= –3 0 5 (Expanding along first column)

✂
5 4 –7
0 5 6 1 6 1
= 2 – (–3) 5
4 –7 4 –7 0 5

✆✆
= 2 (0 – 20) + 3 (– 42 – 4) + 5 (30 – 0)
= – 40 – 138 + 150 = – 28
Clearly = 1
Hence, Property 1 is verified.
Property 2 If any two rows (or columns) of a determinant are interchanged, then sign
of determinant changes.

Verification Let ✆ = b1
c1
a1 a2
b2
c2
a3
b3
c3
 DETERMINANTS 111

✆
Expanding along first row, we get
= a1 (b2 c3 – b3 c2) – a2 (b1 c3 – b3 c1) + a3 (b1 c2 – b2 c1)
Interchanging first and third rows, the new determinant obtained is given by

✆1
c1
= b1 b2
a1 a2
c2 c3
b3
a3

✆
Expanding along third row, we get
= a1 (c2 b3 – b2 c3) – a2 (c1 b3 – c3 b1) + a3 (b2 c1 – b1 c2)

✆ ✆
1
= – [a1 (b2 c3 – b3 c2) – a2 (b1 c3 – b3 c1) + a3 (b1 c2 – b2 c1)]
Clearly 1 = –

✠
Similarly, we can verify the result by interchanging any two columns.

columns by Ci ✠
Note We can denote the interchange of rows by Ri
Cj.
Rj and interchange of

Example 7 Verify Property 2 for ✆ = 6

1
2 –3
0
5
4 .
–7
5

Solution ✆ = 6
2 –3
0
5
4 = – 28 (See Example 6)

✠
1 5 –7

Interchanging rows R2 and R3 i.e., R2 R3, we have

✆ 2 –3 5
= 1 5 –7

✆
1
6 0 4

✆ ✁
Expanding the determinant 1
along first row, we have
5 –7 1 –7 1 5
1
= 2 – (–3) 5
0 4 6 4 6 0
= 2 (20 – 0) + 3 (4 + 42) + 5 (0 – 30)
= 40 + 138 – 150 = 28
112 MATHEMATICS

Clearly ✆1 = – ✆
Hence, Property 2 is verified.
Property 3 If any two rows (or columns) of a determinant are identical (all corresponding
elements are same), then value of determinant is zero.
Proof If we interchange the identical rows (or columns) of the determinant ✆, then ✆
does not change. However, by Property 2, it follows that ✆ has changed its sign
Therefore ✆=–✆
or ✆=0
Let us verify the above property by an example.
3 2 3
Example 8 Evaluate ✆ = 2 2 3
3 2 3
Solution Expanding along first row, we get
✆ = 3 (6 – 6) – 2 (6 – 9) + 3 (4 – 6)
= 0 – 2 (–3) + 3 (–2) = 6 – 6 = 0
Here R1 and R3 are identical.
Property 4 If each element of a row (or a column) of a determinant is multiplied by a
constant k, then its value gets multiplied by k.
a1 b1 c1
Verification Let ✆ = a2 b2 c2
a3 b3 c3

and ✆1 be the determinant obtained by multiplying the elements of the first row by k.
Then

k a1 k b1 k c1
✆1 = a2 b2 c2
a3 b3 c3

Expanding along first row, we get

✆1 = k a1 (b2 c3 – b3 c2) – k b1 (a2 c3 – c2 a3) + k c1 (a2 b3 – b2 a3)
= k [a1 (b2 c3 – b3 c2) – b1 (a2 c3 – c2 a3) + c1 (a2 b3 – b2 a3)]
=k ✆
 DETERMINANTS 113

k a1 k b1 k c1 a1 b1 c1
Hence a2 b2 c2 = k a2 b2 c2
a3 b3 c3 a3 b3 c3

Remarks
(i) By this property, we can take out any common factor from any one row or any
one column of a given determinant.
(ii) If corresponding elements of any two rows (or columns) of a determinant are
proportional (in the same ratio), then its value is zero. For example

a1 a2 a3
✆= b1 b2 b3 = 0 (rows R1 and R2 are proportional)
k a1 k a2 k a3

102 18 36
Example 9 Evaluate 1 3 4
17 3 6

102 18 36 6(17) 6(3) 6(6) 17 3 6

Solution Note that 1 3 4 1 3 4 6 1 3 4 0
17 3 6 17 3 6 17 3 6

(Using Properties 3 and 4)

Property 5 If some or all elements of a row or column of a determinant are expressed
as sum of two (or more) terms, then the determinant can be expressed as sum of two
(or more) determinants.

a1 ✁ ✂1 a2 ✁ ✂ 2 a3 ✁ ✂ 3 a1 a2 a3 ✄1 ✄ 2 ✄3
For example, b1 b2 b3 = b1 b2 b3 ☎ b1 b2 b3
c1 c2 c3 c1 c2 c3 c1 c2 c3

a1 ☎ ✄1 a2 ☎ ✄ 2 a3 ☎ ✄ 3
Verification L.H.S. = b1 b2 b3
c1 c2 c3
114 MATHEMATICS

Expanding the determinants along the first row, we get

✆ = (a1 + ✡1) (b2 c3 – c2 b3) – (a2 + ✡2) (b1 c3 – b3 c1)
+ (a3 + ✡3) (b1 c2 – b2 c1)
= a1 (b2 c3 – c2 b3) – a2 (b1 c3 – b3 c1) + a3 (b1 c2 – b2 c1)
+ ✡1 (b2 c3 – c2 b3) – ✡2 (b1 c3 – b3 c1) + ✡3 (b1 c2 – b2 c1)
(by rearranging terms)

a1 a2 a3 1 2 3

= b1 b2 b3 ✁ b1 b2 b3 = R.H.S.
c1 c2 c3 c1 c2 c3
Similarly, we may verify Property 5 for other rows or columns.

a b c
Example 10 Show that a ✂ 2 x b ✂ 2 y c ✂ 2 z ✄ 0
x y z

a b c a b c a b c
Solution We have a ✁ 2 x b ✁ 2 y c ✁ 2 z = a b c ✂ 2x 2 y 2z
x y z x y z x y z
(by Property 5)
=0+0=0 (Using Property 3 and Property 4)
Property 6 If, to each element of any row or column of a determinant, the equimultiples
of corresponding elements of other row (or column) are added, then value of determinant
remains the same, i.e., the value of determinant remain same if we apply the operation
Ri ☎ Ri + kRj or Ci ☎ Ci + k Cj .
Verification
a1 a2 a3 a1 ✝ k c1 a2 ✝ k c2 a3 ✝ k c3
Let ✆ = b1 b2 b3 and ✆1 = b1 b2 b3 ,
c1 c2 c3 c1 c2 c3

where ✆1 is obtained by the operation R1 ☎ R1 + kR3 .

Here, we have multiplied the elements of the third row (R3) by a constant k and
added them to the corresponding elements of the first row (R1).
Symbolically, we write this operation as R1 ☎ R1 + k R3.
 DETERMINANTS 115

Now, again
a1 a2 a3 k c1 k c2 k c3
✆1 = b1 b2 b3 b1 b2 b3 (Using Property 5)
c1 c2 c3 c1 c2 c3

=✆+0 (since R1 and R3 are proportional)

Hence ✆ = ✆1
Remarks
(i) If ✆1 is the determinant obtained by applying Ri ✄ kRi or Ci ✄ kCi to the
determinant ✆, then ✆1 = k✆.
(ii) If more than one operation like Ri ✄ Ri + kRj is done in one step, care should be
taken to see that a row that is affected in one operation should not be used in
another operation. A similar remark applies to column operations.

a a✁b a✁b✁c
Example 11 Prove that 2a 3a ✁ 2b 4a ✁ 3b ✁ 2c ✂ a 3 .
3a 6a ✁ 3b 10a ✁ 6b ✁ 3c

Solution Applying operations R2 ✄ R2 – 2R1 and R3 ✄ R3 – 3R1 to the given

determinant ✆, we have

a a✁b a✁b✁c
✆= 0 a 2a ✁ b
0 3a 7a ✁ 3b
Now applying R3 ✄ R3 – 3R2 , we get
a a☎b a☎b☎c
✆= 0 a 2a ☎ b
0 0 a

Expanding along C1, we obtain

a 2a ✝ b
✆= a +0+0
0 a
= a (a2 – 0) = a (a2) = a3
116 MATHEMATICS

Example 12 Without expanding, prove that

x y y z z x
✆= z x y ✁0
1 1 1
Solution Applying R1 ✄ R1 + R2 to ✆, we get
x✂y✂z x✂ y✂z x✂ y✂z
✆= z x y
1 1 1
Since the elements of R1 and R3 are proportional, ✆ = 0.
Example 13 Evaluate
1 a bc
✆ = 1 b ca
1 c ab
Solution Applying R2 ✄ R2 – R1 and R3 ✄ R3 – R1, we get
1 a bc
✆= 0 b ☎ a c ( a ☎ b)
0 c ☎ a b (a ☎ c)
Taking factors (b – a) and (c – a) common from R2 and R3, respectively, we get
1 a bc
✆ = (b ✝ a ) (c ✝ a) 0 1 – c
0 1 –b
= (b – a) (c – a) [(– b + c)] (Expanding along first column)
= (a – b) (b – c) (c – a)
b c a a
Example 14 Prove that b c a b ✁ 4 abc
c c a b

b✂c a a
Solution Let ✆ = b c✂a b
c c a✂b
 DETERMINANTS 117

Applying R1 ✄ R1 – R2 – R3 to ✆, we get
0 –2c –2b
✆= b c a b
c c a b
Expanding along R1, we obtain
c✁a b b b b c✂a
✆= 0 – (–2 c ) ✂ (–2b)
c a ✁b c a✁b c c
= 2 c (a b + b2 – bc) – 2 b (b c – c2 – ac)
= 2 a b c + 2 cb2 – 2 bc2 – 2 b2c + 2 bc2 + 2 abc
= 4 abc
x x2 1 x3
Example 15 If x, y, z are different and ☎ ✝ y y 2
1 y 3 ✝ 0 , then
z z2 1 z3
show that 1 + xyz = 0
Solution We have
x x2 1 ✞ x3
✆ = y y 1✞ y
2 3

z z 2 1 ✞ z3

x x2 1 x x2 x3
= y y2 1 ✞ y y2 y 3 (Using Property 5)
z z2 1 z z2 z3

1 x x2 1 x x2
= (✟1) 1 y y 2 ✞ xyz 1 y (Using C3 ✠ C2 and then C1 ✠ C2)
2
y2
2 2
1 z z 1 z z

1 x x2
= 1 y y 2 (1✞ xyz )
1 z z2
118 MATHEMATICS

1 x x2
= 1 ✂ xyz ✁ 0 y✄x y2 ✄ x2 (Using R2 ☎ R2–R1 and R3 ☎ R3– R1)
2 2
0 z✄x z ✄ x
Taking out common factor (y – x) from R2 and (z – x) from R3, we get

1 x x2
✆ = (1+xyz ) (y –x ) (z –x) 0 1 y✝x
0 1 z✝x

= (1 + xyz) (y – x) (z – x) (z – y) (on expanding along C1)

Since ✆ = 0 and x, y, z are all different, i.e., x – y ✞ 0, y – z ✞ 0, z – x ✞ 0, we get
1 + xyz = 0
Example 16 Show that
1✟ a 1 1
✠ 1 1 1✡
1 1✟ b 1 ☛ abc ☞ 1 ✟ ✟ ✟ ☛ abc ✟ bc ✟ ca ✟ ab
✍ a b c ✌✎
1 1 1✟ c
Solution Taking out factors a,b,c common from R1, R2 and R3, we get

1 1 1
✏1
a a a
1 1 1
L.H.S. = abc ✏1
b b b
1 1 1
✏1
c c c

Applying R1☎ R1 + R2 + R3, we have

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1✑ ✑ ✑ 1✑ ✑ ✑ 1✑ ✑ ✑
a b c a b c a b c
1 1 1
✆ = abc ✑1
b b b
1 1 1
✑1
c c c
 DETERMINANTS 119

1 1 1
1 1 1✁ 1 1 1
= abc ✄ 1+ ✂ ✂ ☎ ✂1
✆ a b c✝ b b b
1 1 1
✂1
c c c
Now applying C2 ✞ C2 – C1, C3 ✞ C3 – C1, we get
1 0 0
1 1 1✁ 1
✟ = abc ✄ 1+ ✂ ✂ ☎ 1 0
✆ a b c✝ b
1
0 1
c
☛ 1 1 1☞
= abc ✏ 1 ✌ ✌ ✌ ✍1✠1 – 0 ✡ ✎
✔ a b c ✑✕ ✒ ✓

☛ 1 1 1☞
= abc ✏ 1+ ✌ ✌ ✑ = abc + bc + ca + ab = R.H.S.
✔ a b c✕

✖
Note Alternately try by applying C1 ✞ C1 – C2 and C3 ✞ C3 – C2, then apply
C1 ✞ C1 – a C3.

EXERCISE 4.2
Using the property of determinants and without expanding in Exercises 1 to 7, prove
that:
x a x✗a a✙b b✙c c✙ a
1. y b y✗b ✘0 2. b✙c c✙ a a✙b ✚ 0
z c z✗c c✙ a a✙b b✙c

2 7 65 1 bc a ✛ b ✢ c ✜
3. 3 8 75 ✘0 4. 1 ca b ✛ c ✢ a ✜ ✣ 0
5 9 86 1 ab c ✛ a ✢ b ✜

b✗c q✗ r y✗z a p x
5. c✗a r✗ p z✗x ✘ 2 b q y
a✗b p✗ q x✗ y c r z
120 MATHEMATICS

0 a b ✂ a2 ab ac
6. a 0 c ✁0 7. ba ✂b 2
bc ✄ 4 a 2 b 2 c 2
b c 0 ca cb ✂ c2
By using properties of determinants, in Exercises 8 to 14, show that:
1 a a2
8. (i) 1 b b ✄ ☎ a ✂ b ✆☎ b ✂ c ✆☎ c ✂ a ✆
2

1 c c2

1 1 1
(ii) a b c ✟ ✝ a ✠ b ✞✝ b ✠ c ✞✝ c ✠ a ✞✝ a ✡ b ✡ c ✞
3 3
a b c3

x x2 yz
2
9. y y zx = (x – y) (y – z) (z – x) (xy + yz + zx)
2
z z xy

x + 4 2x 2x
10. (i) 2 x x + 4 2x ✁ ☛ 5 x ✌ 4☞ ☛ 4 x ☞
2

2x 2x x + 4

y+k y y
(ii) y y+k y ✏ k 2 ✍3y ✑ k ✎
y y y+k

a b c 2a 2a
2b ✁ ✒ a ✌ b ✌ c ✓
3
11. (i) 2b b c a
2c 2c c a b

x ✑ y ✑ 2z x y
3
(ii) z y ✑ z ✑ 2x y ✏ 2✔ x ✑ y ✑ z✕
z x z ✑ x ✑ 2y
 DETERMINANTS 121

1 x x2
2
12. x2 1 x ✂ 1 ✄ x3 ✁
x x2 1

1 ✝ a 2 ✄ b2 2ab ✄2b
2 2 2 3
13. 2ab 1✄ a ✝b 2a ✂ ☎1 ✝ a2 ✝b ✆

2b ✄2 a 1 ✄ a2 ✄ b2

a2 ✝ 1 ab ac
2
14. ab b ✝1 bc ✂1 ✝ a2 ✝b
2
✝c
2

ca cb c2 ✝ 1

Choose the correct answer in Exercises 15 and 16.

15. Let A be a square matrix of order 3 × 3, then | kA | is equal to
(A) k| A | (B) k 2 | A | (C) k 3 | A | (D) 3k | A |
16. Which of the following is correct
(A) Determinant is a square matrix.
(B) Determinant is a number associated to a matrix.
(C) Determinant is a number associated to a square matrix.
(D) None of these
4.4 Area of a Triangle
In earlier classes, we have studied that the area of a triangle whose vertices are
1
(x1, y1), (x2, y2) and (x3, y3), is given by the expression [x (y –y ) + x2 (y3–y1) +
2 1 2 3
x3 (y1–y2)]. Now this expression can be written in the form of a determinant as
x1 y1 1
1
✞= x2
y2 1 ... (1)
2
x3 y3 1
Remarks
(i) Since area is a positive quantity, we always take the absolute value of the
determinant in (1).
122 MATHEMATICS

(ii) If area is given, use both positive and negative values of the determinant for
calculation.
(iii) The area of the triangle formed by three collinear points is zero.
Example 17 Find the area of the triangle whose vertices are (3, 8), (– 4, 2) and (5, 1).
Solution The area of triangle is given by
3 8 1
1
✆= –4 2 1
2
5 1 1
1
= ✂ 3 2 – 1✁ – 8 – 4 – 5 ✁ ✄ 1 – 4 – 10 ✁☎
2✝ ✞

1 61
= ✟ 3 ✄ 72 – 14 ✠ ✡
2 2
Example 18 Find the equation of the line joining A(1, 3) and B (0, 0) using determinants
and find k if D(k, 0) is a point such that area of triangle ABD is 3sq units.
Solution Let P (x, y) be any point on AB. Then, area of triangle ABP is zero (Why?). So
0 0 1
1
1 3 1 =0
2
x y 1
1
This gives ☛ y – 3 x ☞ = 0 or y = 3x,
2
which is the equation of required line AB.
Also, since the area of the triangle ABD is 3 sq. units, we have
1 3 1
1
0 0 1 =±3
2
k 0 1
✌ 3k
This gives, ✡ ✍3 , i.e., k = ✎ 2.
2

EXERCISE 4.3
1. Find area of the triangle with vertices at the point given in each of the following :
(i) (1, 0), (6, 0), (4, 3) (ii) (2, 7), (1, 1), (10, 8)
(iii) (–2, –3), (3, 2), (–1, –8)
 DETERMINANTS 123

2. Show that points

A (a, b + c), B (b, c + a), C (c, a + b) are collinear.
3. Find values of k if area of triangle is 4 sq. units and vertices are
(i) (k, 0), (4, 0), (0, 2) (ii) (–2, 0), (0, 4), (0, k)
4. (i) Find equation of line joining (1, 2) and (3, 6) using determinants.
(ii) Find equation of line joining (3, 1) and (9, 3) using determinants.
5. If area of triangle is 35 sq units with vertices (2, – 6), (5, 4) and (k, 4). Then k is
(A) 12 (B) –2 (C) –12, –2 (D) 12, –2
4.5 Minors and Cofactors
In this section, we will learn to write the expansion of a determinant in compact form
using minors and cofactors.
Definition 1 Minor of an element aij of a determinant is the determinant obtained by
deleting its ith row and jth column in which element aij lies. Minor of an element aij is
denoted by Mij.
Remark Minor of an element of a determinant of order n(n ☛ 2) is a determinant of
order n – 1.
1 2 3
Example 19 Find the minor of element 6 in the determinant ✁ 4 5 6
7 8 9

Solution Since 6 lies in the second row and third column, its minor M23 is given by

1 2
M23 = = 8 – 14 = – 6 (obtained by deleting R2 and C3 in ✆).
7 8
Definition 2 Cofactor of an element aij , denoted by Aij is defined by
Aij = (–1)i + j Mij , where Mij is minor of aij .

1 –2
Example 20 Find minors and cofactors of all the elements of the determinant
4 3

Solution Minor of the element aij is Mij

Here a11 = 1. So M11 = Minor of a11= 3
M12 = Minor of the element a12 = 4
M21 = Minor of the element a21 = –2
124 MATHEMATICS

M22 = Minor of the element a22 = 1

Now, cofactor of aij is Aij. So
A11 = (–1)1 + 1 M11 = (–1)2 (3) = 3
A12 = (–1)1 + 2 M12 = (–1)3 (4) = – 4
A21 = (–1)2 + 1 M21 = (–1)3 (–2) = 2
A22 = (–1)2 + 2 M22 = (–1)4 (1) = 1
Example 21 Find minors and cofactors of the elements a11, a21 in the determinant

✆ a11
= a21
a31
a12
a22
a32
a23
a13

a33

Solution By definition of minors and cofactors, we have

a22 a23
Minor of a11 = M11 = = a22 a33– a23 a32
a32 a33
Cofactor of a11 = A11 = (–1)1+1 M11 = a22 a33 – a23 a32
a12 a13
Minor of a21 = M21 = = a12 a33 – a13 a32
a32 a33

✆
Cofactor of a21 = A21 = (–1)2+1 M21 = (–1) (a12 a33 – a13 a32) = – a12 a33 + a13 a32
Remark Expanding the determinant , in Example 21, along R1, we have

✆ 1+1
= (–1) a11 a
a22 a23
1+2
a + (–1) a12 a
32 33
a21 a23
1+3
a21 a22
a + (–1) a13 a31 a32
31 33

= a11 A11 + a12 A12 + a13 A13, where Aij is cofactor of aij

✆
= sum of product of elements of R1 with their corresponding cofactors

✆
Similarly, can be calculated by other five ways of expansion that is along R2, R3,
C1, C2 and C3.
Hence = sum of the product of elements of any row (or column) with their
corresponding cofactors.

Note If elements of a row (or column) are multiplied with cofactors of any
other row (or column), then their sum is zero. For example,
 DETERMINANTS 125

✆ = a11 A21 + a12 A22 + a13 A23

a12 a13 a11 a13 a11 a12
= a11 (–1)1+1 + a12 (–1)1+2 + a13 (–1)1+3
a32 a33 a31 a33 a31 a32
a11 a12 a13
= a11 a12 a13 = 0 (since R and R are identical)
1 2
a31 a32 a33
Similarly, we can try for other rows and columns.

Example 22 Find minors and cofactors of the elements of the determinant

2 –3 5
6 0 4 and verify that a11 A31 + a12 A32 + a13 A33= 0
1 5 –7

0 4
Solution We have M11 = = 0 –20 = –20; A11 = (–1)1+1 (–20) = –20
5 –7

6 4
M12 = = – 42 – 4 = – 46; A12 = (–1)1+2 (– 46) = 46
1 –7

6 0
M13 = = 30 – 0 = 30; A13 = (–1)1+3 (30) = 30
1 5

–3 5
M21 = = 21 – 25 = – 4; A21 = (–1)2+1 (– 4) = 4
5 –7

2 5
M22 = = –14 – 5 = –19; A22 = (–1)2+2 (–19) = –19
1 –7

2 –3
M23 = = 10 + 3 = 13; A23 = (–1)2+3 (13) = –13
1 5

–3 5
M31 = = –12 – 0 = –12; A31 = (–1)3+1 (–12) = –12
0 4
126 MATHEMATICS

2 5
M32 = = 8 – 30 = –22; A32 = (–1)3+2 (–22) = 22
6 4
2 –3
and M33 = = 0 + 18 = 18; A33 = (–1)3+3 (18) = 18
6 0
Now a11 = 2, a12 = –3, a13 = 5; A31 = –12, A32 = 22, A33 = 18
So a11 A31 + a12 A32 + a13 A33
= 2 (–12) + (–3) (22) + 5 (18) = –24 – 66 + 90 = 0

EXERCISE 4.4
Write Minors and Cofactors of the elements of following determinants:
2 –4 a c
1. (i) (ii)
0 3 b d

1 0 0 1 0 4
2. (i) 0 1 0 (ii) 3 5 –1
0 0 1 0 1 2

5 3 8
3. Using Cofactors of elements of second row, evaluate ✆ = 2 0 1 .
1 2 3
1 x yz
4. Using Cofactors of elements of third column, evaluate ✆ = 1 y zx .
1 z xy

a11 a12 a13

5. If ✆ = a21 a22 a23 and Aij is Cofactors of aij , then value of ✆ is given by
a31 a32 a33
(A) a11 A31+ a12 A32 + a13 A33 (B) a11 A11+ a12 A21 + a13 A31
(C) a21 A11+ a22 A12 + a23 A13 (D) a11 A11+ a21 A21 + a31 A31
4.6 Adjoint and Inverse of a Matrix
In the previous chapter, we have studied inverse of a matrix. In this section, we shall
discuss the condition for existence of inverse of a matrix.
To find inverse of a matrix A, i.e., A–1 we shall first define adjoint of a matrix.
 DETERMINANTS 127

4.6.1 Adjoint of a matrix

Definition 3 The adjoint of a square matrix A = [aij]n × n is defined as the transpose of
the matrix [Aij]n × n, where Aij is the cofactor of the element aij . Adjoint of the matrix A
is denoted by adj A.

a11 a12 a13 ✁

✂
Let A= a a22 a23 ✄
✂ 21 ✄
✂
☎ a31 a32 a33 ✄✆

A11 A12 A13 ✁ A11 A 21 A 31 ✁

✂
Then adj A = Transpose of A A 22 A 23 ✄ = ✂
A A 22 A 32 ✄
✂ 21 ✄ ✂ 12 ✄
✂☎ A31 A32 A 33 ✄✆ ✂
☎ A13 A 23 A33 ✄✆

✝2 3✞
Example 23 Find adj A for A = ✟
✡1 4✠☛
Solution We have A11 = 4, A12 = –1, A21 = –3, A22 = 2
☞ A11 A 21 ✌ ☞ 4 –3✌
Hence adj A = ✍ =
✏ A12 A 22 ✎✑ ✍✏ –1 2 ✎✑
Remark For a square matrix of order 2, given by
✝ a11 a12 ✞
A= ✟
✡ a21 a22 ✠☛
The adj A can also be obtained by interchanging a11 and a22 and by changing signs
of a12 and a21, i.e.,

We state the following theorem without proof.

Theorem 1 If A be any given square matrix of order n, then

A(adj A) = (adj A) A = ❆ ✒,

where I is the identity matrix of order n

128 MATHEMATICS

Verification

a11 a12 a13 ✁ A11 A 21 A 31 ✁

✂
Let A= a a22 a23 ✄ , then adj A =
✂
A A 22 A32 ✄
✂ 21 ✄ ✂ 12 ✄
✂
☎ a31 a32 a33 ✆✄ ✂ A 33 ✄✆
☎ A13 A 23
Since sum of product of elements of a row (or a column) with corresponding
cofactors is equal to | A | and otherwise zero, we have

✝A 0 0✞ 1 0 0✁
✟ ✠ ✂
A (adj A) = ✟
0 A 0✠ = A 0 1 0✄ = A I
✂ ✄
✟ 0 0 A ✠☛ ✂ 0 1 ✄✆
✡ ☎0

Similarly, we can show (adj A) A = A I

Hence A (adj A) = (adj A) A = A I

Definition 4 A square matrix A is said to be singular if A = 0.

☞ 1 2✌
For example, the determinant of matrix A = ✍ 4 8 ✎ is zero
✏ ✑
Hence A is a singular matrix.
Definition 5 A square matrix A is said to be non-singular if A ✒ 0

☞1 2✌ 1 2
Let A= ✍ . Then A = = 4 – 6 = – 2 ✒ 0.
✏3 4✎✑ 3 4
Hence A is a nonsingular matrix
We state the following theorems without proof.
Theorem 2 If A and B are nonsingular matrices of the same order, then AB and BA
are also nonsingular matrices of the same order.
Theorem 3 The determinant of the product of matrices is equal to product of their
respective determinants, that is, AB = A B , where A and B are square matrices of
the same order
✓ A 0 0 ✔
✕ ✖
Remark We know that (adj A) A = A I = ✕
0 A 0 ✖
✕ 0 0 A ✖✘
✗
 DETERMINANTS 129

Writing determinants of matrices on both sides, we have

A 0 0
(adj A) A = 0 A 0
0 0 A

1 0 0
3
i.e. |(adj A)| |A| = A 0 1 0 (Why?)
0 0 1
i.e. |(adj A)| |A| = | A |3 (1)
i.e. |(adj A)| = | A | 2
In general, if A is a square matrix of order n, then | adj (A) | = | A |n – 1.
Theorem 4 A square matrix A is invertible if and only if A is nonsingular matrix.
Proof Let A be invertible matrix of order n and I be the identity matrix of order n.
Then, there exists a square matrix B of order n such that AB = BA = I
Now AB = I. So AB = I or A B =1 (since I 1, AB A B)

This gives A ✂ 0. Hence A is nonsingular.

Conversely, let A be nonsingular. Then A ✂ 0

Now A (adj A) = (adj A) A = A I (Theorem 1)

✁ 1 adj A ✄ ☎ ✁ 1 adj A ✄ A ☎ I
or A✆ ✝ ✆ |A| ✝
✞|A| ✟ ✞ ✟
1
or AB = BA = I, where B = adj A
|A|
1
Thus A is invertible and A–1 = adj A
|A|

✠1 3 3✡
☛ ☞
Example 24 If A = ☛1 4 3☞ , then verify that A adj A = | A | I. Also find A–1.
☛✌1 3 4☞✍
Solution We have A = 1 (16 – 9) –3 (4 – 3) + 3 (3 – 4) = 1 ✂ 0
130 MATHEMATICS

Now A11 = 7, A12 = –1, A13 = –1, A21 = –3, A22 = 1,A23 = 0, A31 = –3, A32 = 0,
A33 = 1
✁ 7 3 3✂
✄ 0 ☎☎
Therefore adj A = ✄ 1 1
✄✆ 1 0 1 ☎✝

✟1 3 3✠ ✟ 7 ✞3 ✞3✠
✡ ☛✡ ☛
Now A (adj A) = ✡1 4 3☛ ✡ ✞1 1 0 ☛
✡☞1 3 4☛✌ ✡☞ ✞1 0 1 ☛✌

✟ 7 ✞ 3 ✞ 3 ✞3 ✍ 3 ✍ 0 ✞3 ✍ 0 ✍ 3✠
✡ ☛
= ✡7 ✞ 4 ✞ 3 ✞3 ✍ 4 ✍ 0 ✞3 ✍ 0 ✍ 3☛
☞✡7 ✞ 3 ✞ 4 ✞3 ✍ 3 ✍ 0 ✞3 ✍ 0 ✍ 4✌☛
✁ 1 0 0✂ ✁ 1 0 0✂
✄ ☎ ✄ 0 1 0☎
= ✄ 0 1 0☎ = (1) ✄ ☎ = A .I
✄✆ 0 0 1☎✝ ✄✆0 0 1☎✝

✟ 7 ✞3 ✞3✠ ✟ 7 ✞3 ✞3✠
✎1 1 1✡ ☛ ✡ ☛
Also A ✏ adj A = ✡ ✞1 1 0 ☛ = ✡ ✞1 1 0 ☛
A 1
✡☞ ✞1 0 1☛✌ ✡☞ ✞1 0 1☛✌

✒2 3 ✓ ✒ 1 ✑ 2✓
Example 25 If A = ✕ ✖ and B ✔ ✕ ✖ , then verify that (AB)–1 = B–1A–1.
✗ 1 ✑ 4✘ ✗ ✑1 3 ✘
✒ 2 3✓ ✒ 1 ✑ 2✓ ✒ ✑1 5 ✓
Solution We have AB = ✕ ✖ ✕ ✑ 1 3 ✖ ✔ ✕ 5 ✑14✖
✗ 1 ✑ 4✘ ✗ ✘ ✗ ✘
Since, AB = –11 ✙ 0, (AB)–1 exists and is given by

1 1 ✛ ✚14 ✚5✜ ✩ 1 ✧14 5★

adj (AB) ✢ ✚ ✣
(AB)–1 =
AB 11 ✥ ✚5 ✚1✤✦ 11 ✪✬ 5 1✫✭

Further, A = –11 ✙ 0 and B = 1 ✙ 0. Therefore, A–1 and B–1 both exist and are given by

1 ✒ ✑ 4 ✑ 3✓ ✮1 ✒3 2✓
A–1 = ✑ ,B ✔ ✕
11 ✕✗ ✑ 1 2 ✖✘ ✖
✗ 1 1✘
 DETERMINANTS 131

1 ✂ 3 2✄ ✂✁ 4 ✁ 3✄ 1 ✂ ✁14 ✁5✄ 1 ✂14 5✄

Therefore B 1A 1 ☎ ✁ ☎ ✁ ☎
11 ✆✞ 1 1 ✝✟ ✆
✞
✁ 1 2 ✝✟ 11 ✆✞ ✁5 ✁1
✝
✟ 11 ✆✞ 5 1✝✟
Hence (AB)–1 = B–1 A–1

2 3✡ ✠

Example 26 Show that the matrix A = satisfies the equation A2 – 4A + I = O,

☛
✌
1 2☞✍
where I is 2 × 2 identity matrix and O is 2 × 2 zero matrix. Using this equation, find A–1.
✠ 2 3✡ ✠ 2 3✡ ✠ 7 12 ✡
Solution We have A 2 ✎ A.A ✎ ☛
✎

✌
1 2 ☞✍ ☛✌ 1 2 ☞✍ ☛
✌
4 7 ☞✍

✠ 7 12✡ ✠ 8 12 ✡ ✠ 1 0 ✡ ✠ 0 0✡
Hence A 2 ✏ 4A ✑ I ✎ ☛
✏ ✑ ✎ ✎ O
✌
4 7 ☞✍ ☛
✌
4 8 ☞✍ ☛✌ 0 1 ☞✍ ☛
✌
0 0 ☞✍
Now A2 – 4A + I = O
Therefore A A – 4A = – I
or A A (A–1) – 4 A A–1 = – I A–1 (Post multiplying by A–1 because |A| ✒ 0)
or A (A A–1) – 4I = – A–1
or AI – 4I = – A–1
✠ 4 0 ✡ ✠ 2 3✡ ✠ 2 ✏3✡
or A–1 = 4I – A = ☛
✏ ✎

✌
0 4 ☞✍ ☛✌ 1 2 ☞✍ ☛
✌
✏1 2 ☞✍

✠ 2 ✏ 3✡
Hence A ✓1 ✎ ☛
✌
✏1 2 ☞✍

EXERCISE 4.5
Find adjoint of each of the matrices in Exercises 1 and 2.
✕ 1 ✔ 1 2✖
✂1 2✄ ✗
1. ✆ 2. 2 3 5✘
✞
3 4✝✟ ✗ ✘

✗✔
✙
2 0 1 ✘✚
Verify A (adj A) = (adj A) A = | A | I in Exercises 3 and 4
✕ 1 ✔ 1 2✖
✂2 3✄ ✗
3 0 2✘
✔
3. ✆ ✝ 4. ✗ ✘
✁4 ✁6
✞ ✟
✗
✙
1 0 3 ✘✚
132 MATHEMATICS

Find the inverse of each of the matrices (if it exists) given in Exercises 5 to 11.

✞ 1 2 3✟
✁2 2✂ ✁ 1 5✂ ✠ ✡
5. ✄ 7. ✠ 0 2 4✡
3 ☎✝
6. ✄ ☎
✆4 ✆ 3 2✝ ✠☛ 0 0 5✡☞
✞1 0 0 ✟ ✞ 2 1 3✟ ✞ 1 ✌1 2 ✟
✠ ✡ ✠ ✡ ✠ ✡
8. ✠ 3 3 0 ✡ 9. ✠ 4 ✌1 0✡ 10. ✠ 0 2 ✌3✡
✠☛ 5 2 ✌1✡☞ ✠☛ ✌7 2 1✡☞ ✠☛ 3 ✌2 4 ✡☞

✍1 0 0 ✎
✏ 0 cos ✒ sin ✒ ✑
11. ✏ ✑
✏✔ 0 sin ✒ ✓ cos ✒ ✑✕
✖ 3 7✗ ✖ 6 8✗
12. Let A = ✘ ✙ and B = ✘ 7 9✙ . Verify that (AB)–1 = B–1 A–1.
✚ 2 5✛ ✚ ✛
✖ 3 1✗
13. If A = ✘ ✙ , show that A2 – 5A + 7I = O. Hence find A–1.
✚ ✜1 2✛
✖3 2✗
14. For the matrix A = ✘ ✙ , find the numbers a and b such that A2 + aA + bI = O.
✚ 1 1✛
✞1 1 1 ✟
15. For the matrix A = ✠✠ 1 2 ✌3✡✡
☛✠ 2 ✌1 3 ✡☞
Show that A3– 6A2 + 5A + 11 I = O. Hence, find A–1.
✞ 2 ✌1 1 ✟
✠ ✡
16. If A = ✠ ✌1 2 ✌1✡
☛✠ 1 ✌ 1 2 ✡☞
Verify that A3 – 6A2 + 9A – 4I = O and hence find A–1
17. Let A be a nonsingular square matrix of order 3 × 3. Then | adj A | is equal to
(A) | A | (B) | A | 2 (C) | A | 3 (D) 3 | A |
–1
18. If A is an invertible matrix of order 2, then det (A ) is equal to
1
(A) det (A) (B) det (A) (C) 1 (D) 0
 DETERMINANTS 133

4.7 Applications of Determinants and Matrices

In this section, we shall discuss application of determinants and matrices for solving the
system of linear equations in two or three variables and for checking the consistency of
the system of linear equations.
Consistent system A system of equations is said to be consistent if its solution (one
or more) exists.
Inconsistent system A system of equations is said to be inconsistent if its solution
does not exist.

Note In this chapter, we restrict ourselves to the system of linear equations

having unique solutions only.
4.7.1 Solution of system of linear equations using inverse of a matrix
Let us express the system of linear equations as matrix equations and solve them using
inverse of the coefficient matrix.
Consider the system of equations
a 1 x + b 1 y + c 1 z = d1
a2 x + b2 y + c 2 z = d 2

✄✄✁ ☎☎✂ ✆ ✄✄✁ ☎☎✂ ✆ ✝✄✄✄✁ ☎☎☎✂✞

a3 x + b3 y + c 3 z = d 3
a1 b1 c1 x d1
Let A = a2
a3 ✝✄ b2
b3
c2 , X
c3 ☎✞ ✝✄ ☎✞y and B
z
d2
d3

✄✄✁ ✂☎ ✄✁ ☎✂ ✁✄ ✂☎
Then, the system of equations can be written as, AX = B, i.e.,

☎☎✞ ✝✄✄ ☎☎✞ ✝✄✄ ☎☎✞

a1 b1 c1 x d1

✝✄ a2
a3
b2
b3
c2
c3
y = d2
z d3
Case I If A is a nonsingular matrix, then its inverse exists. Now
AX = B
or A–1 (AX) = A–1 B (premultiplying by A–1)
or (A–1A) X = A–1 B (by associative property)
or I X = A–1 B
or X = A–1 B
This matrix equation provides unique solution for the given system of equations as
inverse of a matrix is unique. This method of solving system of equations is known as
Matrix Method.
134 MATHEMATICS

Case II If A is a singular matrix, then | A | = 0.

In this case, we calculate (adj A) B.
If (adj A) B ✂ O, (O being zero matrix), then solution does not exist and the
system of equations is called inconsistent.
If (adj A) B = O, then system may be either consistent or inconsistent according
as the system have either infinitely many solutions or no solution.
Example 27 Solve the system of equations
2x + 5y = 1
3x + 2y = 7
Solution The system of equations can be written in the form AX = B, where
2 5✁ x✁ 1✁
A= ☎ ✆ , X ✄ ☎ ✆ and B ✄ ☎ ✆
✝32✞ ✝ y✞ ✝7 ✞

Now, A = –11 ✂ 0, Hence, A is nonsingular matrix and so has a unique solution.

1 2 ✟5✁
Note that A–1 = ✟
11 ☎✝ ✟3 2 ✆✞
1 2 ✟ 5✁ 1✁
Therefore X = A–1B = –
11 ☎✝✟ 3 2 ✆✞ ☎✝7✆✞
x✁ 1 ✡ ✠33☛ ✡ 3 ☛
i.e. ☎ ✆ = ✠ ☞
✝ y✞ 11 ✌✎ 11 ✍✏ ✌✎ ✠1✍✏
Hence x = 3, y = – 1
Example 28 Solve the following system of equations by matrix method.
3x – 2y + 3z = 8
2x + y – z = 1
4x – 3y + 2z = 4
Solution The system of equations can be written in the form AX = B, where

✒3 ✑2 3✓ ✒ x✓ ✒ 8✓
A ✖ ✔2 1 ✕
✑1 , X ✔ ✕
✖ y and B ✖ ✔ 1✕
✔ ✕ ✔ ✕ ✔ ✕
✔4
✗ ✑3 2 ✘✕ ✔ z✘
✗ ✕ ✔ 4✘
✗ ✕

We see that
A = 3 (2 – 3) + 2(4 + 4) + 3 (– 6 – 4) = – 17 ✂ 0
 DETERMINANTS 135

Hence, A is nonsingular and so its inverse exists. Now

A11 = –1, A12 = – 8, A13 = –10
A21 = –5, A22 = – 6, A23 = 1
A31 = –1, A32 = 9, A33 = 7

✁ 1 5 1✂
1 ✄
Therefore –1
A = 8 6 9☎
17 ✄ ☎
✆✄ 10 1 7 ✝☎

✟ ✞1 ✞ 5 ✞1✠ ✟ 8 ✠
1 ✡ ☛✡ ☛
X = A B = ✞ ✡ ✞8 ✞ 6 9 ☛ ✡ 1 ☛
–1
So
17
✡☞ ✞10 1 7 ☛✌ ✡☞ 4☛✌

✁ x✂ ✁ 17✂ ✁1✂
✄ y☎ 1 ✄
34☎ ✍ ✄2☎
i.e. ✄ ☎ = ✄ ☎ ✄ ☎
17
✄✆ z ☎✝ ✄✆ 51☎✝ ✄✆3☎✝
Hence x = 1, y = 2 and z = 3.
Example 29 The sum of three numbers is 6. If we multiply third number by 3 and add
second number to it, we get 11. By adding first and third numbers, we get double of the
second number. Represent it algebraically and find the numbers using matrix method.
Solution Let first, second and third numbers be denoted by x, y and z, respectively.
Then, according to given conditions, we have
x+y+z=6
y + 3z = 11
x + z = 2y or x – 2y + z = 0
This system can be written as A X = B, where
✎ 1 1 1✏ ✎ x✏ ✎6✏
✑ ✒
A = ✑ 0 1 3✒ , X =
✑ y ✒ and B = ✑11✒
✑ ✒ ✑ ✒
✓✑ 1 –2 1✒✔ ✓✑ z ✔✒ ✓✑ 0 ✔✒
Here A ✗ 1 ✕1 ✘ 6✖ – (0 – 3) ✘ ✕ 0 – 1✖ ✗ 9 ✙ 0 . Now we find adj A
A11 = 1 (1 + 6) = 7, A12 = – (0 – 3) = 3, A13 = – 1
A21 = – (1 + 2) = – 3, A22 = 0, A23 = – (– 2 – 1) = 3
A31 = (3 – 1) = 2, A32 = – (3 – 0) = – 3, A33 = (1 – 0) = 1
136 MATHEMATICS

7 –3 2 ✁
✂
Hence adj A = 3 0 –3✄
✂ ✄
✂
☎ –1 3 1 ✄✆

7 –3 2 ✁
1 1✂ ✄
Thus A –1
= adj (A) = ✂ 3 0 –3✄
A 9
✂
☎ –1 3 1 ✄✆
Since X = A–1 B
✝7 –3 2 ✞ ✝ 6 ✞
1✟ ✠✟ ✠
X = ✟ 3 0 –3✠ ✟11✠
9
✟
✡ –1 3 1 ✠☛ ✟✡ 0 ✠☛

☞ x✌ ☞ 42 ✒ 33 ✓ 0 ✌ ☞9✌ ☞1✌
✍ ✎ ✍
y 1 18 ✓ 0 ✓ 0✎ 1 ✍ ✎
18 ✍ ✎
2
or ✍ ✎ = ✍ ✎ = ✍ ✎ = ✍ ✎
9 ✍ 9
✍
✏z✎ ✑ ✏ ✒6 ✓ 33 ✓ 0✎✑ ✍
✏ 27 ✎
✑ ✍
✏ 3✎
✑
Thus x = 1, y = 2, z = 3

EXERCISE 4.6
Examine the consistency of the system of equations in Exercises 1 to 6.
1. x + 2y = 2 2. 2x – y = 5 3. x + 3y = 5
2x + 3y = 3 x+y=4 2x + 6y = 8
4. x + y + z = 1 5. 3x–y – 2z = 2 6. 5x – y + 4z = 5
2x + 3y + 2z = 2 2y – z = –1 2x + 3y + 5z = 2
ax + ay + 2az = 4 3x – 5y = 3 5x – 2y + 6z = –1
Solve system of linear equations, using matrix method, in Exercises 7 to 14.
7. 5x + 2y = 4 8. 2x – y = –2 9. 4x – 3y = 3
7x + 3y = 5 3x + 4y = 3 3x – 5y = 7
10. 5x + 2y = 3 11. 2x + y + z = 1 12. x – y + z = 4
3
3x + 2y = 5 x – 2y – z = 2x + y – 3z = 0
2
3y – 5z = 9 x+y+z=2
13. 2x + 3y +3 z = 5 14. x – y + 2z = 7
x – 2y + z = – 4 3x + 4y – 5z = – 5
3x – y – 2z = 3 2x – y + 3z = 12
 DETERMINANTS 137

2 –3 5✁
✂
15. If A = ✂
3 2 – 4✄✄ , find A –1. Using A–1 solve the system of equations
✂
☎1 1 –2 ✄✆

2x – 3y + 5z = 11
3x + 2y – 4z = – 5
x + y – 2z = – 3
16. The cost of 4 kg onion, 3 kg wheat and 2 kg rice is Rs 60. The cost of 2 kg onion,
4 kg wheat and 6 kg rice is Rs 90. The cost of 6 kg onion 2 kg wheat and 3 kg
rice is Rs 70. Find cost of each item per kg by matrix method.

Miscellaneous Examples
Example 30 If a, b, c are positive and unequal, show that value of the determinant
a b c
✝ = b c a is negative.
c a b
Solution Applying C1 ✞ C1 + C2 + C3 to the given determinant, we get
a✟b✟c b c 1 b c
✝ = a ✟ b ✟ c c a = (a + b + c) 1 c a
a✟b✟c a b 1 a b

1 b c
= (a + b + c) 0 c – b a – c (Applying R2✞ R2–R1,and R3✞ R3 –R1)
0 a–b b–c
= (a + b + c) [(c – b) (b – c) – (a – c) (a – b)] (Expanding along C1)
= (a + b + c)(– a2 – b2 – c2 + ab + bc + ca)
–1
= (a + b + c) (2a2 + 2b2 + 2c2 – 2ab – 2bc – 2ca)
2

–1
= (a + b + c) [(a – b)2 + (b – c)2 + (c – a)2]
2
which is negative (since a + b + c > 0 and (a – b)2 + (b – c)2 + (c – a)2 > 0)
138 MATHEMATICS

Example 31 If a, b, c, are in A.P, find value of

2y 4 5y 7 8y a
3y 5 6 y 8 9 y b
4 y 6 7 y 9 10 y c

Solution Applying R1 ✄ R1 + R3 – 2R2 to the given determinant, we obtain

0 0 0
3y ✁ 5 6 y ✁ 8 9 y ✁ b = 0 (Since 2b = a + c)
4 y ✁ 6 7 y ✁ 9 10 y ✁ c
Example 32 Show that

✂ y✝ z ☎
2
xy zx
✂ x✝ z ☎
2
✆= xy yz = 2xyz (x + y + z)3
✂ x✝ y☎
2
xz yz

Solution Applying R1 ✄ xR1, R2 ✄ yR2 , R3 ✄ z R3 to ✆ and dividing by xyz, we get

x✞ y✝ z✟
2
x2 y x2 z
1
y ✞ x✝ z ✟
2
✆= xy 2 y2 z
xyz
z ✞ x✝ y ✟
2
xz 2 yz 2

Taking common factors x, y, z from C1 C2 and C3, respectively, we get

✠ y ✝ z✡
2
x2 x2
xyz
✠ x✝ z✡
2

✆= y2 y2
xyz
✠ x✝ y✡
2
z2 z2

Applying C2 ✄ C2– C1, C3 ✄ C3– C1, we have

☛ y ✌ z☞ x2 – ☛ y ✌ z ☞ x2 ✍ ☛ y ✌ z ☞
2 2 2

☛ x ✌ z☞ ✍ y
2
✆= y2 2
0
☛ x ✌ y☞ – z
2 2 2
z 0
 DETERMINANTS 139

Taking common factor (x + y + z) from C2 and C3, we have

2
y ✂ z✁ x – y ✂ z✁ x – y✂ z✁
✆ = (x + y + z) 2 y2 x✂ z✁ – y 0
z2 0 x ✂ y✁ – z

Applying R1 ✄ R1 – (R2 + R3), we have

2 yz –2z –2y
✆ = (x + y + z) 2 y2 x☎ y+z 0
z2 0 x✝ y – z

1 ✞ 1 ✟
Applying C2 ✄ (C2 + C ) and C3 ✠ ☛ C3 ✡ C1 ☞ , we get
y 1 ✌ z ✍

2 yz 0 0
y2
✆ = (x + y + z)2 y2 x✎ z
z
z2
z2 x✎ y
y
Finally expanding along R1, we have
2 2 2
✆ = (x + y + z) (2yz) [(x + z) (x + y) – yz] = (x + y + z) (2yz) (x + xy + xz)
3
= (x + y + z) (2xyz)

✏1 –1 2✑ ✏ –2 0 1✑
✒
Example 33 Use product ✒
0 2 –3✓✓ ✒
✒
9 2 –3✓✓ to solve the system of equations
✔3
✒ –2 4 ✓✕ ✔ 6
✒ 1 –2✓✕
x – y + 2z = 1
2y – 3z = 1
3x – 2y + 4z = 2
✖1 –1 2✗ ✖ –2 0 1 ✗
✘
Solution Consider the product 0 2 –3✙ ✘
9 2 –3✙
✘ ✙ ✘ ✙
✚3
✘ –2 4 ✛ ✚ 6
✙ ✘ 1 – 2 ✙✛
140 MATHEMATICS

✂ 2 9 ✁ 12 0 2 ✁ 2 1 ✁ 3 4✄ ✟ 1 0 0✠
☎ ✆ ✡ ☛
= ☎ 0 ✁ 18 18 0 ✁ 4 3 0 6 ✁ 6✆ = ✡ 0 1 0☛
☎✝ 6 18 ✁ 24 0 4 ✁ 4 3 ✁ 6 8✆✞ ☞✡ 0 0 1✌☛

✍ 1 –1 2 ✎ ✍ –2 0 1 ✎
–1

Hence ✏ 0 2 –3✑ ✒ ✏ 9 2 –3✑

✏ ✑ ✏ ✑
✏✓ 3 –2 4 ✑✔ ✏✓ 6 1 –2✑✔
Now, given system of equations can be written, in matrix form, as follows
✍ 1 –1 2 ✎ ✍ x ✎ ✟ 1 ✠
✏ 0 2 –3✑ ✏ y ✑ ✡ 1 ☛
✏ ✑ ✏ ✑ = ✡ ☛
✏✓ 3 –2 4 ✑✔ ✏✓ z ✑✔ ✡☞ 2☛✌

✕1
✟ x ✠ ✗ 1 ✖1 2 ✘ ✗ 1 ✘ ✢ –2 0 1 ✣ ✢ 1✣
or
✡ y ☛ = ✙ 0 2 ✖3✚ ✙ 1 ✚ = ✤ 9 2 –3✥ ✤ 1✥
✡ ☛ ✙ ✚ ✙ ✚ ✤ ✥ ✤ ✥
✡☞ z ☛✌ ✙✛ 3 ✖2 4 ✚✜ ✙✛ 2 ✜✚ ✤✦ 6 1 –2✥✧ ✤✦ 2✥✧

✂ 2 ✁ 0 ✁ 2✄ ✂ 0 ✄
☎ ✆ ☎ ✆
= ☎ 9 ✁ 2 6 ✆ ★ ☎ 5✆
☎✝ 6 ✁ 1 4 ✆✞ ☎✝ 3✆✞
Hence x = 0, y = 5 and z = 3
Example 34 Prove that
a ✪ bx c ✪ dx p ✪ qx a c p
✩ = ax ✪ b cx ✪ d px ✪ q ✫ (1 ✬ x ) b d2
q
u v w u v w

Solution Applying R1 ✭ R1 – x R2 to ✩, we get

a (1 ✮ x 2 ) c (1 ✮ x 2 ) p (1 ✮ x 2 )
✩= ax ✯ b cx ✯ d px ✯ q
u v w

a c p
= (1 ✰ x ) ax ✱ b cx ✱ d px ✱ q
2

u v w
 DETERMINANTS 141

Applying R2 ✄ R2 – x R1, we get

a c p
✆ = (1 x ) b d q
2

u v w

Miscellaneous Exercises on Chapter 4

x sin ✁ cos ✁
1. Prove that the determinant – sin ✁ – x 1 is independent of ☞.
cos ✁ 1 x
a a2 bc 1 a2 a3
2. Without expanding the determinant, prove that b b
2
ca ✂ 1 b 2 b3 .
c c2 ab 1 c2 c3

cos ☎ cos ✝ cos ☎ sin ✝ – sin ☎

3. Evaluate – sin ✝ cos ✝ 0 .
sin ☎ cos ✝ sin ☎ sin ✝ cos ☎
4. If a, b and c are real numbers, and

b✞ c c✞ a a✞b
✆ = c ✞ a a ✞ b b ✞ c = 0,
a✞ b b✞ c c✞ a
Show that either a + b + c = 0 or a = b = c.
x✟a x x
5. Solve the equation x x✟ a x ✠ 0, a✡ 0
x x x✟a
a2 bc ac☛ c 2
6. Prove that a ☛ ab
2
b2 ac = 4a2b2c2
ab b ☛ bc
2
c 2

✎ 3 –1 1 ✏ ✎ 1 2 –2✏
✑ ✒ ✑ ✒
7. If A–1 = ✑ –15 6 –5✒ and B ✓ ✑ –1 3 0 ✒ , find ✌ AB ✍
–1

✔✑ 5 –2 2 ✒✕ ✔✑ 0 –2 1 ✕✒
142 MATHEMATICS

1 –2 1✁
✂
8. Let A = ✂
–2 3 1✄✄ . Verify that
✂☎ 1 1 5✆✄
(i) [adj A] = adj (A–1) –1
(ii) (A–1)–1 = A
x y x✝ y
9. Evaluate y x✝ y x
x✝ y x y

1 x y
10. Evaluate 1 x ✝ y y
1 x x+ y
Using properties of determinants in Exercises 11 to 15, prove that:

✞ ✞
2
✟✠✡
2
11. ✟ ✟ ✡✠✞ = (☛ – ✌) (✌ – ☞) (☞ – ☛) (☞ + ☛ + ✌)
2
✡ ✡ ✞ ✠✟

x x 2 1 ✍ px 3
12. y y 2 1 ✍ py 3 = (1 + pxyz) (x – y) (y – z) (z – x), where p is any scalar.
z z2 1 ✍ pz 3

3a – a+ b – a+ c
13. –b✠ a 3b – b ✠ c = 3(a + b + c) (ab + bc + ca)
– c✠ a – c+ b 3c

1 1✝ p 1✝ p✝ q sin ✑ cos ✑ cos ✎ ✑ ✒ ✓ ✏

14. 2 3✝ 2 p 4✝ 3 p✝ 2q = 1 15. sin ✔ cos ✔ cos ✎ ✔ ✒ ✓ ✏ ✕0
3 6 ✝ 3 p 10 ✝ 6 p ✝ 3 q sin ✖ cos ✖ cos ✎ ✖ ✒ ✓ ✏

16. Solve the system of equations

2 3 10
✗ ✗ ✘ 4
x y z
 DETERMINANTS 143

4 6 5
– ✁1
x y z

6 9 20
– ✁2
x y z
Choose the correct answer in Exercise 17 to 19.
17. If a, b, c, are in A.P, then the determinant

x ✂ 2 x ✂ 3 x ✂ 2a
x ✂ 3 x ✂ 4 x ✂ 2b is
x ✂ 4 x ✂ 5 x ✂ 2c

(A) 0 (B) 1 (C) x (D) 2x

✄ x 0 0☎
18. If x, y, z are nonzero real numbers, then the inverse of matrix A ✞ ✆✆ 0 y 0✝✝ is
✆✟ 0 0 z ✝✠

☛ x ✡1 0 0☞ ☛ x✡ 1 0 0 ☞
✌ ✍ ✌ ✍
(A) ✌ 0 y ✡1 0✍ (B) xyz ✌ 0 y ✡1 0 ✍
✌ ✍ ✌ ✍
✎ 0 0 z ✡1 ✏ ✎ 0 0 z ✡1 ✏

✑ x 0 0✒ ✄ 1 0 0☎
1 ✓
0 y 0✔
1 ✆
(C) (D) 0 1 0✝✝
xyz ✓ ✔ xyz ✆
✕✓ 0 0 z ✖✔ ✆✟ 0 0 1✝✠

✑ 1 sin ✗ 1 ✒
✓ ✘ sin ✗ 1 sin ✗ ✔ , where 0 ✙ ✚ ✙ 2✛. Then
19. Let A = ✓ ✔
✕✓ ✘1 ✘ sin ✗ 1 ✖✔
(A) Det (A) = 0 (B) Det (A) ✜ (2, ✢)
(C) Det (A) ✜ (2, 4) (D) Det (A) ✜ [2, 4]
144 MATHEMATICS

Summary
Determinant of a matrix A = [a11]1× 1 is given by | a11| = a11

✄ ✁☎aa 11 a12 ✂
✆✞
✝
Determinant of a matrix A is given by
21 a22

A ✄ aa 11 a12
a22 = a11 a22 – a12 a21
21

✟a ✠☛
☞ ✡✡ a
1 b1 c1
Determinant of a matrix A
✡✌ a
2 b2
☛☛
c2 is given by (expanding along R1)
3 b3 c3 ✍
a1 b1 c1
A ✎ a2 b2 c2 ✎a 1
b2
b3
c2
c3
✏b 1
a2
a3
c2
c3
✑c
1
a2
a3
b2
b3
a3 b3 c3
For any square matrix A, the |A| satisfy following properties.
✒ ✒
|A | = |A|, where A = transpose of A.
If we interchange any two rows (or columns), then sign of determinant
changes.
If any two rows or any two columns are identical or proportional, then value
of determinant is zero.
If we multiply each element of a row or a column of a determinant by constant
k, then value of determinant is multiplied by k.
Multiplying a determinant by k means multiply elements of only one row
(or one column) by k.
✔ ✓
If A [aij ]3 3 , then k .A k 3 A ✔
If elements of a row or a column in a determinant can be expressed as sum
of two or more elements, then the given determinant can be expressed as
sum of two or more determinants.
If to each element of a row or a column of a determinant the equimultiples of
corresponding elements of other rows or columns are added, then value of
determinant remains same.
 DETERMINANTS 145

Area of a triangle with vertices (x1, y1), (x2, y2) and (x3, y3) is given by
x1 y1 1
✁✂ 1
2
x2 y2 1
x3 y3 1
Minor of an element aij of the determinant of matrix A is the determinant
obtained by deleting ith row and jth column and denoted by Mij.
Cofactor of aij of given by Aij = (– 1)i + j Mij
Value of determinant of a matrix A is obtained by sum of product of elements
of a row (or a column) with corresponding cofactors. For example,
A = a11 A11 + a12 A12 + a13 A13.
If elements of one row (or column) are multiplied with cofactors of elements
of any other row (or column), then their sum is zero. For example, a11 A21 + a12
A22 + a13 A23 = 0
✄a ☎ ✄A ☎
A ✞ ✆a ✝✝
a12 a13
✞ ✆✆A ✝✝
11 11 A 21 A31
If ✆✆ a22 a23 , then adj A
✝✠
A 22 A32 , where A ij is
✟✆A ✝✠
21

✟a
12

31 a32 a33 13 A 23 A33

cofactor of aij
A (adj A) = (adj A) A = | A | I, where A is square matrix of order n.

✡
A square matrix A is said to be singular or non-singular according as
| A | = 0 or | A | 0.
If AB = BA = I, where B is square matrix, then B is called inverse of A.
Also A–1 = B or B–1 = A and hence (A–1)–1 = A.
A square matrix A has inverse if and only if A is non-singular.

A –1 ☛ A1 (adj A)
If a1 x + b1 y + c1 z = d1
a2 x + b2 y + c2 z = d2
a3 x + b3 y + c3 z = d3,
then these equations can be written as A X = B, where
☞✍ a b1 c1 ✌✎ ☞✍ x ✌✎ ☞✍ d ✌✎
A ✂ ✍a
1 1
b2 c ✎ , X = ✍ y ✎ and B= ✍ d ✎
✍✏ a c ✑✎ ✍✏ z ✑✎ ✍✏ d ✑✎
2 2 2

3 b3 3 3
146 MATHEMATICS

Unique solution of equation AX = B is given by X = A–1 B, where A 0 . ✁

A system of equation is consistent or inconsistent according as its solution
exists or not.
For a square matrix A in matrix equation AX = B
✂
(i) | A | 0, there exists unique solution
✂
(ii) | A | = 0 and (adj A) B 0, then there exists no solution
(iii) | A | = 0 and (adj A) B = 0, then system may or may not be consistent.

Historical Note
The Chinese method of representing the coefficients of the unknowns of
several linear equations by using rods on a calculating board naturally led to the
discovery of simple method of elimination. The arrangement of rods was precisely
that of the numbers in a determinant. The Chinese, therefore, early developed the
idea of subtracting columns and rows as in simplification of a determinant
‘Mikami, China, pp 30, 93.
Seki Kowa, the greatest of the Japanese Mathematicians of seventeenth
century in his work ‘Kai Fukudai no Ho’ in 1683 showed that he had the idea of
determinants and of their expansion. But he used this device only in eliminating a
quantity from two equations and not directly in the solution of a set of simultaneous
linear equations. ‘T. Hayashi, “The Fakudoi and Determinants in Japanese
Mathematics,” in the proc. of the Tokyo Math. Soc., V.
Vendermonde was the first to recognise determinants as independent functions.
He may be called the formal founder. Laplace (1772), gave general method of
expanding a determinant in terms of its complementary minors. In 1773 Lagrange
treated determinants of the second and third orders and used them for purpose
other than the solution of equations. In 1801, Gauss used determinants in his
theory of numbers.
The next great contributor was Jacques - Philippe - Marie Binet, (1812) who
stated the theorem relating to the product of two matrices of m-columns and n-
rows, which for the special case of m = n reduces to the multiplication theorem.
Also on the same day, Cauchy (1812) presented one on the same subject. He
used the word ‘determinant’ in its present sense. He gave the proof of multiplication
theorem more satisfactory than Binet’s.
The greatest contributor to the theory was Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi, after
this the word determinant received its final acceptance.
 Chapter 5
CONTINUITY AND
DIFFERENTIABILITY
The whole of science is nothing more than a refinement
of everyday thinking.” — ALBERT EINSTEIN

5.1 Introduction
This chapter is essentially a continuation of our study of
differentiation of functions in Class XI. We had learnt to
differentiate certain functions like polynomial functions and
trigonometric functions. In this chapter, we introduce the
very important concepts of continuity, differentiability and
relations between them. We will also learn differentiation
of inverse trigonometric functions. Further, we introduce a
new class of functions called exponential and logarithmic
functions. These functions lead to powerful techniques of
differentiation. We illustrate certain geometrically obvious
conditions through differential calculus. In the process, we
will learn some fundamental theorems in this area.
Sir Issac Newton
5.2 Continuity (1642-1727)
We start the section with two informal examples to get a feel of continuity. Consider
the function

f ( x) ✄ ✂☎✝1,2,ifif xx✁✆00
This function is of course defined at every
point of the real line. Graph of this function is
given in the Fig 5.1. One can deduce from the
graph that the value of the function at nearby
points on x-axis remain close to each other
except at x = 0. At the points near and to the
left of 0, i.e., at points like – 0.1, – 0.01, – 0.001,
the value of the function is 1. At the points near
and to the right of 0, i.e., at points like 0.1, 0.01, Fig 5.1
148 MATHEMATICS

0.001, the value of the function is 2. Using the language of left and right hand limits, we
may say that the left (respectively right) hand limit of f at 0 is 1 (respectively 2). In
particular the left and right hand limits do not coincide. We also observe that the value
of the function at x = 0 concides with the left hand limit. Note that when we try to draw
the graph, we cannot draw it in one stroke, i.e., without lifting pen from the plane of the
paper, we can not draw the graph of this function. In fact, we need to lift the pen when
we come to 0 from left. This is one instance of function being not continuous at x = 0.
Now, consider the function defined as
✁1, if x 0
f ( x) ✂ ✄
☎ 2, if x ✂ 0
This function is also defined at every point. Left and the right hand limits at x = 0
are both equal to 1. But the value of the
function at x = 0 equals 2 which does not
coincide with the common value of the left
and right hand limits. Again, we note that we
cannot draw the graph of the function without
lifting the pen. This is yet another instance of
a function being not continuous at x = 0.
Naively, we may say that a function is
continuous at a fixed point if we can draw the
graph of the function around that point without
Fig 5.2
lifting the pen from the plane of the paper.
Mathematically, it may be phrased precisely as follows:
Definition 1 Suppose f is a real function on a subset of the real numbers and let c be
a point in the domain of f. Then f is continuous at c if
lim f ( x) ✝ f (c)
x ✆c
More elaborately, if the left hand limit, right hand limit and the value of the function
at x = c exist and equal to each other, then f is said to be continuous at x = c. Recall that
if the right hand and left hand limits at x = c coincide, then we say that the common
value is the limit of the function at x = c. Hence we may also rephrase the definition of
continuity as follows: a function is continuous at x = c if the function is defined at
x = c and if the value of the function at x = c equals the limit of the function at
x = c. If f is not continuous at c, we say f is discontinuous at c and c is called a point
of discontinuity of f.
 CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY 149

Example 1 Check the continuity of the function f given by f (x) = 2x + 3 at x = 1.

Solution First note that the function is defined at the given point x = 1 and its value is 5.
Then find the limit of the function at x = 1. Clearly
lim f ( x ) ✁ lim (2 x ✂ 3) ✁ 2(1) ✂ 3 ✁ 5
x 1 x 1

Thus lim f ( x ) ✁ 5 ✁ f (1)

x 1

Hence, f is continuous at x = 1.
Example 2 Examine whether the function f given by f (x) = x2 is continuous at x = 0.

Solution First note that the function is defined at the given point x = 0 and its value is 0.
Then find the limit of the function at x = 0. Clearly

lim f ( x) ☎ lim x 2 ☎ 02 ☎0
x ✄0 ✄0 x

Thus lim f ( x) ✁ 0 ✁ f (0)

x 0

Hence, f is continuous at x = 0.
Example 3 Discuss the continuity of the function f given by f(x) = | x | at x = 0.
Solution By definition

✞ ✆ x, if x ✝ 0
f (x) = ✟ x, if x ✠ 0
✡
Clearly the function is defined at 0 and f (0) = 0. Left hand limit of f at 0 is
lim☛ f ( x ) ✌ lim☛ (– x ) ✌ 0
x ☞0 ☞0
x

Similarly, the right hand limit of f at 0 is

lim✍ f ( x ) ✌ lim✍ x ✌ 0
x ☞0 ☞0
x

Thus, the left hand limit, right hand limit and the value of the function coincide at
x = 0. Hence, f is continuous at x = 0.
Example 4 Show that the function f given by

✒✎ x3 ✏ 3, if x ✑ 0
f (x) = ✓
✒✔1, if x ☎ 0

is not continuous at x = 0.
150 MATHEMATICS

Solution The function is defined at x = 0 and its value at x = 0 is 1. When x ✂ 0, the

function is given by a polynomial. Hence,
lim f ( x) = lim ( x 3 ✄ 3) ☎ 03 ✄ 3 ☎ 3
x 0 x ✁0
Since the limit of f at x = 0 does not coincide with f (0), the function is not continuous
at x = 0. It may be noted that x = 0 is the only point of discontinuity for this function.
Example 5 Check the points where the constant function f (x) = k is continuous.
Solution The function is defined at all real numbers and by definition, its value at any
real number equals k. Let c be any real number. Then
lim f ( x) = lim k
x c x c
✆k

Since f (c) = k = lim

x ✝ c f (x) for any real number c, the function f is continuous at
every real number.
Example 6 Prove that the identity function on real numbers given by f (x) = x is
continuous at every real number.
Solution The function is clearly defined at every point and f (c) = c for every real
number c. Also,
lim f ( x) = lim x ✞ c
x ✝c x ✝c
Thus, lim f (x) = c = f (c) and hence the function is continuous at every real number.
x c

Having defined continuity of a function at a given point, now we make a natural

extension of this definition to discuss continuity of a function.
Definition 2 A real function f is said to be continuous if it is continuous at every point
in the domain of f.
This definition requires a bit of elaboration. Suppose f is a function defined on a
closed interval [a, b], then for f to be continuous, it needs to be continuous at every
point in [a, b] including the end points a and b. Continuity of f at a means
lim✟ f ( x ) = f (a)
x ✠a
and continuity of f at b means
lim– f ( x) = f(b)
x ✠b
Observe that lim✡ f ( x) and lim✟ f ( x) do not make sense. As a consequence
x ✠a x ✠b
of this definition, if f is defined only at one point, it is continuous there, i.e., if the
domain of f is a singleton, f is a continuous function.
 CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY 151

Example 7 Is the function defined by f (x) = | x |, a continuous function?

Solution We may rewrite f as
✂ x, if x ✁ 0
f (x) = ✄
✆ x, if x ☎ 0
By Example 3, we know that f is continuous at x = 0.
Let c be a real number such that c < 0. Then f (c) = – c. Also
lim f ( x) = lim (✞ x) ✟ – c (Why?)
x ✝c x ✝c
Since lim f ( x) ✡ f (c ) , f is continuous at all negative real numbers.
x ✠c
Now, let c be a real number such that c > 0. Then f (c) = c. Also
lim f ( x) = lim x ✟ c
x✝ c x✝ c
(Why?)

Since lim f ( x) ✡ f (c ) , f is continuous at all positive real numbers. Hence, f

x ✠c
is continuous at all points.
Example 8 Discuss the continuity of the function f given by f (x) = x3 + x2 – 1.
Solution Clearly f is defined at every real number c and its value at c is c3 + c2 – 1. We
also know that
lim f ( x) = lim ( x 3 ☞ x 2 ✌ 1) ✍ c 3 ☞ c 2 ✌ 1
x ✝c x ☛c
Thus lim f ( x) ✟ f (c ) , and hence f is continuous at every real number. This means
x ✝c
f is a continuous function.
1
Example 9 Discuss the continuity of the function f defined by f (x) = , x ✎ 0.
x
Solution Fix any non zero real number c, we have
1 1
lim f ( x ) ✑ lim ✑
x ✏c x ✏c x c
1
Also, since for c ✎ 0, f (c) ✑ , we have lim f ( x) ✡ f (c ) and hence, f is continuous
c x✠ c

at every point in the domain of f. Thus f is a continuous function.

152 MATHEMATICS

We take this opportunity to explain the concept of infinity. This we do by analysing

1
the function f (x) = near x = 0. To carry out this analysis we follow the usual trick of
x
finding the value of the function at real numbers close to 0. Essentially we are trying to
find the right hand limit of f at 0. We tabulate this in the following (Table 5.1).
Table 5.1

x 1 0.3 0.2 0.1 = 10–1 0.01 = 10–2 0.001 = 10–3 10–n

f (x) 1 3.333... 5 10 100 = 102 1000 = 103 10n
We observe that as x gets closer to 0 from the right, the value of f (x) shoots up
higher. This may be rephrased as: the value of f (x) may be made larger than any given
number by choosing a positive real number very close to 0. In symbols, we write
lim f ( x) ✂ ✄ ☎
x✁ 0

(to be read as: the right hand limit of f (x) at 0 is plus infinity). We wish to emphasise
that + ✆ is NOT a real number and hence the right hand limit of f at 0 does not exist (as
a real number).
Similarly, the left hand limit of f at 0 may be found. The following table is self
explanatory.
Table 5.2

x –1 – 0.3 – 0.2 – 10–1 – 10–2 – 10–3 – 10–n

f (x) – 1 – 3.333... –5 – 10 – 102 – 103 – 10n

From the Table 5.2, we deduce that the

value of f (x) may be made smaller than any
given number by choosing a negative real
number very close to 0. In symbols,
we write
lim f ( x) ✂ ✞ ☎
x ✁ 0✝

(to be read as: the left hand limit of f (x) at 0 is

minus infinity). Again, we wish to emphasise
that – ✆ is NOT a real number and hence the
left hand limit of f at 0 does not exist (as a real
number). The graph of the reciprocal function
given in Fig 5.3 is a geometric representation
of the above mentioned facts. Fig 5.3
 CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY 153

Example 10 Discuss the continuity of the function f defined by

✂ x 2, if x ✁ 1
f (x) = ✄
✝ x ☎ 2, if x ✆ 1
Solution The function f is defined at all points of the real line.
Case 1 If c < 1, then f (c) = c + 2. Therefore, lim f ( x ) ✟ lim f ( x ✠ 2) ✟ c ✠ 2
x ✞c x ✞c
Thus, f is continuous at all real numbers less than 1.
Case 2 If c > 1, then f (c) = c – 2. Therefore,
lim f ( x) ✟ lim (x – 2) = c – 2 = f (c)
x ✞c x ✞c
Thus, f is continuous at all points x > 1.
Case 3 If c = 1, then the left hand limit of f at
x = 1 is
lim f ( x ) ✟ lim– ( x ✠ 2) ✟ 1 ✠ 2 ✟ 3
✞
x 1– x 1✞
The right hand limit of f at x = 1 is
lim✡ f ( x ) ✟ lim✡ ( x ☛ 2) ✟ 1 ☛ 2 ✟ ☛1
x 1 ✞ x 1✞
Since the left and right hand limits of f at x = 1 Fig 5.4
do not coincide, f is not continuous at x = 1. Hence
x = 1 is the only point of discontinuity of f. The graph of the function is given in Fig 5.4.
Example 11 Find all the points of discontinuity of the function f defined by
✍ x ☞ 2, if x ✌ 1
✎
f (x) = ✑ 0, if x ✏ 1
✎ x ✒ 2, if x ✓ 1
✔
Solution As in the previous example we find that f
is continuous at all real numbers x ✕ 1. The left
hand limit of f at x = 1 is
lim✖ f ( x ) ✘ lim– ( x ✙ 2) ✘ 1 ✙ 2 ✘ 3
x 1 ✗ x 1✗
The right hand limit of f at x = 1 is
lim✡ f ( x ) ✟ lim✡ ( x ☛ 2) ✟ 1 ☛ 2 ✟ ☛1
x 1 ✞ x 1✞
Since, the left and right hand limits of f at x = 1
do not coincide, f is not continuous at x = 1. Hence
x = 1 is the only point of discontinuity of f. The
graph of the function is given in the Fig 5.5. Fig 5.5
154 MATHEMATICS

Example 12 Discuss the continuity of the function defined by

✂ x 2, if x ✁ 0
f (x) = ✄
✝☎ x 2, if x ✆ 0
Solution Observe that the function is defined at all real numbers except at 0. Domain
of definition of this function is
D1 ✞ D2 where D1 = {x ✟ R : x < 0} and
D2 = {x ✟ R : x > 0}
Case 1 If c ✟ D1, then lim f ( x ) ✡ lim (x + 2)
x ✠c x ✠c
= c + 2 = f (c) and hence f is continuous in D1.
Case 2 If c ✟ D2, then lim f ( x ) ☞ lim (– x + 2)
x ☛c x ☛c
= – c + 2 = f (c) and hence f is continuous in D2.
Since f is continuous at all points in the domain of f,
we deduce that f is continuous. Graph of this
function is given in the Fig 5.6. Note that to graph Fig 5.6
this function we need to lift the pen from the plane
of the paper, but we need to do that only for those points where the function is not
defined.
Example 13 Discuss the continuity of the function f given by

✍✎ x, if x ✌ 0
f (x) = ✏
✒✎ x , if x ✑ 0
2

Solution Clearly the function is defined at

every real number. Graph of the function is
given in Fig 5.7. By inspection, it seems prudent
to partition the domain of definition of f into
three disjoint subsets of the real line.
Let D1 = {x ✟ R : x < 0}, D2 = {0} and
Fig 5.7
D3 = {x ✟ R : x > 0}
Case 1 At any point in D1, we have f (x) = x2 and it is easy to see that it is continuous
there (see Example 2).
Case 2 At any point in D3, we have f (x) = x and it is easy to see that it is continuous
there (see Example 6).
 CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY 155

Case 3 Now we analyse the function at x = 0. The value of the function at 0 is f (0) = 0.
The left hand limit of f at 0 is
lim f ( x ) ✂ lim x 2 ✂ 02 ✂ 0
x✁ 0 – x✁ 0
The right hand limit of f at 0 is
lim f ( x ) ✆ lim✄ x ✆ 0
x☎ 0✄ x☎ 0

Thus lim f ( x) ✆ 0 = f (0) and hence f is continuous at 0. This means that f is

x☎0
continuous at every point in its domain and hence, f is a continuous function.
Example 14 Show that every polynomial function is continuous.
Solution Recall that a function p is a polynomial function if it is defined by
p(x) = a0 + a1 x + ... + an xn for some natural number n, an ✝ 0 and ai ✞ R. Clearly this
function is defined for every real number. For a fixed real number c, we have
lim p ( x) ✠ p (c)
x✟ c
By definition, p is continuous at c. Since c is any real number, p is continuous at
every real number and hence p is a continuous function.
Example 15 Find all the points of discontinuity of the greatest integer function defined
by f (x) = [x], where [x] denotes the greatest integer less than or equal to x.
Solution First observe that f is defined for all real numbers. Graph of the function is
given in Fig 5.8. From the graph it looks like that f is discontinuous at every integral
point. Below we explore, if this is true.

Fig 5.8
156 MATHEMATICS

Case 1 Let c be a real number which is not equal to any integer. It is evident from the
graph that for all real numbers close to c the value of the function is equal to [c]; i.e.,
lim f ( x) ✁ lim [ x] ✁ [c] . Also f (c) = [c] and hence the function is continuous at all real
x c x c

numbers not equal to integers.

Case 2 Let c be an integer. Then we can find a sufficiently small real number
r > 0 such that [c – r] = c – 1 whereas [c + r] = c.
This, in terms of limits mean that
lim✂ f (x) = c – 1, lim✄ f (x) = c
x c x ☎c
Since these limits cannot be equal to each other for any c, the function is
discontinuous at every integral point.
5.2.1 Algebra of continuous functions
In the previous class, after having understood the concept of limits, we learnt some
algebra of limits. Analogously, now we will study some algebra of continuous functions.
Since continuity of a function at a point is entirely dictated by the limit of the function at
that point, it is reasonable to expect results analogous to the case of limits.
Theorem 1 Suppose f and g be two real functions continuous at a real number c.
Then
(1) f + g is continuous at x = c.
(2) f – g is continuous at x = c.
(3) f . g is continuous at x = c.
✆f✝ is continuous at x = c, (provided g (c) ☛ 0).
(4) ✞g✟
✠ ✡
Proof We are investigating continuity of (f + g) at x = c. Clearly it is defined at
x = c. We have

lim( f
x c
☞ g ) ( x) = lim [ f ( x ) ☞ g ( x )]
x c
(by definition of f + g)

= lim f ( x) ☞ lim g ( x) (by the theorem on limits)

x c x c

= f (c) + g(c) (as f and g are continuous)

= (f + g) (c) (by definition of f + g)
Hence, f + g is continuous at x = c.
Proofs for the remaining parts are similar and left as an exercise to the reader.
 CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY 157

Remarks
(i) As a special case of (3) above, if f is a constant function, i.e., f (x) = ✝ for some
real number ✝, then the function (✝ . g) defined by (✝ . g) (x) = ✝ . g(x) is also
continuous. In particular if ✝ = – 1, the continuity of f implies continuity of – f.
(ii) As a special case of (4) above, if f is the constant function f (x) = ✝ , then the
✁ ✁
function defined by ( x) ✂ is also continuous wherever g (x) ✄ 0. In
g g g ( x)
1
particular, the continuity of g implies continuity of .
g
The above theorem can be exploited to generate many continuous functions. They
also aid in deciding if certain functions are continuous or not. The following examples
illustrate this:
Example 16 Prove that every rational function is continuous.
Solution Recall that every rational function f is given by
p( x )
f ( x) ☎ , q( x) ✆ 0
q ( x)
where p and q are polynomial functions. The domain of f is all real numbers except
points at which q is zero. Since polynomial functions are continuous (Example 14), f is
continuous by (4) of Theorem 1.
Example 17 Discuss the continuity of sine function.
Solution To see this we use the following facts
lim sin x ✟ 0
x ✞0
We have not proved it, but is intuitively clear from the graph of sin x near 0.
Now, observe that f (x) = sin x is defined for every real number. Let c be a real
number. Put x = c + h. If x ✠ c we know that h ✠ 0. Therefore
lim f ( x ) = lim sin x
x✡ c x✡ c

= lim sin(c ☛ h)
h✞ 0

= lim [sin c cos h ☛ cos c sin h]

h✞ 0

= lim [sin c cos h] ☛ lim [cos c sin h]

h✞ 0 h✞ 0
= sin c + 0 = sin c = f (c)
Thus lim f (x) = f (c) and hence f is a continuous function.
x ✡c
158 MATHEMATICS

Remark A similar proof may be given for the continuity of cosine function.
Example 18 Prove that the function defined by f (x) = tan x is a continuous function.

sin x
Solution The function f (x) = tan x = . This is defined for all real numbers such
cos x

that cos x ✂ 0, i.e., x ✂ (2n +1) . We have just proved that both sine and cosine
2
functions are continuous. Thus tan x being a quotient of two continuous functions is
continuous wherever it is defined.
An interesting fact is the behaviour of continuous functions with respect to
composition of functions. Recall that if f and g are two real functions, then
(f o g) (x) = f (g (x))
is defined whenever the range of g is a subset of domain of f. The following theorem
(stated without proof) captures the continuity of composite functions.
Theorem 2 Suppose f and g are real valued functions such that (f o g) is defined at c.
If g is continuous at c and if f is continuous at g (c), then (f o g) is continuous at c.
The following examples illustrate this theorem.
Example 19 Show that the function defined by f (x) = sin (x2) is a continuous function.
Solution Observe that the function is defined for every real number. The function
f may be thought of as a composition g o h of the two functions g and h, where
g (x) = sin x and h (x) = x2. Since both g and h are continuous functions, by Theorem 2,
it can be deduced that f is a continuous function.
Example 20 Show that the function f defined by
f (x) = |1 – x + | x | |,

where x is any real number, is a continuous function.

Solution Define g by g (x) = 1 – x + | x | and h by h (x) = | x | for all real x. Then
(h o g) (x) = h (g (x))
= h (1– x + | x |)
= | 1– x + | x | | = f (x)
In Example 7, we have seen that h is a continuous function. Hence g being a sum
of a polynomial function and the modulus function is continuous. But then f being a
composite of two continuous functions is continuous.
 CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY 159

EXERCISE 5.1
1. Prove that the function f (x) = 5x – 3 is continuous at x = 0, at x = – 3 and at x = 5.
2. Examine the continuity of the function f (x) = 2x2 – 1 at x = 3.
3. Examine the following functions for continuity.
1
(a) f (x) = x – 5 (b) f (x) =
x 5
x 2 ✁ 25
(c) f (x) = (d) f (x) = | x – 5 |
x✂5
4. Prove that the function f (x) = xn is continuous at x = n, where n is a positive
integer.
5. Is the function f defined by
☎ x, if x ✄ 1
f ( x) ✆ ✝
✞5, if x > 1
continuous at x = 0? At x = 1? At x = 2?
Find all points of discontinuity of f, where f is defined by

✌| x | ✡3, if x ☛ ☞ 3
☎2 x ✟ 3, if x ✄ 2 ✍
6. f ( x) ✆ ✝ 7. f ( x ) ✎ ✑ ☞2 x, if ☞ 3 ✏ x < 3
✞2 x ✠ 3, if x > 2 ✍6 x ✡ 2, if x ✒ 3
✓
✔| x | ✚ x
✖ , if x ✕ 0 ✜ , if x ✛ 0
8. f ( x) ✗ ✘ x 9. f ( x) ✢ ✣| x |
✖✙ 0, if x ✗ 0 ✜✤1, if x ✥ 0
✦
✩✪ x ✧ 1, if x ★ 1 ✯✲ x 3 ✰ 3, if x ✱ 2
10. f ( x) ✫ ✬ 11. f ( x) ✳ ✴
✪✮ x ✧ 1, if x ✭ 1
2
✷✲ x ✵ 1, if x ✶ 2
2

✯✲ x10 ✰ 1, if x ✱ 1
12. f ( x) ✳ ✴
✷✲ x ,
2
if x ✶ 1
13. Is the function defined by
✺ x ✸ 5, if x ✹ 1
f ( x) ✻ ✼
✿ x ✽ 5, if x ✾ 1
a continuous function?
160 MATHEMATICS

Discuss the continuity of the function f, where f is defined by

✁3, if 0 x 1 ✟ 2 x, if x ✞ 0
✂ ✠
14. f ( x ) ✄ ✆ 4, if 1 ☎ x ☎ 3 15. f ( x ) ✡ ☞0, if 0 ☛ x ☛ 1
✂5, if 3 x 10 ✠ 4 x, if x > 1
✝ ✌
✁ ✍2, if x ✍ 1
✂
16. f ( x ) ✄ ✆ 2 x, if ✍ 1 ☎ x 1
✂ 2, if x ✎ 1
✝
17. Find the relationship between a and b so that the function f defined by
✒ ax ✏ 1, if x ✑ 3
f ( x) ✓ ✔
✖bx ✏ 3, if x ✕ 3
is continuous at x = 3.
18. For what value of ✗ is the function defined by
✘✜✙ ( x 2 ✚ 2 x), if x ✛ 0
f ( x) ✢ ✣
✜✦ 4 x ✤ 1, if x ✥ 0
continuous at x = 0? What about continuity at x = 1?
19. Show that the function defined by g (x) = x – [x] is discontinuous at all integral
points. Here [x] denotes the greatest integer less than or equal to x.
20. Is the function defined by f (x) = x2 – sin x + 5 continuous at x = ✧?
21. Discuss the continuity of the following functions:
(a) f (x) = sin x + cos x (b) f (x) = sin x – cos x
(c) f (x) = sin x . cos x
22. Discuss the continuity of the cosine, cosecant, secant and cotangent functions.
23. Find all points of discontinuity of f, where
★ sin x
✪ , if x ✩ 0
f ( x) ✫ ✬ x
✪✯ x ✭ 1, if x ✮ 0
24. Determine if f defined by
★ 2 1
✪ x sin , if x ✰ 0
f ( x) ✫ ✬ x
✪✯ 0, if x ✫ 0
is a continuous function?
 CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY 161

25. Examine the continuity of f, where f is defined by

✂sin x cos x, if x ✁ 0
f ( x) ✄ ☎
✆ 1, if x ✄ 0
Find the values of k so that the function f is continuous at the indicated point in Exercises
26 to 29.
✞ k cos x , if x ✟ ✝
✠✠ ✝ ✡ 2 x 2 ✍
26. f ( x) ☛ ☞ at x =
✠3, ✝ 2
if x ☛
✠✌ 2

✠✞ kx 2 , if x ✎ 2
27. f ( x) ☛ ☞ at x = 2
✌✠3, if x ✏ 2

✔ kx ✑ 1, if x ✒ ✓
28. f ( x) ✕ ✖ at x = ✙
✘ cos x, if x ✗ ✓
✂kx ✚ 1, if x ✛ 5
29. f ( x) ✄ ☎ at x = 5
✆3 x 5, if x ✜ 5
30. Find the values of a and b such that the function defined by
✣5, if x ✢ 2
✤
f ( x) ✥ ★ ax ✦ b, if 2 ✧ x ✧ 10
✤ 21, if x ✩ 10
✪
is a continuous function.
31. Show that the function defined by f (x) = cos (x2) is a continuous function.
32. Show that the function defined by f (x) = | cos x | is a continuous function.
33. Examine that sin | x | is a continuous function.
34. Find all the points of discontinuity of f defined by f (x) = | x | – | x + 1 |.
5.3. Differentiability
Recall the following facts from previous class. We had defined the derivative of a real
function as follows:
Suppose f is a real function and c is a point in its domain. The derivative of f at c is
defined by
f (c ✬ h ) ✭ f (c)
lim
h✫ 0 h
162 MATHEMATICS

d
provided this limit exists. Derivative of f at c is denoted by f ✠(c) or ( f ( x)) | c . The
dx
function defined by
f ( x ✁ h) ✂ f ( x )
f ✄( x) ☎ lim
h 0 h
wherever the limit exists is defined to be the derivative of f. The derivative of f is
d dy
denoted by f ✠ (x) or ( f ( x )) or if y = f (x) by or y ✠. The process of finding
dx dx
derivative of a function is called differentiation. We also use the phrase differentiate
f (x) with respect to x to mean find f ✠(x).
The following rules were established as a part of algebra of derivatives:
(1) (u ± v)✠ = u✠ ± v✠
(2) (uv)✠ = u✠v + uv✠ (Leibnitz or product rule)

✞ u ✟✆ ✡ u✆v ✝ uv✆ , wherever v ✎ 0 (Quotient rule).

(3) ☛✌ v ☞✍ v2
The following table gives a list of derivatives of certain standard functions:
Table 5.3
f (x) xn sin x cos x tan x

f ✠ (x) nx n – 1 cos x – sin x sec2 x

Whenever we defined derivative, we had put a caution provided the limit exists.
Now the natural question is; what if it doesn’t? The question is quite pertinent and so is
f (c ✁ h) ✂ f (c )
its answer. If lim does not exist, we say that f is not differentiable at c.
h 0 h
In other words, we say that a function f is differentiable at a point c in its domain if both
f (c ✁ h) ✂ f (c ) f (c ✁ h) ✂ f (c )
lim– and lim✏ are finite and equal. A function is said
h 0 h h 0 h
to be differentiable in an interval [a, b] if it is differentiable at every point of [a, b]. As
in case of continuity, at the end points a and b, we take the right hand limit and left hand
limit, which are nothing but left hand derivative and right hand derivative of the function
at a and b respectively. Similarly, a function is said to be differentiable in an interval
(a, b) if it is differentiable at every point of (a, b).
 CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY 163

Theorem 3 If a function f is differentiable at a point c, then it is also continuous at that

point.
Proof Since f is differentiable at c, we have
f ( x) ✁ f ( c)
lim ✂ f ✄(c )
x c x✁c
But for x ☎ c, we have
f ( x ) ✁ f (c)
f (x) – f (c) = . ( x ✁ c)
x✁c

lim [ f ( x ) ✝ f (c)] = lim ☛

✠ f ( x) ✟ f (c) . ( x ✟ c) ✡
Therefore
x ✆c x ✞c ✌ x ✟ c ☞✍
f ( x) ✏ f (c) ✒
lim [ f ( x)] ✝ lim [ f (c )] = lim ✑
x✆ c x✆ c ✓ ✎c ✕ x ✏ c ✔✖ x ✎c ✏
or . lim [( x c)]
x

= f ✗(c) . 0 = 0
or lim f ( x ) = f (c)
x ✘c
Hence f is continuous at x = c.
Corollary 1 Every differentiable function is continuous.
We remark that the converse of the above statement is not true. Indeed we have
seen that the function defined by f (x) = | x | is a continuous function. Consider the left
hand limit
f (0 ✙ h) ✁ f (0) ✁ h
lim– ✂ ✂ ✁1
h 0 h h
The right hand limit
f (0 ✙ h) ✁ f (0) h
lim✚ ✂ ✂1
h 0 h h
f (0 ✙ h) ✁ f (0)
Since the above left and right hand limits at 0 are not equal, lim
h 0 h
does not exist and hence f is not differentiable at 0. Thus f is not a differentiable
function.
5.3.1 Derivatives of composite functions
To study derivative of composite functions, we start with an illustrative example. Say,
we want to find the derivative of f, where
f (x) = (2x + 1)3
164 MATHEMATICS

One way is to expand (2x + 1)3 using binomial theorem and find the derivative as
a polynomial function as illustrated below.
d d 3
f ( x) = ✄ (2 x ✂ 1) ✁☎
dx dx
d
= (8 x 3 ✂ 12 x 2 ✂ 6 x ✂ 1)
dx
= 24x2 + 24x + 6
= 6 (2x + 1)2
Now, observe that f (x) = (h o g) (x)
where g(x) = 2x + 1 and h(x) = x3. Put t = g(x) = 2x + 1. Then f(x) = h(t) = t3. Thus
df dh dt
= 6 (2x + 1)2 = 3(2x + 1)2 . 2 = 3t2 . 2 = ✆
dx dt dx
The advantage with such observation is that it simplifies the calculation in finding
the derivative of, say, (2x + 1)100. We may formalise this observation in the following
theorem called the chain rule.
Theorem 4 (Chain Rule) Let f be a real valued function which is a composite of two
dt dv
functions u and v ; i.e., f = v o u. Suppose t = u (x) and if both and exist, we have
dx dt
df dv dt
✝ ✆
dx dt dx
We skip the proof of this theorem. Chain rule may be extended as follows. Suppose
f is a real valued function which is a composite of three functions u, v and w ; i.e.,
f = (w o u) o v. If t = v (x) and s = u (t), then

df d ( w o u ) dt dw ds dt
✝ ✆ ✝ ✆ ✆
dx dt dx ds dt dx
provided all the derivatives in the statement exist. Reader is invited to formulate chain
rule for composite of more functions.

Example 21 Find the derivative of the function given by f (x) = sin (x2).

Solution Observe that the given function is a composite of two functions. Indeed, if
t = u(x) = x2 and v(t) = sin t, then
f (x) = (v o u) (x) = v(u(x)) = v(x2) = sin x2
 CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY 165

dv dt
Put t = u(x) = x2. Observe that cos t and 2 x exist. Hence, by chain rule
dt dx
df dv dt
= ✁ cos t ✁ 2 x
dx dt dx
It is normal practice to express the final result only in terms of x. Thus
df
= cos t ✂ 2 x ✄ 2 x cos x 2
dx
Alternatively, We can also directly proceed as follows:
dy d
y = sin (x2) ✡ (sin x2)
dx dx
d 2
= cos x2 (x ) = 2x cos x2
dx
Example 22 Find the derivative of tan (2x + 3).
Solution Let f (x) = tan (2x + 3), u (x) = 2x + 3 and v(t) = tan t. Then
(v o u) (x) = v(u(x)) = v(2x + 3) = tan (2x + 3) = f (x)
dv
Thus f is a composite of two functions. Put t = u(x) = 2x + 3. Then sec 2 t and
dt
dt
☎ 2 exist. Hence, by chain rule
dx
df dv dt
✁ 2sec 2 (2 x ✆ 3)
dx dt dx
Example 23 Differentiate sin (cos (x2)) with respect to x.
Solution The function f (x) = sin (cos (x2)) is a composition f (x) = (w o v o u) (x) of the
three functions u, v and w, where u(x) = x2, v(t) = cos t and w(s) = sin s. Put
dw ds dt
t = u(x) = x2 and s = v (t) = cos t. Observe that cos s, ✝ sin t and 2x
ds dt dx
exist for all real x. Hence by a generalisation of chain rule, we have

df dw ds dt
☎ ✞ ✞ = (cos s) . (– sin t) . (2x) = – 2x sin x2 . cos (cos x2)
dx ds dt dx
166 MATHEMATICS

Alternatively, we can proceed as follows:

y = sin (cos x2)
dy d d
Therefore sin (cos x2) = cos (cos x2) (cos x2)
dx dx dx
d
= cos (cos x2) (– sin x2) (x2)
dx
= – sin x2 cos (cos x2) (2x)
= – 2x sin x2 cos (cos x2)

EXERCISE 5.2
Differentiate the functions with respect to x in Exercises 1 to 8.
1. sin (x2 + 5) 2. cos (sin x) 3. sin (ax + b)
sin ( ax ✁ b)
4. sec (tan ( x )) 5. cos (cx ✁ d ) 6. cos x3 . sin2 (x5)

7. 2 cot ✂ x 2 ✄ 8. cos ☎ x ✆
9. Prove that the function f given by
f (x) = | x – 1 |, x ✝ R
is not differentiable at x = 1.
10. Prove that the greatest integer function defined by
f (x) = [x], 0 < x < 3
is not differentiable at x = 1 and x = 2.

5.3.2 Derivatives of implicit functions

Until now we have been differentiating various functions given in the form y = f (x).
But it is not necessary that functions are always expressed in this form. For example,
consider one of the following relationships between x and y:
x–y–✟=0
x + sin xy – y = 0
In the first case, we can solve for y and rewrite the relationship as y = x – ✟. In
the second case, it does not seem that there is an easy way to solve for y. Nevertheless,
there is no doubt about the dependence of y on x in either of the cases. When a
relationship between x and y is expressed in a way that it is easy to solve for y and
write y = f (x), we say that y is given as an explicit function of x. In the latter case it
 CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY 167

is implicit that y is a function of x and we say that the relationship of the second type,
above, gives function implicitly. In this subsection, we learn to differentiate implicit
functions.
dy
Example 24 Find if x – y = ✟.
dx
Solution One way is to solve for y and rewrite the above as
y=x–✟
dy
But then =1
dx
Alternatively, directly differentiating the relationship w.r.t., x, we have
d d✁
(x y) =
dx dx
d✁
Recall that means to differentiate the constant function taking value ✟
dx
everywhere w.r.t., x. Thus
d d
( x) ✂ ( y) = 0
dx dx
which implies that
dy dx
= ✄1
dx dx

dy
Example 25 Find , if y + sin y = cos x.
dx
Solution We differentiate the relationship directly with respect to x, i.e.,
dy d d
☎ (sin y) = (cos x)
dx dx dx
which implies using chain rule
dy dy
☎ cos y ✆ = – sin x
dx dx
dy sin x
This gives = ✝
dx 1 ✞ cos y
where y ✠ (2n + 1) ✟
168 MATHEMATICS

5.3.3 Derivatives of inverse trigonometric functions

We remark that inverse trigonometric functions are continuous functions, but we will
not prove this. Now we use chain rule to find derivatives of these functions.
Example 26 Find the derivative of f given by f (x) = sin–1 x assuming it exists.
Solution Let y = sin–1 x. Then, x = sin y.
Differentiating both sides w.r.t. x, we get

dy
1 = cos y
dx

dy 1 1
which implies that = ✁
dx cos y cos (sin 1 x )

✄ ✄
Observe that this is defined only for cos y ✂ 0, i.e., sin–1 x ✂ ☎ , , i.e., x ✂ – 1, 1,
2 2
i.e., x ✆ (– 1, 1).
To make this result a bit more attractive, we carry out the following manipulation.
Recall that for x ✆ (– 1, 1), sin (sin–1 x) = x and hence
cos2 y = 1 – (sin y)2 = 1 – (sin (sin–1 x))2 = 1 – x2

✞ ✝ ✝✟
Also, since y ✆ ✡✠ , ☛, cos y is positive and hence cos y = 1✍ x2
☞ 2 2✌

Thus, for x ✆ (– 1, 1),

dy 1 1
✎ ✎
dx cos y 1 ✏ x2

Example 27 Find the derivative of f given by f (x) = tan–1 x assuming it exists.

Solution Let y = tan–1 x. Then, x = tan y.
Differentiating both sides w.r.t. x, we get

dy
1 = sec2 y
dx
which implies that
dy 1 1 1 1
✒ ✒ ✒ ✒
dx sec2 y 1 ✓ tan y 1 ✓ (tan (tan ✑1 x)) 2
2
1 ✓ x2
 CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY 169

Finding of the derivatives of other inverse trigonometric functions is left as exercise.

The following table gives the derivatives of the remaining inverse trigonometric functions
(Table 5.4):
Table 5.4

f (x) cos –1x cot –1x sec –1x cosec–1x

1 ✁1 1 ☎1
f ✠ (x)
1 x 2
1 ✂ x2 x x2 ✄ 1 x x2 ☎ 1
Domain of f ✠ (–1, 1) R (–✆ , –1) ✝ (1, ✆) (–✆ , –1) ✝ (1, ✆)

EXERCISE 5.3
dy
Find in the following:
dx
1. 2x + 3y = sin x 2. 2x + 3y = sin y 3. ax + by2 = cos y
4. xy + y2 = tan x + y 5. x2 + xy + y2 = 100 6. x3 + x2y + xy2 + y3 = 81

✞ 2x ✡
7. sin2 y + cos xy = ✟ 8. sin2 x + cos2 y = 1 9. y = sin–1 ☛ ☞
✍ 1✌ x2 ✎
✏ 3x ✒ x3 ✑ 1 1
10. y = tan–1 ✓ 2 ✔
, ✗ ✘ x✘
✕ 1✒ 3x ✖ 3 3

✚ 1 ✜ x2 ✛
11. y ✢ cos ✙1 ✤ ✥, 0 ✣ x ✣1
✧ 1✦ x2 ★
✚ 1✜ x2 ✛
12. y ✢ sin ✙1 ✤ ✥, 0 ✣ x ✣ 1
✧ 1 ✦ x2 ★
✪ 2x ✫ ,
13. y ✬ cos✩1 ✯ ✰ ✭1✮ x ✮ 1
✲ 1✱ x2 ✳

y ✷ sin ✶1 ✴ 2 x 1 ✗ x 2 ✵ , ✗
1 1
14. ✘ x✘
2 2

✞ 1 ✡,
y ✹ sec ✸1 ☛
1
15. ☞ 0✺ x✺
✍ 2 x2 ✻ 1 ✎ 2
170 MATHEMATICS

5.4 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

Till now we have learnt some aspects of different classes of functions like polynomial
functions, rational functions and trigonometric functions. In this section, we shall
learn about a new class of (related)
functions called exponential functions and
logarithmic functions. It needs to be
emphasized that many statements made
in this section are motivational and precise
proofs of these are well beyond the scope
of this text.
The Fig 5.9 gives a sketch of
y = f1(x) = x, y = f2(x) = x2, y = f3(x) = x3
and y = f4(x) = x4. Observe that the curves
get steeper as the power of x increases.
Steeper the curve, faster is the rate of
growth. What this means is that for a fixed
increment in the value of x (> 1), the Fig 5.9
increment in the value of y = fn (x) increases as n increases for n = 1, 2, 3, 4. It is
conceivable that such a statement is true for all positive values of n, where fn (x) = xn.
Essentially, this means that the graph of y = fn (x) leans more towards the y-axis as n
increases. For example, consider f10(x) = x10 and f15(x) = x15. If x increases from 1 to
2, f10 increases from 1 to 210 whereas f15 increases from 1 to 215. Thus, for the same
increment in x, f15 grow faster than f10.
Upshot of the above discussion is that the growth of polynomial functions is dependent
on the degree of the polynomial function – higher the degree, greater is the growth.
The next natural question is: Is there a function which grows faster than any polynomial
function. The answer is in affirmative and an example of such a function is
y = f (x) = 10x.
Our claim is that this function f grows faster than fn (x) = xn for any positive integer n.
For example, we can prove that 10x grows faster than f100 (x) = x100. For large values
3
of x like x = 103, note that f100 (x) = (103)100 = 10300 whereas f (103) = 1010 = 101000.
Clearly f (x) is much greater than f100 (x). It is not difficult to prove that for all
x > 103, f (x) > f100 (x). But we will not attempt to give a proof of this here. Similarly, by
choosing large values of x, one can verify that f (x) grows faster than fn (x) for any
positive integer n.
 CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY 171

Definition 3 The exponential function with positive base b > 1 is the function
y = f (x) = bx
x
The graph of y = 10 is given in the Fig 5.9.
It is advised that the reader plots this graph for particular values of b like 2, 3 and 4.
Following are some of the salient features of the exponential functions:
(1) Domain of the exponential function is R, the set of all real numbers.
(2) Range of the exponential function is the set of all positive real numbers.
(3) The point (0, 1) is always on the graph of the exponential function (this is a
restatement of the fact that b0 = 1 for any real b > 1).
(4) Exponential function is ever increasing; i.e., as we move from left to right, the
graph rises above.
(5) For very large negative values of x, the exponential function is very close to 0. In
other words, in the second quadrant, the graph approaches x-axis (but never
meets it).
Exponential function with base 10 is called the common exponential function. In
the Appendix A.1.4 of Class XI, it was observed that the sum of the series
1 1
1 ...
1! 2!
is a number between 2 and 3 and is denoted by e. Using this e as the base we obtain an
extremely important exponential function y = ex.
This is called natural exponential function.
It would be interesting to know if the inverse of the exponential function exists and
has nice interpretation. This search motivates the following definition.
Definition 4 Let b > 1 be a real number. Then we say logarithm of a to base b is x if
bx = a.
Logarithm of a to base b is denoted by logb a. Thus logb a = x if bx = a. Let us
work with a few explicit examples to get a feel for this. We know 23 = 8. In terms of
logarithms, we may rewrite this as log2 8 = 3. Similarly, 104 = 10000 is equivalent to
saying log10 10000 = 4. Also, 625 = 54 = 252 is equivalent to saying log5 625 = 4 or
log25 625 = 2.
On a slightly more mature note, fixing a base b > 1, we may look at logarithm as
a function from positive real numbers to all real numbers. This function, called the
logarithmic function, is defined by
logb : R+ ✞ R
x ✞ logb x = y if by = x
172 MATHEMATICS

As before if the base b = 10, we say it

is common logarithms and if b = e, then
we say it is natural logarithms. Often
natural logarithm is denoted by ln. In this
chapter, log x denotes the logarithm
function to base e, i.e., ln x will be written
as simply log x. The Fig 5.10 gives the plots
of logarithm function to base 2, e and 10.
Some of the important observations
about the logarithm function to any base
b > 1 are listed below: Fig 5.10
(1) We cannot make a meaningful definition of logarithm of non-positive numbers
and hence the domain of log function is R+.
(2) The range of log function is the set of all real numbers.
(3) The point (1, 0) is always on the graph of the log function.
(4) The log function is ever increasing,
i.e., as we move from left to right
the graph rises above.
(5) For x very near to zero, the value
of log x can be made lesser than
any given real number. In other
words in the fourth quadrant the
graph approaches y-axis (but never
meets it).
(6) Fig 5.11 gives the plot of y = ex and
y = ln x. It is of interest to observe
that the two curves are the mirror Fig 5.11
images of each other reflected in the line y = x.
Two properties of ‘log’ functions are proved below:
(1) There is a standard change of base rule to obtain loga p in terms of logb p. Let
loga p = ☛, logb p = ☞ and logb a = ✌. This means a = p, b✁ = p and b✂ = a.
Substituting the third equation in the first one, we have
(b✂) = b✄☎ = p
Using this in the second equation, we get
b✁ = p = b ✂
 CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY 173

✁
which implies ☞ = ☛ or ☛ = . But then
✂

log b p
loga p =
logb a
(2) Another interesting property of the log function is its effect on products. Let
logb pq = ☛. Then b✄ = pq. If logb p = ☞ and logb q = , then b☎ = p and b✌ = q.
But then b✄ = pq = b☎b✌ = b☎ + ✌
which implies ☛ = ☞ + , i.e.,
logb pq = logb p + logb q
A particularly interesting and important consequence of this is when p = q. In
this case the above may be rewritten as
logb p2 = logb p + logb p = 2 log p
An easy generalisation of this (left as an exercise!) is
logb pn = n log p
for any positive integer n. In fact this is true for any real number n, but we will
not attempt to prove this. On the similar lines the reader is invited to verify
x
log b = logb x – logb y
y
Example 28 Is it true that x = elog x for all real x?
Solution First, observe that the domain of log function is set of all positive real numbers.
So the above equation is not true for non-positive real numbers. Now, let y = elog x. If
y > 0, we may take logarithm which gives us log y = log (elog x) = log x . log e = log x. Thus
y = x. Hence x = elog x is true only for positive values of x.
One of the striking properties of the natural exponential function in differential
calculus is that it doesn’t change during the process of differentiation. This is captured
in the following theorem whose proof we skip.
Theorem 5
d x
(1) The derivative of ex w.r.t., x is ex; i.e., (e ) = ex.
dx
1 d 1
(2) The derivative of log x w.r.t., x is ; i.e., (log x) = .
x dx x
174 MATHEMATICS

Example 29 Differentiate the following w.r.t. x:

(i) e –x (ii) sin (log x), x > 0 (iii) cos–1 (ex) (iv) ecos x

Solution
(i) Let y = e – x. Using chain rule, we have
dy x d
= e ✁ (– x) = – e– x
dx dx
(ii) Let y = sin (log x). Using chain rule, we have
dy d cos (log x)
= cos (log x ) ✁ (log x) ✂
dx dx x
–1 x
(iii) Let y = cos (e ). Using chain rule, we have
x
dy ✄1 d x ✄e
= ☎ (e ) ✆
dx 1 ✄ (e x )2 dx 1 ✄ e2 x
(iv) Let y = ecos x. Using chain rule, we have
dy
= ecos x ✝ (✞ sin x) ✟ ✞ (sin x ) e cos x
dx

EXERCISE 5.4
Differentiate the following w.r.t. x:

ex ✠1 x 3
1. 2. esin 3. e x
sin x
x x2 5
4. sin (tan–1 e–x) 5. log (cos ex) 6. e ✡e ✡ ... ✡ ex
cos x
7. e x
, x☛0 8. log (log x), x > 1 9. log x , x ☞ 0

10. cos (log x + ex), x > 0

5.5. Logarithmic Differentiation
In this section, we will learn to differentiate certain special class of functions given in
the form
y = f (x) = [u(x)]v (x)
By taking logarithm (to base e) the above may be rewritten as
log y = v(x) log [u(x)]
 CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY 175

Using chain rule we may differentiate this to get

1 dy 1 .
✁ v( x) u✠(x) + v✠ (x) . log [u(x)]
y dx u( x)
which implies that
dy ☎ v( x) ✆
✝ y☛ ✞ u✟( x ) ✡ v✟ ( x ) ✞ log ✂ u ( x ) ✄
☞
dx ✌ u ( x) ✍

The main point to be noted in this method is that f (x) and u(x) must always be
positive as otherwise their logarithms are not defined. This process of differentiation is
known as logarithms differentiation and is illustrated by the following examples:

( x ✎ 3) ( x 2 ✏ 4)
Example 30 Differentiate w.r.t. x.
3x 2 ✏ 4 x ✏ 5

( x ✑ 3) ( x 2 ✒ 4)
Solution Let y ✓
(3 x 2 ✒ 4 x ✒ 5)
Taking logarithm on both sides, we have
1
log y = [log (x – 3) + log (x2 + 4) – log (3x2 + 4x + 5)]
2
Now, differentiating both sides w.r.t. x, we get
1 dy 1☎ 1 2x 6x ✡ 4 ✆
✔ = ☛ ✡ ✕
2 2 ☞
y dx 2 ✌ ( x ✕ 3) x ✡ 4 3 x ✡ 4x ✡ 5 ✍

dy y✗ 1 2x 6x ✖ 4 ✘
✖ ✙
or = ✚ 2 2 ✛
dx 2 ✜ ( x ✙ 3) x ✖ 4 3 x ✖ 4x ✖ 5✢

1 ( x ✣ 3) ( x 2 ✤ 4) ✥ 1 2x 6x ✤ 4 ✦
= 2
✤
2
✣
2
2 3 x ✤ 4 x ✤ 5 ✩ ( x ✣ 3) x ✤ 4 3 x ✤ 4 x ✤ 5 ★✪
✧

Example 31 Differentiate ax w.r.t. x, where a is a positive constant.

Solution Let y = ax. Then
log y = x log a
Differentiating both sides w.r.t. x, we have
1 dy
y dx = log a
176 MATHEMATICS

dy
or = y log a
dx
d x
Thus (a ) = ax log a
dx
d x d x log a d
Alternatively (a ) = (e ) e x log a ( x log a)
dx dx dx
= ex log a . log a = ax log a.
Example 32 Differentiate xsin x, x > 0 w.r.t. x.
Solution Let y = xsin x. Taking logarithm on both sides, we have
log y = sin x log x
1 dy d d
Therefore . sin x (log x ) ✁ log x (sin x )
y dx = dx dx
1 dy 1
or (sin x) ✂ log x cos x
y dx = x
dy ✄ sin x cos x log x ☎
or = y✝ ✆ ✞✠
dx ✟ x
✄ sin x ☎
sin x
= x ✝ ✆ cos x log x ✞
✟ x ✠
= xsin x✡1 ☛ sin x ☞ x sin x ☛ cos x log x

dy
Example 33 Find , if yx + xy + xx = ab.
dx
Solution Given that yx + xy + xx = ab.
Putting u = yx, v = xy and w = xx, we get u + v + w = ab
du dv dw
Therefore ✂ ✂ 0 ... (1)
dx dx dx
Now, u = yx. Taking logarithm on both sides, we have
log u = x log y
Differentiating both sides w.r.t. x, we have
 CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY 177

1 du d d
= x (log y ) ✁ log y ( x)
u dx dx dx
1 dy
= x ✂ ✄ log y ✂ 1
y dx

du ☎ x dy ✆ x ✝ x dy ✞
✟ log y ✠ y ✟ log y
So = u✡ ☛ ☞ ✌ ... (2)
dx ✍ y dx ✎ ✏ y dx ✑

Also v = xy
Taking logarithm on both sides, we have
log v = y log x
Differentiating both sides w.r.t. x, we have
1 dv d dy
✒ = y (log x) ✓ log x
v dx dx dx
1 dy
= y ✁ log x
x dx
dv ✔ y dy ✕
So = v ✗ ✖ log x ✘
dx ✙ x dx ✚

y ✔ y dy ✕
= x ✗ ✖ log x ... (3)
✙ x dx ✘✚
Again w = xx
Taking logarithm on both sides, we have
log w = x log x.
Differentiating both sides w.r.t. x, we have
1 dw d d
✒ = x (log x) ✓ log x ✒ ( x)
w dx dx dx

1
= x✒ ✓ log x ✒ 1
x

dw
i.e. = w (1 + log x)
dx
= xx (1 + log x) ... (4)
178 MATHEMATICS

From (1), (2), (3), (4), we have

x dy ✁ y y dy ✁
yx ✄ ✂ log y ✂ x ✄
☎
✂ log x ☎ + xx (1 + log x) = 0
✆ y dx ✝ ✆ x dx ✝
dy
or (x . yx – 1 + xy . log x) = – xx (1 + log x) – y . xy–1 – yx log y
dx
dy ✟[y
x
log y ✠ y . x y ✞1 ✠ x x (1 ✠ log x)]
Therefore =
dx x . y x ✞1 ✠ x y log x

EXERCISE 5.5
Differentiate the functions given in Exercises 1 to 11 w.r.t. x.

( x ✡ 1) ( x ✡ 2)
1. cos x . cos 2x . cos 3x 2.
( x ✡ 3) ( x ✡ 4) ( x ✡ 5)
3. (log x)cos x 4. xx – 2sin x
x ☛ 1✌ 1 ☞
✒ 1✓ ✍ x✎
2 3
5. (x + 3) . (x + 4) . (x + 5) 4
6. ✔x✠ ✕ ✠ x✏ ✑
✖ x✗
7. (log x)x + xlog x 8. (sin x)x + sin–1 x
x2 ✘ 1
9. xsin x + (sin x)cos x 10. x x cos x ✘
x2 ✙ 1
1
11. (x cos x)x + ( x sin x) x
dy
Find of the functions given in Exercises 12 to 15.
dx
12. xy + yx = 1 13. yx = xy
14. (cos x)y = (cos y)x 15. xy = e(x – y)
16. Find the derivative of the function given by f (x) = (1 + x) (1 + x2) (1 + x4) (1 + x8)
and hence find f ✚(1).
17. Differentiate (x2 – 5x + 8) (x3 + 7x + 9) in three ways mentioned below:
(i) by using product rule
(ii) by expanding the product to obtain a single polynomial.
(iii) by logarithmic differentiation.
Do they all give the same answer?
 CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY 179

18. If u, v and w are functions of x, then show that

d du dv dw
(u. v. w) = v. w + u . .w+u.v
dx dx dx dx
in two ways - first by repeated application of product rule, second by logarithmic
differentiation.
5.6 Derivatives of Functions in Parametric Forms
Sometimes the relation between two variables is neither explicit nor implicit, but some
link of a third variable with each of the two variables, separately, establishes a relation
between the first two variables. In such a situation, we say that the relation between
them is expressed via a third variable. The third variable is called the parameter. More
precisely, a relation expressed between two variables x and y in the form
x = f (t), y = g (t) is said to be parametric form with t as a parameter.
In order to find derivative of function in such form, we have by chain rule.
dy dy dx
=
dt dx dt

dy
dy dx
= dt
✁ ✂
or ☎ whenever ✄ 0✆
dx dx ✝ dt ✞

dt

dy g ✟(t ) ✠ dy dx ✡
Thus = ☞ as ☛ g ✟(t ) and ☛ f ✟(t ) ✌ [provided f ✏(t) ✑ 0]
dx f ✟(t ) ✍ dt dt ✎

dy
Example 34 Find , if x = a cos ✒, y = a sin ✒.
dx
Solution Given that
x = a cos ✒, y = a sin ✒

dx dy
Therefore = – a sin ✒, = a cos ✒
d✓ d✓

dy
dy d✔ a cos ✔
Hence = ✕ ✕ ✖ cot ✔
dx dx ✖ a sin ✔

d✔
180 MATHEMATICS

dy
Example 35 Find , if x = at2, y = 2at.
dx
Solution Given that x = at2, y = 2at
dx dy
So = 2at and = 2a
dt dt
dy
dy dt 2a 1
Therefore =
dx dx 2at t
dt

dy
Example 36 Find , if x = a (✍ + sin ✍ ), y = a (1 – cos ✍).
dx
dx dy
Solution We have = a(1 + cos ✍ ), = a (sin ✍)
d✁ d✁
dy
dy d✂ a sin ✂ ✂
Therefore = tan
dx dx a (1 ✄ cos ✂) 2
d✂

dy
☎Note It may be noted here that dx is expressed in terms of parameter only
without directly involving the main variables x and y.
2 2 2
Example 37 Find dy , if x 3 ✆ y 3 ✝ a 3 .
dx
Solution Let x = a cos3 ✍ , y = a sin3 ✍. Then
2 2 2 2
x 3 ✞ y 3 = (a cos ✟) 3 ✠ ( a sin ✟) 3
3 3

2 2

= a 3 (cos ✟ ✠ (sin ✟) ✡ a 3
2 2

2 2 2
Hence, x = a cos3 ✍, y = a sin3 ✍ is parametric equation of x 3 ✞ y 3 ☛ a 3
dx dy
Now = – 3a cos2 ✍ sin ✍ and = 3a sin2 ✍ cos ✍
d✁ d✁
 CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY 181

dy
2
dy d ✁ 3a sin cos ✁ ✂ tan ✁ ✂ 3
y
Therefore =
dx dx ✂ 3a cos 2 sin x
d

✄Note Had we proceeded in implicit way, it would have been quite tedious.

EXERCISE 5.6
If x and y are connected parametrically by the equations given in Exercises 1 to 10,
dy
without eliminating the parameter, Find .
dx
1. x = 2at2, y = at4 2. x = a cos ✍, y = b cos ✍
4
3. x = sin t, y = cos 2t 4. x = 4t, y =
t
5. x = cos ✍ – cos 2✍, y = sin ✍ – sin 2✍
sin 3 t cos3 t
6. x = a (✍ – sin ✍), y = a (1 + cos ✍) 7. x = , y☎
cos 2t cos 2t

✆ t✝
8.x ✞ a ✠ cos t ✟ log tan ✡ y = a sin t 9. x = a sec ✍, y = b tan ✍
☛ 2☞
10. x = a (cos ✍ + ✍ sin ✍), y = a (sin ✍ – ✍ cos ✍ )
✌1 ✌1 dy y
11. If x ✎ a sin t , y ✎ a cos t , show that ✎✏
dx x
5.7 Second Order Derivative
Let y = f (x). Then
dy
= f ✑ (x) ... (1)
dx
If f ✑(x) is differentiable, we may differentiate (1) again w.r.t. x. Then, the left hand
d ✒ dy ✓
side becomes ✔ ✕ which is called the second order derivative of y w.r.t. x and
dx ✖ dx ✗

d2y
is denoted by . The second order derivative of f (x) is denoted by f ✘(x). It is also
dx 2
182 MATHEMATICS

denoted by D2 y or y✎ or y2 if y = f (x). We remark that higher order derivatives may be

defined similarly.
d2y
Example 38 Find , if y = x3 + tan x.
dx 2
Solution Given that y = x3 + tan x. Then
dy
= 3x2 + sec2 x
dx
d2y d
Therefore = 3x 2 ✂ sec 2 x ✁
dx 2 dx
= 6x + 2 sec x . sec x tan x = 6x + 2 sec2 x tan x
d2y
Example 39 If y = A sin x + B cos x, then prove that ✄ y☎0.
dx 2
Solution We have
dy
= A cos x – B sin x
dx
d2y d
and 2 = (A cos x – B sin x)
dx dx
= – A sin x – B cos x = – y
d2y
Hence +y=0
dx 2
d2y dy
Example 40 If y = 3e2x + 2e3x, prove that ✆5 ✝ 6y ✞ 0 .
dx2 dx
Solution Given that y = 3e2x + 2e3x. Then
dy
= 6e2x + 6e3x = 6 (e2x + e3x)
dx
d2y
Therefore = 12e2x + 18e3x = 6 (2e2x + 3e3x)
dx 2

d2y dy
Hence ✆5 + 6y = 6 (2e2x + 3e3x)
2
dx dx
– 30 (e2x + e3x) + 6 (3e2x + 2e3x) = 0
 CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY 183

d2y dy
Example 41 If y = sin–1 x, show that (1 – x2) x ✁0.
dx 2 dx
Solution We have y = sin–1 x. Then
dy 1
=
dx (1 ✂ x 2 )

dy
or (1 ✄ x 2 ) ☎1
dx
d ✆ dy ✝
✠ (1 ✞ x ) . ✡ ✟ 0
2
So
dx ☛ dx ☞

d 2 y dy d
or (1 x 2 ) ✎ ✏ ✎ ✌ (1 x 2 ) ✍ ✁ 0
dx 2 dx dx

d 2 y dy 2x
or (1 ✑ x 2 ) ✒ 2
✑ ✒ ✓0
dx dx 2 1 ✑ x 2

d2y dy
Hence (1 x 2 ) 2
x ✁0
dx dx
Alternatively, Given that y = sin–1 x, we have
1
y1 ✔ , i.e., ✖1 ✘ x 2 ✗ y 2 ✙ 1
1 ✕ x2 1

So (1 ✑ x 2 ) . 2 y1 y2 ✚ y12 (0 ✑ 2 x) ✓ 0
Hence (1 – x2) y2 – xy1 = 0

EXERCISE 5.7
Find the second order derivatives of the functions given in Exercises 1 to 10.
1. x2 + 3x + 2 2. x 20 3. x . cos x
3
4. log x 5. x log x 6. ex sin 5x
7. e6x cos 3x 8. tan–1 x 9. log (log x)
10. sin (log x)
d2y
11. If y = 5 cos x – 3 sin x, prove that ✏ y✁0
dx 2
184 MATHEMATICS

d2y
12. If y = cos–1 x, Find in terms of y alone.
dx 2
13. If y = 3 cos (log x) + 4 sin (log x), show that x2 y2 + xy1 + y = 0

d2y dy
14. If y = Aemx + Benx, show that (m ✁ n ) ✁ mny ✂ 0
dx2 dx

d2y
7x – 7x
15. If y = 500e + 600e , show that ✄ 49 y
dx 2
2
d 2 y ☎ dy ✆
y
16. If e (x + 1) = 1, show that ✝✞ ✟
dx 2 ✠ dx ✡
17. If y = (tan–1 x)2, show that (x2 + 1)2 y2 + 2x (x2 + 1) y1 = 2

5.8 Mean Value Theorem

In this section, we will state two fundamental results in Calculus without proof. We
shall also learn the geometric interpretation of these theorems.
Theorem 6 (Rolle’s Theorem) Let f : [a, b] ☛ R be continuous on [a, b] and
differentiable on (a, b), such that f(a) = f(b), where a and b are some real numbers.
Then there exists some c in (a, b) such that f ☞(c) = 0.
In Fig 5.12 and 5.13, graphs of a few typical differentiable functions satisfying the
hypothesis of Rolle’s theorem are given.

Fig 5.12 Fig 5.13

Observe what happens to the slope of the tangent to the curve at various points
between a and b. In each of the graphs, the slope becomes zero at least at one point.
That is precisely the claim of the Rolle’s theorem as the slope of the tangent at any
point on the graph of y = f (x) is nothing but the derivative of f (x) at that point.
 CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY 185

Theorem 7 (Mean Value Theorem) Let f : [a, b] ✞ R be a continuous function on

[a, b] and differentiable on (a, b). Then there exists some c in (a, b) such that
f (b) f (a )
f ✁( c) ✂
b a
Observe that the Mean Value Theorem (MVT) is an extension of Rolle’s theorem.
Let us now understand a geometric interpretation of the MVT. The graph of a function
y = f(x) is given in the Fig 5.14. We have already interpreted f ✠(c) as the slope of the
f (b) f (a)
tangent to the curve y = f (x) at (c, f (c)). From the Fig 5.14 it is clear that
b a
is the slope of the secant drawn between (a, f (a)) and (b, f (b)). The MVT states that
there is a point c in (a, b) such that the slope of the tangent at (c, f(c)) is same as the
slope of the secant between (a, f (a)) and (b, f (b)). In other words, there is a point c in
(a, b) such that the tangent at (c, f (c)) is parallel to the secant between (a, f (a)) and
(b, f (b)).

Fig 5.14

Example 42 Verify Rolle’s theorem for the function y = x2 + 2, a = – 2 and b = 2.

Solution The function y = x2 + 2 is continuous in [– 2, 2] and differentiable in (– 2, 2).

Also f (– 2) = f ( 2) = 6 and hence the value of f (x) at – 2 and 2 coincide. Rolle’s
theorem states that there is a point c ✆ (– 2, 2), where f✄ (c) = 0. Since f✄ (x) = 2x, we
get c = 0. Thus at c = 0, we have f✄ (c) = 0 and c = 0 ✆ (– 2, 2).
Example 43 Verify Mean Value Theorem for the function f (x) = x2 in the interval [2, 4].

Solution The function f (x) = x2 is continuous in [2, 4] and differentiable in (2, 4) as its
derivative f ✄ (x) = 2x is defined in (2, 4).
186 MATHEMATICS

Now, f (2) = 4 and f (4) = 16. Hence

f (b) f (a ) 16 4
✁ ✁6
b a 4 2
MVT states that there is a point c ✆ (2, 4) such that f ✠ (c) = 6. But f ✠ (x) = 2x which
implies c = 3. Thus at c = 3 ✆ (2, 4), we have f ✠ (c) = 6.

EXERCISE 5.8
1. Verify Rolle’s theorem for the function f (x) = x2 + 2x – 8, x ✆ [– 4, 2].
2. Examine if Rolle’s theorem is applicable to any of the following functions. Can
you say some thing about the converse of Rolle’s theorem from these example?
(i) f (x) = [x] for x ✆ [5, 9] (ii) f (x) = [x] for x ✆ [– 2, 2]
(iii) f (x) = x – 1 for x ✆ [1, 2]
2

3. If f : [– 5, 5] ✞ R is a differentiable function and if f ✂(x) does not vanish

anywhere, then prove that f (– 5) ✄ f (5).
4. Verify Mean Value Theorem, if f (x) = x2 – 4x – 3 in the interval [a, b], where
a = 1 and b = 4.
5. Verify Mean Value Theorem, if f (x) = x3 – 5x2 – 3x in the interval [a, b], where
a = 1 and b = 3. Find all c ✆ (1, 3) for which f ✂ (c) = 0.
6. Examine the applicability of Mean Value Theorem for all three functions given in
the above exercise 2.

Miscellaneous Examples
Example 44 Differentiate w.r.t. x, the following function:
1
3x ☎ 2 ☎
2
(i) (ii) esec x ✝ 3cos –1 x (iii) log7 (log x)
2x ☎ 4
2

Solution
1 1
✟ 12
(i) Let y = 3x ☎ 2 ☎ = (3x ✡ 2) 2 ✡ (2 x ✡ 4)
2

2 x2 ☎ 4
2
Note that this function is defined at all real numbers x ☛ . Therefore
3
dy 1
1
☞1 d ✌ 1✍ ☞ 1 ☞1 d
= (3x ☎ 2) 2 ✎ (3x ☎ 2) ☎ ✑ ✏ ✒ (2 x 2 ☎ 4) 2 ✎ (2 x 2 ☎ 4)
dx 2 dx ✓ 2✔ dx
 CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY 187

1 3
1 2 ☎ (3) ✆ ✁
1✂ 2 2 ☎ 4x
= (3x ✄ 2) ✝ ✞ (2 x ✄ 4)
✟ 2✠
2
3 2x
= ☞
3
2 3x ✌ 2
✡ 2 x2 ✌ 4☛ 2

2
This is defined for all real numbers x ✍ ✎ .
3
sec 2
x ✏1
(ii) Let y ✑ e ✒ 3cos x
This is defined at every real number in [ ✕1,1] ✕ ✓0✔ . Therefore

dy sec2 x d ✖ 1 ✗
= e ✘ (sec 2 x ) ✙ 3 ✛ ✚ ✜
dx dx ✢ 1 ✚ x2 ✣

sec 2
x ✖ d ✗ ✖ 1 ✗
= e ✘ ✛ 2sec x (sec x)✜ ✙3 ✚
✢ dx ✣ ✛ 2✜
✢ 1✚ x ✣

sec 2
x ✖ 1 ✗
= 2sec x (sec x tan x ) e ✙ 3 ✛✚
2 ✜
✢ 1✚ x ✣

2 sec 2
x ✤ 1 ✥
= 2sec x tan x e ✦ 3 ★✧
2 ✩
✪ 1✧ x ✫

Observe that the derivative of the given function is valid only in [ ✕1,1] ✕ ✓0✔ as
the derivative of cos–1 x exists only in (– 1, 1) and the function itself is not
defined at 0.
log (log x)
(iii) Let y = log7 (log x) = (by change of base formula).
log 7
The function is defined for all real numbers x > 1. Therefore
dy 1 d
= (log (log x))
dx log 7 dx
1 1 d
= ✬ (log x )
log 7 log x dx
1
=
x log 7 log x
188 MATHEMATICS

Example 45 Differentiate the following w.r.t. x.

1✁ sin x ✂ ✡ 2 x ✟1 ☛
(i) cos – 1 (sin x) (ii) tan ✄ ☎ (iii) sin ✠1 ☞ x ✌
✝1✆ cos x ✞ ✎ 1✍ 4 ✏

Solution
(i) Let f (x) = cos – 1 (sin x). Observe that this function is defined for all real numbers.
We may rewrite this function as
f (x) = cos –1 (sin x)
✑1 ✒ ✕✔ ✖✓
= cos ✚ cos ✘✜ ✗ x✙ ✛
✢✤
✣ 2
✥
=✦x
2
Thus f ✧ (x) = – 1.
✁ sin x ✂
(ii) Let f (x) = tan – 1 ✄ ☎ . Observe that this function is defined for all real
✝ 1 ✆ cos x ✞

numbers, where cos x ★ – 1; i.e., at all odd multiplies of ✩. We may rewrite this
function as

1✁ sin x ✂
f (x) = tan ✄ ☎
✝ 1✆ cos x ✞
✫ ✭ x✮ ✭ x ✮✬
✱
2 sin ✯ ✰ cos ✯ ✰
✪1 ✳2✴ ✳ 2 ✴✲
= tan ✱ ✲
✱
x ✲
2cos 2
✱
✵ 2 ✲
✶

✑1 ✒ ✕ x ✖✓ x
= tan ✚ tan ✘ ✙ ✷
✣ ✜ 2 ✢ ✛✤ 2
✸ x✹
Observe that we could cancel cos ✺ ✻ in both numerator and denominator as it
✼ 2✽
1.
is not equal to zero. Thus f ✧(x) =
2
✕2x ✾ 1 ✖
(iii) Let f (x) = sin – 1 ✘ x ✙
. To find the domain of this function we need to find all
✜1✿ 4 ✢

2 x ❀1
x such that ❁1 ❂ ❂ 1. Since the quantity in the middle is always positive,
1 ❃ 4x
 CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY 189

2x 1
we need to find all x such that ✁ 1 , i.e., all x such that 2x + 1 ✏ 1 + 4x. We
1✂ 4x
1
may rewrite this as 2 ✏ + 2x which is true for all x. Hence the function
2x
is defined at every real number. By putting 2x = tan ✍, this function may be
rewritten as

☎1 ✆ 2x ✄ 1 ✝
f (x) = sin ✞ x✟
✡1 ✠ 4 ☛

✎1 ✑ 2x ✓ 2 ✒
= sin ✔ x 2
✕
✔1 ✖ ☞ 2 ✌ ✘
✗ ✕

✙1 ✛ 2 tan ✚ ✜
= sin ✢ 2 ✣
✥ 1 ✤ tan ✚ ✦

= sin –1 [sin 2✍]

= 2✍ = 2 tan – 1 (2x)
1 d
Thus f ✧ (x) = 2 ✪ ✪ (2 x )
x ✩2 dx
1✫ ★2
2 x
= ✬ (2 )log 2
1 ✭ 4x
2 x ✮ 1 log 2
=
1 ✤ 4x
Example 46 Find f ✧(x) if f (x) = (sin x)sin x for all 0 < x < ✯.
Solution The function y = (sin x)sin x is defined for all positive real numbers. Taking
logarithms, we have
log y = log (sin x)sin x = sin x log (sin x)
1 dy d
Then = (sin x log (sin x))
y dx dx

1 d
= cos x log (sin x) + sin x . ✰ (sin x)
sin x dx
= cos x log (sin x) + cos x
= (1 + log (sin x)) cos x
190 MATHEMATICS

dy
Thus = y((1 + log (sin x)) cos x) = (1 + log (sin x)) ( sin x)sin x cos x
dx
dy
Example 47 For a positive constant a find , where
dx
1 a
t
t,
1✂ ✁
y✄a ✝ and x ✄ ✆ t ☎
✞ t✟
Solution Observe that both y and x are defined for all real t ✠ 0. Clearly
1
dy d t ☞1 t
t
d ✁ 1✂
= ✡a t ☛ = a ✆ t ☎ ✝ ✌ log a
dt dt dt ✞ t ✟
1
t✍ ✎ 1✏
t 1✑
= a ✒ ✓ log a
✔ t2 ✕
a ✖1
dx ✗ 1✘ d ✙ 1✚
Similarly = a ✤t ✛ ✥ ✜ ✢t ✛ ✣
dt ✦ t✧ dt ★ t ✩
a ✪1
✫ 1✬ ✭ 1✮
= a ✴t ✯ ✰ ✲1 ✱ ✳
✶ t ✵✷ ✸ t2 ✹
dx
✠ 0 only if t ✠ ± 1. Thus for t ✠ ± 1,
dt
1
t✻ ✽ 1✾
dy a t ❀ 1 ✿ 2 ❁ log a
dy dt ❂ t ❃
✺ = a ✼1
dx dx ❄ 1❅ ✽ 1✾
dt a ❈t ❆ ❉ ❇ ❀1 ✿ 2 ❁
❊ t❋ ❂ t ❃
1
t●
a t log a
= a ❍1
■ 1❏
a▲ t ❑ ▼
◆ t❖
Example 48 Differentiate sin2 x w.r.t. e cos x.

Solution Let u (x) = sin2 x and v (x) = e cos x. We want to find du du / dx . Clearly
P
dv dv / dx
du dv
= 2 sin x cos x and = e cos x (– sin x) = – (sin x) e cos x
dx dx
 CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY 191

du 2sin x cos x 2cos x

Thus = ✁
dv ✁ sin x e cos x ecos x

Miscellaneous Exercise on Chapter 5

Differentiate w.r.t. x the function in Exercises 1 to 11.
1. (3x2 – 9x + 5)9 2. sin3 x + cos6 x
3. (5x) 3 cos 2x 4. sin–1(x x ), 0 ✏ x ✏ 1

cos ✂1
x
5. 2 ,–2<x<2
2x ✄ 7
✆ 1 ✞ sin x ✞ 1 ✟ sin x ✝ ✌
6. cot ☎1 ✠ ✡,0<x<
☛ 1 ✞ sin x ✟ 1 ✟ sin x ☞ 2
7. (log x)log x, x > 1
8. cos (a cos x + b sin x), for some constant a and b.
✌ 3✌
9. (sin x – cos x) (sin x – cos x), ✍ x ✍
4 4
10. xx + xa + ax + aa, for some fixed a > 0 and x > 0
x x ✒3 ✓ ✎ x ✔ 3✑ , for x > 3
2 x2
11.
dy ✌ ✌
12. Find , if y = 12 (1 – cos t), x = 10 (t – sin t), ✕ ✍ t ✍
dx 2 2
dy
13. Find , if y = sin–1 x + sin–1 1 ✖ x 2 , – 1 ✏ x ✏ 1
dx
14. If x 1 ✗ y ✗ y 1 ✗ x ✘ 0 , for , – 1 < x < 1, prove that
dy 1
✛✜
dx ✙1 ✢ x ✚ 2
15. If (x – a)2 + (y – b)2 = c2, for some c > 0, prove that
3
✣ ✥ dy ✦ 2 ✤ 2
★1 ✧ ✪ ✫ ✩
✮ ✬ dx ✭ ✯
d2y
dx 2
is a constant independent of a and b.
192 MATHEMATICS

dy cos2 ( a y )
16. If cos y = x cos (a + y), with cos a ✂ ± 1, prove that ✁ .
dx sin a

d2y
17. If x = a (cos t + t sin t) and y = a (sin t – t cos t), find .
dx 2
18. If f (x) = | x |3, show that f ✎(x) exists for all real x and find it.

x ✝ nx n✆1 for all positive

d ✄ n☎
19. Using mathematical induction prove that
dx
integers n.
20. Using the fact that sin (A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B and the differentiation,
obtain the sum formula for cosines.
21. Does there exist a function which is continuous everywhere but not differentiable
at exactly two points? Justify your answer.

f ( x ) g ( x ) h( x ) f ✟( x ) g✟( x) h✟( x)
dy
22. If y ✞ l m n , prove that ✞ l m n
dx
a b c a b c

23. If y = ea cos✠ x , – 1 ✏ x ✏ 1, show that ✡1 ☞ x 2 ☛ d y ☞ x dy ☞ a 2 y ✌ 0 .

2
1

dx 2 dx

Summary
✍ A real valued function is continuous at a point in its domain if the limit of the
function at that point equals the value of the function at that point. A function
is continuous if it is continuous on the whole of its domain.
✍ Sum, difference, product and quotient of continuous functions are continuous.
i.e., if f and g are continuous functions, then
(f ± g) (x) = f (x) ± g (x) is continuous.
(f . g) (x) = f (x) . g (x) is continuous.

✑f✒ f ( x)
✔ g ✕ ( x) ✓ g ( x) (wherever g (x) ✂ 0) is continuous.
✖ ✗
✍ Every differentiable function is continuous, but the converse is not true.
 CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY 193

Chain rule is rule to differentiate composites of functions. If f = v o u, t = u (x)

dt dv
and if both and exist then
dx dt
df dv dt
dx dt dx
✁ ✂
Following are some of the standard derivatives (in appropriate domains):
d ✄ ✆ ☎✝
sin 1 x
1 d ✟ ✆ ✠✝✞
cos 1 x
1
dx ✞
1 x 2 dx ✞
1 x2
d ✡ ☞ ☛✌ 1 d ✡ ☞ ☛ ✌ ✎1
1✍ x 1✍ x
tan 1 x 2
cot 1 x 2
dx dx
d ✏ ✒ ✑
sec x ✓
1 1 d ✕
cosec✒ x ✖ ✓
1 ✔1
dx x 1✔ x 2 dx x 1✔ x 2

d ✗ ✘
e ✙e ✚ log x ✛ ✙ 1x
x x d
dx dx
Logarithmic differentiation is a powerful technique to differentiate functions
of the form f (x) = [u (x)]v (x). Here both f (x) and u (x) need to be positive for
this technique to make sense.
✜
Rolle’s Theorem: If f : [a, b] R is continuous on [a, b] and differentiable
on (a, b) such that f (a) = f (b), then there exists some c in (a, b) such that
✢
f (c) = 0.
Mean Value Theorem: If f : [a, b] ✜
R is continuous on [a, b] and
differentiable on (a, b). Then there exists some c in (a, b) such that

✤ ✁ f (bb) ✣✣ af (a)
f ( c)

—✥ —
 Chapter 6
APPLICATION OF
DERIVATIVES
With the Calculus as a key, Mathematics can be successfully applied
to the explanation of the course of Nature.” — WHITEHEAD

6.1 Introduction
In Chapter 5, we have learnt how to find derivative of composite functions, inverse
trigonometric functions, implicit functions, exponential functions and logarithmic functions.
In this chapter, we will study applications of the derivative in various disciplines, e.g., in
engineering, science, social science, and many other fields. For instance, we will learn
how the derivative can be used (i) to determine rate of change of quantities, (ii) to find
the equations of tangent and normal to a curve at a point, (iii) to find turning points on
the graph of a function which in turn will help us to locate points at which largest or
smallest value (locally) of a function occurs. We will also use derivative to find intervals
on which a function is increasing or decreasing. Finally, we use the derivative to find
approximate value of certain quantities.
6.2 Rate of Change of Quantities
ds
Recall that by the derivative , we mean the rate of change of distance s with
dt
respect to the time t. In a similar fashion, whenever one quantity y varies with another

quantity x, satisfying some rule y ✁ f (x) , then dydx (or f ✂(x)) represents the rate of
dy ☎
change of y with respect to x and dx ✆✝ ✄ (or f ✂(x )) represents the rate of change
x x0
0

✞
of y with respect to x at x x0 .
Further, if two variables x and y are varying with respect to another variable t, i.e.,
✁ ✁
if x f (t ) and y g (t ) , then by Chain Rule
dy
dx
=
dy
dt
dx
dt
, if
dx
dt
✟0
 APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES 195

Thus, the rate of change of y with respect to x can be calculated using the rate of
change of y and that of x both with respect to t.
Let us consider some examples.
Example 1 Find the rate of change of the area of a circle per second with respect to
its radius r when r = 5 cm.
Solution The area A of a circle with radius r is given by A = ✄r2. Therefore, the rate
dA d
of change of the area A with respect to its radius r is given by ( ✁ r 2 ) 2✁ r .
dr dr
dA
When r = 5 cm, ✂ 10☎ . Thus, the area of the circle is changing at the rate of
dr
10✄ cm2/s.
Example 2 The volume of a cube is increasing at a rate of 9 cubic centimetres per
second. How fast is the surface area increasing when the length of an edge is 10
centimetres ?
Solution Let x be the length of a side, V be the volume and S be the surface area of
the cube. Then, V = x3 and S = 6x2, where x is a function of time t.
dV
Now = 9cm3/s (Given)
dt
dV d 3 d 3 dx
Therefore 9= (x ) (x ) ✆ (By Chain Rule)
dt dt dx dt
dx
= 3x ✆
2
dt
dx 3
or = 2 ... (1)
dt x
dS d d dx
Now = (6 x 2 ) ✂ (6 x 2 ) ✝ (By Chain Rule)
dt dt dx dt

✞ 3 ✟ 36
= 12x ✠ ☛ ☞✡ (Using (1))
✌ x2 ✍ x
dS
Hence, when x = 10 cm, 3.6 cm 2 /s
dt
196 MATHEMATICS

Example 3 A stone is dropped into a quiet lake and waves move in circles at a speed
of 4cm per second. At the instant, when the radius of the circular wave is 10 cm, how
fast is the enclosed area increasing?
Solution The area A of a circle with radius r is given by A = ✄r2. Therefore, the rate
of change of area A with respect to time t is
dA d d dr dr
= ( r2 ) ✁ ( r2) ✂ = 2✄ r (By Chain Rule)
dt dt dr dt dt
dr
It is given that = 4cm/s
dt
dA
Therefore, when r = 10 cm, = 2✄ (10) (4) = 80✄
dt
Thus, the enclosed area is increasing at the rate of 80✄ cm2/s, when r = 10 cm.
dy
☎Note dx is positive if y increases as x increases and is negative if y decreases
as x increases.

Example 4 The length x of a rectangle is decreasing at the rate of 3 cm/minute and

the width y is increasing at the rate of 2cm/minute. When x =10cm and y = 6cm, find
the rates of change of (a) the perimeter and (b) the area of the rectangle.
Solution Since the length x is decreasing and the width y is increasing with respect to
time, we have
dx dy
✁ ✆3 cm/min and ✁ 2 cm/min
dt dt
(a) The perimeter P of a rectangle is given by
P = 2 (x + y)
dP ✝ dx dy ✞
Therefore = 2 ☛ ✟ ☞ ✠ 2 (✡3 ✟ 2) ✠ ✡2 cm/min
dt ✌ dt dt ✍
(b) The area A of the rectangle is given by
A=x . y
dA dx dy
Therefore = ✂ y ✎ x✂
dt dt dt
= – 3(6) + 10(2) (as x = 10 cm and y = 6 cm)
= 2 cm2/min
 APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES 197

Example 5 The total cost C(x) in Rupees, associated with the production of x units of
an item is given by
C (x) = 0.005 x3 – 0.02 x2 + 30x + 5000
Find the marginal cost when 3 units are produced, where by marginal cost we
mean the instantaneous rate of change of total cost at any level of output.
Solution Since marginal cost is the rate of change of total cost with respect to the
output, we have
dC
Marginal cost (MC) = 0.005(3x 2 ) ✁ 0.02(2 x ) ✂ 30
dx
x = 3, MC = 0.015(3 ) ✄ 0.04(3) ☎ 30
2
When
= 0.135 – 0.12 + 30 = 30.015
Hence, the required marginal cost is Rs 30.02 (nearly).
Example 6 The total revenue in Rupees received from the sale of x units of a product
is given by R(x) = 3x2 + 36x + 5. Find the marginal revenue, when x = 5, where by
marginal revenue we mean the rate of change of total revenue with respect to the
number of items sold at an instant.
Solution Since marginal revenue is the rate of change of total revenue with respect to
the number of units sold, we have
dR
Marginal Revenue (MR) = 6 x ✂ 36
dx
When x = 5, MR = 6(5) + 36 = 66
Hence, the required marginal revenue is Rs 66.

EXERCISE 6.1
1. Find the rate of change of the area of a circle with respect to its radius r when
(a) r = 3 cm (b) r = 4 cm
2. The volume of a cube is increasing at the rate of 8 cm3/s. How fast is the
surface area increasing when the length of an edge is 12 cm?
3. The radius of a circle is increasing uniformly at the rate of 3 cm/s. Find the rate
at which the area of the circle is increasing when the radius is 10 cm.
4. An edge of a variable cube is increasing at the rate of 3 cm/s. How fast is the
volume of the cube increasing when the edge is 10 cm long?
5. A stone is dropped into a quiet lake and waves move in circles at the speed of
5 cm/s. At the instant when the radius of the circular wave is 8 cm, how fast is
the enclosed area increasing?
198 MATHEMATICS

6. The radius of a circle is increasing at the rate of 0.7 cm/s. What is the rate of
increase of its circumference?
7. The length x of a rectangle is decreasing at the rate of 5 cm/minute and the
width y is increasing at the rate of 4 cm/minute. When x = 8cm and y = 6cm, find
the rates of change of (a) the perimeter, and (b) the area of the rectangle.
8. A balloon, which always remains spherical on inflation, is being inflated by pumping
in 900 cubic centimetres of gas per second. Find the rate at which the radius of
the balloon increases when the radius is 15 cm.
9. A balloon, which always remains spherical has a variable radius. Find the rate at
which its volume is increasing with the radius when the later is 10 cm.
10. A ladder 5 m long is leaning against a wall. The bottom of the ladder is pulled
along the ground, away from the wall, at the rate of 2cm/s. How fast is its height
on the wall decreasing when the foot of the ladder is 4 m away from the wall ?
11. A particle moves along the curve 6y = x3 +2. Find the points on the curve at
which the y-coordinate is changing 8 times as fast as the x-coordinate.
1
12. The radius of an air bubble is increasing at the rate of cm/s. At what rate is the
2
volume of the bubble increasing when the radius is 1 cm?
3
13. A balloon, which always remains spherical, has a variable diameter (2 x 1) .
2
Find the rate of change of its volume with respect to x.
14. Sand is pouring from a pipe at the rate of 12 cm3/s. The falling sand forms a cone
on the ground in such a way that the height of the cone is always one-sixth of the
radius of the base. How fast is the height of the sand cone increasing when the
height is 4 cm?
15. The total cost C (x) in Rupees associated with the production of x units of an
item is given by
C (x) = 0.007x3 – 0.003x2 + 15x + 4000.
Find the marginal cost when 17 units are produced.
16. The total revenue in Rupees received from the sale of x units of a product is
given by
R (x) = 13x2 + 26x + 15.
Find the marginal revenue when x = 7.
Choose the correct answer in the Exercises 17 and 18.
17. The rate of change of the area of a circle with respect to its radius r at r = 6 cm is
(A) 10✄ (B) 12 ✄ (C) 8 ✄ (D) 11✄
 APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES 199

18. The total revenue in Rupees received from the sale of x units of a product is
given by
R(x) = 3x2 + 36x + 5. The marginal revenue, when x = 15 is
(A) 116 (B) 96 (C) 90 (D) 126
6.3 Increasing and Decreasing Functions
In this section, we will use differentiation to find out whether a function is increasing or
decreasing or none.
Consider the function f given by f (x) = x2, x ☎ R. The graph of this function is a
parabola as given in Fig 6.1.
Values left to origin Values right to origin
2
x f (x) = x x f (x) = x2

–2 4 0 0
3 9 1 1
2 4 2 4
–1 1 1 1
1 1 3 9
2 4 2 4
0 0 2 4
as we move from left to right, the as we move from left to right, the
height of the graph decreases height of the graph increases
Fig 6.1
First consider the graph (Fig 6.1) to the right of the origin. Observe that as we
move from left to right along the graph, the height of the graph continuously increases.
For this reason, the function is said to be increasing for the real numbers x > 0.
Now consider the graph to the left of the origin and observe here that as we move
from left to right along the graph, the height of the graph continuously decreases.
Consequently, the function is said to be decreasing for the real numbers x < 0.
We shall now give the following analytical definitions for a function which is
increasing or decreasing on an interval.
Definition 1 Let I be an open interval contained in the domain of a real valued function
f. Then f is said to be
(i) increasing on I if x1 < x2 in I ✆ f (x1) ✝ f (x2) for all x1, x2 ☎ I.
(ii) strictly increasing on I if x1 < x2 in I ✆ f (x1) < f (x2) for all x1, x2 ☎ I.
200 MATHEMATICS

(iii) decreasing on I if x1 < x2 in I ✆ f (x1) ✞ f (x2) for all x1, x2 ☎ I.

(iv) strictly decreasing on I if x1 < x2 in I ✆ f (x1) > f (x2) for all x1, x2 ☎ I.
For graphical representation of such functions see Fig 6.2.

Fig 6.2
We shall now define when a function is increasing or decreasing at a point.
Definition 2 Let x0 be a point in the domain of definition of a real valued function f.
Then f is said to be increasing, strictly increasing, decreasing or strictly decreasing at
x0 if there exists an open interval I containing x0 such that f is increasing, strictly
increasing, decreasing or strictly decreasing, respectively, in I.
Let us clarify this definition for the case of increasing function.
A function f is said to be increasing at x0 if there exists an interval I = (x0 – h, x0 + h),
h > 0 such that for x1, x2 ☎ I
x1 < x2 in I ✆ f (x1) ✝ f (x2)
Similarly, the other cases can be clarified.
Example 7 Show that the function given by f (x) = 7x – 3 is strictly increasing on R.
Solution Let x1 and x2 be any two numbers in R. Then
x1 < x2 ✆ 7x1 < 7x2 ✆ 7x1 – 3 < 7x2 – 3 ✆ f (x1) < f (x2)
 APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES 201

Thus, by Definition 1, it follows that f is strictly increasing on R.

We shall now give the first derivative test for increasing and decreasing functions.
The proof of this test requires the Mean Value Theorem studied in Chapter 5.
Theorem 1 Let f be continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on the open interval
(a,b). Then
(a) f is increasing in [a,b] if f ✂(x) > 0 for each x ☎ (a, b)
(b) f is decreasing in [a,b] if f ✂(x) < 0 for each x ☎ (a, b)
(c) f is a constant function in [a,b] if f ✂(x) = 0 for each x ☎ (a, b)
Proof (a) Let x1, x2 ☎ [a, b] be such that x1 < x2.
Then, by Mean Value Theorem (Theorem 8 in Chapter 5), there exists a point c
between x1 and x2 such that
f (x2) – f (x1) = f ✂(c) (x2 – x1)
i.e. f (x2) – f (x1) > 0 (as f ✂(c) > 0 (given))
i.e. f (x2) > f (x 1)
Thus, we have
x1 x2 ✁ f ( x1 ) f ( x2 ), for all x1 , x2 ✄[ a, b ]
Hence, f is an increasing function in [a,b].
The proofs of part (b) and (c) are similar. It is left as an exercise to the reader.
Remarks
(i) f is strictly increasing in (a, b) if f ✂(x) > 0 for each x ☎ (a, b)
(ii) f is strictly decreasing in (a, b) if f ✂(x) < 0 for each x ☎ (a, b)
(iii) A function will be increasing (decreasing) in R if it is so in every interval of R.

Example 8 Show that the function f given by

f (x) = x3 – 3x2 + 4x, x ☎ R
is strictly increasing on R.
Solution Note that
f ✂(x) = 3x2 – 6x + 4
= 3(x2 – 2x + 1) + 1
= 3(x – 1)2 + 1 > 0, in every interval of R
Therefore, the function f is strictly increasing on R.
202 MATHEMATICS

✄ ✄✄
Example 9 Prove that the function given by f (x) = cos x is
(a) strictly decreasing in (0, )
(b) strictly increasing in ( , 2 ), and

✂☎ ✄
(c) neither increasing nor decreasing in (0, 2 ). ✄
✄☎ ✄ ✄
Solution Note that f (x) = – sin x
✂
✂
(a) Since for each x (0, ), sin x > 0, we have f (x) < 0 and so f is strictly

✄✄
decreasing in (0, ).

✄
(b) Since for each x ( , 2 ), sin x < 0, we have f (x) > 0 and so f is strictly
increasing in ( , 2 ).
(c) Clearly by (a) and (b) above, f is neither increasing nor decreasing in (0, 2 ).

✄✄ ✄ ✄ ✄✄
Note One may note that the function in Example 9 is neither strictly increasing in
[ , 2 ] nor strictly decreasing in [0, ]. However, since the function is continuous at
✄
the end points 0 and , by Theorem 1, f is increasing in [ , 2 ] and decreasing in [0, ].

Example 10 Find the intervals in which the function f given by f (x) = x2 – 4x + 6 is

(a) strictly increasing (b) strictly decreasing

✂
Solution We have

✂
f (x) = x2 – 4x + 6

✟ ✟ ✟
or f (x) = 2x – 4

✂
Therefore, f (x) = 0 gives x = 2. Now the point x = 2 divides the real line into two
disjoint intervals namely, (– , 2) and (2, ) (Fig 6.3). In the interval (– , 2),
f (x) = 2x – 4 < 0.

✁ ✝ ✆
Therefore, f is strictly decreasing in this
interval. Also, in the interval (2, ) , f ( x ) 0
and so the function f is strictly increasing in this Fig 6.3
interval.

✟ ✟
Note Note that the given function is continuous at 2 which is the point joining
the two intervals. So, by Theorem 1, we conclude that the given function is decreasing
in (– , 2] and increasing in [2, ).

Example 11 Find the intervals in which the function f given by f (x) = 4x3 – 6x2 – 72x + 30
is (a) strictly increasing (b) strictly decreasing.
Solution We have
f (x) = 4x3 – 6x2 – 72x + 30
 APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES 203

or f ✂ (x) = 12x2 – 12x – 72

= 12(x2 – x – 6)
= 12(x – 3) (x + 2)
Therefore, f ✂(x) = 0 gives x = – 2, 3. The
points x = – 2 and x = 3 divides the real line into
three disjoint intervals, namely, (– ✟, – 2), (– 2, 3) Fig 6.4
and (3, ✟).
In the intervals (– ✟, – 2) and (3, ✟), f ✂(x) is positive while in the interval (– 2, 3),
f ✂(x) is negative. Consequently, the function f is strictly increasing in the intervals
(– ✟, – 2) and (3, ✟) while the function is strictly decreasing in the interval (– 2, 3).
However, f is neither increasing nor decreasing in R.

Interval Sign of f ✂(x) Nature of function f

(– ✟, – 2) (–) (–) > 0 f is strictly increasing

(– 2, 3) (–) (+) < 0 f is strictly decreasing

(3, ✟) (+) (+) > 0 f is strictly increasing

✁ ✄
Example 12 Find intervals in which the function given by f (x) = sin 3x, x ☎ ✆ 0, ✝ is
✞ 2✠
(a) increasing (b) decreasing.
Solution We have
f (x) = sin 3x
or f ✂ (x) = 3cos 3x
✡ 3✡ ✁ ✄
Therefore, f ✂(x) = 0 gives cos 3x = 0 which in turn gives 3x ☛ , (as x ☎ ✆ 0, ✝
2 2 ✞ 2✠
✁ 3 ✄ ☞ ☞ ☞ ✎ ✍✏
implies 3 x ☎ ✆ 0, ✝ ). So x ✌ and . The point x ✌ divides the interval ✑✓0, 2 ✒✔
✞ 2✠ 6 2 6
✁ ✕ ✘ ✍ ✍✏
into two disjoint intervals ✆ 0, ✖ and ✙ , ✒ .
✞ 6 ✗ ✚ 6 2✔
Fig 6.5
✁ ✕ ✡ ✡
Now, f ✜ ( x) ✛ 0 for all x ☎ ✆ 0, ✖ as 0 ✢ x ✣ ✤ 0 ✢ 3 x ✣ and f ✜ ( x) ✥ 0 for
✞ 6 ✗ 6 2
✧ ✦ ✦★ ✡ ✡ ✡ 3✡
all x ✩ ✪ , ✫ as ✣ x ✣ ✤ ✣ 3x ✣ .
✬6 2✭ 6 2 2 2
204 MATHEMATICS

✁ ✂ ✟ ✞,✞✠
Therefore, f is strictly increasing in ☎ 0, ✄ and strictly decreasing in ✡ ☛.
✆ 6✝ ☞ 6 2✌

✍
Also, the given function is continuous at x = 0 and x ✎ . Therefore, by Theorem 1,
6

✑ ✏✒ ✑✏ ✏✒
f is increasing on ✓ 0, ✔ and decreasing on ✓ , ✔ .
✕ 6✖ ✕ 6 2✖
Example 13 Find the intervals in which the function f given by
f (x) = sin x + cos x, 0 ✗ x ✗ 2✘
is strictly increasing or strictly decreasing.

Solution We have
f(x) = sin x + cos x,
or f ✙(x) = cos x – sin x
✍ 5✍
Now f ✛ ( x) ✚ 0 gives sin x = cos x which gives that x ✎ , as 0 ✜ x ✜ 2 ✢
4 4

✣ 5✣
The points x ✤ and x ✤ divide the interval [0, 2✘] into three disjoint intervals,
4 4

✁ ✂ ✥ 5 ✂ ★ 5✏ ✒
namely, ☎ 0, ✄ , ✦✧ , ✄✝ and ✩ , 2✏ ✔ .
✆ ✝ 4 4 4 ✪ 4 ✖
Fig 6.6
✁ ✂ ✥5 ✫
f ✬( x) ✭ 0 if x ✮ ☎0, ✄ ✯ ✦ , 2 ✰
Note that
✆ 4✝ ✧ 4 ✱

✁ ✂ ✥5 ✫
or f is strictly increasing in the intervals ☎0, ✄ and ✦ ,2 ✰
✆ 4✝ ✧ 4 ✱

✥ 5 ✂
Also f ✬ ( x) ✲ 0 if x ✮✦ , ✄
✧4 4✝

✥ 5 ✂
or f is strictly decreasing in ✦✧ , ✄✝
4 4
 APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES 205

Interval Sign of f ( x) Nature of function

✂ ✁✄

✆
0, ☎ >0 f is strictly increasing
✝ 4✞

✠ ✟ 5✟ ✡
☛
,
☞ <0 f is strictly decreasing
✌ 4 4✍

✎ 5✁ ✏
✑
, 2✁ ✒ >0 f is strictly increasing
✓ 4 ✔

EXERCISE 6.2
1. Show that the function given by f (x) = 3x + 17 is strictly increasing on R.
2. Show that the function given by f (x) = e2x is strictly increasing on R.
3. Show that the function given by f (x) = sin x is

✠ ✟✡ ✠ ✟ ✡
(a) strictly increasing in ☛ 0, ☞ (b) strictly decreasing in ☛
,✟ ☞
✌ 2✍ ✌ 2 ✍

(c) neither increasing nor decreasing in (0, ✕)

4. Find the intervals in which the function f given by f (x) = 2x2 – 3x is
(a) strictly increasing (b) strictly decreasing
5. Find the intervals in which the function f given by f (x) = 2x3 – 3x2 – 36x + 7 is
(a) strictly increasing (b) strictly decreasing
6. Find the intervals in which the following functions are strictly increasing or
decreasing:
(a) x2 + 2x – 5 (b) 10 – 6x – 2x2
(c) –2x3 – 9x2 – 12x + 1 (d) 6 – 9x – x2
(e) (x + 1)3 (x – 3)3
2x
7. Show that y ✖ log(1 ✗ x ) ✘ , x > – 1, is an increasing function of x
2✗ x
throughout its domain.
8. Find the values of x for which y = [x(x – 2)]2 is an increasing function.

4sin ✙ ✂ ✁✏
9. Prove that y ✚ ✛ ✙ is an increasing function of ✢ in ✆0, .
(2 ✜ cos ✙) ✝ 2 ✔✒
206 MATHEMATICS

10. Prove that the logarithmic function is strictly increasing on (0, ✟ ).

11. Prove that the function f given by f (x) = x2 – x + 1 is neither strictly increasing
nor strictly decreasing on (– 1, 1).
✁
12. Which of the following functions are strictly decreasing on ✄ 0, ☎ ?
✂
✆ 2✝
(A) cos x (B) cos 2x (C) cos 3x (D) tan x
13. On which of the following intervals is the function f given by f (x) = x100 + sin x –1
strictly decreasing ?
✠✞ ✡ ✠ ✞✡
(A) (0,1) (B) ☛ , ✞☞ (C) ☛ 0, ☞ (D) None of these
✌2 ✍ ✌ 2✍
14. Find the least value of a such that the function f given by f (x) = x2 + ax + 1 is
strictly increasing on (1, 2).
15. Let I be any interval disjoint from (–1, 1). Prove that the function f given by
1
f ( x) ✎ x ✏ is strictly increasing on I.
x
✠ ✞✡
16. Prove that the function f given by f (x) = log sin x is strictly increasing on ☛ 0, ☞
✌ 2✍

✁ ✂
and strictly decreasing on ✄ , ☎ .
✆2 ✝
17. Prove that the function f given by f (x) = log cos x is strictly decreasing on
✠ 0, ✞ ✡ ✠✞ ✡
☛ 2 ☞ and strictly increasing on ☛ 2 , ✞ ☞ .
✌ ✍ ✌ ✍
18. Prove that the function given by f (x) = x3 – 3x2 + 3x – 100 is increasing in R.
19. The interval in which y = x2 e–x is increasing is
(A) (– ✟, ✟) (B) (– 2, 0) (C) (2, ✟) (D) (0, 2)
6.4 Tangents and Normals
In this section, we shall use differentiation to find the equation of the tangent line and
the normal line to a curve at a given point.
Recall that the equation of a straight line passing through a given point (x0, y0)
having finite slope m is given by
y – y0 = m (x – x0)
 APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES 207

Note that the slope of the tangent to the curve y = f (x)

dy
at the point (x0, y0) is given by ( ✂ f ✁( x0 )) . So
dx ✄☎ ( x0 , y0 )
the equation of the tangent at (x0, y0) to the curve y = f (x)
is given by
y – y0 = f ✆ (x0)(x – x0)
Also, since the normal is perpendicular to the tangent,
the slope of the normal to the curve y = f (x) at (x0, y0) is
✝1 Fig 6.7
, if f ✠ ( x0 ) ✟ 0 . Therefore, the equation of the
f ✞ ( x0 )
normal to the curve y = f (x) at (x0, y0) is given by

✝1
y – y0 = ( x ✝ x0 )
f ✞( x0 )

i.e. ( y ✡ y0 ) f ✠ ( x0 ) ☛ ( x ✡ x0 ) = 0

☞
Note If a tangent line to the curve y = f (x) makes an angle ✌ with x-axis in the
dy
positive direction, then ✍ slope of the tangent ✍ tan ✎ .
dx
Particular cases
(i) If slope of the tangent line is zero, then tan ✌ = 0 and so ✌ = 0 which means the
tangent line is parallel to the x-axis. In this case, the equation of the tangent at
the point (x0, y0) is given by y = y0.

✏
(ii) If ✎✑ , then tan ✌ ✒ ✓, which means the tangent line is perpendicular to the
2
x-axis, i.e., parallel to the y-axis. In this case, the equation of the tangent at
(x0, y0) is given by x = x0 (Why?).

Example 14 Find the slope of the tangent to the curve y = x3 – x at x = 2.

Solution The slope of the tangent at x = 2 is given by

dy ✕ 2
= 3 x ✚ 1✙✜ x ✘ 2 ✛ 11.
dx ✖✗ x✔ 2
208 MATHEMATICS

Example 15 Find the point at which the tangent to the curve y 4 x ✁ 3 ✁ 1 has its
2
slope .
3
Solution Slope of tangent to the given curve at (x, y) is
dy ✂1
1 2
= (4 x ✄ 3) 2 4 ☎
dx 2 4x ✄ 3
2
The slope is given to be .
3
2 2
So =
4x ✆ 3 3
or 4x – 3 = 9
or x=3
Now y 4 x ✁ 3 ✁ 1 . So when x = 3, y ✝ 4(3) ✞ 3 ✞ 1 ✝ 2 .
Therefore, the required point is (3, 2).
Example 16 Find the equation of all lines having slope 2 and being tangent to the curve
2
y✟ ✠0.
x✡3
Solution Slope of the tangent to the given curve at any point (x,y) is given by
dy 2
=
dx ( x ☛ 3) 2
But the slope is given to be 2. Therefore
2
=2
( x ☞ 3) 2
or (x – 3)2 = 1
or x –3=±1
or x = 2, 4
Now x = 2 gives y = 2 and x = 4 gives y = – 2. Thus, there are two tangents to the
given curve with slope 2 and passing through the points (2, 2) and (4, – 2). The equation
of tangent through (2, 2) is given by
y – 2 = 2(x – 2)
or y – 2x + 2 = 0
and the equation of the tangent through (4, – 2) is given by
y – (– 2) = 2(x – 4)
or y – 2x + 10 = 0
 APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES 209

x2 y2
Example 17 Find points on the curve ✁ 1 at which the tangents are (i) parallel
4 25
to x-axis (ii) parallel to y-axis.
x2 y2
Solution Differentiating ✂ ✄ 1 with respect to x, we get
4 25
x 2 y dy
☎ =0
2 25 dx
dy ✆25 x
or = 4 y
dx
(i) Now, the tangent is parallel to the x-axis if the slope of the tangent is zero which
✝25 x x2 y2
gives ✄ 0 . This is possible if x = 0. Then ✂ ✄ 1 for x = 0 gives
4 y 4 25
y2 = 25, i.e., y = ± 5.
Thus, the points at which the tangents are parallel to the x-axis are (0, 5) and
(0, – 5).
(ii) The tangent line is parallel to y-axis if the slope of the normal is 0 which gives

4y x2 y2
✞ 0 , i.e., y = 0. Therefore, ✂ ✄ 1 for y = 0 gives x = ± 2. Hence, the
25 x 4 25
points at which the tangents are parallel to the y-axis are (2, 0) and (–2, 0).

x✝7
Example 18 Find the equation of the tangent to the curve y ✄ at the
( x ✝ 2)( x ✝ 3)
point where it cuts the x-axis.

Solution Note that on x-axis, y = 0. So the equation of the curve, when y = 0, gives
x = 7. Thus, the curve cuts the x-axis at (7, 0). Now differentiating the equation of the
curve with respect to x, we obtain

dy 1 ✟ y(2 x ✟ 5)
= (Why?)
dx ( x ✟ 2)( x ✟ 3)

dy ✠ 1✆ 0 1
or ✡ = ☞
dx ☛ (7,0) (5) (4) 20
210 MATHEMATICS

1
Therefore, the slope of the tangent at (7, 0) is . Hence, the equation of the
20
tangent at (7, 0) is
1
y 0✁ ( x 7) or 20 y ✂ x ✄ 7 ☎ 0
20
2 2
Example 19 Find the equations of the tangent and normal to the curve x 3 ✆ y 3 ✝ 2
at (1, 1).
2 2
Solution Differentiating x 3 ✆ y 3 ✝ 2 with respect to x, we get
✞1 ✞1
2 3 2 3 dy
x ✟ y =0
3 3 dx
1
dy ✠ y ✡3
or = ☛☞ ✌
dx ✍ x✎
dy ✏
☎ ✂1 .
dx ✑✒ (1, 1)
Therefore, the slope of the tangent at (1, 1) is

So the equation of the tangent at (1, 1) is

y – 1 = – 1 (x – 1) or y+x–2=0
Also, the slope of the normal at (1, 1) is given by
✓1
=1
slope of the tangent at (1,1)
Therefore, the equation of the normal at (1, 1) is
y – 1 = 1 (x – 1) or y–x=0
Example 20 Find the equation of tangent to the curve given by
x = a sin3 t , y = b cos3 t ... (1)
✔
at a point where t ✁ .
2
Solution Differentiating (1) with respect to t, we get
dx dy
✕ 3a sin 2 t cos t and ✕ ✖3b cos2 t sin t
dt dt
 APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES 211

dy
dy dt ✁3b cos 2 t sin t ✁b cos t
or = ✂
dx dx 3a sin 2 t cos t a sin t
dt

✄
Therefore, slope of the tangent at t ☎ is
2
✡
dy ✞ ☛b cos
2 ☞0
dx ✟✠ t ✝ ✆ = ✡
2 a sin
2

✄
Also, when t ☎ , x = a and y = 0. Hence, the equation of tangent to the given
2
✄
curve at t ☎ , i.e., at (a, 0) is
2
y – 0 = 0 (x – a), i.e., y = 0.

EXERCISE 6.3
1. Find the slope of the tangent to the curve y = 3x4 – 4x at x = 4.
x ✌1
2. Find the slope of the tangent to the curve y ☎ , x ✍ 2 at x = 10.
x✌2
3. Find the slope of the tangent to curve y = x3 – x + 1 at the point whose
x-coordinate is 2.
4. Find the slope of the tangent to the curve y = x3 –3x + 2 at the point whose
x-coordinate is 3.
✄
5. Find the slope of the normal to the curve x ✎ a cos3 ✏, y ✎ a sin 3 ✏ at ✑ ☎ .
4
✄
6. Find the slope of the normal to the curve x ✎ 1 ✒ a sin ✏, y ✎ b cos 2 ✏ at ✑ ☎ .
2
3 2
7. Find points at which the tangent to the curve y = x – 3x – 9x + 7 is parallel to
the x-axis.
8. Find a point on the curve y = (x – 2)2 at which the tangent is parallel to the chord
joining the points (2, 0) and (4, 4).
212 MATHEMATICS

9. Find the point on the curve y = x3 – 11x + 5 at which the tangent is y = x – 11.
10. Find the equation of all lines having slope – 1 that are tangents to the curve
1
y , x ☛ 1.
x ✁1
11. Find the equation of all lines having slope 2 which are tangents to the curve
1
y , x ☛ 3.
x✁3
12. Find the equations of all lines having slope 0 which are tangent to the curve
1
y✂ .
x2 ✄ 2 x ☎ 3

x2 y 2
13. Find points on the curve ✆ ✝ 1 at which the tangents are
9 16
(i) parallel to x-axis (ii) parallel to y-axis.
14. Find the equations of the tangent and normal to the given curves at the indicated
points:
(i) y = x4 – 6x3 + 13x2 – 10x + 5 at (0, 5)
(ii) y = x4 – 6x3 + 13x2 – 10x + 5 at (1, 3)
(iii) y = x3 at (1, 1)
(iv) y = x2 at (0, 0)
✞
(v) x = cos t, y = sin t at t
4
15. Find the equation of the tangent line to the curve y = x2 – 2x +7 which is
(a) parallel to the line 2x – y + 9 = 0
(b) perpendicular to the line 5y – 15x = 13.
16. Show that the tangents to the curve y = 7x3 + 11 at the points where x = 2 and
x = – 2 are parallel.
17. Find the points on the curve y = x3 at which the slope of the tangent is equal to
the y-coordinate of the point.
18. For the curve y = 4x3 – 2x5, find all the points at which the tangent passes
through the origin.
19. Find the points on the curve x2 + y2 – 2x – 3 = 0 at which the tangents are parallel
to the x-axis.
20. Find the equation of the normal at the point (am2,am3) for the curve ay2 = x3.
 APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES 213

21. Find the equation of the normals to the curve y = x3 + 2x + 6 which are parallel
to the line x + 14y + 4 = 0.
22. Find the equations of the tangent and normal to the parabola y2 = 4ax at the point
(at2, 2at).
23. Prove that the curves x = y2 and xy = k cut at right angles* if 8k2 = 1.

x2 y2
24. Find the equations of the tangent and normal to the hyperbola ✁ 1 at the
a2 b2
point (x0, y0).
25. Find the equation of the tangent to the curve y ✂ 3 x ✄ 2 which is parallel to the
line 4 x ☎ 2 y ✆ 5 ✝ 0 .
Choose the correct answer in Exercises 26 and 27.
26. The slope of the normal to the curve y = 2x2 + 3 sin x at x = 0 is
1 1
(A) 3 (B) (C) –3 (D) ✞
3 3
2
27. The line y = x + 1 is a tangent to the curve y = 4x at the point
(A) (1, 2) (B) (2, 1) (C) (1, – 2) (D) (– 1, 2)
6.5 Approximations
In this section, we will use differentials to approximate values of certain quantities.
Let f : D ✡ R, D ☞ R, be a given function
and let y = f (x). Let ✌ x denote a small
increment in x. Recall that the increment in y
corresponding to the increment in x, denoted
by ✌y, is given by ✌y = f (x + ✌ x) – f (x). We
define the following
(i) The differential of x, denoted by dx, is
defined by dx = ✌x.
(ii) The differential of y, denoted by dy,
is defined by dy = f ✟ (x) dx or
Fig 6.8
✠ dy ☛ x.
dy ✍ ✏ ✑✎
✒ dx ✓
* Two curves intersect at right angle if the tangents to the curves at the point of intersection
are perpendicular to each other.
 ✌
214 MATHEMATICS

✌
of y and we denote it by dy y. ✍✌✌ ✌
In case dx = x is relatively small when compared with x, dy is a good approximation

For geometrical meaning of x, y, dx and dy, one may refer to Fig 6.8.
Note In view of the above discussion and Fig 6.8, we may note that the
differential of the dependent variable is not equal to the increment of the variable
where as the differential of independent variable is equal to the increment of the
variable.

Solution Take y ✁
✌ ✂✄✌ ☎ ✆ ☎ ✆ ☎
y=
✌
Example 21 Use differential to approximate
x . Let x = 36 and let x = 0.6. Then
36.6 .

x x x 36.6 36 36.6 6
or 36.6 = 6 + y

✝✡☞ ✞☛✎ ✟ ✠ ✌
✁
Now dy is approximately equal to y and is given by
dy 1 1
dy = x (0.6) = (0.6) = 0.05 (as y x)
dx 2 x 2 36

Thus, the approximate value of 36.6 is 6 + 0.05 = 6.05.

1

✏ ✌
Example 22 Use differential to approximate (25) 3 .
1

✌ ✑✒ ✓ ✔ ✏ ✔
Solution Let y x 3 . Let x = 27 and let x = – 2. Then
1 1 1 1 1

✌ ✌
y = (x x) 3 x 3 = (25) 3 (27) 3 (25) 3 3
1
or (25) 3 = 3 + y

✝✡☞ ✞☛✎ ✟ ✕ ✖
Now dy is approximately equal to y and is given by
1
dy 1
dy = x = ( 2) (as y x3 )

✗ ✘ ✗ ✘✗
2
dx
3x 3
1 2
= 1
( 2) 0.074
27
3((27) 3 ) 2
1
Thus, the approximate value of (25) 3 is given by
3 + (– 0. 074) = 2.926
 APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES 215

Example 23 Find the approximate value of f (3.02), where f (x) = 3x2 + 5x + 3.

Solution Let x = 3 and ✌x = 0.02. Then
f (3. 02) = f (x + ✌x) = 3 (x + ✌x)2 + 5(x + ✌x) + 3
Note that ✌y = f (x + ✌x) – f (x). Therefore
f (x + ✌x) = f (x) + ✌y
✍ f (x) + f ✂(x) ✌x (as dx = ✌x)
2
or f (3.02) ✍ (3x + 5x + 3) + (6x + 5) ✌x
= (3(3)2 + 5(3) + 3) + (6(3) + 5) (0.02) (as x = 3, ✌x = 0.02)
= (27 + 15 + 3) + (18 + 5) (0.02)
= 45 + 0.46 = 45.46
Hence, approximate value of f (3.02) is 45.46.
Example 24 Find the approximate change in the volume V of a cube of side x meters
caused by increasing the side by 2%.
Solution Note that
V = x3

dV ✁
✆ ✄x = (3x ) ✌x
2
or dV = ☎
✝ dx ✞
= (3x2) (0.02x) = 0.06x3 m3 (as 2% of x is 0.02x)
Thus, the approximate change in volume is 0.06 x3 m3.
Example 25 If the radius of a sphere is measured as 9 cm with an error of 0.03 cm,
then find the approximate error in calculating its volume.
Solution Let r be the radius of the sphere and ✌r be the error in measuring the radius.
Then r = 9 cm and ✌r = 0.03 cm. Now, the volume V of the sphere is given by
4 3
V= ✟r
3
dV
or = 4✠r 2
dr
dV ✁ 2
Therefore dV = ☎ ✆ ✄r ✡ (4☛r )✄r
dr ✞
✝
= 4✠(9)2 (0.03) = 9.72✠ cm3
Thus, the approximate error in calculating the volume is 9.72✠ cm3.
216 MATHEMATICS

EXERCISE 6.4
1. Using differentials, find the approximate value of each of the following up to 3
places of decimal.
(i) 25.3 (ii) 49.5 (iii) 0.6
1 1 1
(iv) (0.009) 3 (v) (0.999)10 (vi) (15) 4
1 1 1
(vii) (26) 3 (viii) (255) 4 (ix) (82) 4

1 1 1
(x) (401) 2 (xi) (0.0037) 2 (xii) (26.57) 3

1 3 1
(xiii) (81.5) 4 (xiv) (3.968) 2 (xv) (32.15) 5
2. Find the approximate value of f (2.01), where f (x) = 4x2 + 5x + 2.
3. Find the approximate value of f (5.001), where f (x) = x3 – 7x2 + 15.
4. Find the approximate change in the volume V of a cube of side x metres caused
by increasing the side by 1%.
5. Find the approximate change in the surface area of a cube of side x metres
caused by decreasing the side by 1%.
6. If the radius of a sphere is measured as 7 m with an error of 0.02 m, then find the
approximate error in calculating its volume.
7. If the radius of a sphere is measured as 9 m with an error of 0.03 m, then find the
approximate error in calculating its surface area.
8. If f(x) = 3x2 + 15x + 5, then the approximate value of f (3.02) is
(A) 47.66 (B) 57.66 (C) 67.66 (D) 77.66
9. The approximate change in the volume of a cube of side x metres caused by
increasing the side by 3% is
(A) 0.06 x3 m3 (B) 0.6 x3 m3 (C) 0.09 x3 m3 (D) 0.9 x3 m3

6.6 Maxima and Minima

In this section, we will use the concept of derivatives to calculate the maximum or
minimum values of various functions. In fact, we will find the ‘turning points’ of the
graph of a function and thus find points at which the graph reaches its highest (or
 APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES 217

lowest) locally. The knowledge of such points is very useful in sketching the graph of
a given function. Further, we will also find the absolute maximum and absolute minimum
of a function that are necessary for the solution of many applied problems.
Let us consider the following problems that arise in day to day life.
(i) The profit from a grove of orange trees is given by P(x) = ax + bx2, where a,b
are constants and x is the number of orange trees per acre. How many trees per
acre will maximise the profit?
(ii) A ball, thrown into the air from a building 60 metres high, travels along a path
x2
given by h( x ) 60 ✁ x ✂ , where x is the horizontal distance from the building
60
and h(x) is the height of the ball . What is the maximum height the ball will
reach?
(iii) An Apache helicopter of enemy is flying along the path given by the curve
f (x) = x2 + 7. A soldier, placed at the point (1, 2), wants to shoot the helicopter
when it is nearest to him. What is the nearest distance?
In each of the above problem, there is something common, i.e., we wish to find out
the maximum or minimum values of the given functions. In order to tackle such problems,
we first formally define maximum or minimum values of a function, points of local
maxima and minima and test for determining such points.
Definition 3 Let f be a function defined on an interval I. Then
(a) f is said to have a maximum value in I, if there exists a point c in I such that
f (c ) ✄ f ( x ) , for all x ☎ I.
The number f (c) is called the maximum value of f in I and the point c is called a
point of maximum value of f in I.
(b) f is said to have a minimum value in I, if there exists a point c in I such that
f (c) ✝ f (x), for all x ☎ I.
The number f (c), in this case, is called the minimum value of f in I and the point
c, in this case, is called a point of minimum value of f in I.
(c) f is said to have an extreme value in I if there exists a point c in I such that
f (c) is either a maximum value or a minimum value of f in I.
The number f (c), in this case, is called an extreme value of f in I and the point c
is called an extreme point.
Remark In Fig 6.9(a), (b) and (c), we have exhibited that graphs of certain particular
functions help us to find maximum value and minimum value at a point. Infact, through
graphs, we can even find maximum/minimum value of a function at a point at which it
is not even differentiable (Example 27).
218 MATHEMATICS

Fig 6.9

☎
Example 26 Find the maximum and the minimum values,
if any, of the function f given by
f (x) = x2, x R.

✞ ☎
Solution From the graph of the given function (Fig 6.10),
we have f (x) = 0 if x = 0. Also
f (x) 0, for all x R.
Therefore, the minimum value of f is 0 and the point
of minimum value of f is x = 0. Further, it may be observed
from the graph of the function that f has no maximum
value and hence no point of maximum value of f in R.
Fig 6.10
Note If we restrict the domain of f to [– 2, 1] only,
then f will have maximum value(– 2)2 = 4 at x = – 2.

Example 27 Find the maximum and minimum values

☎
of f , if any, of the function given by f (x) = | x |, x R.

✞ ☎
Solution From the graph of the given function
(Fig 6.11) , note that
f (x) 0, for all x R and f (x) = 0 if x = 0.
Therefore, the function f has a minimum value 0
and the point of minimum value of f is x = 0. Also, the
graph clearly shows that f has no maximum value in
R and hence no point of maximum value in R. Fig 6.11
Note
(i) If we restrict the domain of f to [– 2, 1] only, then f will have maximum value
| – 2| = 2.
 APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES 219

(ii) One may note that the function f in Example 27 is not differentiable at
x = 0.
Example 28 Find the maximum and the minimum values, if any, of the function
given by
f (x) = x, x ☎ (0, 1).
Solution The given function is an increasing (strictly) function in the given interval
(0, 1). From the graph (Fig 6.12) of the function f , it
seems that, it should have the minimum value at a
point closest to 0 on its right and the maximum value
at a point closest to 1 on its left. Are such points
available? Of course, not. It is not possible to locate
such points. Infact, if a point x0 is closest to 0, then
x0
we find x0 for all x0 ✁ (0,1) . Also, if x1 is
2
x1 ✂ 1
closest to 1, then ✄ x1 for all x1 ✆ (0,1) .
2 Fig 6.12
Therefore, the given function has neither the maximum value nor the minimum
value in the interval (0,1).
Remark The reader may observe that in Example 28, if we include the points 0 and 1
in the domain of f , i.e., if we extend the domain of f to [0,1], then the function f has
minimum value 0 at x = 0 and maximum value 1 at x = 1. Infact, we have the following
results (The proof of these results are beyond the scope of the present text)
Every monotonic function assumes its maximum/minimum value at the end
points of the domain of definition of the function.
A more general result is
Every continuous function on a closed interval has a maximum and a minimum
value.

✝Note By a monotonic function f in an interval I, we mean that f is either

increasing in I or decreasing in I.
Maximum and minimum values of a function defined on a closed interval will be
discussed later in this section.
Let us now examine the graph of a function as shown in Fig 6.13. Observe that at
points A, B, C and D on the graph, the function changes its nature from decreasing to
increasing or vice-versa. These points may be called turning points of the given
function. Further, observe that at turning points, the graph has either a little hill or a little
valley. Roughly speaking, the function has minimum value in some neighbourhood
(interval) of each of the points A and C which are at the bottom of their respective
220 MATHEMATICS

Fig 6.13
valleys. Similarly, the function has maximum value in some neighbourhood of points B
and D which are at the top of their respective hills. For this reason, the points A and C
may be regarded as points of local minimum value (or relative minimum value) and
points B and D may be regarded as points of local maximum value (or relative maximum
value) for the function. The local maximum value and local minimum value of the
function are referred to as local maxima and local minima, respectively, of the function.
We now formally give the following definition
Definition 4 Let f be a real valued function and let c be an interior point in the domain
of f. Then
(a) c is called a point of local maxima if there is an h > 0 such that
f (c) ✞ f (x), for all x in (c – h, c + h)
The value f (c) is called the local maximum value of f.
(b) c is called a point of local minima if there is an h > 0 such that
f (c) ✝ f (x), for all x in (c – h, c + h)
The value f (c) is called the local minimum value of f .
Geometrically, the above definition states that if x = c is a point of local maxima of f,
then the graph of f around c will be as shown in Fig 6.14(a). Note that the function f is
increasing (i.e., f ✂(x) > 0) in the interval (c – h, c) and decreasing (i.e., f ✂(x) < 0) in the
interval (c, c + h).
This suggests that f ✂(c) must be zero.

Fig 6.14
 APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES 221

✂ ✂ ✂
Similarly, if c is a point of local minima of f , then the graph of f around c will be as
shown in Fig 6.14(b). Here f is decreasing (i.e., f (x) < 0) in the interval (c – h, c) and
increasing (i.e., f (x) > 0) in the interval (c, c + h). This again suggest that f (c) must
be zero.
The above discussion lead us to the following theorem (without proof).

✂ ☎
Theorem 2 Let f be a function defined on an open interval I. Suppose c I be any
point. If f has a local maxima or a local minima at x = c, then either f (c) = 0 or f is not
differentiable at c.

Remark The converse of above theorem need

✂
not be true, that is, a point at which the derivative

✂
vanishes need not be a point of local maxima or
local minima. For example, if f (x) = x3, then f (x)
= 3x2 and so f (0) = 0. But 0 is neither a point of
local maxima nor a point of local minima (Fig 6.15).

✂
Note A point c in the domain of a function

✂
f at which either f (c) = 0 or f is not differentiable
is called a critical point of f. Note that if f is
continuous at c and f (c) = 0, then there exists
an h > 0 such that f is differentiable in the interval Fig 6.15
(c – h, c + h).
We shall now give a working rule for finding points of local maxima or points of
local minima using only the first order derivatives.

✂✂
Theorem 3 (First Derivative Test) Let f be a function defined on an open interval I.

✂
Let f be continuous at a critical point c in I. Then
(i) If f (x) changes sign from positive to negative as x increases through c, i.e., if
f (x) > 0 at every point sufficiently close to and to the left of c, and f (x) < 0 at

✂✂
every point sufficiently close to and to the right of c, then c is a point of local

✂
maxima.
(ii) If f (x) changes sign from negative to positive as x increases through c, i.e., if
f (x) < 0 at every point sufficiently close to and to the left of c, and f (x) > 0 at

✂
every point sufficiently close to and to the right of c, then c is a point of local
minima.
(iii) If f (x) does not change sign as x increases through c, then c is neither a point of
local maxima nor a point of local minima. Infact, such a point is called point of
inflection (Fig 6.15).
222 MATHEMATICS

Note If c is a point of local maxima of f , then f (c) is a local maximum value of

f. Similarly, if c is a point of local minima of f , then f(c) is a local minimum value of f.
Figures 6.15 and 6.16, geometrically explain Theorem 3.

Fig 6.16
Example 29 Find all points of local maxima and local minima of the function f
given by
f (x) = x3 – 3x + 3.
Solution We have

or
or
✂✂
f (x) = x3 – 3x + 3
f (x) = 3x2 – 3 = 3 (x – 1) (x + 1)
f (x) = 0 at x = 1 and x = – 1

✂
Thus, x = ± 1 are the only critical points which could possibly be the points of local

✂
maxima and/or local minima of f . Let us first examine the point x = 1.
Note that for values close to 1 and to the right of 1, f (x) > 0 and for values close

✂ ✂
to 1 and to the left of 1, f (x) < 0. Therefore, by first derivative test, x = 1 is a point
of local minima and local minimum value is f (1) = 1. In the case of x = –1, note that
f (x) > 0, for values close to and to the left of –1 and f (x) < 0, for values close to and
to the right of – 1. Therefore, by first derivative test, x = – 1 is a point of local maxima
and local maximum value is f (–1) = 5.
Values of x
to the right (say 1.1 etc.)
✁
Sign of f (x) = 3(x – 1) (x + 1)
>0

✄✄ ☎✆
Close to 1
to the left (say 0.9 etc.) <0

to the right (say 0.9 etc.) 0

Close to –1
to the left (say 1.1 etc.) 0
 APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES 223

Example 30 Find all the points of local maxima and local minima of the function f
given by
f (x) = 2x3 – 6x2 + 6x +5.
Solution We have
f (x) = 2x3 – 6x2 + 6x + 5
or f ✂(x) = 6x2 – 12x + 6 = 6 (x – 1)2
or f ✂(x) = 0 at x = 1
Thus, x = 1 is the only critical point of f . We shall now examine this point for local
maxima and/or local minima of f. Observe that f ✂(x) ✞ 0, for all x ☎ R and in particular
f ✂(x) > 0, for values close to 1 and to the left and to the right of 1. Therefore, by first
derivative test, the point x = 1 is neither a point of local maxima nor a point of local
minima. Hence x = 1 is a point of inflexion.
Remark One may note that since f ✂(x), in Example 30, never changes its sign on R,
graph of f has no turning points and hence no point of local maxima or local minima.
We shall now give another test to examine local maxima and local minima of a
given function. This test is often easier to apply than the first derivative test.
Theorem 4 (Second Derivative Test) Let f be a function defined on an interval I
and c ☎ I. Let f be twice differentiable at c. Then
(i) x = c is a point of local maxima if f ✂(c) = 0 and f ✎(c) < 0
The value f (c) is local maximum value of f .
(ii) x = c is a point of local minima if f ✁ (c) 0 and f ✎(c) > 0
In this case, f (c) is local minimum value of f .
(iii) The test fails if f ✂(c) = 0 and f ✎(c) = 0.
In this case, we go back to the first derivative test and find whether c is a point of
local maxima, local minima or a point of inflexion.

✄Note As f is twice differentiable at c, we mean

second order derivative of f exists at c.

Example 31 Find local minimum value of the function f

given by f (x) = 3 + | x |, x ☎ R.
Solution Note that the given function is not differentiable
at x = 0. So, second derivative test fails. Let us try first
derivative test. Note that 0 is a critical point of f . Now
to the left of 0, f (x) = 3 – x and so f ✂(x) = – 1 < 0. Also Fig 6.17
224 MATHEMATICS

to the right of 0, f (x) = 3 + x and so f ✂(x) = 1 > 0. Therefore, by first derivative test,
x = 0 is a point of local minima of f and local minimum value of f is f (0) = 3.

Example 32 Find local maximum and local minimum values of the function f given by
f (x) = 3x4 + 4x3 – 12x2 + 12
Solution We have
f (x) = 3x4 + 4x3 – 12x2 + 12
or f ✂(x) = 12x3 + 12x2 – 24x = 12x (x – 1) (x + 2)
or f ✂(x) = 0 at x = 0, x = 1 and x = – 2.
Now f ✎(x) = 36x2 + 24x – 24 = 12 (3x2 + 2x – 1)

✆ f ☎☎(0) ✁12 ✄ 0
✝
or ✟ f ☎☎(1) 48 ✞ 0
✝ f ☎☎(✁2) 84 ✞ 0
✠
Therefore, by second derivative test, x = 0 is a point of local maxima and local
maximum value of f at x = 0 is f (0) = 12 while x = 1 and x = – 2 are the points of local
minima and local minimum values of f at x = – 1 and – 2 are f (1) = 7 and f (–2) = –20,
respectively.
Example 33 Find all the points of local maxima and local minima of the function f
given by
f (x) = 2x3 – 6x2 + 6x +5.
Solution We have
f (x) = 2x3 – 6x2 + 6x +5

✏✡ f ☛( x) ☞ 6 x 2 ✌ 12 x ✍ 6 ☞ 6( x ✌ 1) 2
or ✑
✏✒ f ☛☛( x) ☞ 12( x ✌ 1)
Now f ✂(x) = 0 gives x =1. Also f ✎(1) = 0. Therefore, the second derivative test
fails in this case. So, we shall go back to the first derivative test.
We have already seen (Example 30) that, using first derivative test, x =1 is neither
a point of local maxima nor a point of local minima and so it is a point of inflexion.
Example 34 Find two positive numbers whose sum is 15 and the sum of whose
squares is minimum.
Solution Let one of the numbers be x. Then the other number is (15 – x). Let S(x)
denote the sum of the squares of these numbers. Then
 APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES 225

S(x) = x2 + (15 – x)2 = 2x2 – 30x + 225

✄ S ( x ) ✁ 4 x ✂ 30
or ☎
✆
S ( x) ✁ 4

15 ✟ 15 ✠
Now S✝(x) = 0 gives x ✞ . Also S✡✡ ✌ ✍ ☛ 4 ☞ 0 . Therefore, by second derivative
2 ✎ 2 ✏

15
test, x ✞ is the point of local minima of S. Hence the sum of squares of numbers is
2
15 15 15
minimum when the numbers are and 15 ✑ ✞ .
2 2 2
Remark Proceeding as in Example 34 one may prove that the two positive numbers,
k k
whose sum is k and the sum of whose squares is minimum, are and .
2 2
Example 35 Find the shortest distance of the point (0, c) from the parabola y = x2,
where 0 ✒ c ✒ 5.
Solution Let (h, k) be any point on the parabola y = x2. Let D be the required distance
between (h, k) and (0, c). Then

D ✓ (h ✔ 0) 2 ✕ ( k ✔ c) 2 ✓ h2 ✕ (k ✔ c)2 ... (1)

Since (h, k) lies on the parabola y = x2, we have k = h2. So (1) gives

D ✖ D(k) = k ✕ ( k ✔ c) 2

1 ✗ 2( k ✘ c)
or D✝(k) =
2 k ✗ ( k ✘ c )2

2c ✑ 1
Now D✝(k) = 0 gives k ✞
2

2c ✑ 1
Observe that when k ✙ , then 2(k ✘ c ) ✗ 1 ✚ 0 , i.e., D✛( k ) ✚ 0 . Also when
2
2c ✑ 1 2c ✑ 1
k✜ , then D✢( k ) ✣ 0 . So, by first derivative test, D (k) is minimum at k ✞ .
2 2
Hence, the required shortest distance is given by
226 MATHEMATICS

2
✁ 2c 1 ✂ 2c 1 ✁ 2c 1 ✂ 4c 1
D✆ ✝✄ ☎✆ c✝ ✄
✞ 2 ✟ 2 ✞ 2 ✟ 2

✠Note The reader may note that in Example 35, we have used first derivative
test instead of the second derivative test as the former is easy and short.

Example 36 Let AP and BQ be two vertical poles at

points A and B, respectively. If AP = 16 m, BQ = 22 m
and AB = 20 m, then find the distance of a point R on
AB from the point A such that RP2 + RQ2 is minimum.

Solution Let R be a point on AB such that AR = x m.

Then RB = (20 – x) m (as AB = 20 m). From Fig 6.18,
we have
RP2 = AR2 + AP2
Fig 6.18
and RQ2 = RB2 + BQ2
Therefore RP2 + RQ2 = AR2 + AP2 + RB2 + BQ2
= x2 + (16)2 + (20 – x)2 + (22)2
= 2x2 – 40x + 1140
Let S ✏ S(x) = RP2 + RQ2 = 2x2 – 40x + 1140.
Therefore S✡(x) = 4x – 40.
Now S✡ (x) = 0 gives x = 10. Also S✎(x) = 4 > 0, for all x and so S✎(10) > 0.
Therefore, by second derivative test, x = 10 is the point of local minima of S. Thus, the
distance of R from A on AB is AR = x =10 m.
Example 37 If length of three sides of a trapezium other than base are equal to 10cm,
then find the area of the trapezium when it is maximum.
Solution The required trapezium is as given in Fig 6.19. Draw perpendiculars DP and

Fig 6.19
 APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES 227

CQ on AB. Let AP = x cm. Note that ✌APD ~ ✌BQC. Therefore, QB = x cm. Also, by
Pythagoras theorem, DP = QC = 100 x 2 . Let A be the area of the trapezium. Then
1
A ✏ A(x) = (sum of parallel sides) (height)
2
1
= (2 x ✄ 10 ✄ 10) ✁ 100 ☎ x 2 ✂
2
= ( x ✞ 10) ✆ 100 ✟ x 2 ✝

(☞ 2 x )
or A✠ (x) = ( x ✍ 10) ✍ ✡ 100 ☞ x 2 ☛
2 100 ☞ x 2
✎2 x2 ✎ 10 x ✑ 100
=
100 ✎ x 2
Now A✠ (x) = 0 gives 2x2 + 10x – 100 = 0, i.e., x = 5 and x = –10.
Since x represents distance, it can not be negative.
So, x = 5. Now
(✓ 2 x )
100 ✓ x 2 (✓4 x ✓ 10) ✓ (✓ 2 x 2 ✓ 10 x ✔ 100)
2 100 ✓ x 2
A✒(x) =
100 ✓ x 2

2 x 3 ✕ 300 x ✕ 1000
= 3 (on simplification)
(100 ✕ x 2 ) 2

2(5)3 ✕ 300(5) ✕ 1000 ✕2250 ✕30

or A✒(5) = 3
✖ ✖ ✗0
75 75 75
(100 ✕ (5) 2 ) 2
Thus, area of trapezium is maximum at x = 5 and the area is given by
A (5) = (5 ✘ 10) 100 ✙ (5) 2 ✚ 15 75 ✚ 75 3 cm 2

Example 38 Prove that the radius of the right circular cylinder of greatest curved
surface area which can be inscribed in a given cone is half of that of the cone.
Solution Let OC = r be the radius of the cone and OA = h be its height. Let a cylinder
with radius OE = x inscribed in the given cone (Fig 6.20). The height QE of the cylinder
is given by
228 MATHEMATICS

QE EC
= (since ✌QEC ~ ✌AOC)
OA OC
QE r x
or =
h r
h (rx)
or QE =
r
Let S be the curved surface area of the given
cylinder. Then
2✁ x h ( r ✂ x ) 2✁h
S ✏ S (x) = = ( rx ✂ x 2 )
r r Fig 6.20

☎ ✆ 2✄h
✟✟S ( x) ✝ r ( r ✞ 2 x )
or ✠
✟S✆✆( x) ✝ ✞ 4✄h
✟✡ r

r ✍r✑ r
Now S☛(x) = 0 gives x ☞ . Since S✎(x) < 0 for all x, S✒✒ ✔ ✕ ✓ 0 . So x ☞ is a
2 ✖ 2✗ 2
point of maxima of S. Hence, the radius of the cylinder of greatest curved surface area
which can be inscribed in a given cone is half of that of the cone.
6.6.1 Maximum and Minimum Values of a Function in a Closed Interval
Let us consider a function f given by
f (x) = x + 2, x ✘ (0, 1)
Observe that the function is continuous on (0, 1) and neither has a maximum value
nor has a minimum value. Further, we may note that the function even has neither a
local maximum value nor a local minimum value.
However, if we extend the domain of f to the closed interval [0, 1], then f still may
not have a local maximum (minimum) values but it certainly does have maximum value
3 = f (1) and minimum value 2 = f (0). The maximum value 3 of f at x = 1 is called
absolute maximum value (global maximum or greatest value) of f on the interval
[0, 1]. Similarly, the minimum value 2 of f at x = 0 is called the absolute minimum
value (global minimum or least value) of f on [0, 1].
Consider the graph given in Fig 6.21 of a continuous function defined on a closed
interval [a, d]. Observe that the function f has a local minima at x = b and local
 APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES 229

Fig 6.21
minimum value is f (b). The function also has a local maxima at x = c and local maximum
value is f (c).
Also from the graph, it is evident that f has absolute maximum value f (a) and
absolute minimum value f (d). Further note that the absolute maximum (minimum)
value of f is different from local maximum (minimum) value of f .
We will now state two results (without proof) regarding absolute maximum and
absolute minimum values of a function on a closed interval I.
Theorem 5 Let f be a continuous function on an interval I = [a, b]. Then f has the
absolute maximum value and f attains it at least once in I. Also, f has the absolute
minimum value and attains it at least once in I.
Theorem 6 Let f be a differentiable function on a closed interval I and let c be any
interior point of I. Then
(i) f ✂ (c) = 0 if f attains its absolute maximum value at c.
(ii) f ✂ (c) = 0 if f attains its absolute minimum value at c.
In view of the above results, we have the following working rule for finding absolute
maximum and/or absolute minimum values of a function in a given closed interval
[a, b].
Working Rule
Step 1: Find all critical points of f in the interval, i.e., find points x where either
f ✁ ( x ) 0 or f is not differentiable.
Step 2: Take the end points of the interval.
Step 3: At all these points (listed in Step 1 and 2), calculate the values of f .
Step 4: Identify the maximum and minimum values of f out of the values calculated in
Step 3. This maximum value will be the absolute maximum (greatest) value of
f and the minimum value will be the absolute minimum (least) value of f .
230 MATHEMATICS

Example 39 Find the absolute maximum and minimum values of a function f given by
f (x) = 2x3 – 15x2 + 36x +1 on the interval [1, 5].
Solution We have
f (x) = 2x3 – 15x2 + 36x + 1
or f ✂(x) = 6x2 – 30x + 36 = 6 (x – 3) (x – 2)
Note that f ✂(x) = 0 gives x = 2 and x = 3.
We shall now evaluate the value of f at these points and at the end points of the
interval [1, 5], i.e., at x = 1, x = 2, x = 3 and at x = 5. So
f (1) = 2 (13) – 15 (12) + 36 (1) + 1 = 24
f (2) = 2 (23) – 15 (22) + 36 (2) + 1 = 29
f (3) = 2 (33) – 15 (32) + 36 (3) + 1 = 28
f (5) = 2 (53) – 15 (52) + 36 (5) + 1 = 56
Thus, we conclude that absolute maximum value of f on [1, 5] is 56, occurring at
x =5, and absolute minimum value of f on [1, 5] is 24 which occurs at x = 1.
Example 40 Find absolute maximum and minimum values of a function f given by
4 1
f ( x ) 12 x 3 ✁ 6 x 3 , x ✄ [✁1, 1]
Solution We have
4 1
f (x) = 12 x 3 ☎ 6 x 3

2(8 x ✆ 1)
1
2
or f ✂(x) = 16 x 3 ✆ 2
✝ 2
x3 x3
1
Thus, f ✂(x) = 0 gives x ✞ . Further note that f ✂(x) is not defined at x = 0. So the
8
1
critical points are x = 0 and x ✞ . Now evaluating the value of f at critical points
8
1
x = 0, and at end points of the interval x = –1 and x = 1, we have
8
4 1
f (–1) = 12(✁1) 3 ✁ 6( ✁1) 3 18
f (0) = 12 (0) – 6 (0) = 0
 APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES 231

4 1
1✁ ✝9
f ✂ ✄ = 12 ✞✡ 1 ✟☛ ✞ 1 ✟3
3
✝ 6✡ ☛ ✠
8
☎ ✆ ☞ 8✌ ☞ 8✌ 4
4 1
f (1) = 12(1) 3 ✍ 6(1) 3 ✎ 6
Hence, we conclude that absolute maximum value of f is 18 that occurs at x = – 1
✏9 1
and absolute minimum value of f is that occurs at x ✑ .
4 8
Example 41 An Apache helicopter of enemy is flying along the curve given by
y = x2 + 7. A soldier, placed at (3, 7), wants to shoot down the helicopter when it is
nearest to him. Find the nearest distance.
Solution For each value of x, the helicopter’s position is at point (x, x 2 + 7).
Therefore, the distance between the helicopter and the soldier placed at (3,7) is

( x ✒ 3) 2 2
✓ ( x ✓ 7 ✒ 7)
2
, i.e., ( x ✒ 3) 2 ✓ x 4 .
Let f (x) = (x – 3)2 + x4
or f ✔(x) = 2(x – 3) + 4x3 = 2 (x – 1) (2x2 + 2x + 3)
Thus, f ✔(x) = 0 gives x = 1 or 2x2 + 2x + 3 = 0 for which there are no real roots.
Also, there are no end points of the interval to be added to the set for which f ✔ is zero,
i.e., there is only one point, namely, x = 1. The value of f at this point is given by
f (1) = (1 – 3)2 + (1)4 = 5. Thus, the distance between the solider and the helicopter is
f (1) ✕ 5 .
Note that 5 is either a maximum value or a minimum value. Since
f (0) = (0 ✒ 3) 2 ✓ (0) 4 ✖ 3✗ 5,

it follows that 5 is the minimum value of f ( x ) . Hence, 5 is the minimum

distance between the soldier and the helicopter.

EXERCISE 6.5
1. Find the maximum and minimum values, if any, of the following functions
given by
(i) f (x) = (2x – 1)2 + 3 (ii) f (x) = 9x2 + 12x + 2
(iii) f (x) = – (x – 1)2 + 10 (iv) g (x) = x3 + 1
232 MATHEMATICS

2. Find the maximum and minimum values, if any, of the following functions
given by
(i) f (x) = | x + 2 | – 1 (ii) g (x) = – | x + 1| + 3
(iii) h (x) = sin (2x) + 5 (iv) f (x) = | sin 4x + 3|
(v) h (x) = x + 1, x ☎ (– 1, 1)
3. Find the local maxima and local minima, if any, of the following functions. Find
also the local maximum and the local minimum values, as the case may be:
(i) f (x) = x2 (ii) g (x) = x3 – 3x

(iii) h (x) = sin x + cos x, 0 ✁ x ✁

2
(iv) f (x) = sin x – cos x, 0 ✂ x ✂ 2✄
x 2
(v) f (x) = x3 – 6x2 + 9x + 15 (vi) g ( x ) ✆ ✝ , x✞ 0
2 x
1
(vii) g ( x) ✟ (viii) f ( x) ✟ x 1 ✡ x , x ☛ 0
x ✠2
2

4. Prove that the following functions do not have maxima or minima:

(i) f (x) = ex (ii) g (x) = log x
(iii) h (x) = x3 + x2 + x +1
5. Find the absolute maximum value and the absolute minimum value of the following
functions in the given intervals:
(i) f (x) = x3, x ☎ [– 2, 2] (ii) f (x) = sin x + cos x , x ☎ [0, ☞]

1 2 ✌ 9✍
(iii) f (x) = 4 x ✎ x , x ✏ ✑ ✎2, ✒ (iv) f ( x ) ✟ ( x ✡ 1) 2 ✠ 3, x ✕[ ✡3,1]
2 ✓ 2✔
6. Find the maximum profit that a company can make, if the profit function is
given by
p (x) = 41 – 24x – 18x2
7. Find both the maximum value and the minimum value of
3x4 – 8x3 + 12x2 – 48x + 25 on the interval [0, 3].
8. At what points in the interval [0, 2☞], does the function sin 2x attain its maximum
value?
9. What is the maximum value of the function sin x + cos x?
10. Find the maximum value of 2x3 – 24x + 107 in the interval [1, 3]. Find the
maximum value of the same function in [–3, –1].
 APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES 233

11. It is given that at x = 1, the function x4 – 62x2 + ax + 9 attains its maximum value,
on the interval [0, 2]. Find the value of a.
12. Find the maximum and minimum values of x + sin 2x on [0, 2✄].
13. Find two numbers whose sum is 24 and whose product is as large as possible.
14. Find two positive numbers x and y such that x + y = 60 and xy3 is maximum.
15. Find two positive numbers x and y such that their sum is 35 and the product x2 y5
is a maximum.
16. Find two positive numbers whose sum is 16 and the sum of whose cubes is
minimum.
17. A square piece of tin of side 18 cm is to be made into a box without top, by
cutting a square from each corner and folding up the flaps to form the box. What
should be the side of the square to be cut off so that the volume of the box is the
maximum possible.
18. A rectangular sheet of tin 45 cm by 24 cm is to be made into a box without top,
by cutting off square from each corner and folding up the flaps. What should be
the side of the square to be cut off so that the volume of the box is maximum ?
19. Show that of all the rectangles inscribed in a given fixed circle, the square has
the maximum area.
20. Show that the right circular cylinder of given surface and maximum volume is
such that its height is equal to the diameter of the base.
21. Of all the closed cylindrical cans (right circular), of a given volume of 100 cubic
centimetres, find the dimensions of the can which has the minimum surface
area?
22. A wire of length 28 m is to be cut into two pieces. One of the pieces is to be
made into a square and the other into a circle. What should be the length of the
two pieces so that the combined area of the square and the circle is minimum?
23. Prove that the volume of the largest cone that can be inscribed in a sphere of
8
radius R is of the volume of the sphere.
27
24. Show that the right circular cone of least curved surface and given volume has
an altitude equal to 2 time the radius of the base.
25. Show that the semi-vertical angle of the cone of the maximum volume and of
given slant height is tan 1 2 .
26. Show that semi-vertical angle of right circular cone of given surface area and
✂ 1☎
maximum volume is sin ✁1 ✆ ✝ .
✞ 3✟
234 MATHEMATICS

Choose the correct answer in the Exercises 27 and 29.

27. The point on the curve x2 = 2y which is nearest to the point (0, 5) is
(A) (2 2,4) (B) (2 2,0) (C) (0, 0) (D) (2, 2)

1 x ✁ x2
28. For all real values of x, the minimum value of is
1 ✁ x ✁ x2
1
(A) 0 (B) 1 (C) 3 (D)
3
1

29. The maximum value of [ x( x ✂ 1) ✄ 1]3 , 0 ☎ x ☎ 1 is

1
✆ 1✝ 3
(A) ✞ ✟ (B)
1
(C) 1 (D) 0
✠ 3✡ 2

Miscellaneous Examples

Example 42 A car starts from a point P at time t = 0 seconds and stops at point Q. The
distance x, in metres, covered by it, in t seconds is given by
☛ t☞
x ✌ t2 ✎ 2 ✍ ✏
✑ 3✒

Find the time taken by it to reach Q and also find distance between P and Q.

Solution Let v be the velocity of the car at t seconds.

☛ t☞
Now x = t2 ✎ 2 ✍ ✏
✑ 3✒
dx
Therefore v= = 4t – t2 = t (4 – t)
dt
Thus, v = 0 gives t = 0 and/or t = 4.
Now v = 0 at P as well as at Q and at P, t = 0. So, at Q, t = 4. Thus, the car will
reach the point Q after 4 seconds. Also the distance travelled in 4 seconds is given by
✓ 4✔ ✓ 2 ✔ 32
2
x]t = 4 = 4 ✖ 2 ✗ ✕ 16 ✖ ✗ ✕ m
✘ 3✙ ✘ 3✙ 3
 APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES 235

Example 43 A water tank has the shape of an inverted right circular cone with its axis
vertical and vertex lowermost. Its semi-vertical angle is tan–1 (0.5). Water is poured
into it at a constant rate of 5 cubic metre per hour. Find the rate at which the level of
the water is rising at the instant when the depth of water in the tank is 4 m.
r.
Solution Let r, h and ✑ be as in Fig 6.22. Then tan ✁
h

tan ✂1 ✆
✄r☎
So ✑= ✝.
✞h✟
But ✑ = tan–1 (0.5) (given)
r
or = 0.5
h
h
or r=
2
Let V be the volume of the cone. Then
Fig 6.22
1 2 1 ✡ h☛ ✠h3 2

V = ✠r h ☞ ✠ ✌ ✍ h ☞
3 3 ✎ 2✏ 12

dV d ✒ ✔h3 ✓ dh
Therefore = ✖ ✗✕
dh ✘ 12 ✙ dt
(by Chain Rule)
dt

✚ dh
= h2
4 dt
dV
Now rate of change of volume, i.e., ✛ 5 m3/h and h = 4 m.
dt
✚ dh
Therefore 5= (4) 2 ✜
4 dt

✤ m/h ✢✦ ✥ ✤ ✣✧
dh 5 35 22
or =
dt 4✥ 88 ★ 7 ✩
35
Thus, the rate of change of water level is m/h .
88
Example 44 A man of height 2 metres walks at a uniform speed of 5 km/h away from
a lamp post which is 6 metres high. Find the rate at which the length of his shadow
increases.
236 MATHEMATICS

Solution In Fig 6.23, Let AB be the lamp-post, the

lamp being at the position B and let MN be the man
at a particular time t and let AM = l metres. Then,
MS is the shadow of the man. Let MS = s metres.

Note that ✌MSN ~ ✌ ASB

MS MN
or =
AS AB
Fig 6.23
or AS = 3s (as MN = 2 and AB = 6 (given))
Thus AM = 3s – s = 2s. But AM = l
So l = 2s
dl ds
Therefore = 2
dt dt
dl 5
Since 5 km/h. Hence, the length of the shadow increases at the rate km/h.
dt 2
Example 45 Find the equation of the normal to the curve x2 = 4y which passes through
the point (1, 2).
Solution Differentiating x2 = 4y with respect to x, we get
dy x
=
dx 2
Let (h, k) be the coordinates of the point of contact of the normal to the curve
x2 = 4y. Now, slope of the tangent at (h, k) is given by
dy ✁ h
dx ✂✄ (h , k ) = 2

☎2
Hence, slope of the normal at (h, k) =
h
Therefore, the equation of normal at (h, k) is
✆2
y–k= ( x ✆ h) ... (1)
h
Since it passes through the point (1, 2), we have
☎2 2
2☎k (1 ☎ h) or k 2 ✝ (1 ☎ h) ... (2)
h h
 APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES 237

Since (h, k) lies on the curve x2 = 4y, we have

h2 = 4k ... (3)
From (2) and (3), we have h = 2 and k = 1. Substituting the values of h and k in (1),
we get the required equation of normal as
2
y 1✁ ( x 2) or x + y = 3
2
Example 46 Find the equation of tangents to the curve
y = cos (x + y), – 2✄ ✝ x ✝ 2✄
that are parallel to the line x + 2y = 0.
Solution Differentiating y = cos(x + y) with respect to x, we have

dy ✂ sin ( x ☎ y )
=
dx 1 ☎ sin ( x ☎ y )

✂ sin ( x ☎ y )
or slope of tangent at (x, y) =
1 ☎ sin ( x ☎ y )
Since the tangents to the given curve are parallel to the line x + 2y = 0, whose slope
1
is , we have
2
✂ sin( x ☎ y) 1
1 ☎ sin( x ☎ y ) = 2
or sin (x + y) = 1
✆,
or x + y = n✄ + (– 1)n n✞Z
2
✠ ✟ ✡,
y = cos(x + y) = cos ✌ n✟ ☛ (☞1) ✍ n✞Z
n
Then
✎ 2✏
= 0, for all n ✞ Z
3✆ ✆
Also, since ✑2✒ ✓ x ✓ 2✒ , we get x ✁ and x ✁ . Thus, tangents to the
2 2

✠ ☞3✟ ,0 ✡ ✕✔ ✖
given curve are parallel to the line x + 2y = 0 only at points ✌ ✍ and ✗ ,0✘ .
✎ 2 ✏ ✙2 ✚
Therefore, the required equation of tangents are
238 MATHEMATICS

1✂ 3✁ ✄
y–0= ✆ x☎ ✝ or 2 x ✠ 4 y ✠ 3✡ ☛ 0
2✞ 2 ✟

☞1 ✍ ✌ ✎
and y–0=
2✒
✏x☞ 2✑ or 2x ✔ 4y ✕ ✖ ✗ 0
✓
Example 47 Find intervals in which the function given by
3 4 4 3 36
f (x) = x ✘ x ✘ 3x 2 ✙ x ✙ 11
10 5 5
is (a) strictly increasing (b) strictly decreasing.
Solution We have
3 4 4 3 36
f (x) = x ✚ x ✚ 3x 2 ✛ x ✛ 11
10 5 5
3 4 36
Therefore f ✜(x) = (4 x 3 ) ✘ (3x 2 ) ✘ 3(2 x) ✙
10 5 5
6
= ( x ✘ 1)( x ✙ 2)( x ✘ 3) (on simplification)
5
Now f ✜(x) = 0 gives x = 1, x = – 2, or x = 3. The
points x = 1, – 2, and 3 divide the real line into four
disjoint intervals namely, (– ✢ , – 2), (– 2, 1), (1, 3) Fig 6.24
and (3, ✢) (Fig 6.24).
Consider the interval (– ✢ , – 2), i.e., when – ✢ < x < – 2.
In this case, we have x – 1 < 0, x + 2 < 0 and x – 3 < 0.
(In particular, observe that for x = –3, f ✜(x) = (x – 1) (x + 2) (x – 3) = (– 4) (– 1)
(– 6) < 0)
Therefore, f ✜(x) < 0 when – ✢ < x < – 2.
Thus, the function f is strictly decreasing in (– ✢, – 2).
Consider the interval (– 2, 1), i.e., when – 2 < x < 1.
In this case, we have x – 1 < 0, x + 2 > 0 and x – 3 < 0
(In particular, observe that for x = 0, f ✜(x) = (x – 1) (x + 2) (x – 3) = (–1) (2) (–3)
= 6 > 0)
So f ✜(x) > 0 when – 2 < x < 1.
Thus, f is strictly increasing in (– 2, 1).
 APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES 239

Now consider the interval (1, 3), i.e., when 1 < x < 3. In this case, we have
x – 1 > 0, x + 2 > 0 and x – 3 < 0.
So, f ✂(x) < 0 when 1 < x < 3.
Thus, f is strictly decreasing in (1, 3).
Finally, consider the interval (3, ✟), i.e., when x > 3. In this case, we have x – 1 > 0,
x + 2 > 0 and x – 3 > 0. So f ✂ (x) > 0 when x > 3.
Thus, f is strictly increasing in the interval (3, ✟).
Example 48 Show that the function f given by
f (x) = tan–1(sin x + cos x), x > 0

is always an strictly increasing function in ✁☎ 0, ✄✆ .

✝ 4✞
Solution We have
f (x) = tan–1(sin x + cos x), x > 0
1
Therefore f ✂(x) = (cos x ✠ sin x )
1 ✡ (sin x ✡ cos x) 2
cos x ☛ sin x
= (on simplification)
2 ☞ sin 2 x

✍ ✌✎
Note that 2 + sin 2x > 0 for all x in ✏✒ 0, ✑✓ .
4
Therefore f ✂(x) > 0 if cos x – sin x > 0
or f ✂(x) > 0 if cos x > sin x or cot x > 1
✔
Now cot x > 1 if tan x < 1, i.e., if 0 ✕ x ✕
4

Thus
✁
f ✂(x) > 0 in ☎ 0, ✆
✄
✝ 4✞

✍ ✌✎
Hence f is strictly increasing function in ✏ 0, ✑.
✒ 4✓
Example 49 A circular disc of radius 3 cm is being heated. Due to expansion, its
radius increases at the rate of 0.05 cm/s. Find the rate at which its area is increasing
when radius is 3.2 cm.
240 MATHEMATICS

Solution Let r be the radius of the given disc and A be its area. Then
A = ✄r2
dA dr
or = 2 r (by Chain Rule)
dt dt
dr
Now approximate rate of increase of radius = dr = ✁t ✂ 0.05 cm/s.
dt
Therefore, the approximate rate of increase in area is given by

dA ☎ dr ✆
dA = (✁t ) = 2✝r ✟ ✞t ✠
dt ✡ dt ☛
= 2✄ (3.2) (0.05) = 0.320✄ cm2/s (r = 3.2 cm)
Example 50 An open topped box is to be constructed by removing equal squares from
each corner of a 3 metre by 8 metre rectangular sheet of aluminium and folding up the
sides. Find the volume of the largest such box.
Solution Let x metre be the length of a side of the removed squares. Then, the height
of the box is x, length is 8 – 2x and breadth is 3 – 2x (Fig 6.25). If V(x) is the volume
of the box, then

Fig 6.25
V (x) = x (3 – 2x) (8 – 2x)
= 4x3 – 22x2 + 24x

☞✑ V✌( x ) ✍ 12 x 2 ✎ 44 x ✏ 24 ✍ 4( x ✎ 3)(3x ✎ 2)
Therefore ✒
✑✓ V✌✌( x) ✍ 24 x ✎ 44
2
Now V✔(x) = 0 gives x ✂ 3, . But x ✕ 3 (Why?)
3

Thus, we have x ✂
2 ☎ 2✆ ☎ 2✆
. Now V✖✖ ✟ ✠ ✗ 24 ✟ ✠ ✘ 44 ✗ ✘ 28 ✙ 0 .
3 ✡ 3☛ ✡ 3☛
 APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES 241

2 2
Therefore, x is the point of maxima, i.e., if we remove a square of side
3 3
metre from each corner of the sheet and make a box from the remaining sheet, then
the volume of the box such obtained will be the largest and it is given by

✁ 2✂
3 2
V ✄ ☎ = 4 ✞☛ ✟☞ ✠ 22 ✞☛ ✟☞ ✡ 24 ✞☛ ✟☞
2 2 2
✆ 3✝ ✌ 3✍ ✌ 3✍ ✌ 3✍
200 3
= m
27
✁ x ✂
Example 51 Manufacturer can sell x items at a price of rupees ✄ 5 ✎ ☎ each. The
✆ 100 ✝

✏x ✑
cost price of x items is Rs ✓ ✒ 500✔ . Find the number of items he should sell to earn
✕5 ✖
maximum profit.
Solution Let S (x) be the selling price of x items and let C (x) be the cost price of x
items. Then, we have
✗ x ✘ x2
S(x) = ✛ 5 ✙ ✚ ✙
100 ✜✣
x 5 x
✢ 100
x
and C (x) = ✤ 500
5
Thus, the profit function P (x) is given by
x2 x
P(x) = S( x) ✥ C( x ) ✦ 5 x ✥ ✥ ✥ 500
100 5
24 x2
i.e. P(x) = x✧ ✧ 500
5 100
24 x
or P★(x) = ✩
5 50
✩1 ✩1
Now P★(x) = 0 gives x = 240. Also P✪ ( x) ✫ . So P✪✪(240) ✫ ✬0
50 50
Thus, x = 240 is a point of maxima. Hence, the manufacturer can earn maximum
profit, if he sells 240 items.
242 MATHEMATICS

Miscellaneous Exercise on Chapter 6

1. Using differentials, find the approximate value of each of the following:
1
1
✟
(a) 17 ✁ 4 (b) ✝ 33✞ 5
✂ ✄
☎ 81✆

log x
2. Show that the function given by f ( x) ✠ has maximum at x = e.
x
3. The two equal sides of an isosceles triangle with fixed base b are decreasing at
the rate of 3 cm per second. How fast is the area decreasing when the two equal
sides are equal to the base ?
4. Find the equation of the normal to curve x2 = 4y which passes through the point
(1, 2).
5. Show that the normal at any point ✡ to the curve
x = a cos☛ + a ☛ sin ☛, y = a sin☛ – a☛ cos☛
is at a constant distance from the origin.
6. Find the intervals in which the function f given by
4sin x ☞ 2 x ☞ x cos x
f ( x) ✠
2 ✌ cos x
is (i) increasing (ii) decreasing.
1
7. Find the intervals in which the function f given by f ( x) ✍ x 3 ✎ , x ✏ 0 is
x3
(i) increasing (ii) decreasing.
x2 y 2
8. Find the maximum area of an isosceles triangle inscribed in the ellipse 2 ✑ 2 ✒ 1
a b
with its vertex at one end of the major axis.
9. A tank with rectangular base and rectangular sides, open at the top is to be
constructed so that its depth is 2 m and volume is 8 m3. If building of tank costs
Rs 70 per sq metres for the base and Rs 45 per square metre for sides. What is
the cost of least expensive tank?
10. The sum of the perimeter of a circle and square is k, where k is some constant.
Prove that the sum of their areas is least when the side of square is double the
radius of the circle.
 APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES 243

11. A window is in the form of a rectangle surmounted by a semicircular opening.

The total perimeter of the window is 10 m. Find the dimensions of the window to
admit maximum light through the whole opening.
12. A point on the hypotenuse of a triangle is at distance a and b from the sides of
the triangle.
2 2 3
Show that the maximum length of the hypotenuse is (a 3 b3 )2 .
13. Find the points at which the function f given by f (x) = (x – 2)4 (x + 1)3 has
(i) local maxima (ii) local minima
(iii) point of inflexion
14. Find the absolute maximum and minimum values of the function f given by
f (x) = cos2 x + sin x, x ☎ [0, ✄]
15. Show that the altitude of the right circular cone of maximum volume that can be
4r
inscribed in a sphere of radius r is .
3
16. Let f be a function defined on [a, b] such that f ✂(x) > 0, for all x ☎ (a, b). Then
prove that f is an increasing function on (a, b).
17. Show that the height of the cylinder of maximum volume that can be inscribed in
2R
a sphere of radius R is . Also find the maximum volume.
3
18. Show that height of the cylinder of greatest volume which can be inscribed in a
right circular cone of height h and semi vertical angle ✑ is one-third that of the
4
cone and the greatest volume of cylinder is ✁h3 tan 2 ✆ .
27
Choose the correct answer in the Exercises from 19 to 24.
19. A cylindrical tank of radius 10 m is being filled with wheat at the rate of 314
cubic metre per hour. Then the depth of the wheat is increasing at the rate of
(A) 1 m3/h (B) 0.1 m3/h
(C) 1.1 m3/h (D) 0.5 m3/h
20. The slope of the tangent to the curve x = t2 + 3t – 8, y = 2t2 – 2t – 5 at the point
(2,– 1) is
22 6 7 ✝6
(A) (B) (C) (D)
7 7 6 7
244 MATHEMATICS

21. The line y = mx + 1 is a tangent to the curve y2 = 4x if the value of m is

1
(A) 1 (B) 2 (C) 3 (D)
2
22. The normal at the point (1,1) on the curve 2y + x2 = 3 is
(A) x + y = 0 (B) x – y = 0
(C) x + y +1 = 0 (D) x – y = 0
2
23. The normal to the curve x = 4y passing (1,2) is
(A) x + y = 3 (B) x – y = 3
(C) x + y = 1 (D) x – y = 1
2 3
24. The points on the curve 9y = x , where the normal to the curve makes equal
intercepts with the axes are
8✁ ✞8✁
(A) ✄ 4, ✂ ☎ (B) ✄ 4, ☎
✆ 3✝ ✆ 3✝

✟ 3✠ ✟ 3✠
(C) ☛ 4, ✡ ☞ (D) ☛✡ 4, ☞
✌ 8✍ ✌ 8✍

Summary
✎ If a quantity y varies with another quantity x, satisfying some rule y ✏ f ( x ) ,
dy
then (or f ✑( x) ) represents the rate of change of y with respect to x and
dx
dy ✓
dx ✔✕ x✒ x0 (or f ✖(x0 ) ) represents the rate of change of y with respect to x at

x ✗ x0 .
✎ If two variables x and y are varying with respect to another variable t, i.e., if
x ✏ f (t ) and y ✏ g (t ) , then by Chain Rule
dy dy dx dx
✘ , if ✙ 0.
dx dt dt dt
✎ A function f is said to be
(a) increasing on an interval (a, b) if
x1 < x2 in (a, b) ✚ f (x1) ✛ f (x2) for all x1, x2 ✜ (a, b).
 APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES 245

✂ ✞
Alternatively, if f (x) 0 for each x in (a, b)
(b) decreasing on (a,b) if
x1 < x2 in (a, b) ✆ ✞
f (x1) f (x2) for all x1, x2 (a, b). ☎
✂ ✝
Alternatively, if f (x) 0 for each x in (a, b)
The equation of the tangent at (x0, y0) to the curve y = f (x) is given by

y ✄ y ✟ dydx ✁✠✡
0 (x ✄x ) 0
( x0 , y0 )

dy
If does not exist at the point ( x0 , y0 ) , then the tangent at this point is
dx
parallel to the y-axis and its equation is x = x0.
☞ ✌0.
✍✎ ☛
dy
If tangent to a curve y = f (x) at x = x0 is parallel to x-axis, then
dx x x0

Equation of the normal to the curve y = f (x) at a point ( x0 , y0 ) is given by

y ✏ y ✑ dy ✒✏1
0 (x ✏x )0

dx ✓✔ ( x0 , y0 )

dy
If at the point ( x0 , y0 ) is zero, then equation of the normal is x = x0.
dx
dy
If at the point ( x0 , y0 ) does not exist, then the normal is parallel to x-axis
dx
and its equation is y = y0.
✕
Let y = f (x), x be a small increment in x and y be the increment in y ✕
✕
corresponding to the increment in x, i.e., y = f (x + x) – f (x). Then dy ✕
given by

✖ f ✗( x)dx or dy ✚ ✘✜✣ dydx ✙✢✤ ✛x .

dy

is a good approximation of ✕y when dx ✥ ✦ x is relatively small and we denote

it by dy ✧ ✕y.
A point c in the domain of a function f at which either f ✂(c) = 0 or f is not
differentiable is called a critical point of f.
246 MATHEMATICS

First Derivative Test Let f be a function defined on an open interval I. Let

f be continuous at a critical point c in I. Then
✂
(i) If f (x) changes sign from positive to negative as x increases through c,
✂
i.e., if f (x) > 0 at every point sufficiently close to and to the left of c,
✂
and f (x) < 0 at every point sufficiently close to and to the right of c,
then c is a point of local maxima.
✂
(ii) If f (x) changes sign from negative to positive as x increases through c,
✂
i.e., if f (x) < 0 at every point sufficiently close to and to the left of c,
✂
and f (x) > 0 at every point sufficiently close to and to the right of c,
then c is a point of local minima.
✂
(iii) If f (x) does not change sign as x increases through c, then c is neither
a point of local maxima nor a point of local minima. Infact, such a point
is called point of inflexion.
Second Derivative Test Let f be a function defined on an interval I and
☎
c I. Let f be twice differentiable at c. Then
✂ ✎
(i) x = c is a point of local maxima if f (c) = 0 and f (c) < 0
The values f (c) is local maximum value of f .
✂ ✎
(ii) x = c is a point of local minima if f (c) = 0 and f (c) > 0
In this case, f (c) is local minimum value of f .
✂ ✎
(iii) The test fails if f (c) = 0 and f (c) = 0.
In this case, we go back to the first derivative test and find whether c is
a point of maxima, minima or a point of inflexion.
Working rule for finding absolute maxima and/or absolute minima
Step 1: Find all critical points of f in the interval, i.e., find points x where
✂
either f (x) = 0 or f is not differentiable.
Step 2:Take the end points of the interval.
Step 3: At all these points (listed in Step 1 and 2), calculate the values of f .
Step 4: Identify the maximum and minimum values of f out of the values
calculated in Step 3. This maximum value will be the absolute maximum
value of f and the minimum value will be the absolute minimum value of f .

—✁—
 ANSWERS
EXERCISE 1.1
1. (i) Neither reflexive nor symmetric nor transitive.
(ii) Neither reflexive nor symmetric nor transitive.
(iii) Reflexive and transitive but not symmetric.
(iv) Reflexive, symmetric and transitive.
(v) (a) Reflexive, symmetric and transitive.
(b) Reflexive, symmetric and transitive.
(c) Neither reflexive nor symmetric nor transitive.
(d) Neither reflexive nor symmetric nor transitive.
(e) Neither reflexive nor symmetric nor transitive.
3. Neither reflexive nor symmetric nor transitive.
5. Neither reflexive nor symmetric nor transitive.
9. (i) {1, 5, 9}, (ii) {1} 12. T1 is related to T3.
13. The set of all triangles 14. The set of all lines y = 2x + c, c ✂ R
15. B 16. C

EXERCISE 1.2
1. No
2. (i) Injective but not surjective (ii) Neither injective nor surjective
(iii) Neither injective nor surjective (iv) Injective but not surjective
(v) Injective but not surjective
7. (i) One-one and onto (ii) Neither one-one nor onto.
9. No 10. Yes 11. D 12. A

EXERCISE 1.3
1. gof = {(1, 3), (3,1), (4,3)}
3. (i) (gof ) (x) = | 5 | x |– 2|, (fog) (x) = |5x – 2|
(ii) (g o f ) (x) = 2x, (f o g) (x) = 8x
4. Inverse of f is f itself
 ANSWERS 269

5. (i) No, since f is many-one (ii) No, since g is many-one.

(iii) Yes, since h is one-one-onto.
2y y✁3
6. f –1 is given by f –1 (y) = , y ✄ 1 7. f –1 is given by f –1 (y) =
1 y 4
–1
11. f is given by f –1 (a) = 1, f –1 (b) = 2 and f –1 (c) = 3.
13. (C) 14. (B)

EXERCISE 1.4
1. (i) No (ii) Yes (iii) Yes (iv) Yes (v) Yes
2. (i) ☎ is neither commutative nor associative
(ii) ☎ is commutative but not associative
(iii) ☎ is both commutative and associative
(iv) ☎ is commutative but not associative
(v) ☎ is neither commutative nor associative
(vi) ☎ is neither commutative nor associative

3. ✆ 1 2 3 4 5
1 1 1 1 1 1
2 1 2 2 2 2
3 1 2 3 3 3
4 1 2 3 4 4
5 1 2 3 4 5

4. (i) (2 * 3) * 4 = 1 and 2 * (3 * 4) = 1 (ii) Yes (iii) 1

5. Yes
6. (i) 5 * 7 = 35, 20 * 16 = 80 (ii) Yes (iii) Yes (iv) 1 (v) 1
7. No 8. ☎ is both commutative and associative; ☎ does not have any identity in N
9. (ii) , (iv), (v) are commutative; (v) is associative.
11. Identity element does not exist.
12. (ii) False (ii) True 13. B
270 MATHEMATICS

Miscellaneous Exercise on Chapter 1

y 7
1. g ( y) ✁ 2. The inverse of f is f itself
10
3. x4 – 6x3 + 10x2 – 3x 8. No 10. n!
–1 –1
11. (i) F = {(3, a), (2, b), (1, c)}, (ii) F does not exist 12. No
15. Yes 16. A 17. B 18. No
19. B

EXERCISE 2.1
✂ ✂ ✂ ✂
1. 2. 3. 4.
6 6 6 3
2✂ ✂ ✂ ✂
5. 6. 7. 8.
3 4 6 6
3✄ ☎✄ 3✄ 2✄
9. 10. 11. 12.
4 4 4 3
13. B 14. B

EXERCISE 2.2
1 ✆1 ✂ x ✂
5. tan x 6. – sec–1 x 7. 8. x
2 2 2 4
✆1 x ✆1 x ✂
9. sin 10. 3tan 11. 12. 0
a a 4
x✝ y 1 1 ✂
13. 1 ✞ xy 14. 15. ✟ 16.
5 2 3
✂ 17
17. 18. 19. B 20. D
4 6
21. B

Miscellaneous Exercise on Chapter 2

✂ ✂ ✄ 1
1. 2. 13. x✠ 14. x✡
6 6 4 3
15. D 16. C 17. C
 ANSWERS 271

EXERCISE 3.1
5
1. (i) 3 × 4 (ii) 12 (iii) 19, 35, – 5, 12,
2
2. 1 × 24, 2 × 12, 3 × 8, 4 × 6, 6 × 4, 8 × 3, 12 × 2, 24 × 1; 1 × 13, 13 × 1
3. 1 × 18, 2 × 9, 3 × 6, 6 × 3, 9 × 2, 18 × 1; 1 × 5, 5 × 1
9✁
2 1✁ 9 25 ✁
✂ 2✄ 1
4. (i) (ii) ✂ 2✄ (iii) ✂2 2✄
✂ ✄
✂ ✄ ✂ ✄
✂9 8✄ ☎2 1✆ ☎8 18 ✆
✂2
☎ ✄
✆

✝ 1 1✞
✟
1 0
2 2✠
✟ ✠ ✌1 0 ☞1 ☞2✍
✟5 3 ✠
1 (ii) ✎ 3 2
5. (i)
✟2
2 1 0✏
2 ✠ ✎ ✏
✟
7
✟4
5 ✠✠ ✎
✑5 4 3 2 ✏✒
3
✟
✡2 2 ☛✠
6. (i) x = 1, y = 4, z = 3
(ii) x = 4, y = 2, z = 0 or x = 2, y = 4, z = 0
(iii) x = 2, y = 4, z=3
7. a = 1, b = 2, c = 3, d = 4
8. C 9. B 10. D

EXERCISE 3.2

✓3 7✔ ✓1 1✔
1. (i) A + B = ✕ (ii) A ✙ B = ✕ ✖
✗1 7✖✘ ✗5 ✙3✘

✓8 7✔ ✓ ✙6 26✔ ✚11 10✛

(iii) 3A ✙ C = ✕ (iv) AB =✕ (v) BA =
✗6 2✖✘ ✗ 1 19 ✖✘ ✜
✣11 2 ✢✤

✚ 2a 2b ✛ ✥ ( a ✧ b )2 (b ✧ c) 2 ✦
2. (i) ✜
(ii) ★ ✩
✣ 0 2a✢✤ ★ (a ✪ c )
✫
2
(a ✪ b) 2 ✬✩
✌11 11 0 ✍
✎ ✓1 1✔
(iii) 16 5 21✏ (iv) ✕
✎ ✏
✗1 1✖✘
✎
✑5 10 9 ✏
✒
272 MATHEMATICS

✞2 3 4✟
a 2 ✂ b2 0 ✁ ✠ ✍✌ 3 ✌ 4 1✎
3. (i) (ii) 4 6 8 ✡✡ (iii) ✏
✄
0 2 2
☎
a ✂ b ☎✝
✠
✒ 8 13 9 ✑✓
✄✆ ✠☛ 6 9 12✡☞

✔14 0 42✕ ✔1 2 3✕
✖ ✍14 ✌6 ✎
(iv) 18 ✘1 56✗ (v) ✖
1 4 5✗ (vi) ✏
✖ ✗ ✖ ✗
✒4 5 ✑✓
✖✙ 22 ✘2 70✗✚ ✖ ✘
✙ 2 2 0✗✚
✔4 1 ✘1✕ ✔ ✘1 ✘2 0✕
✖
4. A+B = 9 2 7 ✗, B✘C = ✖
4 ✘1 3✗
✖ ✗ ✖ ✗
✖✙ 3 ✘1 4 ✗✚ ✖
✙1 2 0✗✚

✞0 0 0✟
✠ ✍1 0✎
5. 0 0 0 ✡✡ 6. ✏
✠
✒0 1 ✑✓
✠☛ 0 0 0 ✡☞

✢ 2 ✜12 ✣ ✢ 2 13 ✣
✍5 0✎ ✍ 2 0✎ ✤ 5 5 ✥, ✤5 5✥
7. (i) X✛✏ ,
✑ Y✛✏ ✑ (ii) X ✦✤ ✥ Y ✦ ✤ ✥
✒1 4✓ ✒ 1 1✓ ✤ ✜11 ✤14
3 ✥ ✜2
✥
✤✧ 5 ✥★ ✤✧ 5 ✥★

✍ ✌1 ✌1✎
8. X✛✏ ✑ 9. x = 3, y = 3 10. x = 3, y = 6, z = 9, t = 6
✒ ✌2 ✌1✓
11. x = 3, y = – 4 12. x = 2, y = 4, w = 3, z = 1
✔ 1 ✘1 ✘3 ✕
✖ ✗
15. ✘1 ✘1 ✘10 17. k = 1
✖ ✗
✖✙ ✘5 4 4 ✗✚
19. (a) Rs 15000, Rs 15000 (b) Rs 5000, Rs 25000
20. Rs 20160 21. A 22. B

EXERCISE 3.3

✰ ✲1 3 2✱
✩ 1 ✪ ✍1 2✎ ✳ ✴
1. (i) 5 ✫1 (ii) ✏ (iii) ✳5 5 3✴
✬
✮ 2 ✭
✯ ✒ ✌1 3✑✓
✳6 6 ✲1✴
✵ ✶
 ANSWERS 273

✞0 0 0✟ ✞ 0 a b✟
✁ 4 5✂
4. ✄ ☎ 9. ✠ 0 0 0✡ , ✠ ☛ a 0 c✡
✆ 1 6✝ ✠ ✡ ✠ ✡
☞✠0 0 0✌✡ ✠☞ ☛b ☛ c 0✌✡
✍3 3✎ ✍ 0 2✎
10. (i) A ✏ ✒ ✓ ✑✒ ✓
✕3 ✔1✖ ✕ ✔2 0 ✖
✘ 6 ✗2 2 ✙ ✘0 0 0✙
✚
(ii) A ✜ ✚ ✗ 2 3 ✗ 1 ✛ ✢ ✚✚ 0
✛ 0 0✛
✛
✣✚ 2 ✗1 3 ✤✛ ✣✚ 0 0 0 ✤✛

✦ 1 ✥5 ✧ ✦ 5 3✧
★3 2 2✩ ★0 2 2✩
★ ✩ ★ ✩
✥ ✁ 1 2✂ ✁ 0 3 ✂
(iii) A ✪ ★ ✥ 2 ✥2 ✩ ✫ ★ 3✩
1 5
0 (iv) A✮✄ ☎✯✄ ☎
★2 ✩ ★2 ✩ ✆ 2 2✝ ✆ 3 0 ✝
★ ✩ ★ ✩
★ ✥ 5 ✥2 2 ✩ ★ ✥ 3 ✥ 3 0✩
✬★ 2 ✩✭ ★✬ 2 ✭✩
11. A 12. B

EXERCISE 3.4

✰ 3 1✱
✲5 5✳ ✍ 1 ✔ 1✎ ✍ 7 ✔3✎
1. ✲ ✳ 2. ✒ ✓ 3. ✒ ✓
✲ ✴2 1✳ ✕ ✔1 2 ✖ ✕ ✔2 1 ✖
✲✵ 5 5 ✳✶
✍ ✔7 3 ✎ ✍ 4 ✔ 1✎ ✍ 3 ✔ 5✎
4. ✒ ✓ 5. ✒ ✓ 6. ✒ ✓
✕ 5 ✔ 2✖ ✕ ✔7 2 ✖ ✕ ✔1 2 ✖
✍ 2 ✔ 1✎ ✍ 4 ✔ 5✎ ✍ 7 ✔10✎
7. ✒ ✓ 8. ✒ ✓ 9. ✒ ✓
✕ ✔5 3 ✖ ✕ ✔3 4 ✖ ✕ ✔2 3 ✖
✰1 1✱
✲ ✰ ✴1 3✱
2✳
10. ✲ ✳ 11. ✲ ✴1 ✳ 12. Inverse does not exist.
✲2 3✳ ✲ 1✳
✲✵ 2 ✳✶ ✵2 ✶
274 MATHEMATICS

2 3✁
13. ✂ 14. Inverse does not exist.
☎1 2✄✆

✞ ✝2 3 ✟ ✞ ✝2 ✝3 ✟
✠ 5
0 ✡ ✠
1
5 5 5✡ ✌1
✠ ✡ ✠ ✡ ✍ 3 1 ✎
✠ ✝1 1 ✠ ✝2 4 11 ✡ ✏ ✑
15. 0✡ 16. 17. ✏
✌15 6 ✌5
✑
✠ 5 5 ✡ ✠ 5 25 25 ✡
✠ ✡ ✠ ✡ ✏
✒ 5 ✌2 2 ✑✓
2 1 ✝2 ✝3 1 9✡
✠ ✡ ✠
✠
☛ 5 5 5 ✡☞ ✠
☛ 5 25 25 ✡☞

18. D

Miscellaneous Exercise on Chapter 3

1 1 1
6. x✔✕ ,y✔✕ ,z✔✕
2 6 3

7. x = – 1 9. x ✖ ✗ 4 3
10. (a) Total revenue in the market - I = Rs 46000
Total revenue in the market - II = Rs 53000
(b) Rs 15000, Rs 17000

✙1 ✘2✚
11. X✛✜ 13. C 14. B 15. C
✣2 0 ✢✤

EXERCISE 4.1
1. (i) 18 2. (i) 1, (ii) x3 – x2 + 2
5. (i) – 12, (ii) 46, (iii) 0, (iv) 5 6. 0

7. (i) x ✖ ✗ 3 , (ii) x = 2 8. (B)

EXERCISE 4.2
15. C 16. C
 ANSWERS 275

EXERCISE 4.3

15 47
1. (i) , (ii) , (iii) 15
2 2
3. (i) 0, 8, (ii) 0, 8 4. (i) y = 2x, (ii) x – 3y = 0 5. (D)

EXERCISE 4.4
1. (i) M11 = 3, M12 = 0, M21 = – 4, M22 = 2, A11 = 3, A12 = 0, A21 = 4, A22 = 2
(ii) M11 = d, M12 = b, M21 = c, M22 = a
A11 = d, A12= – b, A21 = – c, A22 = a
2. (i) M11= 1, M12= 0, M13 = 0, M21 = 0, M22 = 1, M23 = 0, M31 = 0, M32 = 0, M33 = 1,
A11= 1, A12= 0, A13= 0, A21= 0, A22= 1, A23= 0, A31= 0, A32= 0, A33= 1
(ii) M11= 11, M12= 6, M13= 3, M21= –4, M22= 2, M23= 1, M31= –20, M32= –13, M33= 5
A11=11, A12= – 6, A13= 3, A21= 4, A22= 2, A23= –1, A31= –20, A32= 13, A33= 5
3. 7 4. (x – y) (y – z) (z – x) 5. (D)

EXERCISE 4.5

✟ 3 1 ✞11✠
✁4 2✂ ✡ ☛ 1 ✁ 3 2✂
1. ✄ 2. ✡ ✞12 5 ✞1 ☛
1 ☎✝ 14 ✄✆ 4 2 ☎✝
5.
✆ 3 ✡☞ 6 2 5 ☛✌

✖10 ✕10 2 ✗ ✢ ✜3 0 0 ✣
1 ✎ 2 ✍5✏ 1 ✘ ✜1 ✤
0 5 ✕ 4✙✙ 3 ✜1 0✥
13 ✑✓ 3 ✍1✒✔
6. 7. 8.
10 ✘ 3 ✤ ✥
✘✚ 0 0 2 ✙✛ ✤✦ ✜9 ✜2 3✥✧

✖ ✕1 5 3✗ ✟ ✞2 0 1 ✠ ✟1 0 0 ✠
✕1 ✘
9. ✕ 4 23 12 ✙ 10. ✡✡ 9 2 ✞3☛☛
✙ ✡0 cos ★ sin ★ ☛
11. ✡
3 ✘ ☛
✘✚ 1 ✕11 ✕ 6✛✙ ☞✡ 6 1 ✞2✌☛ ☞✡0 sin ★ – cos ★ ✌☛

✟ ✞3 4 5 ✠
1 ✎ 2 ✍ 1✏ ✩ 1 ✡ ☛
15. A ✪ ✡ 9 ✞1 ✞ 4 ☛
1
13. ✑
7 ✓1 3 ✔
✒ 14. a = – 4, b = 1
11
☞✡ 5 ✞3 ✞1 ☛✌
276 MATHEMATICS

✁ 3 1 1✂
1✄
1 3 1☎
16. 4✄ ☎ 17. B 18. B
✆✄ 1 1 3✝☎

EXERCISE 4.6
1. Consistent 2. Consistent 3. Inconsistent
4. Consistent 5. Inconsistent 6. Consistent

✞5 12 ✞6 ✞19
7. x = 2, y = – 3 8. x✟ , y✟ 9. x✟ , y✟
11 11 11 11

1 ✞3
10. x = –1, y = 4 11. x = 1, y ✟ , z ✟
2 2
12. x = 2, y = –1, z = 1 13. x = 1, y = 2, z = –1
14. x = 2, y = 1, z = 3

✡ 0 1 ✠2 ☛
☞ ✌
15. ☞ ✠2 9 ✠23✌ , x = 1, y = 2, z = 3
✍☞ ✠1 5 ✠13✌✎

16. cost of onions per kg ✏ Rs 5

cost of wheat per kg ✏ Rs 8
cost of rice per kg ✏ Rs 8

Miscellaneous Exercise on Chapter 4

✡ 9 ✠3 5 ☛
✞a ☞ 1 0✌
3. 1 5. x✟ 7. ☞✠2 ✌
3 ☞✍ 1 0 2 ✌✎

9. – 2(x3 + y3) 10. xy 16. x = 2, y = 3, z = 5

17. A 18. A 19. D
 ANSWERS 277

EXERCISE 5.1
2. f is continuous at x = 3
3. (a), (b), (c) and (d) are all continuous functions
5. f is continuous at x = 0 and x = 2; Not continuous at x = 1
6. Discontinuous at x = 2 7. Discontinuous at x = 3
8. Discontinuous at x = 0 9. No point of discontinuity
10. No point of discontinuity 11. No point of discontinuity
12. f is continuous at x = 1 13. f is not continuous at x = 1
14. f is not continuous at x = 1 and x = 3
15. x = 1 is the only point of discontinuity
2
16. Continuous 17. a b✁
3
18. For no value of ✝, f is continuous at x = 0 but f is continuous at x = 1 for any
value of ✝.
20. f is continuous at x = ✞ 21. (a), (b) and (c) are all continuous
22. Cosine function is continuous for all x ✂ R; cosecant is continuous except for
✄
x = n✞, n ✂ Z; secant is continuous except for x = (2n ✁ 1) , n ✂ Z and
2
cotangent function is continuous except for x = n✞, n ✂ Z
23. There is no point of discontinuity.
24. Yes, f is continuous for all x ✂ R 25. f is continuous for all x ✂ R
3 ☎2
26. k = 6 27. k 28. k
4 ✄
9
29. k 30. a = 2, b = 1
5
34. There is no point of discontinuity.

EXERCISE 5.2
2
1. 2x cos (x + 5) 2. – cos x sin (sin x) 3. a cos (ax + b)
sec (tan x).tan (tan x ).sec 2 x
4.
2 x

5. a cos (ax + b) sec (cx + d) + c sin (ax + b) tan (cx + d) sec (cx + d)
6. 10x4 sinx5 cosx5 cosx3 – 3x2 sinx3 sin2 x5
278 MATHEMATICS

2 2x sin x
7. 2 2 8. ✁
sin x sin 2 x 2 x

EXERCISE 5.3

cosx ✂ 2 2 a
1. 2. 3. ☎
3 cos y ✄ 3 2by ✆ sin y

sec 2 x ✝ y (2 x ✆ y ) (3x 2 ✞ 2 xy ✞ y 2 )
4. 5. ☎ 6. ✝
x ✞ 2y ✝1 ( x ✆ 2 y) ( x 2 ✞ 2 xy ✞ 3 y 2 )

y sin xy sin 2 x 2 3
7. sin 2 y ☎ x sin xy 8. 9. 10.
sin 2 y 1 ✟ x2 1 ✟ x2

2 ✠2 ✠2 2
11. 12. 13. 14.
1 ✟ x2 1 ✟ x2 1 ✟ x2 1 ✁ x2

2
15. ✡
1✡ x2

EXERCISE 5.4

e x (sin x ☛ cosx) esin ✏1 x

1. , x ☞ n✌✍ n ✎ Z 2. , x ✑( 1,1)
sin 2 x 1 x2

e✒ x cos (tan ✒1 e – x )
4. ✓
3
3. 3 x2 e x
1 ✔ e✒ 2 x

✕ x2
5. – ex tan ex, e x ✖ (2n ✗ 1) , n ✘ N 6. e x ✙ 2 x e ✙ 3 x 2 e x ✙ 4 x 3e x ✙ 5 x 4 e x
3 4 5

2
x
e 1
7. ,x>0 8. ,x>1
x x log x
4 xe

( x sin x ✚ log x ✆ cos x) , ✜1 ✢

9. ☎ x ✛ 0 10. ☛ ✤ ✣ e x ✥ sin (log x ✣ e x ), x > 0
x (log x) 2 ✦ x ✧
 ANSWERS 279

EXERCISE 5.5
1. – cos x cos 2x cos 3x [tan x + 2 tan 2x + 3 tan 3x]
1 ( x ✂ 1) ( x ✂ 2) 1 1 1 1 1 ✁
2. ✄ ✂ ✂ ✂
2 ( x ✂ 3)( x ✂ 4)( x ✂ 5) ✝ x ✂ 1 x ✂ 2 x ✂ 3 x ✂ 4 x ✂ 5 ✆✞
☎

✟
cos x ✠
3. (log x )cos x ☛ ✡ sin x log (log x) ☞
✌ x log x ✍
4. xx (1 + log x) – 2sin x cos x log 2
5. (x + 3) (x + 4)2 (x + 5)3 (9x2 + 70x + 133)
x 1
✔ 1 ✕ ✏ x 2 ✒1 1 ✑ 1✎ ✔ x ✓ 1 ✒ log x ✕
6. ✘ x✓ ✙ ✖ 2 ✓ log ( x ✓ ) ✗ ✓ x x ✘ ✙
✚ x ✛ ✜ x ✓1 x ✢ ✚ x2 ✛
7. (log x)x-1 [1 + log x . log (log x)] + 2x logx–1 . logx
1 1
8. (sin x)x (x cot x + log sin x) +
2 x ✣ x2
✤ sin x ✥
9. x sinx ✧ x
✦ cos x log x ★ + (sin x)cos x [cos x cot x – sin x log sin x]
✩ ✪
4x
10. x x cosx [cos x . (1 + log x) – x sin x log x] –
( x ✫ 1) 2
2

1
x cot x ✄ 1 ✂ log ( x sin x ) ✁
11. (x cos x)x [1 – x tan x + log (x cos x)] + (x sin x) x
☎ ✆
✝ x2 ✞

yx y ✬1 ✭ y x log y y ✮ y ✰ x log y ✯
12. ✡ 13. ✱ ✲
x y log x ✭ xy x ✬1 x ✳ x ✰ y log x ✴
y tan x ✵ log cos y y ( x ✶1)
14. 15.
x tan y ✵ log cos x x ( y ✵ 1)
✟ 1 2x 4 x3 8x7 ✠
16. (1 + x) (1 + x2) (1 +x4) (1 + x8) ☛ ✭ 2
✭ ✭ ☞ ; f ✷(1) = 120
✌1 ✭ x 1 ✭ x 1 ✭ x 4 1 ✭ x8 ✍
17. 5x4 – 20x3 + 45x2 – 52x + 11

EXERCISE 5.6

b 1
1. 2t2 2. 3. – 4 sin t 4. ✒ 2
a t
280 MATHEMATICS

cos ✁ 2cos 2 ✂
5. 6. ✄ cot 7. – cot 3t 8. tan t
2sin 2 ✁ sin 2
b
9. cosec ☎ 10. tan ✠
a

EXERCISE 5.7
1. 2 2. 380 x18 3. – x cos x – 2 sin x
1
4. ✆ 5. x(5 + 6 log x) 6. 2ex (5 cos 5x – 12 sin 5x)
x2
2x
7. 9 e6x (3 cos 3x – 4 sin 3x) 8. ✝
(1 ✞ x 2 ) 2
(1 ✟ log x) sin (log x) ✡ cos (log x)
9. ✁ 10. ✆
( x log x) 2 x2
12. – cot y cosec2 y

Miscellaneous Exercise on Chapter 5

1. 27 (3x – 9x + 5)8 (2x – 3)
2
2. 3sinx cosx (sinx – 2 cos4 x)

3. (5 x ) 3cos 2 x ☛ ☞
3cos 2 x
✌✎ ✁ 6sin 2 x log 5 x ✍
x ✏
✓ ✔
cos ✒1
x
3 x ✕ 1 2 ✖
4. 5. ✗ ✕ ✘ ✖
2 1 ✑ x3 3

✕ 4 ✗ x 2 x ✘ 7 (2 x ✘ 7) 2
2
✖
✙ ✚
1 log x ☛ 1 log (log x) ☞
6.
2
7. (log x ) ✌✎ x ✟ x ✍✏ , x ✛ 1

8. (a sin x – b cos x) sin (a cos x + b sin x)

9. (sinx – cosx)sin x – cos x (cosx + sinx) (1 + log (sinx – cos x)), sinx > cosx
10. xx (1 + log x) + ax a–1 + ax log a
✢ x2 ✆ 3 ✣ 2 ✢ x
2
✣
x x ✜3 ✤
2
11. ✡ 2 x log x✥ ✡ ( x ✆ 3) x ✤ ✡ 2 x log( x ✆ 3)✥
✦ x ✧ ✦x✆3 ✧
 ANSWERS 281

6 t sec3 t
12. cot 13. 0 17. ,0 ✁ t ✁
5 2 at 2

EXERCISE 6.1
1. (a) 6✞ cm2/s (b) 8✞ cm2/s
8
2. cm2/s 3. 60✞ cm2/s 4. 900 cm3/s
3

5. 80✞ cm2/s 6. 1.4✞ cm/s

7. (a) –2 cm/min (b) 2 cm2/min
1 8
8. cm/s 9. 400✞ cm3/s 10. cm/s
✂ 3

☎ ✄31 ✆
11. (4, 11) and ✝ ✄ 4, ✟ 12. 2✞ cm3/s
✠ 3 ✡

27 1
13. ✂ (2 x ☛ 1) 2 14. cm/s 15. Rs 20.967
8 48 ☞

16. Rs 208 17. B 18. D

EXERCISE 6.2

☎3 ✆ ☎ 3✆
4. (a) ✝ , ✌ ✟ (b) ✝ ✄ ✌, ✟
✠4 ✡ ✠ 4✡

5. (a) (– ✍, – 2) and (3, ✍) (b) (– 2, 3)

6. (a) Strictly decreasing for x < – 1 and strictly increasing for x > – 1

3 3
(b) Strictly decreasing for x ✎ ✏ and strictly increasing for x ✑ ✏
2 2
(c) Strictly increasing for – 2 < x < – 1 and strictly decreasing for x < – 2 and
x>–1
9 9
(d) Strictly increasing for x ✑ ✏ and strictly decreasing for x ✎ ✏
2 2
282 MATHEMATICS

(e) Strictly increasing in (1, 3) and (3, ✡), strictly decreasing in (– ✡ , –1)
and (– 1, 1).
8. 0 < x < 1 and x > 2 12. A, B
13. D 14. a = – 2 19. D

EXERCISE 6.3

1
1. 764 2. 3. 11 4. 24
64
a
5. 1 6. 7. (3, – 20) and (–1, 12)
2b
8. (3, 1) 9. (2, – 9)
10. (i) y + x +1 = 0 and y + x – 3 = 0
11. No tangent to the curve which has slope 2.
1
12. y✁ 13. (i) (0, ± 4) (ii) (± 3, 0)
2
14. (i) Tangent: 10x + y = 5; Normal: x – 10y + 50 = 0
(ii) Tangent: y = 2x + 1; Normal: x + 2y – 7 = 0
(iii) Tangent: y = 3x – 2; Normal: x + 3y – 4 = 0
(iv) Tangent: y = 0; Normal: x = 0
(v) Tangent: x + y ✂ 2 = 0; Normal x = y
15. (a) y – 2x – 3 = 0 (b) 36 y + 12x – 227 = 0
17. (0, 0), (3, 27) 18. (0, 0), (1, 2), (–1, –2)
19. (1, ± 2) 20. 2x + 3my – am2 (2 + 3m2) = 0
21. x + 14y – 254 = 0, x + 14y + 86 = 0
22. ty = x + at2, y = – tx + 2at + at3
x x0 y y0 y✄ y x✄x
24. 2
✄ 2 ☎ 1, 2 0 ✆ 2 0 ☎ 0
a b a y0 b x0
25. 48x – 24y = 23 26. D 27. A

EXERCISE 6.4
1. (i) 5.03 (ii) 7.035 (iii) 0.8
(iv) 0.208 (v) 0.9999 (vi) 1.96875
 ANSWERS 283

(vii) 2.9629 (viii) 3.9961 (ix) 3.009

(x) 20.025 (xi) 0.06083 (xii) 2.948
(xiii) 3.0046 (xiv) 7.904 (xv) 2.00187
2. 28.21 3. – 34.995 4. 0.03 x3 m3
5. 0.12 x2 m2 6. 3.92 ✞ m3 7. 2.16 ✞ m3
8. D 9. C

EXERCISE 6.5
1. (i) Minimum Value = 3 (ii) Minimum Value = – 2
(iii) Maximum Value = 10 (iv) Neither minimum nor maximum value
2. (i) Minimum Value = – 1; No maximum value
(ii) Maximum Value = 3; No minimum value
(iii) Minimum Value = 4; Maximum Value = 6
(iv) Minimum Value = 2; Maximum Value = 4
(v) Neither minimum nor Maximum Value
3. (i) local minimum at x = 0, local minimum value = 0
(ii) local minimum at x = 1, local minimum value = – 2
local maximum at x = – 1, local maximum value = 2

(iii) local maximum at x ✁ , local maximum value = 2

4

✂
(iv) local maximum at x ✁ , local maximum value = 2
4

7✄
local minimum at x ☎ , local minimum value = – 2
4
(v) local maximum at x = 1, local maximum value = 19
local minimum at x = 3, local minimum value = 15
(vi) local minimum at x = 2, local minimum value = 2
284 MATHEMATICS

1
(vii) local maximum at x = 0, local maximum value =
2

2 2 3
(viii) local maximum at x , local maximum value =
3 9

5. (i) Absolute minimum value = – 8, absolute maximum value = 8

(ii) Absolute minimum value = – 1, absolute maximum value = 2
(iii) Absolute minimum value = – 10, absolute maximum value = 8
(iv) Absolute minimum value = 19, absolute maximum value = 3
6. Maximum profit = 49 unit.
7. Minima at x = 2, minimum value = – 39, Maxima at x = 0, maximum value = 25.

✁ 5✁
8. At x and 9. Maximum value = 2
4 4
10. Maximum at x = 3, maximum value 89; maximum at x = – 2, maximum value = 139
11. a = 120
12. Maximum at x = 2✞, maximum value = 2✞; Minimum at x = 0, minimum value = 0
13. 12, 12 14. 45, 15 15. 25, 10 16. 8, 8
17. 3 cm 18. x = 5 cm

1 1

21. radius = ✂☎ ✄✆ cm and height = ✂ 50 ✄ 3

50 3
2 ☎ ✆ cm
✟ ✝✠ ✟ ✝✠

112 28✁
22. cm, cm 27. A 28. D 29. C
✁✡4 ✁✡4

Miscellaneous Exercise on Chapter 6

1. (a) 0.677 (b) 0.497
3. b 3 cm2/s 4. x + y – 3 = 0
 ANSWERS 285

3 3
6. (i) 0 < x < and < x < 2✞ (ii) ✁x✁
2 2 2 2
7. (i) x < –1 and x > 1 (ii) – 1 < x < 1

3 3
8. ab 9. Rs 1000
4

20 10
11. length = m, breadth = m
✂✄4 ✂✄4
2
13. (i) local maxima at x = 2 (ii) local minima at x ☎
7
(iii) point of inflection at x = –1
5
14. Absolute maximum = , Absolute minimum = 1
4
4✆ R 3
17. 19. A 20. B 21. A
3 3
22. B 23. A 24. A

—✝—
 Appendix 1
PROOFS IN MATHEMATICS

Proofs are to Mathematics what calligraphy is to poetry.

Mathematical works do consist of proofs just as
poems do consist of characters.
— VLADIMIR ARNOLD

A.1.1 Introduction
In Classes IX, X and XI, we have learnt about the concepts of a statement, compound
statement, negation, converse and contrapositive of a statement; axioms, conjectures,
theorems and deductive reasoning.
Here, we will discuss various methods of proving mathematical propositions.
A.1.2 What is a Proof?
Proof of a mathematical statement consists of sequence of statements, each statement
being justified with a definition or an axiom or a proposition that is previously established
by the method of deduction using only the allowed logical rules.
Thus, each proof is a chain of deductive arguments each of which has its premises
and conclusions. Many a times, we prove a proposition directly from what is given in
the proposition. But some times it is easier to prove an equivalent proposition rather
than proving the proposition itself. This leads to, two ways of proving a proposition
directly or indirectly and the proofs obtained are called direct proof and indirect proof
and further each has three different ways of proving which is discussed below.
Direct Proof It is the proof of a proposition in which we directly start the proof with
what is given in the proposition.
(i) Straight forward approach It is a chain of arguments which leads directly from
what is given or assumed, with the help of axioms, definitions or already proved
theorems, to what is to be proved using rules of logic.
Consider the following example:
Example 1 Show that if x2 – 5x + 6 = 0, then x = 3 or x = 2.
Solution x2 – 5x + 6 = 0 (given)
248 MATHEMATICS

✂ (x – 3) (x – 2) = 0 (replacing an expression by an equal/equivalent expression)

✂ x – 3 = 0 or x – 2 = 0 (from the established theorem ab = 0 ✂ either a = 0 or
b = 0, for a, b in R)
✂ x – 3 + 3 = 0 + 3 or x – 2 + 2 = 0 + 2 (adding equal quantities on either side of the
equation does not alter the nature of the
equation)
✂ x + 0 = 3 or x + 0 = 2 (using the identity property of integers under addition)
✂ x = 3 or x = 2 (using the identity property of integers under addition)
Hence, x2 – 5x + 6 = 0 implies x = 3 or x = 2.
Explanation Let p be the given statement “x2 – 5x + 6 = 0” and q be the conclusion
statement “x = 3 or x = 2”.
From the statement p, we deduced the statement r : “(x – 3) (x – 2) = 0” by
replacing the expression x2 – 5x + 6 in the statement p by another expression (x – 3)
(x – 2) which is equal to x2 – 5x + 6.
There arise two questions:
(i) How does the expression (x – 3) (x – 2) is equal to the expression x2 – 5x + 6?
(ii) How can we replace an expression with another expression which is equal to
the former?
The first one is proved in earlier classes by factorization, i.e.,
x2 – 5x + 6 = x2 – 3x – 2x + 6 = x (x – 3) –2 (x – 3) = (x – 3) (x – 2).
The second one is by valid form of argumentation (rules of logic)
Next this statement r becomes premises or given and deduce the statement s
“ x – 3 = 0 or x – 2 = 0” and the reasons are given in the brackets.
This process continues till we reach the conclusion.
The symbolic equivalent of the argument is to prove by deduction that p ✂ q
is true.
✂ ✂ ✂ ✂ ✂
Starting with p, we deduce p r s … q. This implies that “p q” is true.

Example 2 Prove that the function f : R ✄ R

defined by f (x) = 2x + 5 is one-one.
Solution Note that a function f is one-one if
✂
f (x1) = f (x2) x1 = x2 (definition of one-one function)
Now, given that f (x1) = f (x2), i.e., 2x1+ 5 = 2x2 + 5
✂ 2x1+ 5 – 5 = 2x2 + 5 – 5 (adding the same quantity on both sides)
 PROOFS IN MATHEMATICS 249

✂ 2x1+ 0 = 2x2 + 0
✂ 2x1 = 2x2 (using additive identity of real number)
2 2
✂ x1 = x2 (dividing by the same non zero quantity)
2 2
✂ x1 = x 2
Hence, the given function is one-one.
(ii) Mathematical Induction
Mathematical induction, is a strategy, of proving a proposition which is deductive in
nature. The whole basis of proof of this method depends on the following axiom:
For a given subset S of N, if
(i) the natural number 1 ☎ S and
(ii) the natural number k + 1 ☎ S whenever k ☎ S, then S = N.
According to the principle of mathematical induction, if a statement “S(n) is true
for n = 1” (or for some starting point j), and if “S(n) is true for n = k” implies that “S(n)
is true for n = k + 1” (whatever integer k ✆ j may be), then the statement is true for any
positive integer n, for all n ✆ j.
We now consider some examples.
Example 3 Show that if
✁ cos sin ✄ ✁ cos n sin n ✄
A= ✝
cos ✡✞ ✝ cos n ✞✡
, then An =
✠ ✟ sin ✠ ✟ sin n
Solution We have
☞ cos n ☛ sin n ☛ ✌
P(n) : An = ✍ ✎
✑ ✏ sin n ☛ cos n ☛ ✒

✁ cos sin ✄
P(1) : A1 = ✝ ✟
cos ✞✡
We note that
✠ sin
Therefore, P(1) is true.
Assume that P(k) is true, i.e.,

✁ cos k sin k ✄
P(k) : Ak = ✝
✠ ✟ sin k cos k ✞✡
250 MATHEMATICS

We want to prove that P(k + 1) is true whenever P(k) is true, i.e.,

✂ cos ( k 1) ✁ sin ( k 1) ✁ ✄
P(k + 1) : Ak+1 = ☎
✞ ✝ sin(k 1) ✁ cos (k 1 ) ✁ ✆✟
Now Ak+1 = Ak . A
Since P(k) is true, we have
✡ cos k ✠ sin k ✠ ☛ ✡ cos ✠ sin ✠ ☛
Ak+1 = ☞ ✌ ☞ ✌
✎ ✍ sin k ✠ cos k ✠✏ ✎ ✍ sin ✠ cos ✠✏
✡ cos k ✠ cos ✠ ✍ sin k ✠ sin ✠ cos k ✠ sin ✠ ✑ sin k ✠ cos ✠ ☛
= ☞ ✌
✎ ✍ sin k ✠ cos ✠ ✍ cos k ✠ sin ✠ ✍ sin k ✠ sin ✠ ✑ cos k ✠ cos ✠ ✏
(by matrix multiplication)
✂ cos ( k 1) ✁ sin ( k 1) ✁ ✄
= ☎
✞ ✝ sin(k 1) ✁ cos ( k 1 ) ✁ ✆✟
Thus, P(k + 1) is true whenever P(k) is true.
Hence, P(n) is true for all n ✒ 1 (by the principle of mathematical induction).
(iii) Proof by cases or by exhaustion
This method of proving a statement p ✓ q is possible only when p can be split into
several cases, r, s, t (say) so that p = r ✔ s ✔ t (where “ ✔ ” is the symbol for “OR”).
If the conditionals r ✓ q;
s ✓ q;
and t✓q
are proved, then (r ✔ s ✔ t) ✓ q, is proved and so p ✓ q is proved.
The method consists of examining every possible case of the hypothesis. It is
practically convenient only when the number of possible cases are few.

Example 4 Show that in any triangle ABC,

a = b cos C + c cos B
Solution Let p be the statement “ABC is any triangle” and q be the statement
“a = b cos C + c cos B”
Let ABC be a triangle. From A draw AD a perpendicular to BC (BC produced if
necessary).
As we know that any triangle has to be either acute or obtuse or right angled, we
can split p into three statements r, s and t, where
 PROOFS IN MATHEMATICS 251

r : ABC is an acute angled triangle with ✝ C is acute.

s : ABC is an obtuse angled triangle with ✝ C is obtuse.
t : ABC is a right angled triangle with ✝ C is right angle.
Hence, we prove the theorem by three cases.
Case (i) When ✝ C is acute (Fig. A1.1).
From the right angled triangle ADB,
BD
= cos B
AB
i.e. BD = AB cos B
= c cos B

From the right angled triangle ADC,

CD Fig A1.1
= cos C
AC
i.e. CD = AC cos C
= b cos C
Now a = BD + CD
= c cos B + b cos C ... (1)
Case (ii) When ✝ C is obtuse (Fig A1.2).
From the right angled triangle ADB,
BD
= cos B
AB
i.e. BD = AB cos B
= c cos B
From the right angled triangle ADC,
CD
= cos ✝ ACD
AC
= cos (180° – C)
= – cos C
i.e. CD = – AC cos C
= – b cos C Fig A1.2
252 MATHEMATICS

Now a = BC = BD – CD
i.e. a = c cos B – ( – b cos C)
a = c cos B + b cos C ... (2)
Case (iii) When ✝ C is a right angle (Fig A1.3).
From the right angled triangle ACB,
BC
= cos B
AB
i.e. BC = AB cos B
a = c cos B,
and b cos C = b cos 900 = 0. Fig A1.3
Thus, we may write a = 0 + c cos B
= b cos C + c cos B ... (3)
From (1), (2) and (3). We assert that for any triangle ABC,
a = b cos C + c cos B
By case (i), r ✂ q is proved.
By case (ii), s ✂ q is proved.
By case (iii), t ✂ q is proved.
Hence, from the proof by cases, (r s t) ✂ q is proved, i.e., p ✂ q is proved.
Indirect Proof Instead of proving the given proposition directly, we establish the proof
of the proposition through proving a proposition which is equivalent to the given
proposition.
(i) Proof by contradiction (Reductio Ad Absurdum) : Here, we start with the
assumption that the given statement is false. By rules of logic, we arrive at a
conclusion contradicting the assumption and hence it is inferred that the assumption
is wrong and hence the given statement is true.
Let us illustrate this method by an example.
Example 5 Show that the set of all prime numbers is infinite.
Solution Let P be the set of all prime numbers. We take the negation of the statement
“the set of all prime numbers is infinite”, i.e., we assume the set of all prime numbers
to be finite. Hence, we can list all the prime numbers as P1, P2, P3,..., Pk (say). Note
that we have assumed that there is no prime number other than P1, P2, P3,..., Pk .
Now consider N = (P1 P2 P3…Pk) + 1 ... (1)
N is not in the list as N is larger than any of the numbers in the list.
N is either prime or composite.
 PROOFS IN MATHEMATICS 253

If N is a prime, then by (1), there exists a prime number which is not listed.
On the other hand, if N is composite, it should have a prime divisor. But none of the
numbers in the list can divide N, because they all leave the remainder 1. Hence, the
prime divisor should be other than the one in the list.
Thus, in both the cases whether N is a prime or a composite, we ended up with
contradiction to the fact that we have listed all the prime numbers.
Hence, our assumption that set of all prime numbers is finite is false.
Thus, the set of all prime numbers is infinite.
Note Observe that the above proof also uses the method of proof by cases.

Instead of proving the conditional p

~q ~ p. (students can verify).
✂
(ii) Proof by using contrapositive statement of the given statement

✂ q, we prove its equivalent, i.e.,

The contrapositive of a conditional can be formed by interchanging the conclusion

✄ ✂
and the hypothesis and negating both.

Example 6 Prove that the function f : R R defined by f (x) = 2x + 5 is one-one.

✂
Solution A function is one-one if f (x1) = f (x2)
✂x1 = x2.
Using this we have to show that “2x1+ 5 = 2x2 + 5” “x1 = x2”. This is of the form
p q, where, p is 2x1+ 5 = 2x2 + 5 and q : x1 = x2. We have proved this in Example 2

✞✞✂
of “direct method”.

✞
We can also prove the same by using contrapositive of the statement. Now
contrapositive of this statement is ~ q ~ p, i.e., contrapositive of “ if f (x1) = f (x2),
then x1 = x2” is “if x1 x2, then f (x1) f (x2)”.

✂✂
Now x1
2x1 ✞✞x2
2x 2

✂ 2x1+ 5
✞2x2 + 5

✂ ✂
f (x1) f (x 2 ).
Since “~ q ~ p”, is equivalent to “p q” the proof is complete.
Example 7 Show that “if a matrix A is invertible, then A is non singular”.

✂
Solution Writing the above statement in symbolic form, we have
p q, where, p is “matrix A is invertible” and q is “A is non singular”
Instead of proving the given statement, we prove its contrapositive statement, i.e.,
if A is not a non singular matrix, then the matrix A is not invertible.
254 MATHEMATICS

If A is not a non singular matrix, then it means the matrix A is singular, i.e.,
|A| = 0

adj A
Then A–1 = does not exist as | A | = 0
|A|
Hence, A is not invertible.
Thus, we have proved that if A is not a non singular matrix, then A is not invertible.
i.e., ~ q ✂ ~ p.
Hence, if a matrix A is invertible, then A is non singular.
(iii) Proof by a counter example
In the history of Mathematics, there are occasions when all attempts to find a
valid proof of a statement fail and the uncertainty of the truth value of the statement
remains unresolved.
In such a situation, it is beneficial, if we find an example to falsify the statement.
The example to disprove the statement is called a counter example. Since the disproof
of a proposition p ✂ q is merely a proof of the proposition ~ (p ✂ q). Hence, this is
also a method of proof.

Example 8 For each n, 22 1 is a prime (n ☎ N).

n

This was once thought to be true on the basis that

22 ✁ 1 = 22 + 1 = 5 is a prime.
1

2 2 ✁ 1 = 24 + 1 = 17 is a prime.
2

22 ✁ 1 = 28 + 1 = 257 is a prime.
3

However, at first sight the generalisation looks to be correct. But, eventually it was
5
shown that 22 1 = 232 + 1 = 4294967297
which is not a prime since 4294967297 = 641 × 6700417 (a product of two numbers).

So the generalisation “For each n, 2 2 ✁ 1 is a prime (n ☎ N)” is false.

n

Just this one example 22 ✁ 1 is sufficient to disprove the generalisation. This is the
5

counter example.
n
Thus, we have proved that the generalisation “For each n, 22 1 is a prime
(n ☎ N)” is not true in general.
 PROOFS IN MATHEMATICS 255

Example 9 Every continuous function is differentiable.

Proof We consider some functions given by
(i) f (x) = x2
(ii) g(x) = ex
(iii) h (x) = sin x
These functions are continuous for all values of x. If we check for their
differentiability, we find that they are all differentiable for all the values of x. This

✟
makes us to believe that the generalisation “Every continuous function is differentiable”
may be true. But if we check the differentiability of the function given by “ (x) = | x |”
which is continuous, we find that it is not differentiable at x = 0. This means that the

✟ ✟
statement “Every continuous function is differentiable” is false, in general. Just this
one function “ (x) = | x |” is sufficient to disprove the statement. Hence, “ (x) = | x |”
is called a counter example to disprove “Every continuous function is differentiable”.

— —
 Appendix 2
MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

A.2.1 Introduction
In class XI, we have learnt about mathematical modelling as an attempt to study some
part (or form) of some real-life problems in mathematical terms, i.e., the conversion of
a physical situation into mathematics using some suitable conditions. Roughly speaking
mathematical modelling is an activity in which we make models to describe the behaviour
of various phenomenal activities of our interest in many ways using words, drawings or
sketches, computer programs, mathematical formulae etc.
In earlier classes, we have observed that solutions to many problems, involving
applications of various mathematical concepts, involve mathematical modelling in one
way or the other. Therefore, it is important to study mathematical modelling as a separate
topic.
In this chapter, we shall further study mathematical modelling of some real-life
problems using techniques/results from matrix, calculus and linear programming.

A.2.2 Why Mathematical Modelling?

Students are aware of the solution of word problems in arithmetic, algebra, trigonometry
and linear programming etc. Sometimes we solve the problems without going into the
physical insight of the situational problems. Situational problems need physical insight
that is introduction of physical laws and some symbols to compare the mathematical
results obtained with practical values. To solve many problems faced by us, we need a
technique and this is what is known as mathematical modelling. Let us consider the
following problems:
(i) To find the width of a river (particularly, when it is difficult to cross the river).
(ii) To find the optimal angle in case of shot-put (by considering the variables
such as : the height of the thrower, resistance of the media, acceleration due to
gravity etc.).
(iii) To find the height of a tower (particularly, when it is not possible to reach the top
of the tower).
(iv) To find the temperature at the surface of the Sun.
 MATHEMATICAL MODELLING 257

(v) Why heart patients are not allowed to use lift? (without knowing the physiology
of a human being).
(vi) To find the mass of the Earth.
(vii) Estimate the yield of pulses in India from the standing crops (a person is not
allowed to cut all of it).
(viii) Find the volume of blood inside the body of a person (a person is not allowed to
bleed completely).
(ix) Estimate the population of India in the year 2020 (a person is not allowed to wait
till then).
All of these problems can be solved and infact have been solved with the help of
Mathematics using mathematical modelling. In fact, you might have studied the methods
for solving some of them in the present textbook itself. However, it will be instructive if
you first try to solve them yourself and that too without the help of Mathematics, if
possible, you will then appreciate the power of Mathematics and the need for
mathematical modelling.

A.2.3 Principles of Mathematical Modelling

Mathematical modelling is a principled activity and so it has some principles behind it.
These principles are almost philosophical in nature. Some of the basic principles of
mathematical modelling are listed below in terms of instructions:
(i) Identify the need for the model. (for what we are looking for)
(ii) List the parameters/variables which are required for the model.
(iii) Identify the available relevent data. (what is given?)
(iv) Identify the circumstances that can be applied (assumptions)
(v) Identify the governing physical principles.
(vi) Identify
(a) the equations that will be used.
(b) the calculations that will be made.
(c) the solution which will follow.
(vii) Identify tests that can check the
(a) consistency of the model.
(b) utility of the model.
(viii) Identify the parameter values that can improve the model.
258 MATHEMATICS

The above principles of mathematical modelling lead to the following: steps for
mathematical modelling.
Step 1: Identify the physical situation.
Step 2: Convert the physical situation into a mathematical model by introducing
parameters / variables and using various known physical laws and symbols.
Step 3: Find the solution of the mathematical problem.
Step 4: Interpret the result in terms of the original problem and compare the result
with observations or experiments.
Step 5: If the result is in good agreement, then accept the model. Otherwise modify
the hypotheses / assumptions according to the physical situation and go to
Step 2.
The above steps can also be viewed through the following diagram:

Fig A.2.1
Example 1 Find the height of a given tower using mathematical modelling.
Solution Step 1 Given physical situation is “to find the height of a given tower”.
Step 2 Let AB be the given tower (Fig A.2.2). Let PQ be an observer measuring the
height of the tower with his eye at P. Let PQ = h and let height of tower be H. Let ✂
be the angle of elevation from the eye of the observer to the top of the tower.

Fig A.2.2
 MATHEMATICAL MODELLING 259

Let l = PC = QB

AC H h
Now tan ✂ = ✁
PC l
or H = h + l tan ✂ ... (1)
Step 3 Note that the values of the parameters h, l and ✂ (using sextant) are known to
the observer and so (1) gives the solution of the problem.
Step 4 In case, if the foot of the tower is not accessible, i.e., when l is not known to the
observer, let ✄ be the angle of depression from P to the foot B of the tower. So from
☎PQB, we have
PQ h
tan ✆ ✝ ✝ or l = h cot ✄
QB l
Step 5 is not required in this situation as exact values of the parameters h, l, ✂ and ✄
are known.

Example 2 Let a business firm produces three types of products P1, P2 and P3 that
uses three types of raw materials R1, R2 and R3. Let the firm has purchase orders from
two clients F1 and F2. Considering the situation that the firm has a limited quantity of
R1, R2 and R3, respectively, prepare a model to determine the quantities of the raw
material R1, R2 and R3 required to meet the purchase orders.
Solution Step 1 The physical situation is well identified in the problem.
Step 2 Let A be a matrix that represents purchase orders from the two clients F1 and
F2. Then, A is of the form

P1 P2 P3
F1 ✞• • • ✟
A✠ ✡
F2 ☞• • • ☛✌

Let B be the matrix that represents the amount of raw materials R1, R2 and R3,
required to manufacture each unit of the products P1, P2 and P3. Then, B is of the form

R1 R 2 R 3
P1 ✍• • • ✎
B ✒ P2 ✏✏• • • ✑✑
P3 ✏✓• • • ✑✔
260 MATHEMATICS

Step 3 Note that the product (which in this case is well defined) of matrices A and B
is given by the following matrix

R1 R 2 R 3
F1 • • •✁
AB ✂ ✄
F2 ✆• • •☎✝

which in fact gives the desired quantities of the raw materials R1, R2 and R3 to fulfill
the purchase orders of the two clients F1 and F2.
Example 3 Interpret the model in Example 2, in case
✞3 4 0 ✟
✞10 15 6 ✟ ✠ ✡
A=✠ ✡ , B ☛ ✠7 9 3 ✡
☞10 20 0 ✌
✠
☞5 12 7 ✡ ✌
and the available raw materials are 330 units of R1, 455 units of R2 and 140 units of R3.
Solution Note that
✞3 4 0 ✟
✞10 15 6 ✟ ✠
AB = ✠ 7 9 3 ✡✡
☞10 20 0✡✌ ✠
✠
☞5 12 7 ✌✡
R1 R 2 R 3
F ✍165 247 87✎
= 1✏
F2 ✒170 220 60✑✓
This clearly shows that to meet the purchase order of F1 and F2, the raw material
required is 335 units of R1, 467 units of R2 and 147 units of R3 which is much more than
the available raw material. Since the amount of raw material required to manufacture
each unit of the three products is fixed, we can either ask for an increase in the
available raw material or we may ask the clients to reduce their orders.
Remark If we replace A in Example 3 by A1 given by

✔9 12 6 ✕
A1 = ✖
✘10 20 0✗✙
i.e., if the clients agree to reduce their purchase orders, then

✚3 4 0 ✛
✚9 12 6 ✛ ✜ ✥141 216 78 ✦
A1 B = ✜ 7 9 3 ✢✢ ✧ ★
✣10 20 0✢✤ ✜ ✪170 220 60✩✫
✣✜5 12 7 ✢
✤
 MATHEMATICAL MODELLING 261

This requires 311 units of R1, 436 units of R2 and 138 units of R3 which are well
below the available raw materials, i.e., 330 units of R1, 455 units of R2 and 140 units of
R3. Thus, if the revised purchase orders of the clients are given by A1, then the firm
can easily supply the purchase orders of the two clients.
Note One may further modify A so as to make full use of the available
raw material.
Query Can we make a mathematical model with a given B and with fixed quantities of
the available raw material that can help the firm owner to ask the clients to modify their
orders in such a way that the firm makes the full use of its available raw material?
The answer to this query is given in the following example:
Example 4 Suppose P1, P2, P3 and R1, R2, R3 are as in Example 2. Let the firm has
330 units of R1, 455 units of R2 and 140 units of R3 available with it and let the amount
of raw materials R1, R2 and R3 required to manufacture each unit of the three products
is given by

✁
✆ ✄✄✄✝
R1 R2 R3
✂☎
☎☎✞
P1 3 4 0
B P2 7 9 3
P3 5 12 7

How many units of each product is to be made so as to utilise the full available raw
material?
Solution Step 1 The situation is easily identifiable.
Step 2 Suppose the firm produces x units of P1, y units of P2 and z units of P3. Since
product P1 requires 3 units of R1, P2 requires 7 units of R1 and P3 requires 5 units of R1
(observe matrix B) and the total number of units, of R1, available is 330, we have
3x + 7y + 5z = 330 (for raw material R1)
Similarly, we have
4x + 9y + 12z = 455 (for raw material R2)
and 3y + 7z = 140 (for raw material R3)

✟✡ ✠☛ ✟✡ ✠☛ ☞ ✡✟ ✠☛
This system of equations can be expressed in matrix form as

✡✡✌ ☛☛✍ ✡✡✌ ☛☛✍ ✡✌✡ ☛☛✍

3 7 5 x 330
4 9 12 y 455
0 3 7 z 140
262 MATHEMATICS

Step 3 Using elementary row operations, we obtain

1 0 0✁ x✁ 20✁
✂ ✄ ✂ ✄ ✂ ✄
0 1 0 y ☎ 35
✂ ✄ ✂ ✄ ✂ ✄
✂✆0 0 1✝✄ ✂✆ z ✄✝ ✂✆ 5 ✝
✄

This gives x = 20, y = 35 and z = 5. Thus, the firm can produce 20 units of P1, 35
units of P2 and 5 units of P3 to make full use of its available raw material.
Remark One may observe that if the manufacturer decides to manufacture according
to the available raw material and not according to the purchase orders of the two
clients F1 and F2 (as in Example 3), he/she is unable to meet these purchase orders as
F1 demanded 6 units of P3 where as the manufacturer can make only 5 units of P3.
Example 5 A manufacturer of medicines is preparing a production plan of medicines
M1 and M2. There are sufficient raw materials available to make 20000 bottles of M1
and 40000 bottles of M2, but there are only 45000 bottles into which either of the
medicines can be put. Further, it takes 3 hours to prepare enough material to fill 1000
bottles of M1, it takes 1 hour to prepare enough material to fill 1000 bottles of M2 and
there are 66 hours available for this operation. The profit is Rs 8 per bottle for M1 and
Rs 7 per bottle for M2. How should the manufacturer schedule his/her production in
order to maximise profit?
Solution Step 1 To find the number of bottles of M1 and M2 in order to maximise the
profit under the given hypotheses.
Step 2 Let x be the number of bottles of type M1 medicine and y be the number of
bottles of type M2 medicine. Since profit is Rs 8 per bottle for M1 and Rs 7 per bottle
for M2, therefore the objective function (which is to be maximised) is given by
Z ✞ Z (x, y) = 8x + 7y
The objective function is to be maximised subject to the constraints (Refer Chapter
12 on Linear Programming)

x ✟ 20000 ✠
✡
y ✟ 40000
✡
✡
x ☛ y ✟ 45000 ☞
... (1)
3 x ☛ y ✟ 66000✡
✡
x ✌ 0, y ✌ 0 ✡
✍

Step 3 The shaded region OPQRST is the feasible region for the constraints (1)
(Fig A.2.3). The co-ordinates of vertices O, P, Q, R, S and T are (0, 0), (20000, 0),
(20000, 6000), (10500, 34500), (5000, 40000) and (0, 40000), respectively.
 MATHEMATICAL MODELLING 263

Fig A.2.3
Note that
Z at P (0, 0) = 0
Z at P (20000, 0) = 8 × 20000 = 160000
Z at Q (20000, 6000) = 8 × 20000 + 7 × 6000 = 202000
Z at R (10500, 34500) = 8 × 10500 + 7 × 34500 = 325500
Z at S = (5000, 40000) = 8 × 5000 + 7 × 40000 = 320000
Z at T = (0, 40000) = 7 × 40000 = 280000
Now observe that the profit is maximum at x = 10500 and y = 34500 and the
maximum profit is Rs 325500. Hence, the manufacturer should produce 10500 bottles
of M1 medicine and 34500 bottles of M2 medicine in order to get maximum profit of
Rs 325500.
Example 6 Suppose a company plans to produce a new product that incur some costs
(fixed and variable) and let the company plans to sell the product at a fixed price.
Prepare a mathematical model to examine the profitability.
Solution Step 1 Situation is clearly identifiable.
264 MATHEMATICS

Step 2 Formulation: We are given that the costs are of two types: fixed and variable.
The fixed costs are independent of the number of units produced (e.g., rent and rates),
while the variable costs increase with the number of units produced (e.g., material).
Initially, we assume that the variable costs are directly proportional to the number of
units produced — this should simplify our model. The company earn a certain amount
of money by selling its products and wants to ensure that it is maximum. For convenience,
we assume that all units produced are sold immediately.
The mathematical model
Let x = number of units produced and sold
C = total cost of production (in rupees)
I = income from sales (in rupees)
P = profit (in rupees)
Our assumptions above state that C consists of two parts:
(i) fixed cost = a (in rupees),
(ii) variable cost = b (rupees/unit produced).
Then C = a + bx ... (1)
Also, income I depends on selling price s (rupees/unit)
Thus I = sx ... (2)
The profit P is then the difference between income and costs. So
P=I – C
= sx – (a + bx)
= (s – b) x – a ... (3)
We now have a mathematical model of the relationships (1) to (3) between
the variables x, C, I, P, a, b, s. These variables may be classified as:
independent x
dependent C, I, P
parameters a, b, s
The manufacturer, knowing x, a, b, s can determine P.
Step 3 From (3), we can observe that for the break even point (i.e., make neither profit
a
nor loss), he must have P = 0, i.e., x units.
s✁b
Steps 4 and 5 In view of the break even point, one may conclude that if the company
a
produces few units, i.e., less than x units , then the company will suffer loss
s✁b
 MATHEMATICAL MODELLING 265

a
and if it produces large number of units, i.e., much more than units , then it can
s b
make huge profit. Further, if the break even point proves to be unrealistic, then another
model could be tried or the assumptions regarding cash flow may be modified.
Remark From (3), we also have
dP
✁s✂b
dx
This means that rate of change of P with respect to x depends on the quantity
s – b, which is the difference of selling price and the variable cost of each product.
Thus, in order to gain profit, this should be positive and to get large gains, we need to
produce large quantity of the product and at the same time try to reduce the variable
cost.
Example 7 Let a tank contains 1000 litres of brine which contains 250 g of salt per
litre. Brine containing 200 g of salt per litre flows into the tank at the rate of 25 litres per
minute and the mixture flows out at the same rate. Assume that the mixture is kept
uniform all the time by stirring. What would be the amount of salt in the tank at
any time t?
Solution Step 1 The situation is easily identifiable.
Step 2 Let y = y (t) denote the amount of salt (in kg) in the tank at time t (in minutes)
after the inflow, outflow starts. Further assume that y is a differentiable function.
When t = 0, i.e., before the inflow–outflow of the brine starts,
y = 250 g × 1000 = 250 kg
Note that the change in y occurs due to the inflow, outflow of the mixture.
Now the inflow of brine brings salt into the tank at the rate of 5 kg per minute
(as 25 × 200 g = 5 kg) and the outflow of brine takes salt out of the tank at the rate of
✄ y ☎ y y
25 ✝ ✆
✟ 1000 ✞✠ 40
kg per minute (as at time t, the salt in the tank is kg).
1000
Thus, the rate of change of salt with respect to t is given by
dy y
= 5✡ (Why?)
dt 40
dy 1
or ☛ y =5 ... (1)
dt 40
266 MATHEMATICS

This gives a mathematical model for the given problem.

Step 3 Equation (1) is a linear equation and can be easily solved. The solution of (1) is
given by
t t
✂ 40t
y e 40 200 e 40 ✁ C or y (t) = 200 + C e ... (2)
where, c is the constant of integration.
Note that when t = 0, y = 250. Therefore, 250 = 200 + C
or C = 50
Then (2) reduces to
✄ 40t
y = 200 + 50 e ... (3)

y ☎ 200 ✆t
or = e 40
50
t
50
or e 40 =
y ✝ 200

✞ 50 ✟
Therefore t = 40log e ✠ ... (4)
☞ y ☛ 200 ✡✌
Here, the equation (4) gives the time t at which the salt in tank is y kg.
✆ t
Step 4 Since e 40 is always positive, from (3), we conclude that y > 200 at all times
Thus, the minimum amount of salt content in the tank is 200 kg.
Also, from (4), we conclude that t > 0 if and only if 0 < y – 200 < 50 i.e., if and only
if 200 < y < 250 i.e., the amount of salt content in the tank after the start of inflow and
outflow of the brine is between 200 kg and 250 kg.

Limitations of Mathematical Modelling

Till today many mathematical models have been developed and applied successfully
to understand and get an insight into thousands of situations. Some of the subjects like
mathematical physics, mathematical economics, operations research, bio-mathematics
etc. are almost synonymous with mathematical modelling.
But there are still a large number of situations which are yet to be modelled. The
reason behind this is that either the situation are found to be very complex or the
mathematical models formed are mathematically intractable.
 MATHEMATICAL MODELLING 267

The development of the powerful computers and super computers has enabled us
to mathematically model a large number of situations (even complex situations). Due
to these fast and advanced computers, it has been possible to prepare more realistic
models which can obtain better agreements with observations.
However, we do not have good guidelines for choosing various parameters / variables
and also for estimating the values of these parameters / variables used in a mathematical
model. Infact, we can prepare reasonably accurate models to fit any data by choosing
five or six parameters / variables. We require a minimal number of parameters / variables
to be able to estimate them accurately.
Mathematical modelling of large or complex situations has its own special problems.
These type of situations usually occur in the study of world models of environment,
oceanography, pollution control etc. Mathematical modellers from all disciplines —
mathematics, computer science, physics, engineering, social sciences, etc., are involved
in meeting these challenges with courage.

— —
 CONSTITUTION OF INDIA
Part III (Articles 12 – 35)
(Subject to certain conditions, some exceptions
and reasonable restrictions)
guarantees these
Fundamental Rights
Right to Equality
⑨ before law and equal protection of laws;
⑨ irrespective of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth;
⑨ of opportunity in public employment;
⑨ by abolition of untouchability and titles.
Right to Freedom
⑨ of expression, assembly, association, movement, residence and profession;
⑨ of certain protections in respect of conviction for offences;
⑨ of protection of life and personal liberty;
⑨ of free and compulsory education for children between the age of six and
fourteen years;
⑨ of protection against arrest and detention in certain cases.
Right against Exploitation
⑨ for prohibition of traffic in human beings and forced labour;
⑨ for prohibition of employment of children in hazardous jobs.
Right to Freedom of Religion
⑨ freedom of conscience and free profession, practice and propagation of
religion;
⑨ freedom to manage religious affairs;
⑨ freedom as to payment of taxes for promotion of any particular religion;
⑨ freedom as to attendance at religious instruction or religious worship in
educational institutions wholly maintained by the State.
Cultural and Educational Rights
⑨ for protection of interests of minorities to conserve their language, script and
culture;
⑨ for minorities to establish and administer educational institutions of their choice.
Right to Constitutional Remedies
⑨ by issuance of directions or orders or writs by the Supreme Court and High
Courts for enforcement of these Fundamental Rights.
 Contents
PART II
Foreword v
Preface vii
7. Integrals 287
7.1 Introduction 288
7.2 Integration as an Inverse Process of Differentiation 288
7.3 Methods of Integration 300
7.4 Integrals of some Particular Functions 307
7.5 Integration by Partial Fractions 316
7.6 Integration by Parts 323
7.7 Definite Integral 331
7.8 Fundamental Theorem of Calculus 334
7.9 Evaluation of Definite Integrals by Substitution 338
7.10 Some Properties of Definite Integrals 341
8. Application of Integrals 359
8.1 Introduction 359
8.2 Area under Simple Curves 359
8.3 Area between Two Curves 366
9. Differential Equations 379
9.1 Introduction 379
9.2 Basic Concepts 379
9.3 General and Particular Solutions of a 383
Differential Equation
9.4 Formation of a Differential Equation whose 385
General Solution is given
9.5 Methods of Solving First order, First Degree 391
Differential Equations
10. Vector Algebra 424
10.1 Introduction 424
10.2 Some Basic Concepts 424
10.3 Types of Vectors 427
10.4 Addition of Vectors 429
 xiv

10.5 Multiplication of a Vector by a Scalar 432

10.6 Product of Two Vectors 441
11. Three Dimensional Geometry 463
11.1 Introduction 463
11.2 Direction Cosines and Direction Ratios of a Line 463
11.3 Equation of a Line in Space 468
11.4 Angle between Two Lines 471
11.5 Shortest Distance between Two Lines 473
11.6 Plane 479
11.7 Coplanarity of Two Lines 487
11.8 Angle between Two Planes 488
11.9 Distance of a Point from a Plane 490
11.10 Angle between a Line and a Plane 492
12. Linear Programming 504
12.1 Introduction 504
12.2 Linear Programming Problem and its Mathematical Formulation 505
12.3 Different Types of Linear Programming Problems 514
13. Probability 531
13.1 Introduction 531
13.2 Conditional Probability 531
13.3 Multiplication Theorem on Probability 540
13.4 Independent Events 542
13.5 Bayes' Theorem 548
13.6 Random Variables and its Probability Distributions 557
13.7 Bernoulli Trials and Binomial Distribution 572
Answers 588
 Chapter 7
INTEGRALS

Just as a mountaineer climbs a mountain – because it is there, so

a good mathematics student studies new material because
it is there. — JAMES B. BRISTOL

7.1 Introduction
Differential Calculus is centred on the concept of the
derivative. The original motivation for the derivative was
the problem of defining tangent lines to the graphs of
functions and calculating the slope of such lines. Integral
Calculus is motivated by the problem of defining and
calculating the area of the region bounded by the graph of
the functions.

✂
If a function f is differentiable in an interval I, i.e., its

✂
derivative f exists at each point of I, then a natural question
arises that given f at each point of I, can we determine
the function? The functions that could possibly have given
function as a derivative are called anti derivatives (or G .W. Leibnitz
primitive) of the function. Further, the formula that gives (1646 -1716)

all these anti derivatives is called the indefinite integral of the function and such
process of finding anti derivatives is called integration. Such type of problems arise in
many practical situations. For instance, if we know the instantaneous velocity of an
object at any instant, then there arises a natural question, i.e., can we determine the
position of the object at any instant? There are several such practical and theoretical
situations where the process of integration is involved. The development of integral
calculus arises out of the efforts of solving the problems of the following types:
(a) the problem of finding a function whenever its derivative is given,
(b) the problem of finding the area bounded by the graph of a function under certain
conditions.
These two problems lead to the two forms of the integrals, e.g., indefinite and
definite integrals, which together constitute the Integral Calculus.
288 MATHEMATICS

There is a connection, known as the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, between

indefinite integral and definite integral which makes the definite integral as a practical
tool for science and engineering. The definite integral is also used to solve many interesting
problems from various disciplines like economics, finance and probability.
In this Chapter, we shall confine ourselves to the study of indefinite and definite
integrals and their elementary properties including some techniques of integration.
7.2 Integration as an Inverse Process of Differentiation
Integration is the inverse process of differentiation. Instead of differentiating a function,
we are given the derivative of a function and asked to find its primitive, i.e., the original
function. Such a process is called integration or anti differentiation.
Let us consider the following examples:
d
We know that (sin x ) = cos x ... (1)
dx
d x3
( ) = x2 ... (2)
dx 3
d x
and (e ) = e x ... (3)
dx
We observe that in (1), the function cos x is the derived function of sin x. We say
x3
that sin x is an anti derivative (or an integral) of cos x. Similarly, in (2) and (3),and
3
ex are the anti derivatives (or integrals) of x2 and ex, respectively. Again, we note that
for any real number C, treated as constant function, its derivative is zero and hence, we
can write (1), (2) and (3) as follows :
d d x3 d x
(sin x + C) cos x , ( + C) ✁ x 2 and (e + C) ✂ e x
dx dx 3 dx
Thus, anti derivatives (or integrals) of the above cited functions are not unique.
Actually, there exist infinitely many anti derivatives of each of these functions which
can be obtained by choosing C arbitrarily from the set of real numbers. For this reason
C is customarily referred to as arbitrary constant. In fact, C is the parameter by
varying which one gets different anti derivatives (or integrals) of the given function.
d
More generally, if there is a function F such that F (x) = f (x) , ✄ x ☎ I (interval),
dx
then for any arbitrary real number C, (also called constant of integration)
d
✆ F (x) + C✝ = f (x), x ☎ I
dx
 INTEGRALS 289

Thus, {F + C, C ✄ R} denotes a family of anti derivatives of f.

Remark Functions with same derivatives differ by a constant. To show this, let g and h
be two functions having the same derivatives on an interval I.
Consider the function f = g – h defined by f (x) = g (x) – h(x), x ✄ I
df
Then = f✂ = g✂ – h✂ giving f✂ (x) = g✂ (x) – h✂ (x) x✄I
dx
or f ✂ (x) = 0, ✁ x ✄ I by hypothesis,
i.e., the rate of change of f with respect to x is zero on I and hence f is constant.
In view of the above remark, it is justified to infer that the family {F + C, C ✄ R}
provides all possible anti derivatives of f.
We introduce a new symbol, namely, ☎ f (x) dx which will represent the entire
class of anti derivatives read as the indefinite integral of f with respect to x.
Symbolically, we write ☎ f (x) dx = F (x) + C .
dy
Notation Given that ✆ f (x) , we write y = ✝f (x) dx .
dx
For the sake of convenience, we mention below the following symbols/terms/phrases
with their meanings as given in the Table (7.1).

Table 7.1
Symbols/Terms/Phrases Meaning

☎ f (x) dx Integral of f with respect to x

f (x) in ☎ f (x) dx Integrand

x in ☎ f (x) dx Variable of integration

Integrate Find the integral
An integral of f A function F such that
F✞(x) = f (x)
Integration The process of finding the integral
Constant of Integration Any real number C, considered as
constant function
290 MATHEMATICS

We already know the formulae for the derivatives of many important functions.
From these formulae, we can write down immediately the corresponding formulae
(referred to as standard formulae) for the integrals of these functions, as listed below
which will be used to find integrals of other functions.
Derivatives Integrals (Anti derivatives)

d ✁ xn 1 ✂ n x n✠1
(i) ☎ ✆✄ x ; x n dx ✡ ☛ C , n ✌ –1
dx ✞ n ✝ 1 ✟ ☞
n ☛1
Particularly, we note that
d
✍ x✎ ✏ 1 ; ✑
dx ✄ x ✝ C
dx
d
(ii) ✒ sin x ✓ ✔ cos x ; ✑
cos x dx ✄ sin x ✝ C
dx
d
(iii) ✒ – cos x ✓ ✔ sin x ; ✑
sin x dx ✄ – cos x ✝ C
dx
d 2
(iv) ✒ tan x ✓ ✔ sec x ; ✑
sec 2 x dx ✄ tan x ✝ C
dx
d 2
(v) ✒ – cot x ✓ ✔ cosec x ; ✑
cosec2 x dx ✄ – cot x ✝ C
dx
d
(vi) ✕ sec x ✖ ✏ sec x tan x ; ✑
sec x tan x dx ✄ sec x ✝ C
dx
d
(vii) ✗ – cosec x ✘ ✏ cosec x cot x ; ✑
cosec x cot x dx ✄ – cosec x ✝ C
dx
d –1 1 dx
(viii) dx ✙ sin x ✚ ✛ ; ✢
✛ sin – 1 x ✜ C
1 – x2 1– x 2

d –1 1 dx
(ix) dx ✣ – cos x ✤ ✛ ; ✢
✛ – cos – 1 x ✜ C
1 – x2 1– x 2

d –1 1 dx
(x) dx ✥ tan x ✦ ✧ ; ✩ ✧ tan – 1 x ★ C
1 ★ x2 1 ★ x2
d –1 1 dx
(xi) dx ✪ – cot x ✫ ✬ ; ✮
✬ – cot – 1 x ✭ C
1 ✭ x2 1 ✭ x2
 INTEGRALS 291

d –1 1 dx
(xii) dx sec x ✁ ✂ ; ☎
✂ sec – 1 x ✄ C
x x2 – 1 x x –12

d –1 1 dx
(xiii) dx ✆ – cosec x ✝ ✂ ; ☎
✂ – cosec – 1 x ✄ C
x x2 – 1 x x –12

d x
(xiv) (e ) ✞ e x ; ✡
e x dx ✟ e x ✠ C
dx
d 1 1
(xv) ☛ log | x |☞ ✌ ; ✎
dx ✌ log | x | ✍ C
dx x x
d ✏ ax ✑ x ax
(xvi) ✒ ✓✟a ; ✘
a x dx ✖ ✗ C
dx ✔ log a ✕ log a

✙
Note In practice, we normally do not mention the interval over which the various
functions are defined. However, in any specific problem one has to keep it in mind.
7.2.1 Geometrical interpretation of indefinite integral
2
Let f (x) = 2x. Then ✡ f (x) dx ✟ x ✠ C . For different values of C, we get different
integrals. But these integrals are very similar geometrically.
Thus, y = x2 + C, where C is arbitrary constant, represents a family of integrals. By
assigning different values to C, we get different members of the family. These together
constitute the indefinite integral. In this case, each integral represents a parabola with
its axis along y-axis.
Clearly, for C = 0, we obtain y = x2, a parabola with its vertex on the origin. The
curve y = x2 + 1 for C = 1 is obtained by shifting the parabola y = x2 one unit along
y-axis in positive direction. For C = – 1, y = x2 – 1 is obtained by shifting the parabola
y = x2 one unit along y-axis in the negative direction. Thus, for each positive value of C,
each parabola of the family has its vertex on the positive side of the y-axis and for
negative values of C, each has its vertex along the negative side of the y-axis. Some of
these have been shown in the Fig 7.1.
Let us consider the intersection of all these parabolas by a line x = a. In the Fig 7.1,
we have taken a > 0. The same is true when a < 0. If the line x = a intersects the
parabolas y = x2, y = x2 + 1, y = x2 + 2, y = x2 – 1, y = x2 – 2 at P0, P1, P2, P–1, P–2 etc.,
dy
respectively, then at these points equals 2a. This indicates that the tangents to the
dx
2
curves at these points are parallel. Thus, ✡ 2 x dx ✟ x ✠ C ✟ FC (x) (say), implies that
292 MATHEMATICS

Fig 7.1
the tangents to all the curves y = FC (x), C ✄ R, at the points of intersection of the
curves by the line x = a, (a ✄ R), are parallel.
Further, the following equation (statement) ✂ f (x) dx F (x ) ✁ C y (say) ,
represents a family of curves. The different values of C will correspond to different
members of this family and these members can be obtained by shifting any one of the
curves parallel to itself. This is the geometrical interpretation of indefinite integral.
7.2.2 Some properties of indefinite integral
In this sub section, we shall derive some properties of indefinite integrals.
(I) The process of differentiation and integration are inverses of each other in the
sense of the following results :
d
f (x) dx = f (x)
dx ☎

and ✂ f ✆(x) dx = f (x) + C, where C is any arbitrary constant.

 INTEGRALS 293

Proof Let F be any anti derivative of f, i.e.,

d
F(x) = f (x)
dx

Then f (x) dx = F(x) + C

d d
Therefore ✁ f (x) dx = ✂ F (x) + C ✄
dx dx

d
= F (x) = f (x)
dx
Similarly, we note that
d
f ☎(x) = f (x)
dx

and hence f ✆(x) dx = f (x) + C

where C is arbitrary constant called constant of integration.
(II) Two indefinite integrals with the same derivative lead to the same family of
curves and so they are equivalent.
Proof Let f and g be two functions such that

d d
f (x) dx = g (x ) dx
dx ✁ dx ✁

d ✝
or f (x) dx – ✡ g (x) dx ✞ = 0
dx ✟ ✡ ✠

Hence f (x) dx – g (x ) dx = C, where C is any real number (Why?)

or f (x) dx = g (x) dx ☛ C

So the families of curves ☞✏ f (x) dx ✍ C1 , C1 ✎ R✌

and ✑✏ g (x ) dx ✍ C2 , C2 ✎ R✒ are identical.

Hence, in this sense, f (x) dx and g (x) dx are equivalent.

294 MATHEMATICS

✁☎ ✄✂
✄✝
f (x) dx + C1 ,C1 R

✆☎
Note The equivalence of the families and

g (x) dx + C2 ,C2 R is customarily expressed by writing ✞ ✞

f (x) dx = g (x) dx ,

✞✟ ✠ ✡✞ ✞
without mentioning the parameter.

(III) f (x) + g (x) dx f (x) dx + g (x) dx

☛✌✎
☞✍
Proof By Property (I), we have
d
[ f (x) + g (x)] dx = f (x) + g (x) ... (1)
dx

✏✒✔ ✔ ✑✓ ✔
On the otherhand, we find that
d
dx ✔
f (x) dx + g (x) dx =
d
dx
f (x) dx +
d
dx
g (x ) dx

= f (x) + g (x) ... (2)

✞✕ ✗ ✖ ✞ ✗ ✞
Thus, in view of Property (II), it follows by (1) and (2) that

✞ ✡✞
f (x) g (x) dx = f (x) dx g (x) dx .

(IV) For any real number k, k f (x) dx k f (x) dx

✔ ✘
Proof By the Property (I),
d
k f (x) dx k f (x) .

✏✒ ✔ ✑✓ ✎
dx
d d

✞ ✡✞
Also k f (x) dx = k f (x) dx = k f (x)
dx dx

Therefore, using the Property (II), we have k f (x) dx k f (x) dx .

(V) Properties (III) and (IV) can be generalised to a finite number of functions f1, f2,

✞✙ ✗ ✗ ✗ ✚
..., fn and the real numbers, k1, k2, ..., kn giving

✞ ✗✞ ✗✗✞
k1 f1 (x) k2 f 2 (x) ... kn f n (x) dx

= k1 f1 (x) dx k2 f 2 (x) dx ... kn f n (x) dx .

To find an anti derivative of a given function, we search intuitively for a function
whose derivative is the given function. The search for the requisite function for finding
an anti derivative is known as integration by the method of inspection. We illustrate it
through some examples.
 INTEGRALS 295

Example 1 Write an anti derivative for each of the following functions using the
method of inspection:
1
(i) cos 2x (ii) 3x2 + 4x3 (iii) ,x☎0
x
Solution
(i) We look for a function whose derivative is cos 2x. Recall that
d
sin 2x = 2 cos 2x
dx
1 d d 1 ✁
or cos 2x = (sin 2x) = ✂ sin 2 x ✄
2 dx dx ✆ 2 ✝

1
Therefore, an anti derivative of cos 2x issin 2 x .
2
(ii) We look for a function whose derivative is 3x2 + 4x3. Note that
d 3 4
✞ x ✠ x ✟ = 3x2 + 4x3.
dx
Therefore, an anti derivative of 3x2 + 4x3 is x3 + x4.
(iii) We know that
d 1 d 1 1
(log x) ✡ , x ☛ 0 and [log ( – x)] ✡ ( – 1) ✡ , x ☞ 0
dx x dx –x x
d 1
Combining above, we get ✌ log x ✍ ✎ , x ✏ 0
dx x
1 1
Therefore, ✑ dx ✎ log x is one of the anti derivatives of .
x x
Example 2 Find the following integrals:
3
x3 – 1 2 1
(i) ✒ dx (ii) (x 3 ✠ 1) dx (iii) ✒ (x
2 ✓ 2 ex – ) dx
x2 ✑ x
Solution
(i) We have

x3 – 1
✒ 2
dx ✡ ✒ x dx – ✒ x – 2 dx (by Property V)
x
296 MATHEMATICS

1 1
✁x ✂ ✁ x– 2 1 ✂
= ☎ ✄ C1 ✆ – ☎ ✄ C 2 ✆ ; C , C are constants of integration
✝ 1✄ 1 ✝ – 2 ✄1
1 2
✞ ✞
2
x x– 1 x2 1
= ✟ C1 – – C2 = ✠ + C1 – C 2
2 –1 2 x
x2 1
= ✠ + C , where C = C1 – C2 is another constant of integration.
2 x

✡
Note From now onwards, we shall write only one constant of integration in the
final answer.
(ii) We have
2 2

✌
(x 3 ☛ 1) dx ☞ ✌ x 3 dx ☛ ✌ dx
2
✍1 5
x3 3 3
= ✎ x✎C = x ✏ x✏C
2 5
✎1
3
3 3
1 1
(iii) We have ✒
(x 2 ✏ 2 ex – ) dx ✑ ✒ x 2 dx ✏ ✒ 2 e x dx – ✒ dx
x x
3
✍1
x2 x
= ✎ 2 e – log x + C
3
✎1
2
5
2
= x 2 ✏ 2 e x – log x + C
5
Example 3 Find the following integrals:
(i) ✓
(sin x ✄ cos x) dx (ii) ✓ cosec x (cosec x ✄ cot x) dx
1 – sin x
(iii) ✔
dx
cos 2 x
Solution
(i) We have
✓
(sin x ✄ cos x) dx ✕ ✓ sin x dx ✄ ✓ cos x dx
= – cos x ✄ sin x ✄ C
 INTEGRALS 297

(ii) We have

✂ (cosec x (cosec x + cot x) dx ✂ cosec x dx ✁ ✂ cosec x cot x dx

2

= – cot x – cosec x ✁ C
(iii) We have
1 – sin x 1 sin x
✂ cos 2 x dx ✂ cos 2 x dx – ✂ cos 2 x dx
2
= ✂ sec x dx – ✂ tan x sec x dx
= tan x – sec x ✁ C
Example 4 Find the anti derivative F of f defined by f (x) = 4x3 – 6, where F (0) = 3
Solution One anti derivative of f (x) is x4 – 6x since
d 4
(x – 6 x) = 4x3 – 6
dx
Therefore, the anti derivative F is given by

F(x) = x4 – 6x + C, where C is constant.

Given that F(0) = 3, which gives,

3 = 0 – 6 × 0 + C or C = 3
Hence, the required anti derivative is the unique function F defined by
F(x) = x4 – 6x + 3.
Remarks
(i) We see that if F is an anti derivative of f, then so is F + C, where C is any
constant. Thus, if we know one anti derivative F of a function f, we can write
down an infinite number of anti derivatives of f by adding any constant to F
expressed by F(x) + C, C ✄ R. In applications, it is often necessary to satisfy an
additional condition which then determines a specific value of C giving unique
anti derivative of the given function.
(ii) Sometimes, F is not expressible in terms of elementary functions viz., polynomial,
logarithmic, exponential, trigonometric functions and their inverses etc. We are
therefore blocked for finding ✂ f (x) dx . For example, it is not possible to find
– x2 2

☎e dx by inspection since we can not find a function whose derivative is e– x

298 MATHEMATICS

(iii) When the variable of integration is denoted by a variable other than x, the integral
formulae are modified accordingly. For instance
y4 1 1 5
✄
y 4 dy ✁ ✂C✁ y ✂C
4✂1 5

7.2.3 Comparison between differentiation and integration

1. Both are operations on functions.
2. Both satisfy the property of linearity, i.e.,
d d d
(i) ☎ k1 f1 (x ) ✝ k 2 f 2 (x) ✆ ✞ k1 f1 (x) ✝ k2 f 2 (x)
dx dx dx
(ii) k
☞✟ 1
f1 (x) ✡ k2 f 2 (x)✠ dx ☛ k1 ☞ f1 (x) dx ✡ k2 f
☞ 2
(x) dx
Here k1 and k2 are constants.
3. We have already seen that all functions are not differentiable. Similarly, all functions
are not integrable. We will learn more about nondifferentiable functions and
nonintegrable functions in higher classes.
4. The derivative of a function, when it exists, is a unique function. The integral of
a function is not so. However, they are unique upto an additive constant, i.e., any
two integrals of a function differ by a constant.
5. When a polynomial function P is differentiated, the result is a polynomial whose
degree is 1 less than the degree of P. When a polynomial function P is integrated,
the result is a polynomial whose degree is 1 more than that of P.
6. We can speak of the derivative at a point. We never speak of the integral at a
point, we speak of the integral of a function over an interval on which the integral
is defined as will be seen in Section 7.7.
7. The derivative of a function has a geometrical meaning, namely, the slope of the
tangent to the corresponding curve at a point. Similarly, the indefinite integral of
a function represents geometrically, a family of curves placed parallel to each
other having parallel tangents at the points of intersection of the curves of the
family with the lines orthogonal (perpendicular) to the axis representing the variable
of integration.
8. The derivative is used for finding some physical quantities like the velocity of a
moving particle, when the distance traversed at any time t is known. Similarly,
the integral is used in calculating the distance traversed when the velocity at time
t is known.
9. Differentiation is a process involving limits. So is integration, as will be seen in
Section 7.7.
 INTEGRALS 299

10. The process of differentiation and integration are inverses of each other as
discussed in Section 7.2.2 (i).

EXERCISE 7.1
Find an anti derivative (or integral) of the following functions by the method of inspection.
1. sin 2x 2. cos 3x 3. e 2x
2 3x
4. (ax + b) 5. sin 2x – 4 e
Find the following integrals in Exercises 6 to 20:
1
6. (4 e3x + 1) dx 7. x 2 (1 – ) dx 8. (ax 2 ✁ bx ✁ c) dx
x2
2
✂ 1 ✄ x3 ✟ 5 x 2 – 4
9. (2 x 2 ✁ e x ) dx 10. ☎ x– ✆ dx 11. ✠ dx
✝ x✞ x2
x3 ✁ 3x ✁ 4 x3 ✡ x 2 ☛ x – 1
12. dx 13. ☞ dx 14. (1 – x) x dx
x x –1
15. x ( 3 x 2 ✁ 2 x ✁ 3) dx 16. (2 x – 3cos x ✁ e x ) dx

17. (2 x 2 – 3sin x ✁ 5 x ) dx 18. sec x (sec x ✁ tan x) dx

sec 2 x 2 – 3sin x
19. ☞ dx 20. ✠ dx.
cosec 2 x cos 2 x
Choose the correct answer in Exercises 21 and 22.
✂ 1 ✄
21. The anti derivative of ☎ x ✁ ✆ equals
✝ x✞
1 1 2
1 2 3 1 2
(A) x3 ✌ 2x 2 ✌C (B) x ✌ x ✌C
3 3 2
3 1 3 1
2 2 3 2 1 2
(C) x ✟ 2x 2 ✟ C (D) x ✟ x ✟C
3 2 2
d 3
22. If f ( x) ✍ 4 x3 ✎ 4 such that f (2) = 0. Then f (x) is
dx x
4 1 129 3 1 129
(A) x ✁ 3 ✎ (B) x ✁ 4 ✁
x 8 x 8
1 129 1 129
(C) x4 ✁ ✁ (D) x3 ✁ ✎
x3 8 x4 8
300 MATHEMATICS

7.3 Methods of Integration

In previous section, we discussed integrals of those functions which were readily
obtainable from derivatives of some functions. It was based on inspection, i.e., on the
search of a function F whose derivative is f which led us to the integral of f. However,
this method, which depends on inspection, is not very suitable for many functions.
Hence, we need to develop additional techniques or methods for finding the integrals
by reducing them into standard forms. Prominent among them are methods based on:
1. Integration by Substitution
2. Integration using Partial Fractions
3. Integration by Parts
7.3.1 Integration by substitution
In this section, we consider the method of integration by substitution.
The given integral f (x) dx can be transformed into another form by changing
the independent variable x to t by substituting x = g (t).
Consider I= f (x) dx

dx
Put x = g(t) so that = g✂(t).
dt
We write dx = g✂(t) dt

Thus I= f ( x) dx ✁ f ( g (t )) g ✄(t ) dt
This change of variable formula is one of the important tools available to us in the
name of integration by substitution. It is often important to guess what will be the useful
substitution. Usually, we make a substitution for a function whose derivative also occurs
in the integrand as illustrated in the following examples.
Example 5 Integrate the following functions w.r.t. x:
(i) sin mx (ii) 2x sin (x2 + 1)

tan 4 x sec2 x sin (tan – 1 x)

(iii) (iv)
x 1 ☎ x2

Solution
(i) We know that derivative of mx is m. Thus, we make the substitution
mx = t so that mdx = dt.
1 1 1
Therefore, ✝ sin mx dx ✆ ✝ sin t dt = – cos t + C = – cos mx + C
m m m
 INTEGRALS 301

(ii) Derivative of x2 + 1 is 2x. Thus, we use the substitution x2 + 1 = t so that

2x dx = dt.
Therefore, ✂ 2 x sin (x
2
1) dx ✁ ✂ sin t dt = – cos t + C = – cos (x2 + 1) + C
1
1 – 1
(iii) Derivative of x is x 2 ✁ . Thus, we use the substitution
2 2 x
1
x ✄ t so that dx ✄ dt giving dx = 2t dt.
2 x
tan 4 x sec 2 x 2t tan 4t sec2 t dt
Thus, ✂ dx ✁ ✂
4 2
= 2 ✂ tan t sec t dt
x t
Again, we make another substitution tan t = u so that sec2 t dt = du
u5
Therefore, 2 ✂ tan 4t sec 2t dt ✁ 2 ✂ u 4 du = 2 ☎C
5
2
= tan 5 t ✆ C (since u = tan t)
5
2
= tan x ✆ C (since t ✝ x )
5
5
tan 4 x sec 2 x 2
Hence, ✂ dx = tan 5 x ✆C
x 5
Alternatively, make the substitution tan x ✞ t
1
(iv) Derivative of tan – 1 x ✟ . Thus, we use the substitution
1 ✠ x2
dx
tan–1 x = t so that = dt.
1 ✠ x2
sin (tan – 1 x)
Therefore , ☞ dx ✡ ☞ sin t dt = – cos t + C = – cos (tan –1x) + C
1 ☛ x2
Now, we discuss some important integrals involving trigonometric functions and
their standard integrals using substitution technique. These will be used later without
reference.
(i) ✂ tan x dx = log sec x + C
We have
sin x
✌ tan x dx ✟ ✌ cos x dx
302 MATHEMATICS

Put cos x = t so that sin x dx = – dt

dt
Then ✂ tan x dx – ✂ t – log t ✁ C – log cos x ✁ C

or ✆ tan x dx ✄ log sec x ☎ C

(ii) ✆ cot x dx = log sin x + C
cos x
We have ✞ cot x dx ✝ ✞ sin x dx
Put sin x = t so that cos x dx = dt
dt
Then ✠ cot x dx ✟ ✠ t = log t ☎ C = log sin x ☎ C
(iii) ✆ sec x dx = log sec x + tan x + C
We have
sec x (sec x ✡ tan x)
☞ sec x dx ☛ ☞ sec x + tan x
dx

Put sec x + tan x = t so that sec x (tan x + sec x) dx = dt

dt
Therefore, ✠ sec x dx ✟ ✠ ✟ log t + C = log sec x ✌ tan x ✌ C
t
(iv) ✆ cosec x dx = log cosec x – cot x + C
We have
cosec x (cosec x ✡ cot x)
☞ cosec x dx ☛ ☞ (cosec x ✡ cot x)
dx

Put cosec x + cot x = t so that – cosec x (cosec x + cot x) dx = dt

dt
So ✂ cosec x dx – ✂ t – log | t | – log |cosec x ✁ cot x | ✁ C
cosec 2 x ✍ cot 2 x
= – log ☎C
cosec x ✍ cot x
= log cosec x – cot x ☎ C
Example 6 Find the following integrals:
3 2 sin x 1
(i) ✆ sin x cos x dx (ii) ☞ sin (x ✡ a) dx (iii) ☞
1 ✡ tan x
dx
 INTEGRALS 303

Solution
(i) We have
3 2 2 2
✁ sin x cos x dx ✁ sin x cos x (sin x) dx
2 2
= ✁ (1 – cos x) cos x (sin x) dx
Put t = cos x so that dt = – sin x dx

✁ sin x cos x (sin x) dx = ✂ ✁ (1 – t ) t dt

2 2 2 2
Therefore,

✄ t3 t5 ☎
✞✆C
2 4
= – ✁ (t – t ) dt –✝ –
✟3 5✠

1 1
= – cos3 x ✡ cos5 x ✡ C
3 5
(ii) Put x + a = t. Then dx = dt. Therefore
sin x sin (t – a)
✌ sin (x ☞ a) dx ☛ ✌ sin t
dt

sin t cos a – cos t sin a

= ✌ dt
sin t

= cos a ✁ dt – sin a ✁ cot t dt

= (cos a) t – (sin a) ✍✑ log sin t ✏ C1 ✎✒

= (cos a) (x ✏ a) – (sin a) ✍✑ log sin (x ✏ a) ✏ C1 ✎✒

= x cos a ✆ a cos a – (sin a ) log sin (x ✆ a ) – C1 sin a

sin x
Hence, ✌ sin (x a) dx = x cos a – sin a log |sin (x + a)| + C,
☞
where, C = – C1 sin a + a cos a, is another arbitrary constant.
dx cos x dx
(iii) ✌ 1 tan x ☛ ✌ cos x sin x
☞ ☞
1 (cos x + sin x + cos x – sin x) dx
= 2✌ cos x ☞ sin x
304 MATHEMATICS

1 1 cos x – sin x
= 2 ✁ dx 2 ✁ cos x sin x
dx

x C1 1 cos x – sin x
= 2 ✂ 2 ✂ 2 ✄ cos x sin x dx ... (1)
✂
cos x – sin x
Now, consider I ☎ ✁ dx
cos x sin x
Put cos x + sin x = t so that (cos x – sin x) dx = dt
dt
Therefore I✆✞ ✆ log t ✝ C2 = log cos x ✟ sin x ✟ C2
t
Putting it in (1), we get
dx x C 1 C2
✁ 1 tan x ☎ 2 + 2 + 2 log cos x sin x
1
2
x 1 C C
= + log cos x ✝ sin x ✝ 1 ✝ 2
2 2 2 2
x 1 ✠ C1 C2 ✡
C, ☛ C ☎
2 ☞✍
= + log cos x sin x
2 2 ✌ 2

EXERCISE 7.2
Integrate the functions in Exercises 1 to 37:
2
2x ✎ log x ✏ 1
1. 2. 3.
1 x2 x x x log x
4. sin x sin (cos x) 5. sin (ax ✟ b) cos (ax ✟ b)

6. ax ✑ b 7. x x ✑ 2 8. x 1 ✟ 2 x 2
1 x
9. (4 x ✟ 2) x 2 ✟ x ✟ 1 10. x – x 11. ,x>0
x✟4
1
x2 1
12. (x3 – 1) 3 x 5 13. 14. ,x>0
(2 ✒ 3 x 3 )3 x (log x) m
x x
15. 16. e2 x ✓ 3 17. 2
9 – 4x2 ex
 INTEGRALS 305

–1
etan x e2 x – 1 e2 x – e – 2 x
18. 19. 20.
1 x2 e2 x ✁ 1 e2 x ✂ e – 2 x

sin – 1 x
21. tan2 (2x – 3) 22. sec2 (7 – 4x) 23.
1 – x2

2cos x – 3sin x 1 cos x

24. 6cos x ✂ 4sin x 25. 26.
cos x (1 – tan x)2
2
x
cos x
27. sin 2x cos 2 x 28. 29. cot x log sin x
1 ✄ sin x

sin x sin x 1
30. 1 ✂ cos x 31. 32. 1 ✂ cot x
☎1 ✝ cos x ✆
2

✞1 ✄ log x✟
2
1 tan x
33. 1 – tan x 34. 35.
sin x cos x x

(x ✄ 1) ✠ x ✄ log x ✡ x3sin ☛ tan – 1 x 4 ☞

2

36. 37.
x 1 ✍ x✌
Choose the correct answer in Exercises 38 and 39.
10 x9 ✄ 10 x log e10 dx
38. ✎ equals
x10 ✄ 10 x
(A) 10x – x10 + C (B) 10x + x10 + C
(C) (10x – x10)–1 + C (D) log (10x + x10) + C
dx
39. ✏ equals
sin 2 x cos 2 x
(A) tan x + cot x + C (B) tan x – cot x + C
(C) tan x cot x + C (D) tan x – cot 2x + C
7.3.2 Integration using trigonometric identities
When the integrand involves some trigonometric functions, we use some known identities
to find the integral as illustrated through the following example.
2 3
Example 7 Find (i) ✎ cos x dx (ii) ✎ sin 2 x cos 3 x dx (iii) ✎ sin x dx
306 MATHEMATICS

Solution
(i) Recall the identity cos 2x = 2 cos2 x – 1, which gives
1 cos 2 x
cos2 x =
2
2 1 1 1
Therefore, ✁ cos x dx = 2 ✂ (1 + cos 2x) dx = 2 ✂ dx 2 ✂ cos 2 x dx

x 1
= ✄ sin 2 x ✄ C
2 4
1
(ii) Recall the identity sin x cos y = [sin (x + y) + sin (x – y)] (Why?)
2
1
Then ☎ sin 2 x cos 3 x dx = ✆✞ ✂ sin 5 x dx ➉ ✂ sin x dx✝✟
2
1✠ 1 ✡
– cos 5 x ☛ cos x ✌ ☛ C
2 ☞✍ 5
=
✎
1 1
= – cos 5 x cos x C
10 2
(iii) From the identity sin 3x = 3 sin x – 4 sin3 x, we find that
3sin x – sin 3 x
sin3 x =
4
3 3 1
Therefore, ✏ sin x dx = 4 ✑ sin x dx – 4 ✑ sin 3x dx

3 1
= – cos x cos 3x C
4 12
Alternatively, ✏ sin x dx ✒ ✏ sin x sin x dx = ✏ (1 – cos x) sin x dx
3 2 2

Put cos x = t so that – sin x dx = dt

t3
✏ sin x dx = ✕ ☎ ✓1 – t ✔ dt = – ✘ dt ✖ ✘ t dt ✗ – t ✖ 3 ✖ C
3 2 2
Therefore,

1
= – cos x cos3 x C
3
Remark It can be shown using trigonometric identities that both answers are equivalent.
 INTEGRALS 307

EXERCISE 7.3
Find the integrals of the functions in Exercises 1 to 22:
1. sin2 (2x + 5) 2. sin 3x cos 4x 3. cos 2x cos 4x cos 6x
4. sin3 (2x + 1) 5. sin3 x cos3 x 6. sin x sin 2x sin 3x
1 – cos x cos x
7. sin 4x sin 8x 8. 9.
1 cos x 1 cos x
sin 2 x
10. sin4 x 11. cos4 2x 12.
1 ✁ cos x
cos 2 x – cos 2✂ cos x – sin x
13. 14. 15. tan3 2x sec 2x
cos x – cos ✂ 1 sin 2 x

sin 3 x ✁ cos3 x cos 2 x ✁ 2sin 2 x

16. tan4x 17. 18.
sin 2 x cos 2 x cos 2 x
1 cos 2 x
19. 20. 21. sin – 1 (cos x)
sin x cos3 x ✄ cos x ✆ sin x ☎
2

1
22.
cos (x – a) cos (x – b)
Choose the correct answer in Exercises 23 and 24.
sin 2 x ✝ cos 2 x
23. ✞ dx is equal to
sin 2 x cos 2 x
(A) tan x + cot x + C (B) tan x + cosec x + C
(C) – tan x + cot x + C (D) tan x + sec x + C
e x (1 ✁ x)
24. ✞ dx equals
cos 2 (e x x)
(A) – cot (exx) + C (B) tan (xex) + C
(C) tan (ex) + C (D) cot (ex) + C
7.4 Integrals of Some Particular Functions
In this section, we mention below some important formulae of integrals and apply them
for integrating many other related standard integrals:
dx 1 x–a
(1) ✟ 2 2
= log +C
x –a 2a x+a
308 MATHEMATICS

dx 1 a+x
(2) = log +C
a 2 – x 2 2a a–x

dx 1 x
(3) ✁ 2 2
= tan – 1 + C
x +a a a

dx
(4) ✂ = log x + x 2 – a 2 + C
x – a2
2

dx x
(5) ✄ = sin – 1 +C
a –x2 2 a

dx
(6) ✄ = log x + x 2 + a 2 + C
2 2
x +a
We now prove the above results:

1 1
(1) We have 22
☎
x –a (x – a) (x ✆ a)

1 ✝ (x ✟ a) – (x – a ) ✞ 1 ✝ 1 1 ✞
= ✡ ☛✠ –
2a ☞ (x – a) (x ✟ a ) ✌ 2a ☞ x – a x ✟ a ☛✌
✡

dx 1 ✝ dx dx ✞
Therefore, ✄ 2 ✠ ✡✄ –✄
x –a 2
2a ☞ x – a x ✟ a ☛✌

1
= ✍ log | (x – a)| – log | (x ✏ a )|✎ ✏ C
2a

1 x–a
= log ✟C
2a x✟a

(2) In view of (1) above, we have

1 1 ✝ (a ✟ x) ✟ ( a ✑ x) ✞ 1 ✒ 1 1 ✓
✠ ✡ ☛ ✔
2
a –x 2
2a ☞ (a ✟ x) (a ✑ x) ✌ = 2a ✕✘ a ✗ x a ✔ x ✖✙
 INTEGRALS 309

dx 1 ✁ dx dx ✂
Therefore, = ✄
a – x2
2
2a ☎✞ ✠ a ✝ x ✠ a ✄ x ✆✟
1
= [✡ log | a ✡ x | ☛ log | a ☛ x |] ☛ C
2a
1 a✄x
= log ✄C
2a a✝x

☞
Note The technique used in (1) will be explained in Section 7.5.
(3) Put x = a tan ✌. Then dx = a sec2 ✌ d✌.
dx a sec 2 ✍ d✍
Therefore, ✠ 2 2 = ✏ 2
x ✄a a tan 2 ✍ ✎ a 2
1 1 1 –1 x
= ✔ d✑ ✒ ✑ ✓ C ✒ tan ✓C
a a a a
(4) Let x = a sec ✌. Then dx = a sec ✌ tan ✌ d ✌.
dx a sec✗ tan✗ d✗
Therefore, ✖ 2 2
= ✖ 2
x ✕a a sec2✗ ✕ a 2
= sec✘ d✘ ✙ log sec✘ + tan✘ + C1

x x2
= log ✚ – 1 ✚ C1
a a2
2 2
= log x ✛ x – a ✜ log a ✛ C1
2 2
= log x ✛ x – a + C , where C = C1 – log |a|
(5) Let x = a sin✌ . Then dx = a cos✌ d✌.
dx a cos✢ d✢
Therefore, ✖ 2 2
= ✖
a ✕x a 2 – a 2 sin 2✢
–1 x
= ✤ d✣ = ✣ + C = sin ☛C
a
(6) Let x = a tan ✥. Then dx = a sec2 ✥ d ✥.
dx a sec 2★ d★
Therefore, ✧ = ✪
x2 ✦ a2 a 2 tan 2 ★ ✩ a 2
= sec✘ d✘ = log (sec✫ ✛ tan ✫) ✛ C1
310 MATHEMATICS

x x2
= log a a2
1 C1

✁
= log x ✂ x ✂ a ✄ log | a | ✂ C1
2

✁
= log x ✂ x ✂ a ✂ C , where C = C1 – log |a|
2

Applying these standard formulae, we now obtain some more formulae which
are useful from applications point of view and can be applied directly to evaluate
other integrals.
dx
(7) To find the integral ☎ 2 , we write
ax ✂ bx ✂ c

✆ b c✝ ✆✞ b ✟ ✞ c b2 ✟✝
2

ax + bx + c = a ✡ x ✂ x ✂ ☛ ✠ a ✡ ☞ x ✂ ✌ ✂ ☞ – 2 ✌ ☛
2 2

✍ a a✎ ✡✍✏ 2a ✑ ✏ a 4a ✑ ☛✎

b c b2
Now, put x ✒ ✓ t so that dx = dt and writing – 2 ✔ ✕ k . We find the
2

2a a 4a

1 dt ✞ c b2 ✟
☞ – 2✌
a ☎ t2 ✖ k2
integral reduced to the form depending upon the sign of
✏ a 4a ✑
and hence can be evaluated.
dx
(8) To find the integral of the type ☎ , proceeding as in (7), we
ax ✂ bx ✂ c
2

obtain the integral using the standard formulae.

px ✂ q
(9) To find the integral of the type ☎ 2 dx , where p, q, a, b, c are
ax ✂ bx ✂ c
constants, we are to find real numbers A, B such that
d
px + q = A (ax 2 ✗ bx ✗ c) + B = A (2ax ✗ b) + B
dx
To determine A and B, we equate from both sides the coefficients of x and the
constant terms. A and B are thus obtained and hence the integral is reduced to
one of the known forms.
 INTEGRALS 311

( px q ) dx
(10) For the evaluation of the integral of the type ✁ , we proceed
2
ax bx c
as in (9) and transform the integral into known standard forms.
Let us illustrate the above methods by some examples.
Example 8 Find the following integrals:
dx dx
(i) ✁ 2 (ii) ✁
x ✂ 16 2 x ✂ x2
Solution
dx dx ☎ x–4
(i) We have ✁ 2 ✄ ✁ 2 2 = log ✆ C [by 7.4 (1)]
x ✂ 16 x –4 8 x✆4
dx dx
(ii) ✡ ✟✡
2x ✠ x 2
1 – ✝ x – 1✞
2

Put x – 1 = t. Then dx = dt.

dx dt –1
Therefore, ✁ = ✁ = sin (t ) C [by 7.4 (5)]
2x ✂ x 2
1 – t2
–1
= sin (x – 1) C
Example 9 Find the following integrals :
dx dx dx
(i) ✁ 2 (ii) ✁ 2 (iii) ✁
x ✂ 6 x 13 3x 13 x ✂ 10 5 x2 ✂ 2 x
Solution
(i) We have x2 – 6x + 13 = x2 – 6x + 32 – 32 + 13 = (x – 3)2 + 4
dx 1
So, ✁ x ☛ ✂ 6 x 13 = ✎ x – 3 2 ✍ 22 dx
☞ ✌
Let x – 3 = t. Then dx = dt
dx dt 1 t
✁ x ☛ ✂ 6 x 13 = ✁ t 2 22 ✄ 2 tan 2 C
–1
Therefore, [by 7.4 (3)]

1 x–3
= tan – 1 ✏C
2 2
312 MATHEMATICS

(ii) The given integral is of the form 7.4 (7). We write the denominator of the integrand,

✁ 13x 10 ✂
3x 2 13 x – 10 = 3☎ x ✄
2
– ✆
✝ 3 3✞

✟ ✡ 13 ☛ 2 ✡ 17 ☛ 2 ✠
= ✌ ✎ x ☞ 6 ✏ – ✎ 6 ✏ ✍ (completing the square)
3
✓✌ ✑ ✒ ✑ ✒ ✔✍

dx 1 dx
Thus ✗ 3x✕ ☞ 13 x ✖ 10 = 3 ✗ 2 2
✡ 13 ☛ ✡ 17 ☛
✎x☞ 6 ✏ ✖✎ 6 ✏
✑ ✒ ✑ ✒
13
Put x ✘ ✙ t . Then dx = dt.
6

dx 1 dt
Therefore, ✗ 3x ✕ ☞ 13 x ✖ 10 = 3 ✗ 2
✡ 17 ☛
t2 ✖ ✎ ✏
✑6✒

17
t–
1 6 ☞C
= log 1 [by 7.4 (i)]
17 17
3✚ 2 ✚ t☞
6 6

13 17
x☞ –
1 6 6 ☞C
= log 1
17 13 17
x☞ ☞
6 6

1 6x ✛ 4
= log ✜ C1
17 6 x ✜ 30

1 3x ✛ 2 1 1
= log ✜ C1 ✜ log
17 x✜5 17 3

1 3x ✢ 2 1 1
= log ✄ C , where C = C1 ✘ log
17 x✄5 17 3
 INTEGRALS 313

dx dx
(iii) We have ✁
✠ ✠
5x ☎ 2x ✂ 2x ✄
5✆ x2 –
✞ 5 ✝✟

1 dx
= ✏ 2 2
(completing the square)
5 ✡ 1☛ ✡ 1☛
☞ x – ✌ –☞ ✌
✍ 5✎ ✍ 5✎
1
Put x – ✑ t . Then dx = dt.
5
dx 1 dt
Therefore, ✔ ✒
= ✛ 2
5x ✓ 2x 5 ✕1✖
t2 – ✗ ✘
✙5✚

2
1 ✜1✢
= log t ✣ t 2 – ✤ ✥ ✣C [by 7.4 (4)]
5 ✦5✧

1 1 2x
= log x – ★ x 2 – ★ C
5 5 5

Example 10 Find the following integrals:

x★ 2 x★3
(i) dx (ii) ✔
dx
✔ ✒
2x ★ 6x ★ 5 5 ✓ 4x ★ x2
Solution
(i) Using the formula 7.4 (9), we express
d 2
x+2= A ✩ 2 x ✫ 6 x ✫ 5 ✪ ✫ B = A (4 x ★ 6) ★ B
dx
Equating the coefficients of x and the constant terms from both sides, we get
1 1
4A = 1 and 6A + B = 2 or A = and B = .
4 2
x★2 1 4x ★ 6 1 dx
Therefore, ✔ ✒ = ✔ ✒ dx ★ ✔ ✒
2x ★ 6x ★ 5 4 2x ★ 6x ★ 5 2 2x ★ 6x ★ 5
1 1
= I1 ✫ I 2 (say) ... (1)
4 2
314 MATHEMATICS

In I1, put 2x2 + 6x + 5 = t, so that (4x + 6) dx = dt

dt
Therefore, I1 = ✂ log t ✁ C1
t
= log | 2 x ✄ 6 x ✄ 5 | ✄ C1
2
... (2)

dx 1 dx
and I2 = ✝ 2 ☎ ✝
2 x ✆ 6 x ✆ 5 2 x 2 ✆ 3x ✆ 5
2

1 dx
2 ✌✞
= 2 2
3✟ ✞1✟
✠x✄ 2✡ ✄✠2✡
☛ ☞ ☛ ☞
3
Put x ✍ ✎ t , so that dx = dt, we get
2
1 dt 1
tan –1 2t ✏ C2
2✌
I2 = 2 = [by 7.4 (3)]
✞1✟ 1
t2 ✄ ✠ ✡ 2✑
☛ 2☞ 2

–1 ✒ 3✓
= tan 2 ✕ x ✔ ✖ + C2 = tan ✙ 2 x ✛ 3✚ + C 2
–1
... (3)
✗ 2 ✘
Using (2) and (3) in (1), we get
x✄2 1 1
✌ 2 x ✣ ✄ 6 x ✄ 5 dx ✤ 4 log 2 x ✄ 6 x ✄ 5 ✄ 2 tan ✜ 2 x ✄ 3✢ ✄ C
2 –1

C1 C2
where, C= ✍
4 2
(ii) This integral is of the form given in 7.4 (10). Let us express

d
x+3= A (5 – 4 x – x 2 ) + B = A (– 4 – 2x) + B
dx
Equating the coefficients of x and the constant terms from both sides, we get
1
– 2A = 1 and – 4 A + B = 3, i.e., A = – and B = 1
2
 INTEGRALS 315

x 3 1 ✄ – 4 – 2 x ☎ dx dx
Therefore, ✂ dx = – ✞ ✆✞
5 ✁ 4x ✁ x 2 2 5 ✝ 4x ✝ x 2
5 ✝ 4 x ✝ x2
1
= – I +I ... (1)
2 1 2
In I1, put 5 – 4x – x2 = t, so that (– 4 – 2x) dx = dt.
✟ – 4 ✡ 2 x ✠ dx dt
Therefore, I 1= ☞ ☛☞ = 2 t C1
5 ✡ 4x ✡ x 2 t

= 2 5 – 4 x – x 2 ✆ C1 ... (2)

dx dx
Now consider I2 = ✞ ✌✞
5 ✝ 4x ✝ x 2
9 – (x ✆ 2) 2
Put x + 2 = t, so that dx = dt.
dt t
Therefore, I2 = ✂ ✍ sin – 1 + C2 [by 7.4 (5)]
3 ✁t
2 2 3

x✎2
= sin
–1
✎ C2 ... (3)
3
Substituting (2) and (3) in (1), we obtain
x 3 x 2 C
✂ ✍ – 5 – 4x – x 2 + sin – 1 C , where C ✏ C2 – 1
5 – 4x – x 2 3 2

EXERCISE 7.4
Integrate the functions in Exercises 1 to 23.
3x 2 1 1
1. 2. 3.
x6 ✑ 1 1 4x 2 2
✒ 2 – x✓ ✔ 1

1 3x x2
4. 5. 6.
9 – 25 x 2 1 2x4 1 ✕ x6

x –1 x2 sec 2 x
7. 8. 9.
x2 – 1 x6 ✆ a 6 tan 2 x ✆ 4
316 MATHEMATICS

1 1 1
10. 11. 2 12.
x 2
2x 2 9x 6x 5 7 – 6x – x2

1 1 1
13. 14. 15.
✁ x – 1✂✁ x – 2 ✂ 8 ✄ 3x – x 2
☎ x – a ✆☎ x – b ✆

4x ✝ 1 x 2 5x ✞ 2
16. 17. 18.
2x ✝ x – 3
2
x –12 1 2 x 3x 2

6x ✝ 7 x 2 x 2
19. 20. 21.
✟ x – 5✠✟ x – 4 ✠ 4x – x 2
x 2
2x 3

x 3 5x 3
22. 23. .
x – 2x ✞ 5
2
x 2
4 x 10
Choose the correct answer in Exercises 24 and 25.
dx
24. ✡ 2 equals
x 2x 2
(A) x tan–1 (x + 1) + C (B) tan–1 (x + 1) + C
(C) (x + 1) tan–1x + C (D) tan–1x + C
dx
25. ✡ equals
9x ✞ 4x2

1 –1 ☞ 9 x ☛ 8 ✌ 1 ☞ 8x ☛ 9 ✌
(A) sin ✎ ✏✍C (B) sin –1 ✎ ✏✍C
9 ✑ 8 ✒ 2 ✑ 9 ✒

1 –1 ✔ 9 x ✓ 8 ✕ 1 ☞ 9x ☛ 8 ✌
(C) sin ✗ ✘✖C (D) sin –1 ✎ ✏✍C
3 ✙ 8 ✚ 2 ✑ 9 ✒
7.5 Integration by Partial Fractions
Recall that a rational function is defined as the ratio of two polynomials in the form
P(x)
, where P (x) and Q(x) are polynomials in x and Q(x) ✛ 0. If the degree of P(x)
Q(x )
is less than the degree of Q(x), then the rational function is called proper, otherwise, it
is called improper. The improper rational functions can be reduced to the proper rational
 INTEGRALS 317

P(x) P(x) P1 (x)

functions by long division process. Thus, if is improper, then T(x) ✁ ,
Q(x ) Q(x) Q(x )

P1 (x)
where T(x) is a polynomial in x and is a proper rational function. As we know
Q(x)
how to integrate polynomials, the integration of any rational function is reduced to the
integration of a proper rational function. The rational functions which we shall consider
here for integration purposes will be those whose denominators can be factorised into
P(x) P(x)
linear and quadratic factors. Assume that we want to evaluate ✂ dx , where
Q(x) Q(x )
is proper rational function. It is always possible to write the integrand as a sum of
simpler rational functions by a method called partial fraction decomposition. After this,
the integration can be carried out easily using the already known methods. The following
Table 7.2 indicates the types of simpler partial fractions that are to be associated with
various kind of rational functions.
Table 7.2
S.No. Form of the rational function Form of the partial fraction
px ✁ q A
✄
B
1. ,a☎b
(x –a) (x –b) x–a x–b

px ✁ q A B
2. ✞
(x – a ) 2 x – a ✆ x – a ✝2

px 2 ✟ qx ✟ r A B C
3. ✄ ✄
(x – a ) (x – b) (x – c) x–a x–b x–c

px 2 ✠ qx ✠ r A
✁
B
✁
C
4. x – a (x – a ) 2
x–b
(x – a) 2 (x – b)

px 2 ✟ qx ✟ r A Bx + C ,
5. ✁ 2
(x – a) (x 2 ✟ bx ✟ c) x – a x ✁ bx ✁ c
where x2 + bx + c cannot be factorised further
In the above table, A, B and C are real numbers to be determined suitably.
318 MATHEMATICS

dx
Example 11 Find ✁ (x 1) (x 2)

Solution The integrand is a proper rational function. Therefore, by using the form of
partial fraction [Table 7.2 (i)], we write

1 A B
= ✄ ... (1)
(x ✂ 1) (x ✂ 2) x ✄1 x ✄ 2
where, real numbers A and B are to be determined suitably. This gives
1 = A (x + 2) + B (x + 1).
Equating the coefficients of x and the constant term, we get
A+B=0
and 2A + B = 1
Solving these equations, we get A =1 and B = – 1.
Thus, the integrand is given by
1 1 –1
= ✄
(x ✂ 1) (x ✂ 2) x ✄1 x ✄ 2

dx dx dx
Therefore, ☎ (x ✂ 1) (x ✂ 2) = ✆ x ✄ 1 – ✆ x ✄ 2

= log x ✝ 1 ✞ log x ✝ 2 ✝ C

x ✂1
= log ✂C
x✂2

Remark The equation (1) above is an identity, i.e. a statement true for all (permissible)
values of x. Some authors use the symbol ‘✟’ to indicate that the statement is an
identity and use the symbol ‘=’ to indicate that the statement is an equation, i.e., to
indicate that the statement is true only for certain values of x.
x2 ✂ 1
Example 12 Find ☎ 2 dx
x ✠ 5x ✂ 6

x2 ✂ 1
Solution Here the integrand is not proper rational function, so we divide
x2 – 5x ✂ 6
x2 + 1 by x2 – 5x + 6 and find that
 INTEGRALS 319

x2 1 5x – 5
✁1
5x – 5
2 =1 2 (x – 2) (x – 3)
x – 5x 6 x – 5 x 6
5x – 5 A B
Let = ✂
(x – 2) (x – 3) x–2 x–3
So that 5x – 5 = A (x – 3) + B (x – 2)
Equating the coefficients of x and constant terms on both sides, we get A + B = 5
and 3A + 2B = 5. Solving these equations, we get A = – 5 and B = 10
x2 ✄ 1 5 10
Thus, = 1☎ ✂
x – 5x ✄ 6
2
x–2 x–3
x2 1 1 dx
Therefore, ✆ x 2 – 5 x 6 dx = ✝ dx ☎ 5 ✝ x – 2 dx ✂ 10✝ x – 3
= x – 5 log | x – 2 | + 10 log | x – 3 | + C.
3x ✞ 2
Example 13 Find ✟ dx
(x ✄ 1)2 (x ✄ 3)
Solution The integrand is of the type as given in Table 7.2 (4). We write

3x – 2 A B C
= ✄ ✄
(x ✄ 1) 2 (x ✄ 3) x ✄ 1 (x ✄ 1)2 x ✄ 3
So that 3x – 2 = A (x + 1) (x + 3) + B (x + 3) + C (x + 1)2
= A (x2 + 4x + 3) + B (x + 3) + C (x2 + 2x + 1 )
Comparing coefficient of x 2, x and constant term on both sides, we get
A + C = 0, 4A + B + 2C = 3 and 3A + 3B + C = – 2. Solving these equations, we get
11 –5 –11 . Thus the integrand is given by
A ✠ ,B ✠ and C ✠
4 2 4
3x ✞ 2 11 5 11
= 4 (x 1) – –
(x ✄ 1) (x ✄ 3)
2
✄ 2 (x ✄ 1) 2
4 (x ✄ 3)
3x ✡ 2 11 dx 5 dx 11 dx
Therefore, ✆ (x 1) 2 (x 3) = 4 ✆ x 1 – 2 ✆ (x 1)2 ✡ 4 ✆ x 3
11 5 11
= log x +1 ✄ ✞ log x ✄ 3 ✄ C
4 2 (x + 1) 4
11 x +1 5
= log ☛ +C
4 x + 3 2 (x + 1)
320 MATHEMATICS

x2
Example 14 Find ✁ 2 dx
(x 1) (x 2 4)

x2
Solution Consider and put x2 = y.
( x 2 ✂ 1) ( x 2 ✂ 4)

x2 y
Then =
(x 2
1) (x 2 4) (y ✄ 1) (y ✄ 4)

y A B
Write = ☎
(y ☎ 1) (y ☎ 4) y ☎1 y ☎ 4
So that y = A (y + 4) + B (y + 1)
Comparing coefficients of y and constant terms on both sides, we get A + B = 1
and 4A + B = 0, which give
1 4
A= ✆ and B ✝
3 3

x2 1 4
Thus, = – ☎
(x ✂ 1) (x ✂ 4)
2 2
3 (x ☎ 1) 3 (x ☎ 4)
2 2

x 2 dx 1 dx 4 dx
Therefore, ✞ (x 2 ✂ 1) (x 2 ✂ 4) = – 3 ✠ x 2 ✟ 1 ✟ 3 ✠ x 2 ✟ 4

1 –1 4 1 –1 x
= – tan x ✡ ☛ tan ✡C
3 3 2 2
1 –1 2 –1 x
= – tan x ☞ tan ☞C
3 3 2
In the above example, the substitution was made only for the partial fraction part
and not for the integration part. Now, we consider an example, where the integration
involves a combination of the substitution method and the partial fraction method.
✌ 3 sin ✎ – 2 ✍ cos ✎
Example 15 Find ✁ d✎
5 – cos 2✎ – 4 sin ✎
Solution Let y = sin ✏
Then dy = cos✏ d✏
 INTEGRALS 321

3 sin✂ – 2 ✁ cos✂ (3y – 2) dy

Therefore, ✄
d✂ = ☎
5 – cos 2
✂ – 4 sin✂ 5 – (1 – y 2 ) – 4 y

3y – 2
= ☎
dy
y2 – 4 y ✆ 4

3y – 2
= ✠ 2
✟ I (say)
✝ y – 2✞

3y – 2 A B
Now, we write = ✆ [by Table 7.2 (2)]
2
✡ y – 2☛ y ☞ 2 (y ☞ 2)2
Therefore, 3y – 2 = A (y – 2) + B
Comparing the coefficients of y and constant term, we get A = 3 and B – 2A = – 2,
which gives A = 3 and B = 4.
Therefore, the required integral is given by
3 4 dy dy
I = ☎[ + ] dy = 3 ☎ +4☎
y – 2 (y – 2) 2 y–2 (y – 2)2

✌ 1 ✍
= 3 log y ✎ 2 ✏ 4✑ – ✒✏C
✓ y ✎2✔

4
= 3 log sin ✕ ☞ 2 ✆ ✆C
2 – sin ✕

4
= 3 log (2 ☞ sin ✕) ✆ + C (since, 2 – sin ✖ is always positive)
2 ☞ sin ✕

x 2 ✏ x ✏ 1 dx
Example 16 Find ✗
(x ✏ 2) (x 2 ✏ 1)

Solution The integrand is a proper rational function. Decompose the rational function
into partial fraction [Table 2.2(5)]. Write

x2 ✘ x ✘ 1 A Bx + C
= ✆
2
(x ✘ 1) (x ✘ 2) x ✆ 2 (x 2 ✆ 1)
Therefore, x2 + x + 1 = A (x2 + 1) + (Bx + C) (x + 2)
322 MATHEMATICS

Equating the coefficients of x2, x and of constant term of both sides, we get
A + B =1, 2B + C = 1 and A + 2C = 1. Solving these equations, we get
3 2 1
A ,B and C
5 5 5
Thus, the integrand is given by
2 1
x✂
x2 ✁ x ✁ 1 1 2x ✂ 1
✂ ✄✆ 2 ☎✝
3 3
= ✂ 52 5 =
(x ✁ 1) (x ✁ 2)
2
5 (x ✂ 2) x ✂ 1 5 (x ✂ 2) 5 ✞ x ✂ 1 ✟

x2 ✁ x ✁ 1 3 dx 1 2x 1 1
Therefore, ✠ (x 2 +1) (x ✁ 2) dx = 5 ✡ x ✂ 2 ✂ 5 ✡ x 2 ✂ 1 dx ✂ 5 ✡ x 2 ✂ 1 dx

3 1 1
= log x ☛ 2 ☛ log x 2 ☛ 1 ☛ tan –1 x ☛ C
5 5 5

EXERCISE 7.5
Integrate the rational functions in Exercises 1 to 21.
x 1 3x – 1
1. 2. 3.
(x ☞ 1) (x ☞ 2) 2
x –9 (x – 1) (x – 2) (x – 3)

x 2x 1 – x2
4. 5. 2 6.
(x – 1) (x – 2) (x – 3) x ✂ 3x ✂ 2 x (1 – 2 x)

x x 3x ☞ 5
7. 8. 9.
(x ☞ 1) (x – 1)
2
(x – 1) (x ☞ 2)
2 x3 – x 2 ✌ x ☞ 1

2x ✌ 3 5x x3 ☞ x ☞ 1
10. 11. 12.
(x – 1) (2x ☞ 3)
2
(x ☞ 1) (x 2 ✌ 4) x2 ✌ 1
2 3x – 1 1
13. 14. 15.
(1 ✌ x) (1 ☞ x 2 ) (x ☞ 2) 2 x ✍1
4

1
16. [Hint: multiply numerator and denominator by x n – 1 and put xn = t ]
x (x n ☞ 1)

cos x
17. [Hint : Put sin x = t]
(1 – sin x) (2 – sin x)
 INTEGRALS 323

(x 2 1) (x 2 2) 2x 1
18. 19. 20.
(x 2 3) (x 2 4) (x ✁ 1) (x 2 ✁ 3)
2
x (x 4 – 1)
1
21. x [Hint : Put ex = t]
(e – 1)
Choose the correct answer in each of the Exercises 22 and 23.
x dx
22. ✄ equals
( x ✂ 1) ( x ✂ 2)
( x ☎ 1)2 ( x ☎ 2) 2
(A) log ✆C (B) log ✆C
x☎2 x ☎1
2
✞ x ✝1 ✟
(C) log ✡ ☛ ✠C (D) log ( x ☎ 1) ( x ☎ 2) ✆ C
☞ x✝2✌
dx
23. ✄ equals
x ( x 2 ✍ 1)
1 1
(A) log x ✎ log (x +1) + C (B) log x ✏ log (x +1) + C
2 2
2 2
1 1
(D) log x ✏ log (x +1) + C
2
(C) ✑ log x ✒ log (x 2 +1) + C
2 2
7.6 Integration by Parts
In this section, we describe one more method of integration, that is found quite useful in
integrating products of functions.
If u and v are any two differentiable functions of a single variable x (say). Then, by
the product rule of differentiation, we have
d dv du
(uv) = u ✏ v
dx dx dx
Integrating both sides, we get
dv du
uv = ✓ u dx ✏ ✓ v dx
dx dx
dv du
or ✓ u dx dx = uv – ✓ v dx dx ... (1)
dv
Let u = f (x) and = g (x). Then
dx
du
= f ✔(x) and v = ✕ g (x) dx
dx
324 MATHEMATICS

Therefore, expression (1) can be rewritten as

f (x ) g (x) dx = f (x) g (x) dx – [ g (x) dx] f ✁(x) dx

i.e., f (x) g (x) dx = f (x) g (x) dx – [ f ✁ (x) g (x) dx] dx

If we take f as the first function and g as the second function, then this formula
may be stated as follows:
“The integral of the product of two functions = (first function) × (integral
of the second function) – Integral of [(differential coefficient of the first function)
× (integral of the second function)]”
Example 17 Find x cos x dx

Solution Put f (x) = x (first function) and g (x) = cos x (second function).
Then, integration by parts gives
d
x cos x dx = x ✂ cos x dx – ✂ [ (x) ✂ cos x dx] dx
dx

= x sin x – sin x dx = x sin x + cos x + C

Suppose, we take f (x) = cos x and g (x) = x. Then
d
x cos x dx = cos x ✂ x dx – ✂ [ (cos x) ✂ x dx] dx
dx
x2 x2
= ✄ cos x ☎ ✆ ✝ sin x dx
2 2
Thus, it shows that the integral x cos x dx is reduced to the comparatively more
complicated integral having more power of x. Therefore, the proper choice of the first
function and the second function is significant.
Remarks
(i) It is worth mentioning that integration by parts is not applicable to product of
functions in all cases. For instance, the method does not work for x sin x dx .
The reason is that there does not exist any function whose derivative is
x sin x.
(ii) Observe that while finding the integral of the second function, we did not add
any constant of integration. If we write the integral of the second function cos x
 INTEGRALS 325

as sin x + k, where k is any constant, then

x cos x dx = x (sin x ✁ k ) ✂ (sin x ✁ k ) dx

= x (sin x ✁ k ) ✂ (sin x dx ✂ k dx

= x (sin x ✁ k ) ✂ cos x – kx ✁ C = x sin x ✁ cos x ✁ C

This shows that adding a constant to the integral of the second function is
superfluous so far as the final result is concerned while applying the method of
integration by parts.
(iii) Usually, if any function is a power of x or a polynomial in x, then we take it as the
first function. However, in cases where other function is inverse trigonometric
function or logarithmic function, then we take them as first function.
Example 18 Find log x dx
Solution To start with, we are unable to guess a function whose derivative is log x. We
take log x as the first function and the constant function 1 as the second function. Then,
the integral of the second function is x.
d
Hence, (logx.1) dx = log x ☎ 1 dx ✄ ☎ [ (log x) ☎ 1 dx] dx
dx
1
= (log x) ✆ x – ✟ x dx ✝ x log x – x ✞ C .
x
Example 19 Find x e x dx

Solution Take first function as x and second function as ex. The integral of the second
function is ex.

Therefore, x e x dx = x e x ✂ 1 ✠ e x dx = xex – ex + C.

x sin – 1 x
Example 20 Find ☛ dx
1 ✡ x2

x
Solution Let first function be sin – 1x and second function be .
1 ✂ x2
x dx
First we find the integral of the second function, i.e., .
1✂ x2
Put t =1 – x2. Then dt = – 2x dx
326 MATHEMATICS

x dx 1 dt
= – t ✄ ☎ 1☎ x
2
= –
✁ 2✂ t
Therefore, 2
1 x

x sin – 1 x 1
Hence, ✆ dx = (sin – 1 x) ✝ – 1 x 2 ✞ ✁ ( – 1 x 2 ) dx
1☎ x 2 2
1 x
✟1
= – 1 ✠ x sin ✟ 1 x ✡ x ✡ C = x – 1 ✠ x sin x ✡ C
2 2

Alternatively, this integral can also be worked out by making substitution sin–1 x = ☛ and
then integrating by parts.
x
Example 21 Find ✁ e sin x dx

Solution Take ex as the first function and sin x as second function. Then, integrating
by parts, we have

I ☞ ✁ e x sin x dx ☞ e x ( – cos x) ✌ ✁ e x cos x dx

= – ex cos x + I1 (say) ... (1)
x
Taking e and cos x as the first and second functions, respectively, in I1, we get
I1 = e x sin x – ✁ e x sin x dx
Substituting the value of I1 in (1), we get
I = – ex cos x + ex sin x – I or 2I = ex (sin x – cos x)
ex
I = ✎ e sin x dx ✍
x
Hence, (sin x – cos x) + C
2
Alternatively, above integral can also be determined by taking sin x as the first function
and ex the second function.
7.6.1 Integral of the type ✁ e x [ f (x) + f ✏ (x)] dx

I = ✁ e x [ f (x) + f ✏(x)] dx = ✁ e f (x) dx + ✁ e f ✏(x) dx

x x
We have

= I1 ✌ ✁ e f ✏(x) dx, where I1 = ✁ e f (x) dx

x x
... (1)
x
Taking f (x) and e as the first function and second function, respectively, in I1 and
integrating it by parts, we have I1 = f (x) ex – ✁ f ✏(x) e dx ✌ C
x

Substituting I1 in (1), we get

I = e f (x) ✁ f ✏(x) e dx ✌ ✁ e f ✏(x) dx ✌ C = ex f (x) + C
x x x
 INTEGRALS 327

Thus, ✁
e x [ f ( x ) + f ( x )] dx = e x f ( x ) + C

1 (x 2 + 1) e x
Example 22 Find (i) ✁ e x (tan – 1 x ✂ ) dx (ii) ✄
dx
1 ✂ x2 (x + 1)2
Solution
x –1 1
(i) We have I = ✁ e (tan x ✂ ) dx
1 ✂ x2
1
Consider f (x) = tan– 1x, then f ☎(x) =
1 ✂ x2
Thus, the given integrand is of the form ex [ f (x) + f ☎(x)].
1
Therefore, I ✆ ✁ e x (tan – 1 x ✂ ) dx = ex tan– 1x + C
1 ✂ x2

(x 2 + 1) e x x 2 – 1 + 1+1)
(ii) We have I ✝ ✄ 2
dx ✝ ✄ e x [ ] dx
(x + 1) (x + 1) 2

x2 – 1 2 x –1 2
✞
✠
ex [ ✟ ] dx ✡ ex [ + ] dx
(x + 1) 2 (x +1) 2 ☛
x + 1 (x +1) 2

x ☞1 2
Consider f (x) ✌ , then f ✎(x) ✡
x ✍1 (x ✏ 1)2
Thus, the given integrand is of the form ex [f (x) + f ☎(x)].
x2 ✑ 1 x x ✒1 x
Therefore, ✄ 2
e dx ✝ e ✑C
(x ✑ 1) x✑1

EXERCISE 7.6
Integrate the functions in Exercises 1 to 22.
1. x sin x 2. x sin 3x 3. x2 ex 4. x log x
5. x log 2x 6. x2 log x 7. x sin– 1x 8. x tan–1 x
x cos ✓1 x
9. x cos–1 x 10. (sin–1x)2 11. 12. x sec2 x
1 ✔ x2
13. tan –1x 14. x (log x)2 15. (x2 + 1) log x
328 MATHEMATICS

x ex x ✁ 1 ✄ sin x ✂
16. ex (sinx + cosx) 17. 18. e ☎ 1 ✄ cos x ✆
(1 x) 2 ✝ ✞

x ✟1 1 ✠ (x ✍ 3) e x
19. e ✡ – 2 ☛ 20. 21. e2x sin x
☞x x ✌ (x ✍ 1)3

–1 ✎ 2x ✏
22. sin ✑ ✒
✔ 1 ✓ x2 ✕
Choose the correct answer in Exercises 23 and 24.
3
23. ✖ x 2 e x dx equals

1 x3 1 x2
(A) e ✗C (B) e ✘C
3 3
1 x3 1 x2
(C) e ✘C (D) e ✘C
2 2
24. ✚ e x sec x (1 ✙ tan x) dx equals
(A) ex cos x + C (B) ex sec x + C
(C) ex sin x + C (D) ex tan x + C
7.6.2 Integrals of some more types
Here, we discuss some special types of standard integrals based on the technique of
integration by parts :

(ii) ✜ x 2 ✢ a 2 dx (iii) ✤ a 2 ✣ x 2 dx
✜ x ✛ a dx
(i) 2 2

(i) Let I ✥ ✤ x 2 ✣ a 2 dx
Taking constant function 1 as the second function and integrating by parts, we
have
1 2x
I = x x ✦a ✦✚
2 2
x dx
2 x2 ✦ a2

x2 x2 ✩ a2 ✪ a2
dx = x x ✩ a ✩ ✫
2 2
= x x ✧a ✧★
2 2 dx
x2 ✧ a2 x2 ✩ a2
 INTEGRALS 329

2 dx
= x x a2 2 2 2
✁ x a dx a ✁ 2
x a2

2 dx
= x x a2 I a2 ✁
2
x a2

2 dx
or 2I = x x a2 a2 ✁
2
x a2

x a2
or I = ✂ x 2 – a 2 dx = x2 – a2 – log x + x 2 – a 2 + C
2 2
Similarly, integrating other two integrals by parts, taking constant function 1 as the
second function, we get

2 2 1 a2
(ii) ✄ x + a dx = x x2 + a2 + log x + x 2 + a 2 + C
2 2
1 a2 x
(iii) ✄ a 2 – x 2 dx = x a 2 – x 2 + sin –1 + C
2 2 a
Alternatively, integrals (i), (ii) and (iii) can also be found by making trigonometric
substitution x = a sec ✆ in (i), x = a tan ✆ in (ii) and x = a sin ✆ in (iii) respectively.

Example 23 Find ✝ x ☎ 2 x ☎ 5 dx
2

Solution Note that

✂ x ✞ 2 x ✞ 5 dx = ✂ (x ✞ 1) ✞ 4 dx
2 2

Put x + 1 = y, so that dx = dy. Then

✝ x ☎ 2 x ☎ 5 dx = ✝ y ☎ 2 dy
2 2 2

1 4
= y y2 ✟ 4 ✟ log y ✟ y 2 ✟ 4 ✟ C [using 7.6.2 (ii)]
2 2
1
= (x ✟ 1) x 2 ✟ 2 x ✟ 5 ✟ 2 log x ✟ 1 ✟ x 2 ✟ 2 x ✟ 5 ✟ C
2

Example 24 Find ✝ 3 ✠ 2x ✠ x 2 dx

Solution Note that ✝ 3 ✠ 2 x ✠ x 2 dx ✡ ✝ 4 ✠ (x ☎ 1)2 dx

330 MATHEMATICS

Put x + 1 = y so that dx = dy.

2 2
Thus ✁ 3 2x x dx = ✁ 4 y dy
1 4 y
= y 4 ✂ y 2 ✄ sin –1 ✄ C [using 7.6.2 (iii)]
2 2 2
1 ✆ x ☎ 1✝
= (x ☎ 1) 3 ✞ 2 x ✞ x 2 ☎ 2 sin –1 ✟ ✠☎C
2 ✡ 2 ☛

EXERCISE 7.7
Integrate the functions in Exercises 1 to 9.
1. 4 ☞ x2 2. 1 ☞ 4x 2 3. x2 ✌ 4x ✌ 6
4. x2 ✍ 4x ✍ 1 5. 1 ✎ 4x ✎ x 2 6. x2 ✍ 4x ✎ 5
x2
7. 1 ✌ 3x ☞ x 2 8. x 2 ✌ 3x 9. 1✏
9
Choose the correct answer in Exercises 10 to 11.
10. ✒ 1 ✑ x 2 dx is equal to
x 1
(A) 1 ✄ x 2 ✄ log ✓ x ✄ 1 ✄ x 2 ✔ ✄ C
2 2
3 3
2 2
(B) (1 ☎ x 2 ) 2 ☎ C (C) x (1 ☎ x 2 ) 2 ☎ C
3 3
x2 1
(D) 1 ✕ x 2 ✕ x 2 log x ✕ 1 ✕ x 2 ✕ C
2 2

✁ x 8 x ✖ 7 dx is equal to
2
11.
1
(A) ( x ✂ 4) x 2 ✂ 8 x ✄ 7 ✄ 9log x ✂ 4 ✄ x 2 ✂ 8 x ✄ 7 ✄ C
2
1
(B) ( x ✄ 4) x 2 ✂ 8 x ✄ 7 ✄ 9log x ✄ 4 ✄ x 2 ✂ 8 x ✄ 7 ✄ C
2
1
(C) ( x ✗ 4) x 2 ✗ 8 x ✘ 7 ✗ 3 2 log x ✗ 4 ✘ x 2 ✗ 8 x ✘ 7 ✘ C
2
1 9
(D) ( x ✗ 4) x2 ✗ 8x ✘ 7 ✗ log x ✗ 4 ✘ x 2 ✗ 8 x ✘ 7 ✘ C
2 2
 INTEGRALS 331

7.7 Definite Integral

In the previous sections, we have studied about the indefinite integrals and discussed
few methods of finding them including integrals of some special functions. In this
section, we shall study what is called definite integral of a function. The definite integral
b
has a unique value. A definite integral is denoted by f (x) dx , where a is called the
a

lower limit of the integral and b is called the upper limit of the integral. The definite
integral is introduced either as the limit of a sum or if it has an anti derivative F in the
interval [a, b], then its value is the difference between the values of F at the end
points, i.e., F(b) – F(a). Here, we shall consider these two cases separately as discussed
below:
7.7.1 Definite integral as the limit of a sum
Let f be a continuous function defined on close interval [a, b]. Assume that all the
values taken by the function are non negative, so the graph of the function is a curve
above the x-axis.
b
The definite integral ✁ f (x) dx is the area bounded by the curve y = f (x), the
a
ordinates x = a, x = b and the x-axis. To evaluate this area, consider the region PRSQP
between this curve, x-axis and the ordinates x = a and x = b (Fig 7.2).
Y
S

M
C D
(x) L
y =f
Q

P A B R
X' X
O a = x0 x1 x2 xr-1 xr xn=b
Y'
Fig 7.2

Divide the interval [a, b] into n equal subintervals denoted by [x0, x1], [x1, x2] ,...,
[xr – 1, xr], ..., [xn – 1, xn], where x0 = a, x1 = a + h, x2 = a + 2h, ... , xr = a + rh and
b✂a.
xn = b = a + nh or n ✄ We note that as n ✟ ☎✆ h ✟ 0.
h
332 MATHEMATICS

The region PRSQP under consideration is the sum of n subregions, where each
subregion is defined on subintervals [xr – 1, xr], r = 1, 2, 3, …, n.
From Fig 7.2, we have
area of the rectangle (ABLC) < area of the region (ABDCA) < area of the rectangle
(ABDM) ... (1)
Evidently as xr – xr–1 ✟ 0, i.e., h ✟ 0 all the three areas shown in (1) become
nearly equal to each other. Now we form the following sums.
n 1

sn = h [f(x0) + … + f (xn - 1)] = h✂ f ( xr ) ... (2)

r ✁0
n
and Sn = h [f (x1 ) ✄ f (x2 ) ✄ ☎ ✄ f (xn )] ✆ h✂ f (xr ) ... (3)
r ✁1
Here, sn and Sn denote the sum of areas of all lower rectangles and upper rectangles
raised over subintervals [xr–1, xr] for r = 1, 2, 3, …, n, respectively.
In view of the inequality (1) for an arbitrary subinterval [xr–1, xr], we have
sn < area of the region PRSQP < Sn ... (4)
As n ✝ ✞ strips become narrower and narrower, it is assumed that the limiting
values of (2) and (3) are the same in both cases and the common limiting value is the
required area under the curve.
Symbolically, we write
b
lim Sn = lim sn = area of the region PRSQP = ☛a
f (x)dx ... (5)
n ✠✡ n ✠✡

It follows that this area is also the limiting value of any area which is between that
of the rectangles below the curve and that of the rectangles above the curve. For
the sake of convenience, we shall take rectangles with height equal to that of the
curve at the left hand edge of each subinterval. Thus, we rewrite (5) as
b
☛a f ( x)dx = lim h [ f (a ) ✄ f (a ✄ h) ✄ ... ✄ f (a ✄ (n – 1) h]
h ✠0

b 1
or ☞a
f ( x)dx = (b – a) lim [ f (a) ✎ f (a ✎ h) ✎ ... ✎ f (a ✎ (n – 1) h] ... (6)
n✌✍ n
b–a
where h= ✏ 0 as n ✏ ✑
n
The above expression (6) is known as the definition of definite integral as the limit
of sum.
Remark The value of the definite integral of a function over any particular interval
depends on the function and the interval, but not on the variable of integration that we
 INTEGRALS 333

choose to represent the independent variable. If the independent variable is denoted by

b b
t or u instead of x, we simply write the integral as f (t ) dt or ✁ f (u ) du instead of
a a

b
f ( x) dx . Hence, the variable of integration is called a dummy variable.
a

2
Example 25 Find ( x 2 ✂ 1) dx as the limit of a sum.
0

Solution By definition
b 1
f ( x) dx = (b – a ) lim [ f (a ) ✆ f ( a ✆ h) ✆ ... ✆ f (a ✆ (n – 1) h],
a n✄☎ n

b–a
where, h=
n
2–0 2
In this example, a = 0, b = 2, f (x) = x2 + 1, h ✝ ✝
n n
Therefore,
2 1 2 4 2 (n – 1)
( x 2 ✂ 1) dx = 2 lim [ f (0) ✠ f ( ) ✠ f ( ) ✠ ... ✠ f ( )]
0 n✞✟ n n n n

1 22 42 ☞ (2n – 2) 2 ✌
= 2 lim [1 ✍ ( 2 ✍ 1) ✍ ( 2 ✍ 1) ✍ ... ✍ ✎ ✍ 1✏ ]
n✡☛ n n n n 2
✑ ✒

1 1
= 2 lim [(1 ✖ 1 ✖ ... ✖ 1) ✖ ✓ (22 ✖ 42 ✖ ... ✖ (2n – 2) 2 ]
n✔✕ n ✗✘ ✘ ✙✘✘ ✚ n
n -terms

1 22
= 2 lim [n ✣ ✛ (12 ✣ 22 ✣ ... ✣ (n – 1)2 ]
n✜✢ n n
1 4 (n ✥ 1) n (2n – 1)
= 2 lim [n ✍ ✤ ]
n✡☛ n n 6
1 2 (n ✦ 1) (2n – 1)
= 2 lim [n ✠ ]
n✞✟ n 3 n
2 1 1 4 14
= 2 lim [1 ✠ (1 ✦ ) (2 – )] = 2 [1 ✠ ] =
n✞✟ 3 n n 3 3
334 MATHEMATICS

2 x
Example 26 Evaluate e dx as the limit of a sum.
0

Solution By definition
2 4 2n – 2
2 x 1☎ 0 ✆
✞ e ✝ e ✝ e ✝ ... ✝ e
n n n
✁ 0 e dx = (2 – 0) nlim
✂✄ n ✞
✟
✠ ✡✟

2
Using the sum to n terms of a G.P., where a = 1, r ☛ en , we have
2n
✎ ✏
2 x 1 e n –1 1 ✑ e2– 1 ✒
✁0 e dx = 2 lim [ ] = 2 lim
n ✂✄ n 2 n✌✍ n ✑ 2 ✒
en☞1 ✓ en– 1 ✔

2 (e 2 – 1) (e h ✤ 1)
= = e2 – 1 [using lim ✥ 1]
✗ 2 ✘ h✣ 0 h
✙ en – 1 ✚
lim ✙
n ✕✖ 2 ✚✛2
✙ ✚
✜ n ✢

EXERCISE 7.8
Evaluate the following definite integrals as limit of sums.
b 5 3 2
1. x dx 2. ✁ 0 ( x ✦ 1) dx 3. ✁ 2 x dx
a

4 1 4
4. ✁1 ( x 2 ✧ x) dx x
5. ✁ e dx 6. ✁ ( x ✦ e 2 x ) dx
★1 0

7.8 Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

7.8.1 Area function
b
We have defined ✁ f ( x) dx as the area of
a

the region bounded by the curve y = f (x),

the ordinates x = a and x = b and x-axis. Let x
x
be a given point in [a, b]. Then f ( x) dx
a

represents the area of the shaded region Fig 7.3

 INTEGRALS 335

in Fig 7.3 [Here it is assumed that f (x) > 0 for x ✄ [a, b], the assertion made below is
equally true for other functions as well]. The area of this shaded region depends upon
the value of x.
In other words, the area of this shaded region is a function of x. We denote this
function of x by A(x). We call the function A(x) as Area function and is given by
x
A (x) = f ( x ) dx ... (1)
a

Based on this definition, the two basic fundamental theorems have been given.
However, we only state them as their proofs are beyond the scope of this text book.
7.8.2 First fundamental theorem of integral calculus
Theorem 1 Let f be a continuous function on the closed interval [a, b] and let A (x) be
the area function. Then A✂ (x) = f (x), for all x ✄ [a, b].
7.8.3 Second fundamental theorem of integral calculus
We state below an important theorem which enables us to evaluate definite integrals
by making use of anti derivative.
Theorem 2 Let f be continuous function defined on the closed interval [a, b] and F be
b
an anti derivative of f. Then ✁ f ( x ) dx = [F( x )] ba = F (b) – F(a).
a

Remarks
b
(i) In words, the Theorem 2 tells us that ✁ f ( x) dx = (value of the anti derivative F
a
of f at the upper limit b – value of the same anti derivative at the lower limit a).
(ii) This theorem is very useful, because it gives us a method of calculating the
definite integral more easily, without calculating the limit of a sum.
(iii) The crucial operation in evaluating a definite integral is that of finding a function
whose derivative is equal to the integrand. This strengthens the relationship
between differentiation and integration.
b
(iv) In f ( x) dx , the function f needs to be well defined and continuous in [a, b].
a
1
3
For instance, the consideration of definite integral ✆ x( x 2 – 1) 2 dx is erroneous
☎2
1
2
since the function f expressed by f (x) = x( x – 1) 2 is not defined in a portion
– 1 < x < 1 of the closed interval [– 2, 3].
336 MATHEMATICS

b
Steps for calculating f ( x) dx .
a

(i) Find the indefinite integral ✁ f ( x) dx . Let this be F(x). There is no need to keep
integration constant C because if we consider F(x) + C instead of F(x), we get
b
☎a f ( x) dx ✂ [F ( x) ✄ C] ba ✂ [F(b) ✄ C] – [F(a) ✄ C] ✂ F(b) – F(a) .
Thus, the arbitrary constant disappears in evaluating the value of the definite
integral.
b b
(ii) Evaluate F(b) – F(a) = [F ( x)] a , which is the value of ☎ f ( x) dx .
a
We now consider some examples
Example 27 Evaluate the following integrals:
32
9 x
(i) ☎ 2 x dx (ii) ✁4 3
dx
(30 – x 2 )2
✞
2 x dx
(iii) ✝ (iv) ✁ 4 sin 3 2 t cos 2 t dt
1 ( x ✆ 1) ( x ✆ 2) 0

Solution
3 2
2 x3
(i) Let I ✂ ☎ 2 x dx . Since ✠ x dx ✟ ✟ F ( x) ,
3
Therefore, by the second fundamental theorem, we get
27 8 19
I = F (3) – F (2) ✡ – ✡
3 3 3
9 x
(ii) Let I ☛ ✁ 3
dx . We first find the anti derivative of the integrand.
4
(30 – x 2 )2
3
3 2
Put 30 – x 2 ☞ t. Then – x dx ☞ dt or x dx ✌ – dt
2 3

✔ ✕
x 2 dt 2 ✍ 1✎ 2✖ 1 ✗
Thus, ✁ dx ☛ – ✁ 2 = ✏ ✑ = ✖ 3 ✗
✘ F ( x)
3
3 t 3 t
✒ ✓ 3
(30 – x 2 )2 ✖✙ (30 – x 2 ) ✗✚
 INTEGRALS 337

Therefore, by the second fundamental theorem of calculus, we have

9
✁
2 ✂ 1 ✄
I = F(9) – F(4) ☎ ✂ 3 ✄
3
✂ (30 – x 2 ) ✄✝ 4
✆

2✞ 1 1 ✟ 2 ✍ 1 1 ✎ 19
= ✡ ✠ ☛ = ✏ ✑
3 ☞ (30 – 27) 30 – 8 ✌ 3 ✒✔ 3 22 ✓✕ 99

2 x dx
(iii) Let I ✑ ✗
1 ( x ✖ 1) ( x ✖ 2)

x –1 2
Using partial fraction, we get ✘ ✙
( x ✙ 1) ( x ✙ 2) x ✙ 1 x ✙ 2

x dx
So ✗ = – log x ✚ 1 ✚ 2log x✚2 ✛ F( x)
( x ✖ 1) ( x ✖ 2)
Therefore, by the second fundamental theorem of calculus, we have
I = F(2) – F(1) = [– log 3 + 2 log 4] – [– log 2 + 2 log 3]
✜ 32 ✢
= – 3 log 3 + log 2 + 2 log 4 = log ✣ ✤
✥ 27 ✦

✧
3
(iv) Let I ✑ ✗ 4 sin 3 2t cos 2 t dt . Consider ★ sin 2t cos 2 t dt
0

1
Put sin 2t = u so that 2 cos 2t dt = du or cos 2t dt = du
2

1 3
So sin 3 2t cos 2 t dt = u du
★ 2✩

1 4 1 4
= [u ] ✪ sin 2t ✪ F (t ) say
8 8
Therefore, by the second fundamental theorem of integral calculus
✫ 1 ✫ 1
I = F ( ) – F (0) ✪ [sin 4 – sin 4 0] ✪
4 8 2 8
338 MATHEMATICS

EXERCISE 7.9
Evaluate the definite integrals in Exercises 1 to 20.
1 31 2
1. ✂ 1
( x ✁ 1) dx 2. ✄2
dx 3. ✂1
(4 x 3 – 5 x 2 ✁ 6 x ✁ 9) dx
x
☎ ✝ ✠
4 5 x
2 4
4. ✆ 0 sin 2x dx 5. ✞0 cos 2x dx 6. ✟4
e dx 7. ✡0
tan x dx

☛
4 1 dx 1 dx 3 dx
8. ☞ ☛
cosec x dx 9. ✞0 10. ✞0 11. ✞2 2
6 1 – x2 1✌ x2 x ✍1

✠ 3 x dx 1 2x ✌ 3 1 2

12. 2
cos 2 x dx 13. ✞2 14. ✞0
dx 15. ✟0 x e x dx
✡0 x2 ✌ 1 5x2 ✌ 1
✏
2 5x2 ✓ x x
16. ✡1 17. 4
✒0
(2sec 2 x ✑ x3 ✑ 2) dx 18. ✄0
(sin 2 – cos 2 ) dx
x2 ✎ 4 x ✎ 3 2 2

6x ✌ 3
2 1 x ✔x
19. ✞0 2
dx 20. ✄ ( x e ✕ sin ) dx
x ✌4 0 4
Choose the correct answer in Exercises 21 and 22.
3 dx
21. ✞1
equals
1 ✌ x2
✔ 2✔ ✔ ✔
(A) (B) (C) (D)
3 3 6 12
2
3 dx
22. ✗0 equals
4 ✖ 9 x2
✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
(A) (B) (C) (D)
6 12 24 4
7.9 Evaluation of Definite Integrals by Substitution
In the previous sections, we have discussed several methods for finding the indefinite
integral. One of the important methods for finding the indefinite integral is the method
of substitution.
 INTEGRALS 339

b
To evaluate f ( x) dx , by substitution, the steps could be as follows:
a

1. Consider the integral without limits and substitute, y = f (x) or x = g(y) to reduce
the given integral to a known form.
2. Integrate the new integrand with respect to the new variable without mentioning
the constant of integration.
3. Resubstitute for the new variable and write the answer in terms of the original
variable.
4. Find the values of answers obtained in (3) at the given limits of integral and find
the difference of the values at the upper and lower limits.

✁
Note In order to quicken this method, we can proceed as follows: After
performing steps 1, and 2, there is no need of step 3. Here, the integral will be kept
in the new variable itself, and the limits of the integral will accordingly be changed,
so that we can perform the last step.

Let us illustrate this by examples.

1
Example 28 Evaluate 5 x 4 x 5 ✄ 1 dx .
✂1

Solution Put t = x5 + 1, then dt = 5x4 dx.

3 3
4 5 2 2 2
Therefore, ✆ 5 x x ☎ 1 dx = ✝ t dt = t = ( x 5 ✞ 1) 2
3 3

3 1
1 2✟ ✠
Hence, 5x 4
x ✄ 1 dx = ☛ ( x5 ✡ 1) 2 ☞
5
✂1 3 ☛✌ ☞✍ –1

3 3
2✑ 5 5
✒
= ✔ (1 ✓ 1) 2 – ✎ (– 1) ✓ 1✏ 2 ✕
3 ✖✔ ✗✕

3 3
2✑ 2 ✒ 2 4 2
= ✔ 2 ✘ 0 2
✕ = (2 2) ✙
3 ✔✖ ✕✗ 3 3
Alternatively, first we transform the integral and then evaluate the transformed integral
with new limits.
340 MATHEMATICS

Let t = x5 + 1. Then dt = 5 x4 dx.

Note that, when x = – 1, t = 0 and when x = 1, t = 2
Thus, as x varies from – 1 to 1, t varies from 0 to 2
1 2
Therefore ✂ 1
5 x 4 x 5 ✁ 1 dx = ✂0
t dt

3 2 3 3
2 ✄ 2☎ 2✄ 2 2
☎ 2 4 2
= ✝t ✞ ✆ ✝2 – 0 ✞ = (2 2) ✡
3 ✟✝ ✠✞ 3 ✟✝ ✞
✠
3 3
0
–1
tan x 1
Example 29 Evaluate dx
☞0
1 ☛ x2
1
Solution Let t = tan – 1x, then dt ✌ dx . The new limits are, when x = 0, t = 0 and
1 ✍ x2
✎ ✎
when x = 1, t ✏ . Thus, as x varies from 0 to 1, t varies from 0 to .
4 4
✑
✑
1 tan –1 x ✒t2 ✓ 4 1 ✙ ✛2 ✚ ✛
2
4
Therefore ☞0
dx = ✘0
t dt ✔ ✕ = ✜ – 0✢ ✌
1 ☛ x2 ✖ 2 ✗0 2 ✣ 16 ✤ 32

EXERCISE 7.10
Evaluate the integrals in Exercises 1 to 8 using substitution.
✦
1 x 1 ★ 2x ✩
1. ✥0
dx 2. 2
sin ✧ cos5 ✧ d ✧ 3. ☞0
sin – 1 ✪ ✫ dx
x 2
✍1 ☞0 ✬ 1 ☛ x2 ✭
✮
2 sin x
4. ✂0
x x ✁ 2 (Put x + 2 = t2) 5. ✰0
2
dx
1 ✯ cos 2 x
2 dx 1 dx 2★ 1 1 ✩ 2x
6. ✥0 2 7. ✥ ✱1 2 8. ☞1 ✪
– ✫ e dx
x✍ 4– x x ✍ 2x ✍ 5 ✬x 2 x2 ✭
Choose the correct answer in Exercises 9 and 10.
1
1 ( x ✲ x3 ) 3
9. The value of the integral ✘1
dx is
3
x4
(A) 6 (B) 0 (C) 3 (D) 4
x
10. If f (x) = ✂0
t sin t dt , then f ✳(x) is
(A) cosx + x sin x (B) x sinx
(C) x cosx (D) sinx + x cosx
 INTEGRALS 341

7.10 Some Properties of Definite Integrals

We list below some important properties of definite integrals. These will be useful in
evaluating the definite integrals more easily.
b b
P0 : ✁ a f ( x) dx ✁ a f (t ) dt
b a a
P1 : ✄ a f ( x) dx ✂ – ✄ b f ( x) dx . In particular, ✄ a f ( x) dx ✂ 0
b c b
P2 : ✁ a f ( x) dx ✁ a f ( x) dx ☎ ✁ c f ( x) dx
b b
P3 : ✄ a f ( x) dx ✂ ✄ a f (a ✆ b ✝ x) dx
a a
P4 : ✄ 0 f ( x) dx ✂ ✄ 0 f (a ✝ x) dx
(Note that P4 is a particular case of P3)
2a a a
P5 : ✄ 0 f ( x) dx ✂ ✄ 0 f ( x) dx ✆ ✄ 0 f (2a ✝ x) dx
2a a
P6 : ✁ 0 f ( x) dx 2 ✁ 0 f ( x) dx, if f (2a ✞ x) f ( x) and
0 if f (2a – x) = – f (x)
a a
P7 : (i) ✁ f ( x) dx 2 ✁ f ( x) dx , if f is an even function, i.e., if f (– x) = f (x).
✟a 0

a
(ii) ✄ f ( x) dx ✂ 0 , if f is an odd function, i.e., if f (– x) = – f (x).
✠a
We give the proofs of these properties one by one.
Proof of P0 It follows directly by making the substitution x = t.
Proof of P1 Let F be anti derivative of f. Then, by the second fundamental theorem of
b a
calculus, we have ✄ a f ( x) dx ✂ F (b) – F (a) ✂ – [F (a) ✝ F (b)] ✂ ✝ ✄ b f ( x) dx
a
Here, we observe that, if a = b, then ✁ a f ( x) dx 0 .
Proof of P2 Let F be anti derivative of f. Then
b
✄ a f ( x) dx = F(b) – F(a) ... (1)
c
✄ a f ( x) dx = F(c) – F(a) ... (2)
b
and ✁ c f ( x) dx = F(b) – F(c) ... (3)
342 MATHEMATICS

c b b
Adding (2) and (3), we get ✂ f ( x) dx ✂ f ( x) dx ✁ F(b) – F(a) ✁ ✂ f ( x) dx
a c a
This proves the property P2.
Proof of P3 Let t = a + b – x. Then dt = – dx. When x = a, t = b and when x = b, t = a.
Therefore
b a
✄ a f ( x) dx = ☎ ✄ b f (a ✆ b – t ) dt
b
= ✂ a f (a b – t ) dt (by P1)
b
= ✂ a f (a b – x) dx by P0
Proof of P4 Put t = a – x. Then dt = – dx. When x = 0, t = a and when x = a, t = 0. Now
proceed as in P3.
2a a 2a
Proof of P5 Using P2, we have ✂ f ( x) dx ✁ ✂ f ( x) dx ✂ f ( x) dx .
0 0 a
Let t = 2a – x in the second integral on the right hand side. Then
dt = – dx. When x = a, t = a and when x = 2a, t = 0. Also x = 2a – t.
Therefore, the second integral becomes
2a 0 a a
✂ a f ( x) dx = – ✂ a f (2a – t ) dt = ✄ 0 f (2a – t ) dt = ✂ 0 f (2a – x) dx
2a a a
Hence ✄ 0 f ( x) dx = ✄ 0 f ( x) dx ✆ ✄ 0 f (2a ☎ x) dx
2a a a
Proof of P6 Using P5, we have ✄ 0 f ( x) dx ✝ ✄ 0 f ( x) dx ✆ ✄ 0 f (2a ☎ x) dx ... (1)
Now, if f (2a – x) = f (x), then (1) becomes
2a a a a
✂ 0 f ( x) dx = ✂ 0 f ( x) dx ✂ 0 f ( x) dx ✁ 2✂ 0 f ( x) dx,
and if f (2a – x) = – f (x), then (1) becomes
2a a a
✂ 0 f ( x) dx = ✂ 0 f ( x) dx ✞✂ 0 f ( x) dx ✁ 0
Proof of P7 Using P2, we have
a 0 a
✂ ✟ a f ( x) dx = ✄ ✠ a f ( x) dx ✆ ✄ 0 f ( x) dx . Then
Let t = – x in the first integral on the right hand side.
dt = – dx. When x = – a, t = a and when
x = 0, t = 0. Also x = – t.
 INTEGRALS 343

a 0 a
Therefore ✁ a
f ( x) dx = – ✁ f (–t ) dt ✂ ✁ f ( x) dx
a 0

a a
= ✁0
f (– x) dx ✂ ✁ f ( x) dx (by P0) ... (1)
0

(i) Now, if f is an even function, then f (–x) = f (x) and so (1) becomes
a a a a
✁ a
f ( x) dx ✄ ✁ f ( x ) dx ✂ ✁ f ( x) dx ✄ 2 ✁ f ( x) dx
0 0 0

(ii) If f is an odd function, then f (–x) = – f (x) and so (1) becomes

a a a
✁ a
f ( x) dx ✄ ☎ ✁ f ( x) dx ✂ ✁ f ( x) dx ✄ 0
0 0

2
Example 30 Evaluate ✁ 1
x3 – x dx

Solution We note that x3 – x ✡ 0 on [– 1, 0] and x3 – x ☛ 0 on [0, 1] and that

x3 – x ✡ 0 on [1, 2]. So by P2 we write
2 0 1 2
✁ 1
x3 – x dx = ✞ ✆1
( x 3 – x) dx ✝ ✞ – ( x 3 – x) dx ✝ ✞ ( x3 – x) dx
0 1

0 1 2
= ✁ 1
( x 3 – x) dx ✂ ✁ ( x – x3 ) dx ✂ ✁ ( x3 – x) dx
0 1

4 0 1 2
✟x x2 ✠ ✟x
2
x4 ✠ ✟ x4 x2 ✠
= ✌ – ✍ ☞✌ – ✍ ☞✌ – ✍
✎ 4 2 ✏– 1 ✎ 2 4 ✏0 ✎ 4 2 ✏1

✓1 1✔ ✓1 1✔ ✓1 1✔
= – ✖ – ✗ ✕ ✖ – ✗ ✕ ✑ 4 – 2✒ – ✖ – ✗
✘ 4 2 ✙ ✘ 2 4 ✙ ✘ 4 2✙
1 1 1 1 1 1 3 3 11
= – ✚ ✚ ✛ ✚2✛ ✚ = ✛ ✚2✜
4 2 2 4 4 2 2 4 4
✢
Example 31 Evaluate ✣–✢
4
sin 2 x dx
4

Solution We observe that sin2 x is an even function. Therefore, by P7 (i), we get

✢ ✤
4
✣ –✢
sin 2 x dx = 2 ✥ 4 sin 2 x dx
0
4
344 MATHEMATICS

✄
(1 ✁ cos 2 x ) 4
= 2✂ 4 dx = ✆0
(1 ☎ cos 2 x) dx
0 2
✝
✞ 1 ✟4 ✍✌ 1 ✌✎ ✌ 1
= ✠
x – sin 2 x ✡ = ✑ – sin ✒ – 0 ✏ –
☛ 2 ☞0 ✓4 2 2✔ 4 2
✕ x sin x
Example 32 Evaluate ✗0
dx
1 ✖ cos 2 x
✕ x sin x
Solution Let I = ✗0
dx . Then, by P4, we have
1 ✖ cos 2 x
✄ ( ✌ ☎ x) sin (✌ ☎ x) dx
I= ✆0
1 ✘ cos 2 (✌ ☎ x)
✕ (✙ ✚ x) sin x dx ✕ sin x dx
= ✗0 = ✙ ✚I
✗0
1 ✖ cos 2 x 1 ✖ cos 2 x
✕ sin x dx
or 2I= ✙
✗0
1 ✖ cos 2 x
✕ sin x dx
✙
or I=
2 ✗ 0 1 ✖ cos 2 x
Put cos x = t so that – sin x dx = dt. When x = 0, t = 1 and when x = ✛, t = – 1.
Therefore, (by P1) we get
– ✙ ✜1 dt ✙ 1 dt
I= ✗1 2 = ✗ ✜1
2 1✖ t 2 1✖ t2
1 dt 1
= ✙
✗0 2 (by P7,
since is even function)
1✖ t 1✖ t2
2
1 ✢✙ ✣ ✙
= ✧
–1
★0 ✧
–1
✙ ✢ tan t ✣ ✤ ✙ ✢ tan 1 – tan ✜1 0✣★ ✤ ✙ ✥ – 0✦ ✤
✧4 ★ 4
1
Example 33 Evaluate ✪ ✩1
sin 5 x cos 4 x dx

1
Solution Let I = ✪ ✩1
sin 5 x cos 4 x dx . Let f(x) = sin5 x cos4 x. Then
f (– x) = sin5 (– x) cos4 (– x) = – sin5 x cos4 x = – f (x), i.e., f is an odd function.
Therefore, by P7 (ii), I = 0
 INTEGRALS 345

2 sin 4 x
Example 34 Evaluate ✂0
dx
sin x ✁ cos 4 x
4

2 sin 4 x
Solution Let I = ✂0
dx ... (1)
sin 4 x ✁ cos 4 x
Then, by P4
☎
✄ sin 4 ( ✆ x)
2 2 2 cos 4 x
I= ✞0
dx = ✂0
dx ... (2)
☎ ☎ cos x ✁ sin 4 x
4
sin 4 ( ✆ x) ✝ cos 4 ( ✆ x)
2 2
Adding (1) and (2), we get
✟ ✟ ✟
sin 4 x ✠ cos 4 x ✡
2I = ☞0
2
dx ☛ ☞ 2 dx ☛ [ x] 2 ☛
sin 4 x ✠ cos 4 x 0 0 2
✌
Hence I=
4
✍
3 dx
Example 35 Evaluate ✏✍
6
1 ✎ tan x
✑ ✑
3 dx 3 cos x dx
Solution Let I = ✔✑ ✒✔
✑
... (1)
6
1✓ tan x 6
cos x ✓ sin x

✗✖ ✖ ✘
✕ cos ✛ ✙ ✚ x ✜ dx
3 ✢ 3 6 ✣
Then, by P3 I= ✤✕
✗✖ ✖ ✘ ✗✖ ✖ ✘
6 cos ✛ ✙ ✚ x ✜ ✙ sin ✛ ✙ ✚ x✜
✢3 6 ✣ ✢3 6 ✣

✑
3 sin x
= ✔✑ dx ... (2)
6
sin x ✓ cos x
Adding (1) and (2), we get
✧ ✧
3 ★ ★ ★ ✌
2I = ✫✧
dx ✩ ✥ x ✦ ✧3 ✩ ✪ ✩ . Hence I ✬
3 6 6 12
6 6
346 MATHEMATICS

Example 36 Evaluate 2
✁0
log sin x dx

Solution Let I = ✁ 02 log sin x dx

Then, by P4
✂ ✂
2 ☎✄ ✆
I= ☞0
log sin ✟ ✝ x ✠ dx ✞ ☞ 2 log cos x dx
✡ 2 ☛ 0

Adding the two values of I, we get

2I = 2
✁0 ✌
log sin x ✎ log cos x ✍ dx

✒
= 2
✕0 ✏
log sin x cos x ✓ log 2 ✔ log 2 ✑ dx (by adding and subtracting log2)

2
= ✁0
log sin 2 x dx ✖ ✁ 2 log 2 dx (Why?)
0

✗
Put 2x = t in the first integral. Then 2 dx = dt, when x = 0, t = 0 and when x ✘ ,
2
t = ✙.
1 ✚ ✗
Therefore 2I = ✜0
log sin t dt ✛ log 2
2 2
✢
2 2 ✣
= ✥ 0 log sin t dt ✤ log 2 [by P6 as sin (✙ – t) = sin t)
2 2
✢
2 ✣
= ✥0
log sin x dx ✤ log 2 (by changing variable t to x)
2
✦
= I✧ log 2
2

2 –✦
Hence ✁0
log sin x dx = log 2 .
2
 INTEGRALS 347

EXERCISE 7.11
By using the properties of definite integrals, evaluate the integrals in Exercises 1 to 19.
3
✂ ✆
2 sin x 2 sin 2 x dx
1. 2
cos 2 x dx 2. ☎0
dx 3. ✞0 3 3
✁0 sin x ✄ cos x
sin 2 x ✝ cos 2 x
✟
2 cos5 x dx 5 8
4. ✡0 5. ✌ ☛5
| x ☞ 2 | dx 6. ✌2
x ✍ 5 dx
sin 5 x ✠ cos5 x

1 2
7. ✏0
x (1 ✎ x) n dx 8. ✁0
4
log (1 ✑ tan x) dx 9. ✌0 x 2 ✍ x dx

✓
10. ✁0
2
(2log sin x ✒ log sin 2 x) dx 11.
2
✔ –✓
sin 2 x dx
2
✓
✕ x dx 2✘
12. ✗0 13. 2
✔–✓
sin 7 x dx 14. ✌0
cos5 x dx
1 ✖ sin x
2
✆
sin x ✙ cos x ✘ a x
15. 2
dx 16. log (1 ☞ cos x) dx 17. ✞0
dx
✞0 ✌0
1 ✝ sin x cos x x✝ a✙ x
4
18. ✌0
x ✍ 1 dx
a a
19. Show that ✌0 f ( x) g ( x) dx ✚ 2 ✌ f ( x) dx , if f and g are defined as f (x) = f(a – x)
0

and g(x) + g(a – x) = 4

Choose the correct answer in Exercises 20 and 21.
✓
3
20. The value of 2
✔ ✛✓ ( x ✜ x cos x ✜ tan 5 x ✜ 1) dx is
2

(A) 0 (B) 2 (C) ✢ (D) 1

✣
2 ✤ 4 ✦ 3 sin x ✥
21. The value of ✫0
log ✧ ★ dx is
✩ 4 ✦ 3 cos x ✪
3
(A) 2 (B) (C) 0 (D) –2
4
348 MATHEMATICS

Miscellaneous Examples

Example 37 Find ✁ cos 6 x 1 sin 6 x dx

Solution Put t = 1 + sin 6x, so that dt = 6 cos 6x dx

1
1 2
Therefore ☎ cos 6 x 1 ✂ sin 6 x dx ✄ 6☎
t dt
3 3
1 2 2 1
= ✆ (t ) ✝ C = (1 ✝ sin 6 x) 2 ✝ C
6 3 9
1
( x 4 ✞ x) 4
Example 38 Find ✟ dx
x5
1
1 1 4
(1 ✠ )
(x ✠
4
x) 4 x3 dx
Solution We have
☛ dx ✡ ☛
x5 x4
1 3
Put 1 ☞ 3
✌ 1 – x – 3 ✌ t , so that 4 dx ✌ dt
x x
1 5
5
( x 4 ✞ x) 4 1 4
1
1 4 4✎ 1 ✏4
Therefore ✟ dx ✍ ✟ t dt = ✑ t 4 C = ✒1 ☞ 3 ✓ C
x 5
3 3 5 15 ✔ x ✕

x 4 dx
Example 39 Find ✘
( x ✖ 1) ( x 2 ✗ 1)

Solution We have

x4 1
= ( x 1)
( x ✙ 1) ( x 2 ✚ 1) x ☞x
3 2
x ☞1

1
= ( x ✝ 1) ✝ ... (1)
( x ✛ 1) ( x 2 ✝ 1)

1 A Bx ✂ C
Now express = ✂ 2 ... (2)
( x ✛ 1)( x ✝ 1)
2
( x ✜ 1) ( x ✂ 1)
 INTEGRALS 349

So 1 = A (x2 + 1) + (Bx + C) (x – 1)
= (A + B) x2 + (C – B) x + A – C
Equating coefficients on both sides, we get A + B = 0, C – B = 0 and A – C = 1,

which give A
1 1
, B C – . Substituting values of A, B and C in (2), we get
2 2
1 1 1 x 1
= ✁ ✁ ... (3)
( x ✁ 1) ( x ✂ 1)
2
2( x ✁ 1) 2 ( x ✂ 1) 2( x ✂ 1)
2 2

Again, substituting (3) in (1), we have

x4 1 1 x 1
= ( x ✆ 1) ✆ ✝ ✝
( x ✄ 1) ( x ☎ x ☎ 1)
2
2( x ✝ 1) 2 ( x ✆ 1) 2( x ✆ 1)
2 2

Therefore
x4 x2 1 1 1
✡ ( x ✠ 1) ( x 2 ✟ x ✟ 1) dx ✞ 2 ✟ x ✟ 2 log x ✠ 1 – 4 log ( x ✟ 1) – 2 tan x ✟ C
2 –1

☛ 1 ☞
Example 40 Find ✒ ✍log (log x) ✌ ✎ dx
✏ (log x )2 ✑
☛ 1 ☞
Solution Let I ✓ ✒ ✍ log (log x) ✌ ✎ dx
✏ (log x)2 ✑

1
= ✔ log (log x) dx ✂ ✔ dx
(log x)2
In the first integral, let us take 1 as the second function. Then integrating it by
parts, we get
1 dx
I = x log (log x) ✁ ✔ x dx ✂ ✔
x log x (log x)2
dx dx
= x log (log x ) ✝ ✕ ✆✕ ... (1)
log x (log x) 2
dx
Again, consider ✔ , take 1 as the second function and integrate it by parts,
log x

dx ✖ x ✘ 1 ✚ 1 ✛✙ ✗
we have ✮ log x ✜ ✢ log x – ✮ x ✤ – (log x) 2 ✦ x ✧ ✥ dx ✣ ... (2)
✬✢ ✪ ★ ✩ ✫ ✭✣
350 MATHEMATICS

Putting (2) in (1), we get

x dx dx x
I x log (log x) ✁ ✁✄ 2
✂✄ 2 =
x log (log x) ☎ ✆C
log x (log x) (log x) log x

Example 41 Find ☛ ✝✠ cot x ✟ tan x ✞✡ dx

Solution We have

I = ✑ ✎☞ cot x ✍ tan x ✌✏ dx ✒ ✔ tan x (1 ✓ cot x) dx

Put tan x = t2, so that sec2 x dx = 2t dt
2t dt
or dx =
1✓ t4

✕ 1 ✖ 2t
Then I = ✔ t ✗1 ✓ ✘ dt
✙ t 2 ✚ (1 ✓ t 4 )

✛ 1 ✢ 1 ✜ dt ✛ 1 ✢ 1 ✜ dt
(t 2 ✢ 1) ✣ t2 ✤ ✣ ✤
= 2★ 4 dt = 2 ★ ✥ ✦ = 2 ✥ t2 ✦
★
t ✢1 ✛ 2 1✜ 2
✛ t ✧ 1✜ ✢ 2
✣t ✢ 2 ✤ ✣ ✤
✥ t ✦ ✥ t✦

1 ✪1 1 ✫
Put t ✩ = y, so that ✬ ✆ t 2 ✭ dt = dy. Then
t ✮ ✯

✲ t ✴ 1✳
✵ t✶
✺ C = 2 tan – 1 ✷ ✸✺C
dy y
I = 2✻ 2
✹ 2 tan – 1
y ✺ ✰ 2✱
2 2 2

✕ t 2 ✼ 1✖ – 1 ✕ tan x ✼ 1 ✖
= 2 tan – 1 ✗
✗ 2 t ✘✘ ✓ C = 2 tan ✗✙ 2 tan x ✘✚ ✓ C
✙ ✚
sin 2 x cos 2 x dx
Example 42 Find ✽
9 – cos 4 (2 x)

sin 2 x cos 2 x
Solution Let I ✒ ✔ dx
9 – cos 4 2 x
 INTEGRALS 351

Put cos2 (2x) = t so that 4 sin 2x cos 2x dx = – dt

1 dt 1 ✁t✂ 1 1 ✄1 ☎
Therefore I✆– ✏ ✆ – sin –1 ✟ ✠ ✝ C ✆ ✞ sin ✡
cos 2 2 x ☛ ✝ C
4 9–t 2 4 ☞ 3✌ 4 ✍3 ✎

3
2
Example 43 Evaluate ✓ ✑1
x sin (✒ x) dx

✘ x sin ✕ x for ✖ 1 ✗ x ✗ 1
✙
Solution Here f (x) = | x sin ✔x | = ✚ 3
✙ ✖ x sin ✕ x for 1 ✗ x ✗
✛ 2

3 3
1
Therefore
2
✓ ✑1
| x sin ✒ x | dx = ✓ ✑1
x sin ✒ x dx ✜ ✓ 2 ✢ x sin ✒ x dx
1

3
1
= ✦ ✣1
x sin ✤ x dx ✥ ✦ 2 x sin ✤ x dx
1

Integrating both integrals on righthand side, we get

3
3 1
2 ✧– x cos ✤ x sin ✤ x ★ ✧ ✥ x cos ✤ x sin ✤ x ★ 2
✓ ✑1
| x sin ✒ x | dx = ✪
✩ 2 ✫
✥
✪
✩ 2 ✫
✬ ✤ ✤ ✭✣ 1 ✬ ✤ ✤ ✭1

2 ✮ 1 1✯ 3 1
= ✢ ✢ ✢ ✰ ✜
✱ 2 ✲ 2
✒ ✳ ✒ ✒✴ ✒ ✒

✵ x dx
Example 44 Evaluate ✦0
a cos x ✩ b 2 sin 2 x
2 2

✶ x dx ✶ (✒ ✢ x) dx
Solution Let I = ✰ (using P4)
✓0 2 2 2 2 ✓0 2
a cos x ✜ b sin x a cos (✒ ✢ x) ✜ b2 sin 2 (✒ ✢ x)
2

✵ dx ✵ x dx
= ✤✦
2 2
2 2
✥✦
0 a cos x ✩ b sin x 0 a cos x ✩ b 2 sin 2 x
2 2

✵ dx
= ✤ ✦ ✥I
0 a 2 cos 2 x ✩ b 2 sin 2 x
✵ dx
Thus 2I = ✤✦
0 a cos x ✩ b 2 sin 2 x
2 2
352 MATHEMATICS

✁ dx ✁ 2 dx
or I= ✆0 ✂ ✄2✆
2 a cos x ☎ b 2 sin 2 x
2 2
2 0 a cos x ☎ b 2 sin 2 x
2 2

(using P6)
✝
sec2 x dx
= ✞
✠0
2 (dividing numerator and denominator by cos2 x).
a 2 ✟ b 2 tan 2 x
✡
Put b tan x = t, so that b sec2 x dx = dt. Also, when x = 0, t = 0, and when x ☛ ,
2
t ☞ ✌.
✍ 2
✎ ✍ dt ✎ 1 ✏ –1 t ✑ ✎ ✏✎ ✑ ✎
Therefore, I✒ ✒ ✓ tan ✒ ✔0 ✒ .
b ✚ 0 a2 ✙ t 2 b a ✗✕ a ✘✖ 0 ✕
ab ✗ 2 ✖
✘ 2 ab

Miscellaneous Exercise on Chapter 7

Integrate the functions in Exercises 1 to 24.
1 1 1 a
1. 2. 3. [Hint: Put x = ]
x ✛ x3 x✜a ✜ x✜b x ax ✢ x 2 t

1 1 1 1
4. 3 5. 1 1 [Hint: 1 1
✥
1 1
, put x = t6]
✦ ✧
x 2 ( x 4 ✣ 1) 4 x2 ✤ x3 x2 ★ x3 x 3 ✩1 ★ x6 ✪
✩ ✪
✫ ✬

5x sin x e5 log x ✮ e 4 log x

6. 7. 8.
( x ✟ 1) ( x 2 ✟ 9) sin ( x ✭ a) e3 log x ✮ e2 log x
cos x sin 8 ✯ cos8 x 1
9. 10. 11.
4 ✛ sin x 2 1 ✯ 2sin 2 x cos 2 x cos ( x ✟ a) cos ( x ✟ b)

x3 ex 1
12. 13. 14.
1✔ x 8 (1 ✰ e x ) (2 ✰ e x ) ( x ✱ 1) ( x 2 ✱ 4)
2

15. cos 3 x elog sinx 16. e3 logx (x4 + 1)– 1 17. f ✲ (ax + b) [f (ax + b)]n
1 sin ✴ 1 x ✛ cos ✴ 1 x
18. 19. , x ✶ [0, 1]
sin ✴ 1 x ✵ cos✴1 x
3
sin x sin ( x ✙ ✳ )

1✷ x 2 ✹ sin 2 x x x2 ☎ x ☎ 1
20. 21. e 22.
1✸ x 1 ✹ cos 2 x ( x ☎ 1) 2 ( x ☎ 2)
 INTEGRALS 353

1 x
–1 x 2 ☎ 1 ✂✝ log ( x 2 ☎ 1) ✆ 2 log x ✄✞
23. tan 24.
1✁ x x4
Evaluate the definite integrals in Exercises 25 to 33.
✟ x ✡ 1 ✠ sin x ☛ ✒ ✕
4 sin x cos x cos 2 x dx
25. ✑ ✟ ☞e ✌ dx 26. ✔ dx 27. 2
✗ 0 cos 2 x ✖ 4 sin 2 x
2 ✎ 1 ✍ cos x ✏ 0 cos 4 x ✓ sin 4 x

✘ ✕
sin x ✙ cos x dx 4 sin x ✖ cos x
1
28. ✚ ✘3 dx 29. ✢ 0 30. ✗ 0 dx
sin 2 x 1✛ x ✜ x 9 ✖ 16 sin 2 x
6
✣ ✦ x tan x
31. ✥ 2 sin 2 x tan ✤1 (sin x) dx 32. ★ 0 dx
0 sec x ✧ tan x
4
33. ✫ 1 [ x ✩ 1| ✪ | x ✩ 2 | ✪ | x ✩ 3 |] dx
Prove the following (Exercises 34 to 39)
3 dx 2 2 1
✬ ✭ log 35. ✫ 0 x e dx ✯ 1
x
34. ✮ 1 2
x ( x ✭ 1) 3 3
1 ✱ 2
36. ✫ ✰1 x cos x dx ✯ 0 ✢ 0 sin x dx ✲ 3
17 4 3
37. 2

✣
✵
39. ✸ sin ✴ x dx ✶ ✷ 1
1
38. ✥ 4 2 tan 3 x dx ✳ 1 log 2
1
0 0 2
40. Evaluate ✫ e 2✰ 3 x dx as a limit of a sum.
1

0
Choose the correct answers in Exercises 41 to 44.
dx
41. ✗ x is equal to
e ✖ e✹ x
(A) tan–1 (ex) + C (B) tan–1 (e–x) + C
(C) log (ex – e–x) + C (D) log (ex + e–x) + C
cos 2 x
42. ✥ dx is equal to
(sin x ✁ cos x)2
–1
(A) ✺C (B) log |sin x ✖ cos x | ✖ C
sin x ✺ cos x
1
(C) log |sin x ✻ cos x | ✖ C (D)
(sin x ✁ cos x)2
354 MATHEMATICS

b
43. If f (a + b – x) = f (x), then x f ( x) dx is equal to
a

a✁b b a✁b b
(A) f (b ✂ x) dx (B) f (b ✁ x ) dx
2 ✄a 2 ✄a
b✂a b a☎b b
(C) f ( x) dx (D) f ( x) dx
2 ✄a 2 ✆a
✟ 2x ✞ 1 ✠
44. The value of ✎ tan ✝1 ✡
1
2 ☛
dx is
0 ✌ 1☞ x ✞ x ✍

✏
(A) 1 (B) 0 (C) –1 (D)
4

Summary
✑ Integration is the inverse process of differentiation. In the differential calculus,
we are given a function and we have to find the derivative or differential of
this function, but in the integral calculus, we are to find a function whose
differential is given. Thus, integration is a process which is the inverse of
differentiation.
d
Let F( x) ✒ f ( x) . Then we write ✕ f ( x) dx ✓ F ( x) ✔ C . These integrals
dx
are called indefinite integrals or general integrals, C is called constant of
integration. All these integrals differ by a constant.
✑ From the geometric point of view, an indefinite integral is collection of family
of curves, each of which is obtained by translating one of the curves parallel
to itself upwards or downwards along the y-axis.
✑ Some properties of indefinite integrals are as follows:

1. ✕ [ f ( x) ✔ g ( x)] dx ✓ ✕ f ( x) dx ✔ ✕ g ( x) dx

2. For any real number k, ✕ k f ( x) dx ✓ k ✕ f ( x) dx

More generally, if f1, f2, f3, ... , fn are functions and k1, k2, ... ,kn are real
numbers. Then

✕ [ k1 f1 ( x) ✔ k2 f 2 ( x) ✔ ... ✔ kn f n ( x )] dx

= k1 ✕ f1 ( x) dx ✔ k2 ✕ f 2 ( x) dx ✔ ... ✔ kn ✕ f n ( x) dx
 INTEGRALS 355

Some standard integrals

x ✁
✂ ✄ C , n ✆ – 1. Particularly, ✟ dx ✝ x ✞ C
n 1
(i) ☎x n dx
n ✄1

(ii) ✟ cos x dx ✝ sin x ✞ C (iii) ✟ sin x dx ✝ – cos x ✞ C

(iv) ✟ sec x dx ✝ tan x ✞ C

2
(v) ✟ cosec x dx ✝ – cot x ✞ C
2

(vi) ✟ sec x tan x dx ✝ sec x ✞ C

✟ ✝ ✞ ✟
dx
✝ sin ✠ x ✞ C 1

1✡ x
(vii) cosec x cot x dx – cosec x C (viii) 2

✟ 1 ✡ x ✝ ✡ cos✠ x ✞ C ✝ tan ✠ x ✞ C
dx
(x) ✟
1 dx
1✞ x
1
(ix) 2 2

✎ 1 ✍ x ☞ ✌ cot ☛ x ✍ C ✒ e dx ✏ e ✑ C
dx 1 x x
(xi) 2 (xii)

✕ a dx ✓ log a ✔ C ✟ x x ✡ 1 ✝ sec✠ x ✞ C
x ax dx 1
(xiii) (xiv) 2

✟ x x ✡ 1 ✝ ✡ cosec✠ x ✞ C ✘ x dx ✖ log | x | ✗ C
dx 1
1
(xv) (xvi)
2

Integration by partial fractions

P( x)
Recall that a rational function is ratio of two polynomials of the form ,
✆
Q( x)
where P(x) and Q (x) are polynomials in x and Q (x) 0. If degree of the
polynomial P (x) is greater than the degree of the polynomial Q (x), then we

may divide P (x) by Q (x) so that

P( x)
Q( x)
✙ T ( x) ✚ Q(
P ( x)
1
x)
, where T(x) is a

polynomial in x and degree of P1 (x) is less than the degree of Q(x). T(x)
P1 ( x)
being polynomial can be easily integrated. can be integrated by
Q( x)
356 MATHEMATICS

P1 ( x)
expressing as the sum of partial fractions of the following type:
Q( x)
px q A B
1. = ✂ ,a☎b
( x ✁ a ) ( x ✁ b) x✄ a x✄b

px q A B
2. = x✁a
( x ✁ a) 2 ( x ✁ a)2

px 2 ✆ qx ✆ r A B C
3. = ✂ ✂
( x ✝ a ) ( x ✝ b) ( x ✝ c) x✄a x✄b x✄c

px 2 ✆ qx ✆ r A B C
4. = x✁a x✁b
( x ✝ a ) 2 ( x ✝ b) ( x ✁ a) 2

px 2 ✆ qx ✆ r A Bx + C
5. = ✞
( x ✝ a) ( x 2 ✆ bx ✆ c) x✟a x ✞ bx ✞ c
2

2
where x + bx + c can not be factorised further.
✠ Integration by substitution
A change in the variable of integration often reduces an integral to one of the
fundamental integrals. The method in which we change the variable to some
other variable is called the method of substitution. When the integrand involves
some trigonometric functions, we use some well known identities to find the
integrals. Using substitution technique, we obtain the following standard
integrals.
(i) ☛ tan x dx ✡ log sec x ✞ C (ii) ☛ cot x dx ✡ log sin x ✞ C

(iii) ☛ sec x dx ✡ log sec x ✞ tan x ✞ C

(iv) ☛ cosec x dx ✡ log cosec x ✟ cot x ✞ C

✠ Integrals of some special functions
dx 1 x✁a
(i) ✌ 2 ☞ log C
x ✁ a 2 2a x a

✡ tan ✍ 1 ✞ C
dx 1 a x dx 1 x
(ii) ✌ 2 ☞ log C (iii) ☛ 2
a ✁ x 2 2a a✁ x x ✞ a2 a a
 INTEGRALS 357

sin ☎ 1
dx x
(iv) ✄
dx
log x ✁ x 2 ✂ a 2 ✁ C (v) ✄ ✁C
x2 ✂ a2 a ✂x
2 2 a

dx
(vi) ✄ log | x ✁ x 2 ✁ a 2 | ✁ C
x ✁a 2 2

✆ Integration by parts
For given functions f1 and f2, we have
✝d ✞
✎ f1 ( x) ✟ f 2 ( x) dx ✠ f1 ( x) ✎ f 2 ( x) dx ✡ ✎ ☛ dx f1 ( x) ✟ ✎ f 2 ( x) dx☞ dx , i.e., the
✌ ✍
integral of the product of two functions = first function × integral of the
second function – integral of {differential coefficient of the first function ×
integral of the second function}. Care must be taken in choosing the first
function and the second function. Obviously, we must take that function as
the second function whose integral is well known to us.
✆ ✄ e [ f ( x) ✁ f ✏( x)] dx ✄ e f ( x) dx ✁ C
x x

✆ Some special types of integrals

x 2 a2
(i) ✔ x ✑ a dx ✒ x ✑ a 2 ✑ log x ✓ x 2 ✑ a 2 ✓ C
2 2
2 2
x 2 a2
(ii) ✔ x ✓ a dx ✒ x ✓ a 2 ✓ log x ✓ x 2 ✓ a 2 ✓ C
2 2
2 2
a2
sin ✕1 ✓ C
x 2 x
(iii) ✔ a ✑ x dx ✒ a ✑ x2 ✓
2 2
2 2 a
dx dx
(iv) Integrals of the types ✄ 2 or ✄ can be
ax ✁ bx ✁ c ax ✁ bx ✁ c
2

transformed into standard form by expressing

✖ 2 b c✗ ✖✘ b ✙ ✘ c b2 ✙✗
2

ax2 + bx + c = a ✚ x ✁ x ✁ ✛ a ✚✜ x ✁ ✁✜ ✂ ✢✛
✣ a a✤ ✚✣✥ 2a ✦✢ ✥ a 4a 2 ✦ ✤✛

px ✁ q dx px ✁ q dx
(v) Integrals of the types ✄ ax 2 ✁ bx ✁ c or ✄ can be
ax 2 ✁ bx ✁ c
358 MATHEMATICS

transformed into standard form by expressing

d
px q ✁ A (ax 2 bx c) B ✁ A (2ax b) B , where A and B are
dx
determined by comparing coefficients on both sides.
b
✂ We have defined ✄ a f ( x) dx as the area of the region bounded by the curve
y = f (x), a ☛ x ☛ b, the x-axis and the ordinates x = a and x = b. Let x be a
x
given point in [a, b]. Then ✄ a f ( x) dx represents the Area function A (x).
This concept of area function leads to the Fundamental Theorems of Integral
Calculus.
✂ First fundamental theorem of integral calculus
x
Let the area function be defined by A(x) = ☎ f ( x) dx for all x ✡ a, where
a

the function f is assumed to be continuous on [a, b]. Then A✆ (x) = f (x) for all
x ✝ [a, b].
✂ Second fundamental theorem of integral calculus
Let f be a continuous function of x defined on the closed interval [a, b] and
d
let F be another function such that F( x) ✞ f ( x) for all x in the domain of
dx
b
f, then ✄ f ( x) dx ☞ ✟ F( x) ✌ C✠a ☞ F (b) ✍ F (a) .
b
a

This is called the definite integral of f over the range [a, b], where a and b
are called the limits of integration, a being the lower limit and b the
upper limit.

—✎—
 Chapter 8
APPLICATION OF INTEGRALS

One should study Mathematics because it is only through Mathematics that

nature can be conceived in harmonious form. – BIRKHOFF

8.1 Introduction
In geometry, we have learnt formulae to calculate areas
of various geometrical figures including triangles,
rectangles, trapezias and circles. Such formulae are
fundamental in the applications of mathematics to many
real life problems. The formulae of elementary geometry
allow us to calculate areas of many simple figures.
However, they are inadequate for calculating the areas
enclosed by curves. For that we shall need some concepts
of Integral Calculus.
In the previous chapter, we have studied to find the
area bounded by the curve y = f (x), the ordinates x = a,
x = b and x-axis, while calculating definite integral as the
limit of a sum. Here, in this chapter, we shall study a specific
application of integrals to find the area under simple curves, A.L. Cauchy
area between lines and arcs of circles, parabolas and (1789-1857)
ellipses (standard forms only). We shall also deal with finding
the area bounded by the above said curves.
8.2 Area under Simple Curves
In the previous chapter, we have studied
definite integral as the limit of a sum and
how to evaluate definite integral using
Fundamental Theorem of Calculus. Now,
we consider the easy and intuitive way of
finding the area bounded by the curve
y = f (x), x-axis and the ordinates x = a and
x = b. From Fig 8.1, we can think of area
under the curve as composed of large
number of very thin vertical strips. Consider
an arbitrary strip of height y and width dx,
then dA (area of the elementary strip) = ydx,
where, y = f (x). Fig 8.1
360 MATHEMATICS

This area is called the elementary area which is located at an arbitrary position
within the region which is specified by some value of x between a and b. We can think
of the total area A of the region between x-axis, ordinates x = a, x = b and the curve
y = f (x) as the result of adding up the elementary areas of thin strips across the region
PQRSP. Symbolically, we express
b b b
A = ✁ a dA ✁ a ydx ✁ a f ( x) dx
The area A of the region bounded by
the curve x = g (y), y-axis and the lines y = c,
y = d is given by
d d
A = ✄ c xdy ✂ ✄ c g ( y) dy
Here, we consider horizontal strips as shown in
the Fig 8.2 Fig 8.2
Remark If the position of the curve under consideration is below the x-axis, then since
f (x) < 0 from x = a to x = b, as shown in Fig 8.3, the area bounded by the curve, x-axis
and the ordinates x = a, x = b come out to be negative. But, it is only the numerical
value of the area which is taken into consideration. Thus, if the area is negative, we
b
take its absolute value, i.e., ☎ f ( x ) dx .
a

Fig 8.3

Generally, it may happen that some portion of the curve is above x-axis and some is
below the x-axis as shown in the Fig 8.4. Here, A1 < 0 and A2 > 0. Therefore, the area
A bounded by the curve y = f (x), x-axis and the ordinates x = a and x = b is given
by A = | A1 | + A2.
 APPLICATION OF INTEGRALS 361

Fig 8.4

Example 1 Find the area enclosed by the circle x2 + y2 = a2.

Solution From Fig 8.5, the whole area enclosed

by the given circle
= 4 (area of the region AOBA bounded by
the curve, x-axis and the ordinates x = 0 and
x = a) [as the circle is symmetrical about both
x-axis and y-axis]
a
=4 0
ydx (taking vertical strips)

a
= 4 a 2 ✁ x 2 dx
0

Since x2 + y2 = a2 gives y = ✂ a 2 ✄ x2 Fig 8.5

As the region AOBA lies in the first quadrant, y is taken as positive. Integrating, we get
the whole area enclosed by the given circle

a
☎x a2 x✆
= 4✟ a2 ✝ x2 ✞ sin –1 ✠
✡2 2 a ☛0

✌✎ a a2 ☞1 ✏ ✍ ✜ a2 ✢ ✜ ✣ ✢
= 4 ✔ ✖ ✑ 0 ✒ sin 1✗ ✓ 0✕ = 4 ✥
2
✦ ✥ ✦ ✤ ✣a
✚✘ 2 2 ✙ ✛ ✧ 2 ★ ✧ 2★
362 MATHEMATICS

Alternatively, considering horizontal strips as shown in Fig 8.6, the whole area of the
region enclosed by circle
a a
= 4 xdy = 4 ✂ a 2 ✁ y 2 dy (Why?)
0 0

a
☎y a2 y✆
= 4✟ a2 ✝ y2 ✞ sin ✄1 ✠
✡2 2 a ☛0

✌✎ a a2 ✏ ✍
= 4 ✔✖ ✑ 0 ✒ sin ☞1 1✗ ✓ 0✕
✚✘ 2 2 ✙ ✛

a2 ✜ 2
= 4 ✢ ✜a
2 2
Fig 8.6
x2 y2
Example 2 Find the area enclosed by the ellipse 2 ✣ 2 ✤ 1
a b
Solution From Fig 8.7, the area of the region ABA✥B✥ A bounded by the ellipse

✦ area of the region AOBA in the first quadrant bounded ✧

= 4 ★ ✩
✬ by the curve, x ✪ axis and the ordinates x ✫ 0, x ✫ a ✭
(as the ellipse is symmetrical about both x-axis and y-axis)
a
= 4 0
ydx (taking verticalstrips)

x2 y 2 b 2
Now 2
✮ 2 = 1 gives y ✯ ✰ a ✱ x 2 , but as the region AOBA lies in the first
a b a
quadrant, y is taken as positive. So, the required area is
a b 2
= 4✲ 0 a ✱ x 2 dx
a
a
4b ✳ x 2 2 a 2 –1 x ✴
= ✷ a ✵ x ✶ sin ✸ (Why?)
a ✹2 2 a ✺0

4b ✼ ✾ a a 2 ✻1 ✿ ✽
= ❃❅ ❀ 0 ❁ sin 1❆ ❂ 0 ❄
a ❉❃❇ 2 2 ❈ ❊❄

4b a 2 ✜
= ✢ ✜ ab
a 2 2 Fig 8.7
 APPLICATION OF INTEGRALS 363

Alternatively, considering horizontal strips as

shown in the Fig 8.8, the area of the ellipse is
b
b a
= 4 xdy = 4 ✂ b2 ✁ y 2 dy (Why?)
0 b0

b
4a ✄ y 2 2 b2 y☎
= ✞ b ✆ y ✝ sin –1 ✟
b ✠2 2 b ✡0

4 a ☛✌ b b2 ✍ ☞ Fig 8.8
= b ✒ ✔ ✎ 0 ✏ sin –1 1✕ ✑ 0 ✓
✒✘✖ 2 2 ✗ ✓✙

4a b2 ✚
= ✛ ✚ab
b 2 2
8.2.1 The area of the region bounded by a curve and a line
In this subsection, we will find the area of the region bounded by a line and a circle,
a line and a parabola, a line and an ellipse. Equations of above mentioned curves will be
in their standard forms only as the cases in other forms go beyond the scope of this
textbook.
Example 3 Find the area of the region bounded
by the curve y = x2 and the line y = 4.
Solution Since the given curve represented by
the equation y = x2 is a parabola symmetrical
about y-axis only, therefore, from Fig 8.9, the
required area of the region AOBA is given by
4
2✜ xdy =
0
Fig 8.9
✣ area of the region BONB bounded by curve, y ✢ axis ✤
2✥ ✦
★ and the lines y ✧ 0 and y = 4 ✩

3 4
4 2✪ ✫ 4 32
= 2 ydy = 2 ✬ ✭ y 2 ✮ ✱ ✲ 8 ✱ (Why?)
0 3 ✯✭ ✰✮ 3 3
0

Here, we have taken horizontal strips as indicated in the Fig 8.9.

364 MATHEMATICS

Alternatively, we may consider the vertical

strips like PQ as shown in the Fig 8.10 to
obtain the area of the region AOBA. To this
end, we solve the equations x2 = y and y = 4
which gives x = –2 and x = 2.
Thus, the region AOBA may be stated as
the region bounded by the curve y = x2, y = 4
and the ordinates x = –2 and x = 2.
Therefore, the area of the region AOBA
2 Fig 8.10
= ✁ 2 ydx

[ y = ( y-coordinate of Q) – (y-coordinate of P) = 4 – x2 ]
2 2
= 2 ✆ 0 ✂ 4 ☎ x ✄ dx (Why?)

2
✝ x3 ✞ ✌ 8✍
= 2 ✠4x ✟ ✡ ✎2
✒
4 ✏ 2 ✑ ✓ ✖ 32
☛ 3 ☞0 ✔ 3✕ 3
Remark From the above examples, it is inferred that we can consider either vertical
strips or horizontal strips for calculating the area of the region. Henceforth, we shall
consider either of these two, most preferably vertical strips.
Example 4 Find the area of the region in the first quadrant enclosed by the x-axis,
the line y = x, and the circle x2 + y2 = 32.
Y
Solution The given equations are
y= x ... (1) y=x
2 2 B
and x + y = 32 ... (2)
(4,4)
Solving (1) and (2), we find that the line
and the circle meet at B(4, 4) in the first
quadrant (Fig 8.11). Draw perpendicular A
BM to the x-axis. X' X
M
O (4 2 ,0)
Therefore, the required area = area of
the region OBMO + area of the region
BMAB.
Now, the area of the region OBMO
4 4
= ✁0 ydx ✗ ✁ xdx ... (3)
0
Y'
1 2 4 Fig 8.11
= ✘✚ x ✙✛ 0 = 8
2
 APPLICATION OF INTEGRALS 365

Again, the area of the region BMAB

4 2 4 2
= ✆
ydx = ✞
32 ✝ x 2 dx
4 4

4 2
✟ 1 1 x ✠
= ✌
x 32 ✡ x 2 ☛ ☞ 32 ☞ sin –1
✍
✎2 2 4 2 ✏4

✑ 1 1 ✒ ✑ 4 1 –1 1 ✒
= ✖
4 2 ✓ 0 ✔ ✓ 32 ✓ sin –1 1 ✗ ✕
✖
32 ✕ 16 ✔ ✓ 32 ✓ sin
✗
✘ 2 2 ✙ ✘ 2 2 2✙
= 8 ✚ – (8 + 4✚) = 4✚ – 8 ... (4)
Adding (3) and (4), we get, the required area = 4✚.

x2 y 2
Example 5 Find the area bounded by the ellipse ✛ ✜ 1 and the ordinates x = 0
a 2 b2
and x = ae, where, b2 = a2 (1 – e2) and e < 1.

Solution The required area (Fig 8.12) of the region BOB✢RFSB is enclosed by the
ellipse and the lines x = 0 and x = ae. ❨

Note that the area of the region BOB✢RFSB

❇
① ❂ ☎❡
❙
ae
ydx = 2 b
ae 2 2
= 2✣ 0 ✥
a ✤ x dx
a 0
❋ ❛✁✂ ♦✮
❳✄ ❳
ae ❖
2b ✦ x 2 a2 x✧
= ✪
a ★ x2 ✩ sin –1 ✫
a ✭2 2 a ✯0
❘
❇✬
2b ✰
= ae a 2 ✤ a 2 e 2 ✲ a 2 sin –1 e✱
2a ✳✵ ✴
✶ ❨✄

Fig 8.12
2
= ab ✷✽✻ e 1 ✹ e ✺ sin –1 e ✸
✼
✾

EXERCISE 8.1
1. Find the area of the region bounded by the curve y2 = x and the lines x = 1,
x = 4 and the x-axis.
2. Find the area of the region bounded by y2 = 9x, x = 2, x = 4 and the x-axis in the
first quadrant.
366 MATHEMATICS

3. Find the area of the region bounded by x2 = 4y, y = 2, y = 4 and the y-axis in the
first quadrant.
x2 y2
4. Find the area of the region bounded by the ellipse ✁1 .
16 9
x2 y2
5. Find the area of the region bounded by the ellipse ✁1 .
4 9
6. Find the area of the region in the first quadrant enclosed by x-axis, line x = 3 y
and the circle x2 + y2 = 4.
a
7. Find the area of the smaller part of the circle x2 + y2 = a2 cut off by the line x ✁
.
2
8. The area between x = y2 and x = 4 is divided into two equal parts by the line
x = a, find the value of a.
9. Find the area of the region bounded by the parabola y = x2 and y = x .
10. Find the area bounded by the curve x2 = 4y and the line x = 4y – 2.
11. Find the area of the region bounded by the curve y2 = 4x and the line x = 3.
Choose the correct answer in the following Exercises 12 and 13.
12. Area lying in the first quadrant and bounded by the circle x2 + y2 = 4 and the lines
x = 0 and x = 2 is
✂ ✂ ✂
(A) ✄ (B) (C) (D)
2 3 4
2
13. Area of the region bounded by the curve y = 4x, y-axis and the line y = 3 is
9 9 9
(A) 2 (B) (C) (D)
4 3 2
8.3 Area between Two Curves
Intuitively, true in the sense of Leibnitz, integration is the act of calculating the area by
cutting the region into a large number of small strips of elementary area and then
adding up these elementary areas. Suppose we are given two curves represented by
y = f (x), y = g (x), where f (x) ☎ g(x) in [a, b] as shown in Fig 8.13. Here the points of
intersection of these two curves are given by x = a and x = b obtained by taking
common values of y from the given equation of two curves.
For setting up a formula for the integral, it is convenient to take elementary area in
the form of vertical strips. As indicated in the Fig 8.13, elementary strip has height
 APPLICATION OF INTEGRALS 367

f (x) – g (x) and width dx so that the elementary area

Fig 8.13
dA = [f (x) – g(x)] dx, and the total area A can be taken as
b
A= ✟a
[f ( x) ✞ g ( x)] dx
Alternatively,
A = [area bounded by y = f (x), x-axis and the lines x = a, x = b]
– [area bounded by y = g (x), x-axis and the lines x = a, x = b]
b b b
= ✡a
f ( x) dx ✠ ✡ g ( x) dx = ✟ ☛ f ( x) ✞ g ( x )☞ dx, where f (x) ✌ g (x) in [a, b]
a a

If f (x) ✌ g (x) in [a, c] and f (x) ✍ g (x) in [c, b], where a < c < b as shown in the
Fig 8.14, then the area of the regions bounded by curves can be written as
Total Area = Area of the region ACBDA + Area of the region BPRQB
c b
= ✡a✎
f ( x) ✠ g ( x) ✏ dx ✑ ✡ ✎ g ( x) ✠ f ( x) ✏ dx
c

② ❂ ✂ ✁①✮
❨ ②❂ ✁①✮ P
❈
❇ ❘
❆

❉ ② ❂ ✂ ✁ ①✮ ◗ ② ❂ ✁①✮

①❂✄ ① ❂☎ ① ❂✆

❳✝ ❳
❖

❨✝ Fig 8.14
368 MATHEMATICS

Example 6 Find the area of the region bounded by the two parabolas y = x2 and y2 = x.
Solution The point of intersection of these two
parabolas are O (0, 0) and A (1, 1) as shown in
the Fig 8.15.
Here, we can set y 2 = x or y = x = f(x) and y = x2
= g (x), where, f (x) ☎ g (x) in [0, 1].
Therefore, the required area of the shaded region
1
= ✄0
f ( x ) ✂ g ( x )✁ dx

3 1
1 2
☛2 x3 ☞
= ✆ x ✞ x ✝ dx ✌ ✎ x2 ✍ ✏
✡ 0✟ ✠
✎3
✑
3 ✒✏
0 Fig 8.15

2 1 1
= ✓ ✔
3 3 3
Example 7 Find the area lying above x-axis and included between the circle
x2 + y2 = 8x and the parabola y2 = 4x.
Solution The given equation of the circle x 2 + y 2 = 8x can be expressed as
(x – 4)2 + y2 = 16. Thus, the centre of the Y
circle is (4, 0) and radius is 4. Its intersection
P (4, 4)
with the parabola y2 = 4x gives
x2 + 4x = 8x
or x2 – 4x = 0
or x (x – 4) = 0
X X
or x = 0, x = 4 O C (4, 0) Q (8, 0)
Thus, the points of intersection of these
two curves are O(0, 0) and P(4,4) above the
x-axis.
From the Fig 8.16, the required area of
the region OPQCO included between these Fig 8.16
two curves above x-axis is Y
= (area of the region OCPO) + (area of the region PCQP)
4 8
= ✄0
ydx ✕ ✄ ydx
4
4 8
= 2✄ x dx ✕ ✄ 42 ✂ ( x ✂ 4) 2 dx (Why?)
0 4
 APPLICATION OF INTEGRALS 369

3 4 4
2 2✁
= 2✂ ✝x ✞ ✄✡ 42 ☎ t 2 dt , where, x ☎ 4 ✆ t (Why?)
3 ✝✟ ✞✠ 0
0

4
32 ☛ t 1 t☞
= ✌ 42 ✍ t 2 ✌ ✎ 42 ✎ sin –1 ✑
3 ✏✒ 2 2 4 ✓0

32 ✔ 4 1 2 –1 ✕ 32 ✔ ✜ ✕ 32 4
= ✖
✘
✗0✖ ✗4 ✗ sin 1✙ ✢ ✖ 0✖ 8✗ ✢ ✖ 4✜ = (8 ✣ 3✤)
3 ✚2 2 ✘
3 ✚ ✙
2✛ 3 3
✛

Example 8 In Fig 8.17, AOBA is the part of the ellipse 9x2 + y2 = 36 in the first
quadrant such that OA = 2 and OB = 6. Find the area between the arc AB and the
chord AB.

x2 y2
Solution Given equation of the ellipse 9x2 + y2 = 36 can be expressed as ✥ ✦1 or
4 36

x2 y2
✖ ✢ 1 and hence, its shape is as given in Fig 8.17.
22 62

Accordingly, the equation of the chord AB is

6✧0
y–0= ( x ✧ 2)
0✧2
or y = – 3(x – 2)
or y = – 3x + 6
Area of the shaded region as shown in the Fig 8.17.
2 2
= 3✩ 4 ★ x 2 dx ★ ✩ (6 ★ 3x )dx (Why?)
0 0

2 2 Fig 8.17
✪x 4 –1 x ✫ ✪ 3x 2 ✫
= 3✮ 4 ✬ x2 ✭ sin ✯ ✬ ✮6 x ✬ ✯
✰2 2 2 ✱0 ✰ 2 ✱0

✲2 ✳ ✲ 12 ✳ ✻
= 3✷ ✴0✵ 2sin –1 (1)✸ ✶ ✷12 ✶ ✼ 3✽ 2✽ ✧ 6 = 3✾ – 6
✹2 ✺ ✹ 2 ✸✺ 2
370 MATHEMATICS

Example 9 Using integration find the area of region bounded by the triangle whose
vertices are (1, 0), (2, 2) and (3, 1).
Solution Let A (1, 0), B (2, 2) and C (3, 1) be
the vertices of a triangle ABC (Fig 8.18).
Area of ✝ABC
= Area of ✝ ABD + Area of trapezium
BDEC – Area of ✝AEC
Now equation of the sides AB, BC and
CA are given by
Fig 8.18
1
y = 2 (x – 1), y = 4 – x, y = (x – 1), respectively.
2
2 3 3x 1
Hence, area of ✝ ABC = ✂ 1 2 ( x 1) dx ✁ ✂ 2 (4 x) dx ✂ 1 dx
2
2 3 3
✄ x2 ☎ ✄ x2 ☎ 1 ✄ x2 ☎
= 2 ✟ ✆ x ✠ ✞ ✟ 4 x ✆ ✠ ✆ ✟ ✆ x✠
✡2 ☛1 ✡ 2 ☛2 2 ✡ 2 ☛1
☞✍ 2 2 ✎ 1 ✌ ☞✍ 32 ✎ ✍ 22 ✎ ✌ ☞✍ 2 ✎ ✌
= 2 ✓✕ ✏ 2 ✖ ✏ ✕✍ ✏ 1✖✎✔ ✑ ✓✕ 4 ✒ 3 ✏ ✖ ✏ ✕ 4 ✒ 2 ✏ ✖ ✔ – 1 ✓✕ 3 ✏ 3 ✖ ✏ ✍✕ 1 ✏ 1✎✖ ✔
✙ ✗ 2 ✘ ✗ 2 ✘ ✚ ✙ ✗ 2 ✘ ✗ 2 ✘ ✚ 2 ✙✗ 2 ✘ ✗ 2 ✘✚
3
=
2
Example 10 Find the area of the region enclosed between the two circles: x2 + y2 = 4
and (x – 2)2 + y2 = 4.
Solution Equations of the given circles are
x2 + y2 = 4 ... (1)
and (x – 2)2 + y2 = 4 ... (2)
Equation (1) is a circle with centre O at the
origin and radius 2. Equation (2) is a circle with
centre C (2, 0) and radius 2. Solving equations
(1) and (2), we have
(x –2)2 + y2 = x2 + y2
or x – 4x + 4 + y2 = x2 + y2
2

or x = 1 which gives y = ✛ 3
Thus, the points of intersection of the given
circles are A(1, 3 ) and A✜(1, – 3 ) as shown in
Fig 8.19
the Fig 8.19.
 APPLICATION OF INTEGRALS 371

Required area of the enclosed region O ACA✂ O between circles

= 2 [area of the region ODCAO] (Why?)
= 2 [area of the region ODAO + area of the region DCAD]
1 2
= 2 ☎ ✟ 0 y dx ✄ ✟ 1 y dx ✁✆
✝ ✞
1 2
= 2 ✠✌ ✑ 0 4 ☛ ( x ☛ 2) dx ☞ ✑ 1 4 ☛ x 2 dx ✡
2
✍
(Why?)
✎ ✏
1
✒1 1 –1 ✕ x ✔ 2 ✖ ✓
= 2✛ ( x ✔ 2) 4 ✔ ( x ✔ 2) 2 ✗ ✘ 4sin ✙ ✚✜
✤2 2 ✢ 2 ✣✥0

2
✦1 1 –1 x ✧
+ 2✫ x 4 ★ x2 ✩ ✪ 4sin
✭2 2 2 ✬✮1
1 2
✒ 2 x ✔ 2 ✖✓
–1 ✕ ✒ x✓
= ✛( x ✔ 2) 4 ✔ ( x ✔ 2) ✗ 4sin ✙ ✚✜ ✗
✛
x 4 ✔ x2 ✗ 4sin
–1

✤ ✢ 2 ✣✥ 0 ✤ 2 ✜✥1

✰✲ ✲ ✴1 ✳ ✳ ✯1 ✱ ✰ 1✱
= ✸✶✴ 3 ✵ 4sin –1 ✶ –1
✷ ✷ ✴ 4sin ( ✴1) ✹ ✵ ✸ 4sin 1 ✴ 3 ✴ 4sin ✯1
✼✺ ✺ 2 ✻✻ ✽ ✼ 2 ✹✽

✾❁ ❀❂ ❀✿ ✾ ❀ ❀✿
= ❈❆❃ 3 ❃ 4❄ ❇ ❅ 4❄ ❉ ❅ ❈ 4❄ ❃ 3 ❃ 4❄
●❊ 6❋ 2❍ ● 2 6 ❉❍

❏ 2■ ❑ ❏ 2■ ❑
= ◆▲ 3▲ ▼ 2■ ❖ ▼ ◆ 2■ ▲ 3 ▲ ❖
P 3 ◗ P 3 ◗
8❘
= ❙2 3
3
EXERCISE 8.2
1. Find the area of the circle 4x2 + 4y2 = 9 which is interior to the parabola x2 = 4y.
2. Find the area bounded by curves (x – 1)2 + y2 = 1 and x2 + y2 = 1.
3. Find the area of the region bounded by the curves y = x2 + 2, y = x, x = 0 and
x = 3.
4. Using integration find the area of region bounded by the triangle whose vertices
are (– 1, 0), (1, 3) and (3, 2).
5. Using integration find the area of the triangular region whose sides have the
equations y = 2x + 1, y = 3x + 1 and x = 4.
372 MATHEMATICS

Choose the correct answer in the following exercises 6 and 7.

6. Smaller area enclosed by the circle x2 + y2 = 4 and the line x + y = 2 is
(A) 2 (✄ – 2) (B) ✄ – 2 (C) 2✄ – 1 (D) 2 (✄ + 2)
7. Area lying between the curves y2 = 4x and y = 2x is
2 1 1 3
(A) (B) (C) (D)
3 3 4 4

Miscellaneous Examples
Example 11 Find the area of the parabola y2 = 4ax bounded by its latus rectum.
Solution From Fig 8.20, the vertex of the parabola ❨
▲
y2 = 4ax is at origin (0, 0). The equation of the
latus rectum LSL✂ is x = a. Also, parabola is
symmetrical about the x-axis.
The required area of the region OLL O
= 2 (area of the region OLSO) ✭❛✜ ✵✮
❳✛ ❳
a a ❖ ❙
= 2✁ 0 ydx = 2 ✁ 0 4ax dx
a
= 2☎ 2 a ✁ 0
xdx
a
3 ▲✬
2✆ ✝ ❨✛
= 4 a ✞ ✟x2 ✠
3 ✡✟ ☛✠ Fig 8.20
0

3
8 ☞ ✌ 8
= a ✍ a 2 ✎ = a2
3 ✍
✏ ✎
✑
3

Example 12 Find the area of the region bounded

by the line y = 3x + 2, the x-axis and the ordinates
x = –1 and x = 1.
Solution As shown in the Fig 8.21, the line
✒2
y = 3x + 2 meets x-axis at x = and its graph
3
✔ ✓ 2✕
lies below x-axis for x ✖✗ ✓1, and above
✙ 3 ✘✚
✔ ✓ 2 ✕ Fig 8.21
x-axis for x ✖✗ ,1 .
✙ 3 ✘✚
 APPLICATION OF INTEGRALS 373

The required area = Area of the region ACBA + Area of the region ADEA
2
1
3 (3 x ✁ 2)dx ✁ ✂ (3 x ✁ 2)dx
= ✂ 1 2
3

✄2
2 2 1
☎ 3x ✆ 3 ☎ 3x ✆ 1 25 13
= ✞ ✝ 2 x✟ ✝✞ ✝ 2 x✟ = ☛ ☞
✠ 2 ✡ ✄1 ✠ 2 ✡ ✄2 6 6 3
3

Example 13 Find the area bounded by

the curve y = cos x between x = 0 and
x = 2✌.

Solution From the Fig 8.22, the required

area = area of the region OABO + area
of the region BCDB + area of the region
DEFD.
Fig 8.22
Thus, we have the required area

✍ 3✍
2 2 2✍
= ✏0
cos x dx ✎ ✏ ✍
cos x dx ✎✏
3✍
cos x dx
2 2

✕ 3✕
2 2 2✕
= ✑ sin x✒ ✖ ✓ sin x ✔ ✕ ✖ ✑ sin x ✒
3✕
0
2 2

=1+2+1=4
Example 13 Prove that the curves y2 = 4x and x2 = 4y
divide the area of the square bounded by x = 0, x = 4,
y = 4 and y = 0 into three equal parts.
Solution Note that the point of intersection of the
parabolas y2 = 4x and x2 = 4y are (0, 0) and (4, 4) as Fig 8.23
374 MATHEMATICS

shown in the Fig 8.23.

Now, the area of the region OAQBO bounded by curves y2 = 4x and x2 = 4y.

3 4
4 x2 ✁ ✟ 2 2 x3 ✠
= ✞ 0 ✄2 x✂ dx = ☞ 2 ✡ x ☛ ✌
✆ 4 ☎✝ ☞
✍
3 12 ✎✌
0

32 16 16
✏ = ✑ ... (1)
3 3 3
Again, the area of the region OPQAO bounded by the curves x2 = 4y, x = 0, x = 4
and x-axis

x2 1
4 4 16
✗0
=dx ✔ ✒✕ x3 ✓✖ ✔ ... (2)
4 12 0 3
Similarly, the area of the region OBQRO bounded by the curve y2 = 4x, y-axis,
y = 0 and y = 4
4 4 y2 1 4 16
= ✗0 xdy ✔ ✗ dy ✔ ✒✕ y 3 ✓✖ ✔ ... (3)
0 4 12 0 3
From (1), (2) and (3), it is concluded that the area of the region OAQBO = area of
the region OPQAO = area of the region OBQRO, i.e., area bounded by parabolas
y2 = 4x and x2 = 4y divides the area of the square in three equal parts.
Example 14 Find the area of the region Y
R
2
{(x, y) : 0 ✘ y ✘ x + 1, 0 ✘ y ✘ x + 1, 0 ✘ x ✘ 2}
Q(1, 2)
Solution Let us first sketch the region whose area is to
be found out. This region is the intersection of the x=2
following regions. P (0,1) x = 1
A1 = {(x, y) : 0 ✘ y ✘ x2 + 1}, X' X
O T S
A2 = {(x, y) : 0 ✘ y ✘ x + 1}
Y'
and A3 = {(x, y) : 0 ✘ x ✘ 2}
Fig 8.24
The points of intersection of y = x2 + 1 and y = x + 1 are points P(0, 1) and Q(1, 2).
From the Fig 8.24, the required region is the shaded region OPQRSTO whose area
= area of the region OTQPO + area of the region TSRQT
1 2
= ✚0
( x 2 ✙ 1) dx ✙ ✚ ( x ✙ 1) dx (Why?)
1
 APPLICATION OF INTEGRALS 375

1 2
✂ x3 ✄✁ ✂ x2 ✄✁
= ✆✞ ☎ x ✟✝ ☎ ✆✞ ☎ x ✟✝
☛✠ 3 ✡ ☞ 0 ☛✠ 2 ✡ ☞1

✎✑ 1 ✒ ✏ ✎ ✑1 ✒✏ 23
✌ 2✍ ✔ ✕
= ✗ ✕ ✓ 1✖ ✔ 0 ✘ ✓ ✗ 2 ✓ ✓ 1✖ ✘ =
✛✙ 3 ✚ ✜ ✛ ✙2 ✚✜ 6

Miscellaneous Exercise on Chapter 8

1. Find the area under the given curves and given lines:
(i) y = x2, x = 1, x = 2 and x-axis
(ii) y = x4, x = 1, x = 5 and x-axis
2. Find the area between the curves y = x and y = x2.
3. Find the area of the region lying in the first quadrant and bounded by y = 4x2,
x = 0, y = 1 and y = 4.
0
4. Sketch the graph of y = x ✢ 3 and evaluate ✥✣ 6 x ✤ 3 dx .

5. Find the area bounded by the curve y = sin x between x = 0 and x = 2✦.
6. Find the area enclosed between the parabola y2 = 4ax and the line y = mx.
7. Find the area enclosed by the parabola 4y = 3x2 and the line 2y = 3x + 12.
x2 y 2
8. Find the area of the smaller region bounded by the ellipse ✧ ★1 and the
9 4
x y
line ✩ ✪1 .
3 2
x2 y 2
9. Find the area of the smaller region bounded by the ellipse ✫ ✬ 1 and the
a 2 b2
x y
line ✩ ✪1 .
a b
10. Find the area of the region enclosed by the parabola x2 = y, the line y = x + 2 and
the x-axis.
11. Using the method of integration find the area bounded by the curve x ✢ y ✭ 1 .
[Hint: The required region is bounded by lines x + y = 1, x– y = 1, – x + y = 1 and
– x – y = 1].
376 MATHEMATICS

12. Find the area bounded by curves {(x, y) : y ☎ x2 and y = | x |}.

13. Using the method of integration find the area of the triangle ABC, coordinates of
whose vertices are A(2, 0), B (4, 5) and C (6, 3).
14. Using the method of integration find the area of the region bounded by lines:
2x + y = 4, 3x – 2y = 6 and x – 3y + 5 = 0
15. Find the area of the region {(x, y) : y2 ✆ 4x, 4x2 + 4y2 ✆ 9}
Choose the correct answer in the following Exercises from 16 to 20.
16. Area bounded by the curve y = x3, the x-axis and the ordinates x = – 2 and x = 1 is

15 15 17
(A) – 9 (B) (C) (D)
4 4 4
17. The area bounded by the curve y = x | x | , x-axis and the ordinates x = – 1 and
x = 1 is given by

1 2 4
(A) 0 (B) (C) (D)
3 3 3
[Hint : y = x2 if x > 0 and y = – x2 if x < 0].
18. The area of the circle x2 + y2 = 16 exterior to the parabola y2 = 6x is

4 4 4 4
(A) (4✁ 3) (B) (4✁ ✂ 3) (C) (8✁ 3) (D) (8✁ ✂ 3)
3 3 3 3

✄
19. The area bounded by the y-axis, y = cos x and y = sin x when 0 ✝ x ✝ is
2

(A) 2 ( 2 ✞ 1) (B) 2 ✟1 (C) 2 ✠1 (D) 2

Summary
✡ The area of the region bounded by the curve y = f (x), x-axis and the lines
b b
x = a and x = b (b > a) is given by the formula: Area ☛ ☞ ydx ☛ ☞ f ( x) dx .
a a

✡ The area of the region bounded by the curve x = ✌ (y), y-axis and the lines
d d
y = c, y = d is given by the formula: Area ✍ ✏ xdy ✍ ✏ ✎ ( y)dy .
c c
 APPLICATION OF INTEGRALS 377

The area of the region enclosed between two curves y = f (x), y = g (x) and
the lines x = a, x = b is given by the formula,

Area ✄ ✆ ✁ f (x) ☎ g (x)✂ dx , where, f (x) ✝ g (x) in [a, b]

b

If f (x) ✝ g (x) in [a, c] and f (x) ✞ g (x) in [c, b], a < c < b, then

Area ✡ ✌ ✟ f ( x ) ☛ g ( x )✠ dx ☞ ✌ ✟ g ( x) ☛ f ( x) ✠ dx .
c b

a c

Historical Note
The origin of the Integral Calculus goes back to the early period of development
of Mathematics and it is related to the method of exhaustion developed by the
mathematicians of ancient Greece. This method arose in the solution of problems
on calculating areas of plane figures, surface areas and volumes of solid bodies
etc. In this sense, the method of exhaustion can be regarded as an early method
of integration. The greatest development of method of exhaustion in the early
period was obtained in the works of Eudoxus (440 B.C.) and Archimedes
(300 B.C.)
Systematic approach to the theory of Calculus began in the 17th century.
In 1665, Newton began his work on the Calculus described by him as the theory
of fluxions and used his theory in finding the tangent and radius of curvature at
any point on a curve. Newton introduced the basic notion of inverse function
called the anti derivative (indefinite integral) or the inverse method of tangents.
During 1684-86, Leibnitz published an article in the Acta Eruditorum
which he called Calculas summatorius, since it was connected with the summation
of a number of infinitely small areas, whose sum, he indicated by the symbol ‘ ’. ✍
In 1696, he followed a suggestion made by J. Bernoulli and changed this article to
Calculus integrali. This corresponded to Newton’s inverse method of tangents.
Both Newton and Leibnitz adopted quite independent lines of approach which
was radically different. However, respective theories accomplished results that
were practically identical. Leibnitz used the notion of definite integral and what is
quite certain is that he first clearly appreciated tie up between the antiderivative
and the definite integral.
Conclusively, the fundamental concepts and theory of Integral Calculus
and primarily its relationships with Differential Calculus were developed in the
work of P.de Fermat, I. Newton and G. Leibnitz at the end of 17th century.
378 MATHEMATICS

However, this justification by the concept of limit was only developed in the
works of A.L. Cauchy in the early 19th century. Lastly, it is worth mentioning the
following quotation by Lie Sophie’s:
“It may be said that the conceptions of differential quotient and integral which
in their origin certainly go back to Archimedes were introduced in Science by the
investigations of Kepler, Descartes, Cavalieri, Fermat and Wallis .... The discovery
that differentiation and integration are inverse operations belongs to Newton
and Leibnitz”.

— —
 Chapter 13
PROBABILITY

The theory of probabilities is simply the Science of logic

quantitatively treated. – C.S. PEIRCE

13.1 Introduction
In earlier Classes, we have studied the probability as a
measure of uncertainty of events in a random experiment.
We discussed the axiomatic approach formulated by
Russian Mathematician, A.N. Kolmogorov (1903-1987)
and treated probability as a function of outcomes of the
experiment. We have also established equivalence between
the axiomatic theory and the classical theory of probability
in case of equally likely outcomes. On the basis of this
relationship, we obtained probabilities of events associated
with discrete sample spaces. We have also studied the
addition rule of probability. In this chapter, we shall discuss
the important concept of conditional probability of an event
given that another event has occurred, which will be helpful
in understanding the Bayes' theorem, multiplication rule of Pierre de Fermat
probability and independence of events. We shall also learn (1601-1665)
an important concept of random variable and its probability
distribution and also the mean and variance of a probability distribution. In the last
section of the chapter, we shall study an important discrete probability distribution
called Binomial distribution. Throughout this chapter, we shall take up the experiments
having equally likely outcomes, unless stated otherwise.
13.2 Conditional Probability
Uptill now in probability, we have discussed the methods of finding the probability of
events. If we have two events from the same sample space, does the information
about the occurrence of one of the events affect the probability of the other event? Let
us try to answer this question by taking up a random experiment in which the outcomes
are equally likely to occur.
Consider the experiment of tossing three fair coins. The sample space of the
experiment is
S = {HHH, HHT, HTH, THH, HTT, THT, TTH, TTT}
532 MATHEMATICS

1
Since the coins are fair, we can assign the probability
to each sample point. Let
8
E be the event ‘at least two heads appear’ and F be the event ‘first coin shows tail’.
Then
E = {HHH, HHT, HTH, THH}
and F = {THH, THT, TTH, TTT}
Therefore P(E) = P ({HHH}) + P ({HHT}) + P ({HTH}) + P ({THH})
1 1 1 1 1
= ✁ (Why ?)
8 8 8 8 2
and P(F) = P ({THH}) + P ({THT}) + P ({TTH}) + P ({TTT})
1 1 1 1 1
= ✂ ✂ ✂ ✄
8 8 8 8 2
Also E ☎ F = {THH}
1
with P(E ☎ F) = P({THH}) =
8
Now, suppose we are given that the first coin shows tail, i.e. F occurs, then what is
the probability of occurrence of E? With the information of occurrence of F, we are
sure that the cases in which first coin does not result into a tail should not be considered
while finding the probability of E. This information reduces our sample space from the
set S to its subset F for the event E. In other words, the additional information really
amounts to telling us that the situation may be considered as being that of a new
random experiment for which the sample space consists of all those outcomes only
which are favourable to the occurrence of the event F.
Now, the sample point of F which is favourable to event E is THH.
1
Thus, Probability of E considering F as the sample space = ,
4
1
or Probability of E given that the event F has occurred =
4
This probability of the event E is called the conditional probability of E given
that F has already occurred, and is denoted by P (E|F).
1
Thus P(E|F) =
4
Note that the elements of F which favour the event E are the common elements of
E and F, i.e. the sample points of E ☎ F.
 PROBABILITY 533

Thus, we can also write the conditional probability of E given that F has occurred as
Number of elementaryeventsfavourable to E F
P(E|F) =
Number of elementaryevents which arefavourable to F

n (E ✁ F)
=
n (F)
Dividing the numerator and the denominator by total number of elementary events
of the sample space, we see that P(E|F) can also be written as
n(E ✂ F)

P(E|F) =
n(S)
n(F)
✄ P(E ✂ F) ... (1)
P(F)
n(S)
Note that (1) is valid only when P(F) ☎ 0 i.e., F ☎ ✆ (Why?)
Thus, we can define the conditional probability as follows :
Definition 1 If E and F are two events associated with the same sample space of a
random experiment, the conditional probability of the event E given that F has occurred,
i.e. P (E|F) is given by
P (E ✁ F)
P(E|F) = provided P(F) ☎ 0
P (F)

13.2.1 Properties of conditional probability

Let E and F be events of a sample space S of an experiment, then we have
Property 1 P (S|F) = P(F|F) = 1
We know that
P (S ✁ F) P (F)
P (S|F) = ✝ ✝1
P (F) P (F)

P (F ✁ F) P (F)
Also P(F|F) = ✝ ✝1
P (F) P (F)
Thus P(S|F) = P(F|F) = 1
Property 2 If A and B are any two events of a sample space S and F is an event
of S such that P(F) ☎ 0, then
P((A ✞ B)|F) = P (A|F) + P(B|F) – P ((A ✟ B)|F)
534 MATHEMATICS

In particular, if A and B are disjoint events, then

P((A✆B)|F) = P(A|F) + P(B|F)
We have
P[(A B) ✁ F]
P((A ✆ B)|F) =
P (F)

P[(A ✂ F) ✄ (B ✂ F)]
=
P (F)
(by distributive law of union of sets over intersection)
P (A ✂ F) + P (B ✂ F) – P (A ✂ B ✂ F)
=
P (F)

P (A ✁ F) P (B ✁ F) P[(A ✁ B) ✁ F]
= ☎ ✝
P(F) P(F) P(F)
= P (A|F) + P (B|F) – P ((A ✞ B)|F)
When A and B are disjoint events, then
P ((A ✞ B)|F) = 0
✟ P ((A ✆ B)|F) = P (A|F) + P (B|F)
Property 3 P (E✠|F) = 1 ❾ P (E|F)
From Property 1, we know that P (S|F) = 1
✟ P (E ✆ E✠ |F) = 1 since S = E ✆ E✠
✟ P (E|F) + P (E✠|F) = 1 since E and E✠ are disjoint events
Thus, P (E✠|F) = 1 ❾ P (E|F)
Let us now take up some examples.

7 9 4
Example 1 If P (A) = , P (B) = and P (A ✞ B) = , evaluate P (A|B).
13 13 13

4
P (A ✁ B) 13
Solution We have P (A|B) = ✡9 ✡4
P ( B) 9
13

Example 2 A family has two children. What is the probability that both the children are
boys given that at least one of them is a boy ?
 PROBABILITY 535

Solution Let b stand for boy and g for girl. The sample space of the experiment is
S = {(b, b), (g, b), (b, g), (g, g)}
Let E and F denote the following events :
E : ‘both the children are boys’
F : ‘at least one of the child is a boy’
Then E = {(b,b)} and F = {(b,b), (g,b), (b,g)}
Now E ✂ F = {(b,b)}
3 1
Thus P (F) = and P (E ✂ F )=
4 4
1
Therefore P (E|F) =
P (E F) 4
✁3 ✁1
P ( F) 3
4
Example 3 Ten cards numbered 1 to 10 are placed in a box, mixed up thoroughly and
then one card is drawn randomly. If it is known that the number on the drawn card is
more than 3, what is the probability that it is an even number?
Solution Let A be the event ‘the number on the card drawn is even’ and B be the
event ‘the number on the card drawn is greater than 3’. We have to find P(A|B).
Now, the sample space of the experiment is S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}
Then A = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}, B = {4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}
and A ✂ B = {4, 6, 8, 10}

, P ( B) = and P (A ✄ B) ☎
5 7 4
Also P(A) =
10 10 10

4
P (A ✆ B) 10
Then P(A|B) = ✝7 ✝4
P ( B) 7
10
Example 4 In a school, there are 1000 students, out of which 430 are girls. It is known
that out of 430, 10% of the girls study in class XII. What is the probability that a student
chosen randomly studies in Class XII given that the chosen student is a girl?
Solution Let E denote the event that a student chosen randomly studies in Class XII
and F be the event that the randomly chosen student is a girl. We have to find P (E|F).
536 MATHEMATICS

430 43
Now P(F) = 0.43 and P ( E ✁ F) = 0.043 (Why?)
1000 1000
P (E ✂ F) 0.043
Then P(E|F) = ✄ ✄ 0.1
P ( F) 0.43
Example 5 A die is thrown three times. Events A and B are defined as below:
A : 4 on the third throw
B : 6 on the first and 5 on the second throw
Find the probability of A given that B has already occurred.
Solution The sample space has 216 outcomes.

☎(1,1,4) (1,2,4) ... (1,6,4) (2,1,4) (2,2,4) ... (2,6,4) ✆

✝ ✝
Now A = ✞(3,1,4) (3,2,4) ... (3,6,4) (4,1,4) (4,2,4) ...(4,6,4) ✟
✝(5,1,4) (5,2,4) ... (5,6,4) (6,1,4) (6,2,4) ...(6,6,4) ✝
✠ ✡
B = {(6,5,1), (6,5,2), (6,5,3), (6,5,4), (6,5,5), (6,5,6)}
and A ☛ B = {(6,5,4)}.
6 1
Now P (B) = and P (A ☛ B) =
216 216

1
P (A ☞ B) 216 1
Then P(A|B) = ✌ ✌
P (B) 6 6
216
Example 6 A die is thrown twice and the sum of the numbers appearing is observed
to be 6. What is the conditional probability that the number 4 has appeared at least
once?
Solution Let E be the event that ‘number 4 appears at least once’ and F be the event
that ‘the sum of the numbers appearing is 6’.
Then, E = {(4,1), (4,2), (4,3), (4,4), (4,5), (4,6), (1,4), (2,4), (3,4), (5,4), (6,4)}
and F = {(1,5), (2,4), (3,3), (4,2), (5,1)}
11 5
We have P(E) = and P (F) =
36 36
Also E ☛ F = {(2,4), (4,2)}
 PROBABILITY 537

2
Therefore P(E ✂ F) =
36
Hence, the required probability

2
P (E|F) = ✁5
P (E F) 36
P (F)
✁ 52
36
For the conditional probability discussed above, we have considered the elemen-
tary events of the experiment to be equally likely and the corresponding definition of
the probability of an event was used. However, the same definition can also be used in
the general case where the elementary events of the sample space are not equally
likely, the probabilities P (E ✂ F) and P (F) being calculated accordingly. Let us take up
the following example.
Example 7 Consider the experiment of tossing a coin. If the coin shows head, toss it
again but if it shows tail, then throw a die. Find the
conditional probability of the event that ‘the die shows
a number greater than 4’ given that ‘there is at least
one tail’.
Solution The outcomes of the experiment can be
represented in following diagrammatic manner called
the ‘tree diagram’.
The sample space of the experiment may be
Fig 13.1
described as
S = {(H,H), (H,T), (T,1), (T,2), (T,3), (T,4), (T,5), (T,6)}
where (H, H) denotes that both the tosses result into
head and (T, i) denote the first toss result into a tail and
the number i appeared on the die for i = 1,2,3,4,5,6.
Thus, the probabilities assigned to the 8 elementary
events
(H, H), (H, T), (T, 1), (T, 2), (T, 3) (T, 4), (T, 5), (T, 6)
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
are , , , , , , , respectively which is
4 4 12 12 12 12 12 12
clear from the Fig 13.2. Fig 13.2
538 MATHEMATICS

Let F be the event that ‘there is at least one tail’ and E be the event ‘the die shows
a number greater than 4’. Then
F = {(H,T), (T,1), (T,2), (T,3), (T,4), (T,5), (T,6)}
E = {(T,5), (T,6)} and E ✂ F = {(T,5), (T,6)}
Now P (F) = P({(H,T)}) + P ({(T,1)}) + P ({(T,2)}) + P ({(T,3)})
+ P ({(T,4)}) + P({(T,5)}) + P({(T,6)})
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3
= ✁
4 12 12 12 12 12 12 4
1 1 1
and P (E ✂ F) = P ({(T,5)}) + P ({(T,6)}) = ✁
12 12 6

1
P (E ✄ F) 6 2
Hence P(E|F) = ☎ ☎
P (F) 3 9
4

EXERCISE 13.1
1. Given that E and F are events such that P(E) = 0.6, P(F) = 0.3 and
P(E ✂ F) = 0.2, find P (E|F) and P (F|E)
2. Compute P(A|B), if P(B) = 0.5 and P (A ✂ B) = 0.32
3. If P (A) = 0.8, P (B) = 0.5 and P (B|A) = 0.4, find
(i) P (A ✂ B) (ii) P(A|B) (iii) P(A ✆ B)
5 2
4. Evaluate P(A ✆ B), if 2P(A) = P(B) = and P(A|B) =
13 5
6 5 7
5. If P(A) = , P(B) = and P(A ✆ B) ✁ , find
11 11 11
(i) P(A✂ B) (ii) P(A|B) (iii) P(B|A)
Determine P(E|F) in Exercises 6 to 9.
6. A coin is tossed three times, where
(i) E : head on third toss , F : heads on first two tosses
(ii) E : at least two heads , F : at most two heads
(iii) E : at most two tails , F : at least one tail
 PROBABILITY 539

7. Two coins are tossed once, where

(i) E : tail appears on one coin, F : one coin shows head
(ii) E : no tail appears, F : no head appears
8. A die is thrown three times,
E : 4 appears on the third toss, F : 6 and 5 appears respectively
on first two tosses
9. Mother, father and son line up at random for a family picture
E : son on one end, F : father in middle
10. A black and a red dice are rolled.
(a) Find the conditional probability of obtaining a sum greater than 9, given
that the black die resulted in a 5.
(b) Find the conditional probability of obtaining the sum 8, given that the red die
resulted in a number less than 4.
11. A fair die is rolled. Consider events E = {1,3,5}, F = {2,3} and G = {2,3,4,5}
Find
(i) P (E|F) and P (F|E) (ii) P (E|G) and P (G|E)
(iii) P ((E ✆ F)|G) and P ((E ✂ F)|G)
12. Assume that each born child is equally likely to be a boy or a girl. If a family has
two children, what is the conditional probability that both are girls given that
(i) the youngest is a girl, (ii) at least one is a girl?
13. An instructor has a question bank consisting of 300 easy True / False questions,
200 difficult True / False questions, 500 easy multiple choice questions and 400
difficult multiple choice questions. If a question is selected at random from the
question bank, what is the probability that it will be an easy question given that it
is a multiple choice question?
14. Given that the two numbers appearing on throwing two dice are different. Find
the probability of the event ‘the sum of numbers on the dice is 4’.
15. Consider the experiment of throwing a die, if a multiple of 3 comes up, throw the
die again and if any other number comes, toss a coin. Find the conditional probability
of the event ‘the coin shows a tail’, given that ‘at least one die shows a 3’.
In each of the Exercises 16 and 17 choose the correct answer:
1
16. If P (A) = , P (B) = 0, then P (A|B) is
2
1
(A) 0 (B)
2
(C) not defined (D) 1
540 MATHEMATICS

17. If A and B are events such that P(A|B) = P(B|A), then

(A) A ✟ B but A ✄ B (B) A = B
(C) A ✂ B = ☎ (D) P(A) = P(B)
13.3 Multiplication Theorem on Probability
Let E and F be two events associated with a sample space S. Clearly, the set E ✂ F
denotes the event that both E and F have occurred. In other words, E ✂ F denotes the
simultaneous occurrence of the events E and F. The event E ✂ F is also written as EF.
Very often we need to find the probability of the event EF. For example, in the
experiment of drawing two cards one after the other, we may be interested in finding
the probability of the event ‘a king and a queen’. The probability of event EF is obtained
by using the conditional probability as obtained below :
We know that the conditional probability of event E given that F has occurred is
denoted by P(E|F) and is given by

,P (F) ✁ 0
P (E F)
P(E|F) =
P (F)
From this result, we can write
P (E ✂ F) = P (F) . P (E|F) ... (1)
Also, we know that
P (F ✆ E)
P (F|E) = , P (E) ✝ 0
P (E)

(since E ✂ F = F ✂ E)
P (E F)
or P (F|E) =
P (E)
Thus, P(E ✂ F) = P(E). P(F|E) .... (2)
Combining (1) and (2), we find that
P (E ✂ F) = P(E) P(F|E)
= P(F) P(E|F) provided P(E) ✄ 0 and P(F) ✄ 0.
The above result is known as the multiplication rule of probability.
Let us now take up an example.
Example 8 An urn contains 10 black and 5 white balls. Two balls are drawn from the
urn one after the other without replacement. What is the probability that both drawn
balls are black?
Solution Let E and F denote respectively the events that first and second ball drawn
are black. We have to find P (E ✂ F) or P (EF).
 PROBABILITY 541

10
Now P (E) = P (black ball in first draw) =
15
Also given that the first ball drawn is black, i.e., event E has occurred, now there
are 9 black balls and five white balls left in the urn. Therefore, the probability that the
second ball drawn is black, given that the ball in the first draw is black, is nothing but
the conditional probability of F given that E has occurred.
9
i.e. P(F|E) =
14
By multiplication rule of probability, we have
P (E ✂ F) = P (E) P (F|E)
10 9 3
= ✁
15 14 7
Multiplication rule of probability for more than two events If E, F and G are
three events of sample space, we have
P (E ✂ F ✂ G) = P (E) P (F|E) P (G|(E ✂ F)) = P (E) P (F|E) P (G|EF)
Similarly, the multiplication rule of probability can be extended for four or
more events.
The following example illustrates the extension of multiplication rule of probability
for three events.
Example 9 Three cards are drawn successively, without replacement from a pack of
52 well shuffled cards. What is the probability that first two cards are kings and the
third card drawn is an ace?
Solution Let K denote the event that the card drawn is king and A be the event that
the card drawn is an ace. Clearly, we have to find P (KKA)
4
Now P(K) =
52
Also, P (K|K) is the probability of second king with the condition that one king has
already been drawn. Now there are three kings in (52 ❾ 1) = 51 cards.

3
Therefore P(K|K) =
51
Lastly, P(A|KK) is the probability of third drawn card to be an ace, with the condition
that two kings have already been drawn. Now there are four aces in left 50 cards.
542 MATHEMATICS

4
Therefore P (A|KK) =
50
By multiplication law of probability, we have
P (KKA) = P(K) P(K|K) P(A|KK)
4 3 4 2
= ✁
52 51 50 5525
13.4 Independent Events
Consider the experiment of drawing a card from a deck of 52 playing cards, in which
the elementary events are assumed to be equally likely. If E and F denote the events
'the card drawn is a spade' and 'the card drawn is an ace' respectively, then
13 1 4 1
P(E) = ✁ and P(F) ✁ ✁
52 4 52 13
Also E and F is the event ' the card drawn is the ace of spades' so that
1
P (E ✂ F) =
52
1
P (E ✄ F) 52 1
Hence P(E|F) = ☎ ☎
P (F) 1 4
13
1
Since P(E) = = P (E|F), we can say that the occurrence of event F has not
4
affected the probability of occurrence of the event E.
We also have
1
P (E ✄ F) 52 1
P(F|E) = ☎ ☎ ☎ P(F)
P(E) 1 13
4
1
Again, P (F) = = P (F|E) shows that occurrence of event E has not affected
13
the probability of occurrence of the event F.
Thus, E and F are two events such that the probability of occurrence of one of
them is not affected by occurrence of the other.
Such events are called independent events.
 PROBABILITY 543

Definition 2 Two events E and F are said to be independent, if

P (F|E) = P (F) provided P (E) ✄ 0
and P (E|F) = P (E) provided P (F) ✄ 0
Thus, in this definition we need to have P (E) ✄ 0 and P(F) ✄ 0
Now, by the multiplication rule of probability, we have
P (E ✂ F) = P(E) . P (F|E) ... (1)
If E and F are independent, then (1) becomes
P (E ✂ F) = P (E) . P (F) ... (2)
Thus, using (2), the independence of two events is also defined as follows:
Definition 3 Let E and F be two events associated with the same random experiment,
then E and F are said to be independent if
P (E ✂ F) = P (E) . P (F)
Remarks
(i) Two events E and F are said to be dependent if they are not independent, i.e. if
P (E ✂ F ) ✄ P (E) . P (F)
(ii) Sometimes there is a confusion between independent events and mutually
exclusive events. Term ‘independent’ is defined in terms of ‘probability of events’
whereas mutually exclusive is defined in term of events (subset of sample space).
Moreover, mutually exclusive events never have an outcome common, but
independent events, may have common outcome. Clearly, ‘independent’ and
‘mutually exclusive’ do not have the same meaning.
In other words, two independent events having nonzero probabilities of occurrence
can not be mutually exclusive, and conversely, i.e. two mutually exclusive events
having nonzero probabilities of occurrence can not be independent.
(iii) Two experiments are said to be independent if for every pair of events E and F,
where E is associated with the first experiment and F with the second experiment,
the probability of the simultaneous occurrence of the events E and F when the
two experiments are performed is the product of P(E) and P(F) calculated
separately on the basis of two experiments, i.e., P (E ✂ F) = P (E) . P(F)
(iv) Three events A, B and C are said to be mutually independent, if
P (A ✂ B) = P (A) P (B)
P (A ✂ C) = P (A) P (C)
P (B ✂ C) = P (B) P(C)
and P (A ✂ B ✂ C) = P (A) P (B) P (C)
544 MATHEMATICS

If at least one of the above is not true for three given events, we say that the
events are not independent.
Example 10 A die is thrown. If E is the event ‘the number appearing is a multiple of
3’ and F be the event ‘the number appearing is even’ then find whether E and F are
independent ?
Solution We know that the sample space is S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
Now E = { 3, 6}, F = { 2, 4, 6} and E ✂ F = {6}
2 1 3 1 1
Then P (E) = , P (F) and P (E ✁ F)
6 3 6 2 6
Clearly P (E ✂ F) = P(E). P (F)
Hence E and F are independent events.
Example 11 An unbiased die is thrown twice. Let the event A be ‘odd number on the
first throw’ and B the event ‘odd number on the second throw’. Check the independence
of the events A and B.
Solution If all the 36 elementary events of the experiment are considered to be equally
likely, we have
18 1 18 1
P(A) = and P (B)
36 2 36 2
Also P (A ✂ B) = P (odd number on both throws)
9 1
= ✄
36 4

1 1 1
Now P (A) P(B) = ☎ ✄
2 2 4
Clearly P (A ✂ B) = P (A) × P (B)
Thus, A and B are independent events
Example 12 Three coins are tossed simultaneously. Consider the event E ‘three heads
or three tails’, F ‘at least two heads’ and G ‘at most two heads’. Of the pairs (E,F),
(E,G) and (F,G), which are independent? which are dependent?
Solution The sample space of the experiment is given by
S = {HHH, HHT, HTH, THH, HTT, THT, TTH, TTT}
Clearly E = {HHH, TTT}, F= {HHH, HHT, HTH, THH}
 PROBABILITY 545

and G = {HHT, HTH, THH, HTT, THT, TTH, TTT}

Also E ✂ F = {HHH}, E ✂ G = {TTT}, F ✂ G = { HHT, HTH, THH}

2 1 4 1 7
Therefore P (E) = , P (F) , P(G)
8 4 8 2 8

1 1 3
and P (E ✂ F) = , P (E ✁ G) , P(F ✁ G)
8 8 8

1 1 1 1 7 7
Also P (E) . P (F) = ✄ , P(E) ☎ P(G) ✄
4 2 8 4 8 32

1 7 7
and P (F) . P(G) = ✄
2 8 16
Thus P (E ✂ F) = P(E) . P(F)
P (E ✂ G) ✆ P(E) . P(G)
and P (F ✂ G) ✆ P (F) . P(G)
Hence, the events (E and F) are independent, and the events (E and G) and
(F and G) are dependent.
Example 13 Prove that if E and F are independent events, then so are the events
E and F✞✝
Solution Since E and F are independent, we have
P (E ✂ F) = P (E) . P (F) ....(1)
From the venn diagram in Fig 13.3, it is clear
that E ✂ F and E ✂ F ✞ are mutually exclusive events ✭✡ ’ ❋ ’ ✮ ❙
✡ ❋
and also E =(E ✂ F) ✟ (E ✂ F ✞).
Therefore P (E) = P (E ✂ F) + P(E ✂ F ✞)
or P (E ✂ F ✞) = P(E) ❾ P(E ✂ F)
= P(E) ❾ P(E) . P(F)
✭✡ ❋ ’ ✮ ✭✡ ❋✮ ✭✡ ’ ❋✮
(by (1)) Fig 13.3
= P(E) (1✠P(F))
= P(E). P(F ✞)
Hence, E and F ✞ are independent
546 MATHEMATICS

Note In a similar manner, it can be shown that if the events E and F are

✞✞ ✞
independent, then
(a) E and F are independent,
(b) E and F are independent

✞ ✞
Example 14 If A and B are two independent events, then the probability of occurrence
of at least one of A and B is given by 1– P(A ) P(B )
Solution We have
P (at least one of A and B) = P(A B) ✆ ❾ ✂
❾❾
= P(A) + P(B) P(A B)
= P(A) + P(B) P(A) P(B)

❾❾ ✞✞ ❾ ✞ ✞
= P(A) + P(B) [1 P(A)]
= P(A) + P(B). P(A )
= 1 P(A ) + P(B) P(A )

✁ ✞ ✞
= 1 P(A ) [1 P(B)]
= 1 P(A ) P (B )

✄ ✄ ✂
EXERCISE 13.2
3 1
1. If P(A) and P (B) , find P (A B) if A and B are independent events.
5 5
2. Two cards are drawn at random and without replacement from a pack of 52
playing cards. Find the probability that both the cards are black.
3. A box of oranges is inspected by examining three randomly selected oranges
drawn without replacement. If all the three oranges are good, the box is approved
for sale, otherwise, it is rejected. Find the probability that a box containing 15
oranges out of which 12 are good and 3 are bad ones will be approved for sale.
4. A fair coin and an unbiased die are tossed. Let A be the event ‘head appears on
the coin’ and B be the event ‘3 on the die’. Check whether A and B are
independent events or not.
5. A die marked 1, 2, 3 in red and 4, 5, 6 in green is tossed. Let A be the event,
‘the number is even,’ and B be the event, ‘the number is red’. Are A and B

✄ ✄ ✂
independent?
3 3 1
6. Let E and F be events with P (E) , P (F) and P (E F) = . Are
5 10 5
E and F independent?
 PROBABILITY 547

1
, P (A ✆ B) =
3
7. Given that the events A and B are such that P(A) = and
2 5
P (B) = p. Find p if they are (i) mutually exclusive (ii) independent.
8. Let A and B be independent events with P (A) = 0.3 and P(B) = 0.4. Find
(i) P (A ✂ B) (ii) P (A ✆ B✮
(iii) P (A|B) (iv) P (B|A)
1 1 1
9. If A and B are two events such that P (A) = , P (B) = and P (A ✂ B) = ,
4 2 8
find P (not A and not B).
1 7 1
10. Events A and B are such that P (A) = , P(B) = and P(not A or not B) = .
2 12 4
State whether A and B are independent ?
11. Given two independent events A and B such that P(A) = 0.3, P(B) = 0.6.
Find
(i) P(A and B) (ii) P(A and not B)
(iii) P(A or B) (iv) P(neither A nor B)
12. A die is tossed thrice. Find the probability of getting an odd number at least once.
13. Two balls are drawn at random with replacement from a box containing 10 black
and 8 red balls. Find the probability that
(i) both balls are red.
(ii) first ball is black and second is red.
(iii) one of them is black and other is red.
1 1
14. Probability of solving specific problem independently by A and B are and
2 3
respectively. If both try to solve the problem independently, find the probability
that
(i) the problem is solved (ii) exactly one of them solves the problem.
15. One card is drawn at random from a well shuffled deck of 52 cards. In which of
the following cases are the events E and F independent ?
(i) E : ‘the card drawn is a spade’
F : ‘the card drawn is an ace’
(ii) E : ‘the card drawn is black’
F : ‘the card drawn is a king’
(iii) E : ‘the card drawn is a king or queen’
F : ‘the card drawn is a queen or jack’.
548 MATHEMATICS

16. In a hostel, 60% of the students read Hindi news paper, 40% read English news
paper and 20% read both Hindi and English news papers. A student is selected
at random.
(a) Find the probability that she reads neither Hindi nor English news papers.
(b) If she reads Hindi news paper, find the probability that she reads English
news paper.
(c) If she reads English news paper, find the probability that she reads Hindi
news paper.
Choose the correct answer in Exercises 17 and 18.
17. The probability of obtaining an even prime number on each die, when a pair of
dice is rolled is
1 1 1
(A) 0 (B) (C) (D)
3 12 36
18. Two events A and B will be independent, if
(A) A and B are mutually exclusive
(B) P(A✞B✞ ) = [1 – P(A)] [1 – P(B)]
(C) P(A) = P(B)
(D) P(A) + P(B) = 1
13.5 Bayes' Theorem
Consider that there are two bags I and II. Bag I contains 2 white and 3 red balls and
Bag II contains 4 white and 5 red balls. One ball is drawn at random from one of the
1
bags. We can find the probability of selecting any of the bags (i.e. ) or probability of
2
drawing a ball of a particular colour (say white) from a particular bag (say Bag I). In
other words, we can find the probability that the ball drawn is of a particular colour, if
we are given the bag from which the ball is drawn. But, can we find the probability that
the ball drawn is from a particular bag (say Bag II), if the colour of the ball drawn is
given? Here, we have to find the reverse probability of Bag II to be selected when an
event occurred after it is known. Famous mathematician, John Bayes' solved the problem
of finding reverse probability by using conditional probability. The formula developed
by him is known as ‘Bayes theorem’ which was published posthumously in 1763.
Before stating and proving the Bayes' theorem, let us first take up a definition and
some preliminary results.
13.5.1 Partition of a sample space
A set of events E1, E2, ..., En is said to represent a partition of the sample space S if
(a) Ei ✂ Ej = ☎, i ✄ j, i, j = 1, 2, 3, ..., n
 PROBABILITY 549

(b) E1 ✆ ✷ ✆ ... ✆ En= S and

(c) P(Ei) > 0 for all i = 1, 2, ..., n.
In other words, the events E1, E2, ..., En represent a partition of the sample space
S if they are pairwise disjoint, exhaustive and have nonzero probabilities.
As an example, we see that any nonempty event E and its complement E✞ form a
partition of the sample space S since they satisfy E ✂ E✞ = ☎ and E ✆ E✞ = S.
From the Venn diagram in Fig 13.3, one can easily observe that if E and F are any
two events associated with a sample space S, then the set {E ✂ F✞, E ✂ F, E✞ ✂ F, E✞ ✂ F✞}
is a partition of the sample space S. It may be mentioned that the partition of a sample
space is not unique. There can be several partitions of the same sample space.
We shall now prove a theorem known as Theorem of total probability.
13.5.2 Theorem of total probability
Let {E1, E2,...,En} be a partition of the sample space S, and suppose that each of the
events E1, E2,..., En has nonzero probability of occurrence. Let A be any event associated
with S, then
P(A) = P(E1) P(A|E1) + P(E2) P(A|E2) + ... + P(En) P(A|En)
n
= ✄ P(E j ) P (A|E j )
j ✁1

Proof Given that E1, E2,..., En is a partition of the sample space S (Fig 13.4). Therefore,
S = E1 ✆ E2 ✆ ✝✝✝ ✆ En ... (1)
and Ei ✂ Ej = ☎, i ✟ j, i, j = 1, 2, ..., n
Now, we know that for any event A,
A=A✂S
= A ✂ (E1 ✆ E2 ✆ ... ✆ En)
= (A ✂ E1) ✆ (A ✂ E2) ✆ ✝✝✝✆ (A ✂ En) Fig 13.4
Also A ✂ Ei and A ✂ Ej are respectively the subsets of Ei and Ej . We know that
Ei and Ej are disjoint, for i ✠ j , therefore, A ✂ Ei and A ✂ Ej are also disjoint for all
i ✟ j, i, j = 1, 2, ..., n.
Thus, P(A) = P [(A ✂ E1) ✆ (A ✂ E2)✆ .....✆ (A ✂ En)]
= P (A ✂ E1) + P (A ✂ E2) + ... + P (A ✂ En)
Now, by multiplication rule of probability, we have
P(A ✂ Ei) = P(Ei) P(A|Ei) as P (Ei) ✟ 0✡i = 1,2,..., n
550 MATHEMATICS

Therefore, P (A) = P (E1) P (A|E1) + P (E2) P (A|E2) + ... + P (En)P(A|En)

n
or P(A) = ✁ P(E j ) P (A|E j )
j 1

Example 15 A person has undertaken a construction job. The probabilities are 0.65
that there will be strike, 0.80 that the construction job will be completed on time if there
is no strike, and 0.32 that the construction job will be completed on time if there is a
strike. Determine the probability that the construction job will be completed on time.
Solution Let A be the event that the construction job will be completed on time, and B
be the event that there will be a strike. We have to find P(A).
We have
P(B) = 0.65, P(no strike) = P(B✞) = 1 ❾ P(B) = 1 ❾ 0.65 = 0.35
P(A|B) = 0.32, P(A|B✞) = 0.80
Since events B and B✞ form a partition of the sample space S, therefore, by theorem
on total probability, we have
P(A) = P(B) P(A|B) + P(B✞) P(A|B✞)
= 0.65 × 0.32 + 0.35 × 0.8
= 0.208 + 0.28 = 0.488
Thus, the probability that the construction job will be completed in time is 0.488.
We shall now state and prove the Bayes' theorem.
Bayes’ Theorem If E1, E2 ,..., En are n non empty events which constitute a partition
of sample space S, i.e. E1, E2 ,..., En are pairwise disjoint and E1✆ E2✆ ... ✆ En = S and
A is any event of nonzero probability, then
P (E i ) P (A|E i )
P(Ei|A) = n for any i = 1, 2, 3, ..., n
✄ P(E j ) P (A|E j )
j ✂1

Proof By formula of conditional probability, we know that

P(A ☎ Ei )
P(Ei|A) =
P(A)
P (Ei ) P (A|Ei )
= (by multiplication rule of probability)
P (A)
P (E i ) P(A|E i )
= n (by the result of theorem of total probability)
✄ P(E j ) P(A|E j )
j ✂1
 PROBABILITY 551

Remark The following terminology is generally used when Bayes' theorem is applied.
The events E1, E2, ..., En are called hypotheses.
The probability P(Ei) is called the priori probability of the hypothesis Ei
The conditional probability P(Ei |A) is called a posteriori probability of the
hypothesis Ei.
Bayes' theorem is also called the formula for the probability of "causes". Since the
Ei's are a partition of the sample space S, one and only one of the events Ei occurs (i.e.
one of the events Ei must occur and only one can occur). Hence, the above formula
gives us the probability of a particular Ei (i.e. a "Cause"), given that the event A has
occurred.
The Bayes' theorem has its applications in variety of situations, few of which are
illustrated in following examples.
Example 16 Bag I contains 3 red and 4 black balls while another Bag II contains 5 red
and 6 black balls. One ball is drawn at random from one of the bags and it is found to
be red. Find the probability that it was drawn from Bag II.
Solution Let E1 be the event of choosing the bag I, E2 the event of choosing the bag II
and A be the event of drawing a red ball.
1
Then P(E1) = P(E2) =
2
3
Also P(A|E1) = P(drawing a red ball from Bag I) =
7
5
and P(A|E2) = P(drawing a red ball from Bag II) =
11
Now, the probability of drawing a ball from Bag II, being given that it is red,
is P(E2|A)
By using Bayes' theorem, we have
1 5
P(E 2 ) P(A|E 2 ) 2 11 35
P(E2|A) = = 1 3 1 5 ✁
P(E1 ) P(A|E1 ) + P(E 2 ) P(A|E 2 ) ✂ 68
2 7 2 11
Example 17 Given three identical boxes I, II and III, each containing two coins. In
box I, both coins are gold coins, in box II, both are silver coins and in the box III, there
is one gold and one silver coin. A person chooses a box at random and takes out a coin.
If the coin is of gold, what is the probability that the other coin in the box is also of gold?
552 MATHEMATICS

Solution Let E1, E2 and E3 be the events that boxes I, II and III are chosen, respectively.
1
Then P(E1) = P(E2) = P(E3) =
3
Also, let A be the event that ‘the coin drawn is of gold’
2
Then P(A|E1) = P(a gold coin from bag I) = =1
2
P(A|E2) = P(a gold coin from bag II) = 0
1
P(A|E3) = P(a gold coin from bag III) =
2
Now, the probability that the other coin in the box is of gold
= the probability that gold coin is drawn from the box I.
= P(E 1|A)
By Bayes' theorem, we know that
P(E1 ) P(A|E1 )
P(E1|A) =
P(E1 ) P(A|E1 ) + P(E 2 ) P(A|E 2 ) + P(E 3 ) P (A|E 3 )

1
1
3 2
= ✁
1 1 1 1 3
1✂ 0 ✂
3 3 3 2

Example 18 Suppose that the reliability of a HIV test is specified as follows:

Of people having HIV, 90% of the test detect the disease but 10% go undetected. Of
people free of HIV, 99% of the test are judged HIV–ive but 1% are diagnosed as
showing HIV+ive. From a large population of which only 0.1% have HIV, one person
is selected at random, given the HIV test, and the pathologist reports him/her as
HIV+ive. What is the probability that the person actually has HIV?
Solution Let E denote the event that the person selected is actually having HIV and A
the event that the person's HIV test is diagnosed as +ive. We need to find P(E|A).
Also E✞ denotes the event that the person selected is actually not having HIV.
Clearly, {E, E✞} is a partition of the sample space of all people in the population.
We are given that
0.1
P(E) = 0.1% ✄ ✄ 0.001
100
 PROBABILITY 553

P(E✞) = 1 – P(E) = 0.999

P(A|E) = P(Person tested as HIV+ive given that he/she
is actually having HIV)
90
= 90% 0.9
100
and P(A|E✞) = P(Person tested as HIV +ive given that he/she
is actually not having HIV)
1
= 1% = = 0.01
100
Now, by Bayes' theorem
P(E) P(A|E)
P(E|A) =
P(E) P(A|E) + P(E ✁) P (A|E ✁)
0.001✂ 0.9 90
= ✄
0.001✂ 0.9 ☎ 0.999✂ 0.01 1089
= 0.083 approx.
Thus, the probability that a person selected at random is actually having HIV
given that he/she is tested HIV+ive is 0.083.
Example 19 In a factory which manufactures bolts, machines A, B and C manufacture
respectively 25%, 35% and 40% of the bolts. Of their outputs, 5, 4 and 2 percent are
respectively defective bolts. A bolt is drawn at random from the product and is found
to be defective. What is the probability that it is manufactured by the machine B?
Solution Let events B1, B2, B3 be the following :
B1 : the bolt is manufactured by machine A
B2 : the bolt is manufactured by machine B
B3 : the bolt is manufactured by machine C
Clearly, B1, B2, B3 are mutually exclusive and exhaustive events and hence, they
represent a partition of the sample space.
Let the event E be ‘the bolt is defective’.
The event E occurs with B1 or with B2 or with B3. Given that,
P(B1) = 25% = 0.25, P (B2) = 0.35 and P(B3) = 0.40
Again P(E|B1) = Probability that the bolt drawn is defective given that it is manu-
factured by machine A = 5% = 0.05
Similarly, P(E|B2) = 0.04, P(E|B3) = 0.02.
554 MATHEMATICS

Hence, by Bayes' Theorem, we have

P(B2 ) P (E|B2 )
P(B2|E) =
P(B1 ) P (E|B1 ) + P (B2 ) P(E|B2 ) +P(B 3 ) P (E|B3 )
0.35 0.04
=
0.25 0.05 ✁ 0.35 0.04 ✁ 0.40 0.02
0.0140 28
= ✂
0.0345 69
Example 20 A doctor is to visit a patient. From the past experience, it is known that
the probabilities that he will come by train, bus, scooter or by other means of transport
3 1 1 2 1 1 1
are respectively , , and . The probabilities that he will be late are , , and ,
10 5 10 5 4 3 12
if he comes by train, bus and scooter respectively, but if he comes by other means of
transport, then he will not be late. When he arrives, he is late. What is the probability
that he comes by train?
Solution Let E be the event that the doctor visits the patient late and let T1, T2, T3, T4
be the events that the doctor comes by train, bus, scooter, and other means of transport
respectively.
3 1 1 2
Then P(T1) = , P (T2 ) ✂ , P (T3 ) ✂ and P (T4 ) ✂ (given)
10 5 10 5
1
P(E|T1) = Probability that the doctor arriving late comes by train =
4
1 1
Similarly, P(E|T2) = , P(E|T3) = and P(E|T4) = 0, since he is not late if he
3 12
comes by other means of transport.
Therefore, by Bayes' Theorem, we have
P(T1|E) = Probability that the doctor arriving late comes by train
P(T1 ) P (E|T1 )
=
P(T1 ) P (E|T1 ) + P (T2 ) P(E|T2 ) + P (T3 ) P(E|T3 )+ P (T4 )P (E|T4 )
3 1
✄ 3 120 1
= 10 4 = ✆ ✝
3 1 1 1 1 1 2
✄ ☎ ✄ ☎ ✄ ☎ ✄ 0 40 18 2
10 4 5 3 10 12 5
1
Hence, the required probability is .
2
 PROBABILITY 555

Example 21 A man is known to speak truth 3 out of 4 times. He throws a die and
reports that it is a six. Find the probability that it is actually a six.

Solution Let E be the event that the man reports that six occurs in the throwing of the
die and let S1 be the event that six occurs and S2 be the event that six does not occur.
1
Then P(S1) = Probability that six occurs =
6
5
P(S2) = Probability that six does not occur =
6
P(E|S1) = Probability that the man reports that six occurs when six has
actually occurred on the die
3
= Probability that the man speaks the truth =
4
P(E|S2) = Probability that the man reports that six occurs when six has
not actually occurred on the die
3 1
= Probability that the man does not speak the truth 1 ✁
4 4
Thus, by Bayes' theorem, we get
P(S1|E) = Probability that the report of the man that six has occurred is
actually a six
P(S1 ) P(E |S1 )
=
P(S1 ) P(E|S1 ) + P(S2 ) P (E|S2 )

1 3
✂ 1 24 3
6 4 ✄ ✂ ✄
=
1 3 5 1 8 8 8
✂ ☎ ✂
6 4 6 4
3
Hence, the required probability is .
8

EXERCISE 13.3
1. An urn contains 5 red and 5 black balls. A ball is drawn at random, its colour is
noted and is returned to the urn. Moreover, 2 additional balls of the colour drawn
are put in the urn and then a ball is drawn at random. What is the probability that
the second ball is red?
556 MATHEMATICS

2. A bag contains 4 red and 4 black balls, another bag contains 2 red and 6 black
balls. One of the two bags is selected at random and a ball is drawn from the bag
which is found to be red. Find the probability that the ball is drawn from the
first bag.
3. Of the students in a college, it is known that 60% reside in hostel and 40% are
day scholars (not residing in hostel). Previous year results report that 30% of all
students who reside in hostel attain A grade and 20% of day scholars attain A
grade in their annual examination. At the end of the year, one student is chosen
at random from the college and he has an A grade, what is the probability that the
student is a hostlier?
4. In answering a question on a multiple choice test, a student either knows the
3 1
answer or guesses. Let be the probability that he knows the answer and
4 4
be the probability that he guesses. Assuming that a student who guesses at the
1
answer will be correct with probability . What is the probability that the stu-
4
dent knows the answer given that he answered it correctly?
5. A laboratory blood test is 99% effective in detecting a certain disease when it is
in fact, present. However, the test also yields a false positive result for 0.5% of
the healthy person tested (i.e. if a healthy person is tested, then, with probability
0.005, the test will imply he has the disease). If 0.1 percent of the population
actually has the disease, what is the probability that a person has the disease
given that his test result is positive ?
6. There are three coins. One is a two headed coin (having head on both faces),
another is a biased coin that comes up heads 75% of the time and third is an
unbiased coin. One of the three coins is chosen at random and tossed, it shows
heads, what is the probability that it was the two headed coin ?
7. An insurance company insured 2000 scooter drivers, 4000 car drivers and 6000
truck drivers. The probability of an accidents are 0.01, 0.03 and 0.15 respectively.
One of the insured persons meets with an accident. What is the probability that
he is a scooter driver?
8. A factory has two machines A and B. Past record shows that machine A produced
60% of the items of output and machine B produced 40% of the items. Further,
2% of the items produced by machine A and 1% produced by machine B were
defective. All the items are put into one stockpile and then one item is chosen at
random from this and is found to be defective. What is the probability that it was
produced by machine B?
9. Two groups are competing for the position on the Board of directors of a
corporation. The probabilities that the first and the second groups will win are
 PROBABILITY 557

0.6 and 0.4 respectively. Further, if the first group wins, the probability of
introducing a new product is 0.7 and the corresponding probability is 0.3 if the
second group wins. Find the probability that the new product introduced was by
the second group.
10. Suppose a girl throws a die. If she gets a 5 or 6, she tosses a coin three times and
notes the number of heads. If she gets 1, 2, 3 or 4, she tosses a coin once and
notes whether a head or tail is obtained. If she obtained exactly one head, what
is the probability that she threw 1, 2, 3 or 4 with the die?
11. A manufacturer has three machine operators A, B and C. The first operator A
produces 1% defective items, where as the other two operators B and C pro-
duce 5% and 7% defective items respectively. A is on the job for 50% of the
time, B is on the job for 30% of the time and C is on the job for 20% of the time.
A defective item is produced, what is the probability that it was produced by A?
12. A card from a pack of 52 cards is lost. From the remaining cards of the pack,
two cards are drawn and are found to be both diamonds. Find the probability of
the lost card being a diamond.
4
13. Probability that A speaks truth is . A coin is tossed. A reports that a head
5
appears. The probability that actually there was head is
4 1 1 2
(A) (B) (C) (D)
5 2 5 5
14. If A and B are two events such that A ✟ B and P(B) ✄ 0, then which of the
following is correct?
P (B)
(A) P(A | B) (B) P(A⑤B) < P(A)
P (A)
(C) P(A|B) ☛ P(A) (D) None of these
13.6 Random Variables and its Probability Distributions
We have already learnt about random experiments and formation of sample spaces. In
most of these experiments, we were not only interested in the particular outcome that
occurs but rather in some number associated with that outcomes as shown in following
examples/experiments.
(i) In tossing two dice, we may be interested in the sum of the numbers on the
two dice.
(ii) In tossing a coin 50 times, we may want the number of heads obtained.
558 MATHEMATICS

(iii) In the experiment of taking out four articles (one after the other) at random
from a lot of 20 articles in which 6 are defective, we want to know the
number of defectives in the sample of four and not in the particular sequence
of defective and nondefective articles.
In all of the above experiments, we have a rule which assigns to each outcome of
the experiment a single real number. This single real number may vary with different
outcomes of the experiment. Hence, it is a variable. Also its value depends upon the
outcome of a random experiment and, hence, is called random variable. A random
variable is usually denoted by X.
If you recall the definition of a function, you will realise that the random variable X
is really speaking a function whose domain is the set of outcomes (or sample space) of
a random experiment. A random variable can take any real value, therefore, its
co-domain is the set of real numbers. Hence, a random variable can be defined as
follows :
Definition 4 A random variable is a real valued function whose domain is the sample
space of a random experiment.
For example, let us consider the experiment of tossing a coin two times in succession.
The sample space of the experiment is S = {HH, HT, TH, TT}.
If X denotes the number of heads obtained, then X is a random variable and for
each outcome, its value is as given below :
X (HH) = 2, X (HT) = 1, X (TH) = 1, X (TT) = 0.
More than one random variables can be defined on the same sample space. For
example, let Y denote the number of heads minus the number of tails for each outcome
of the above sample space S.
Then Y (HH) = 2, Y (HT) = 0, Y (TH) = 0, Y (TT) = – 2.
Thus, X and Y are two different random variables defined on the same sample
space S.
Example 22 A person plays a game of tossing a coin thrice. For each head, he is
given Rs 2 by the organiser of the game and for each tail, he has to give Rs 1.50 to the
organiser. Let X denote the amount gained or lost by the person. Show that X is a
random variable and exhibit it as a function on the sample space of the experiment.
Solution X is a number whose values are defined on the outcomes of a random
experiment. Therefore, X is a random variable.
Now, sample space of the experiment is
S = {HHH, HHT, HTH, THH, HTT, THT, TTH, TTT}
 PROBABILITY 559

Then X (HHH) = Rs (2 × 3) = Rs 6
X (HHT) = X (HTH) = X (THH) = Rs (2 × 2 ❾ 1 × 1.50) = Rs 2.50
X (HTT) = X (THT) = (TTH) = Rs (1 × 2) – (2 × 1.50) = – Re 1
and X (TTT) = Rs (3 × 1.50) = Rs 4.50
where, minus sign shows the loss to the player. Thus, for each element of the sample
space, X takes a unique value, hence, X is a function on the sample space whose range
is
{– 1, 2.50, – 4.50, 6}
Example 23 A bag contains 2 white and 1 red balls. One ball is drawn at random and
then put back in the box after noting its colour. The process is repeated again. If X
denotes the number of red balls recorded in the two draws, describe X.
Solution Let the balls in the bag be denoted by w1, w2, r. Then the sample space is
S = {w1 w1, w1 w2, w2 w2, w2 w1, w1 r, w2 r, r w1, r w2, r r}
Now, for ☞✁S
X (☞) = number of red balls
Therefore
X ({w1 w1}) = X ({w1 w2}) = X ({w2 w2}) = X ({w2 w1}) = 0
X ({w1 r}) = X ({w2 r}) = X ({r w1}) = X ({r w2}) = 1 and X ({r r}) = 2
Thus, X is a random variable which can take values 0, 1 or 2.
13.6.1 Probability distribution of a random variable
Let us look at the experiment of selecting one family out of ten families f1, f2 ,..., f10 in
such a manner that each family is equally likely to be selected. Let the families f1, f2,
... , f10 have 3, 4, 3, 2, 5, 4, 3, 6, 4, 5 members, respectively.
Let us select a family and note down the number of members in the family denoting
X. Clearly, X is a random variable defined as below :
X (f1) = 3, X (f2) = 4, X (f3) = 3, X (f4) = 2, X (f5) = 5,
X (f6) = 4, X (f7) = 3, X (f8) = 6, X (f9) = 4, X (f10) = 5
Thus, X can take any value 2,3,4,5 or 6 depending upon which family is selected.
Now, X will take the value 2 when the family f4 is selected. X can take the value
3 when any one of the families f1, f3, f7 is selected.
Similarly, X = 4, when family f2, f6 or f9 is selected,
X = 5, when family f5 or f10 is selected
and X = 6, when family f8 is selected.
560 MATHEMATICS

Since we had assumed that each family is equally likely to be selected, the probability
1
that family f4 is selected is .
10
1 1
Thus, the probability that X can take the value 2 is . We write P(X = 2) =
10 10
Also, the probability that any one of the families f1, f3 or f7 is selected is
3
P({f1, f3, f7}) =
10
3
Thus, the probability that X can take the value 3 =
10
3
We write P(X = 3) =
10
Similarly, we obtain
3
P(X = 4) = P({f2, f6, f9}) =
10
2
P(X = 5) = P({f5, f10}) =
10
1
and P(X = 6) = P({f8}) =
10
Such a description giving the values of the random variable along with the
corresponding probabilities is called the probability distribution of the random
variable X.
In general, the probability distribution of a random variable X is defined as follows:
Definition 5 The probability distribution of a random variable X is the system of numbers
X : x1 x2 ... xn
P(X) : p1 p2 ... pn
n
where, pi ✁ 0, ✂ pi = 1, i = 1, 2,..., n
i 1

The real numbers x1, x2,..., xn are the possible values of the random variable X and
pi (i = 1,2,..., n) is the probability of the random variable X taking the value xi i.e.,
P(X = xi) = pi
 PROBABILITY 561

✄
Note If xi is one of the possible values of a random variable X, the statement
X = xi is true only at some point (s) of the sample space. Hence, the probability that
X takes value xi is always nonzero, i.e. P(X = xi) 0.
Also for all possible values of the random variable X, all elements of the sample
space are covered. Hence, the sum of all the probabilities in a probability distribution
must be one.
Example 24 Two cards are drawn successively with replacement from a well-shuffled
deck of 52 cards. Find the probability distribution of the number of aces.
Solution The number of aces is a random variable. Let it be denoted by X. Clearly, X
can take the values 0, 1, or 2.
Now, since the draws are done with replacement, therefore, the two draws form
independent experiments.
Therefore, P(X = 0) = P(non-ace and non-ace)

✁✂
= P(non-ace) × P(non-ace)
48 48 144
=
52 52 169
P(X = 1) = P(ace and non-ace or non-ace and ace)
= P(ace and non-ace) + P(non-ace and ace)

☎✆☎✝
= P(ace). P(non-ace) + P (non-ace) . P(ace)

4 48 48 4 24
=
52 52 52 52 169

☎✝
and P(X = 2) = P (ace and ace)
4 4 1
=
52 52 169
Thus, the required probability distribution is

X 0 1 2

144 24 1
P(X)
169 169 169

Example 25 Find the probability distribution of number of doublets in three throws of

a pair of dice.
562 MATHEMATICS

Solution Let X denote the number of doublets. Possible doublets are

(1,1) , (2,2), (3,3), (4,4), (5,5), (6,6)
Clearly, X can take the value 0, 1, 2, or 3.
6 1
Probability of getting a doublet
36 6
1 5
Probability of not getting a doublet 1✁
6 6
5 5 5 125
Now P(X = 0) = P (no doublet) = ✂ ✂ ✄
6 6 6 216
P(X = 1) = P (one doublet and two non-doublets)
1 5 5 5 1 5 5 5 1
= ☎ ☎ ✆ ☎ ☎ ✆ ☎ ☎
6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6
✝ 1 52 ✞ 75
= 3✡ ✟ 2 ☛ ✠
☞ 6 6 ✌ 216
P(X = 2) = P (two doublets and one non-doublet)
1 1 5 1 5 1 5 1 1 ✍ 1 5 ✎ 15
= ✏ ✏ ✑ ✏ ✏ ✑ ✏ ✏ ✒ 3✓ 2 ✏ ✔ ✒
6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 ✕ 6 6 ✖ 216
and P(X = 3) = P (three doublets)
1 1 1 1
= ✂ ✂ ✄
6 6 6 216
Thus, the required probability distribution is

X 0 1 2 3
125 75 15 1
P(X)
216 216 216 216
Verification Sum of the probabilities
n
125 75 15 1
✘ pi = ✙ ✙ ✙
i ✗1 216 216 216 216

125 ✆ 75 ✆ 15 ✆ 1 216
= 1
216 216
 PROBABILITY 563

Example 26 Let X denote the number of hours you study during a randomly selected
school day. The probability that X can take the values x, has the following form, where
k is some unknown constant.

✁0.1, if x 0
✂kx, if x 1or 2
✂
P(X = x) = ✄
✂k (5 ☎ x), if x 3or 4
✂✆0, otherwise
(a) Find the value of k.
(b) What is the probability that you study at least two hours ? Exactly two hours? At
most two hours?

Solution The probability distribution of X is

X 0 1 2 3 4
P(X) 0.1 k 2k 2k k
n
(a) We know that ✞ pi = 1
i ✝1
Therefore 0.1 + k + 2k + 2k + k = 1
i.e. k = 0.15
(b) P(you study at least two hours) = P(X ☛ 2)
= P(X = 2) + P (X = 3) + P (X = 4)
= 2k + 2k + k = 5k = 5 × 0.15 = 0.75
P(you study exactly two hours) = P(X = 2)
= 2k = 2 × 0.15 = 0.3
P(you study at most two hours) = P(X ✍ 2)
= P (X = 0) + P(X = 1) + P(X = 2)
= 0.1 + k + 2k = 0.1 + 3k = 0.1 + 3 × 0.15
= 0.55
13.6.2 Mean of a random variable
In many problems, it is desirable to describe some feature of the random variable by
means of a single number that can be computed from its probability distribution. Few
such numbers are mean, median and mode. In this section, we shall discuss mean only.
Mean is a measure of location or central tendency in the sense that it roughly locates a
middle or average value of the random variable.
564 MATHEMATICS

Definition 6 Let X be a random variable whose possible values x1, x2, x3, ..., xn occur
with probabilities p1, p2, p3,..., pn , respectively. The mean of X, denoted by ➭, is the
n
number ✁ xi pi i.e. the mean of X is the weighted average of the possible values of X,
i 1

each value being weighted by its probability with which it occurs.

The mean of a random variable X is also called the expectation of X, denoted by
E(X).
n

Thus, E (X) = ➭ = ✄ xi pi = x1 p1+ x2 p2 + ... + xn pn.

i ✂1

In other words, the mean or expectation of a random variable X is the sum of the
products of all possible values of X by their respective probabilities.
Example 27 Let a pair of dice be thrown and the random variable X be the sum of the
numbers that appear on the two dice. Find the mean or expectation of X.
Solution The sample space of the experiment consists of 36 elementary events in the
form of ordered pairs (xi , yi), where xi = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and yi = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.
The random variable X i.e. the sum of the numbers on the two dice takes the
values 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 or 12.
1
Now P(X = 2) = P({(1,1)}) ☎
36
2
P(X = 3) = P({(1,2), (2,1)}) ✆
36
3
P(X = 4) = P({(1,3), (2,2), (3,1)}) ☎
36
4
P(X = 5) = P({(1,4), (2,3), (3,2), (4,1)}) ☎
36
5
P(X = 6) = P({(1,5), (2,4), (3,3), (4,2), (5,1)}) ✆
36
6
P(X = 7) = P({(1,6), (2,5), (3,4), (4,3), (5,2), (6,1)}) ☎
36
5
P(X = 8) = P({(2,6), (3,5), (4,4), (5,3), (6,2)}) ☎
36
 PROBABILITY 565

4
P(X = 9) = P({(3,6), (4,5), (5,4), (6,3)})
36
3
P(X = 10) = P({(4,6), (5,5), (6,4)})
36
2
P(X = 11) = P({(5,6), (6,5)})
36
1
P(X = 12) = P({(6,6)})
36
The probability distribution of X is

X or xi 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
1 2 3 4 5 6 5 4 3 2 1
P(X) or pi
36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36
Therefore,
n
1 2 3 4
➭ = E(X) = ✆ xi pi ✂ 2✄ ☎ 3✄ ☎ 4✄ ☎ 5✄
i ✁1 36 36 36 36

5 6 5 4 3 2 1
✝6✞ ✝7✞ ✝8✞ ✝ 9 ✞ ✝ 10 ✞ ✝ 11✞ ✝ 12 ✞
36 36 36 36 36 36 36

2 ✟ 6 ✟ 12 ✟ 20 ✟ 30 ✟ 42 ✟ 40 ✟ 36 ✟ 30 ✟ 22 ✟ 12
= =7
36
Thus, the mean of the sum of the numbers that appear on throwing two fair dice is 7.
13.6.3 Variance of a random variable
The mean of a random variable does not give us information about the variability in the
values of the random variable. In fact, if the variance is small, then the values of the
random variable are close to the mean. Also random variables with different probability
distributions can have equal means, as shown in the following distributions of X and Y.

X 1 2 3 4
1 2 3 2
P(X)
8 8 8 8
566 MATHEMATICS

Y –1 0 4 5 6
1 2 3 1 1
P(Y)
8 8 8 8 8
1 2 3 2 22
Clearly E(X) = 1 ✁ 2 ✁ 3 ✁ 4 ✂ ✂ 2.75
8 8 8 8 8

1 2 3 1 1 22
and E(Y) = ✄1☎ ✆ 0 ☎ ✆ 4☎ ✆ 5☎ ✝ 6☎ ✝ ✝ 2.75
8 8 8 8 8 8
The variables X and Y are different, however their means are same. It is also
easily observable from the diagramatic representation of these distributions (Fig 13.5).
P(X) P(Y)

3 3
8 8
2 2
8 8
1 1
8 8

O 1 2 3 4 –1 O 1 2 3 4 5 6
(i) (ii)
Fig 13.5
To distinguish X from Y, we require a measure of the extent to which the values of
the random variables spread out. In Statistics, we have studied that the variance is a
measure of the spread or scatter in data. Likewise, the variability or spread in the
values of a random variable may be measured by variance.
Definition 7 Let X be a random variable whose possible values x1, x2,...,xn occur with
probabilities p(x1), p(x2),..., p(xn) respectively.

Let ➭ = E (X) be the mean of X. The variance of X, denoted by Var (X) or ✞ x 2 is

defined as
n
✞ x 2 = Var (X) = ☛ ( xi ✡ ✟ ) 2 p( xi )
i ✠1

or equivalently ✞ x 2 = E(X – ➭)2

 PROBABILITY 567

The non-negative number

n
2
✎x = Var(X) = ✄ ( xi ✁ ✂ ) p ( xi )
i 1

is called the standard deviation of the random variable X.

Another formula to find the variance of a random variable. We know that,
n
2
Var (X) = ✞ ( xi ✝ ☎ ) p ( xi )
i ✆1

n
2 2
= ☞ ( xi ✡ ✟ ☛ 2✟ xi ) p ( xi )
i ✠1

n n n
2 2
= ✞ xi p( xi ) ✌ ✞☎ p ( xi ) ✝ ✞ 2☎xi p ( xi )
i ✆1 i ✆1 i ✆1

n n n
2
= ✓ xi p( xi ) ✑ ✍ 2 ✓ p ( xi ) ✒ 2✍ ✓ xi p ( xi )
i ✏1 i ✏1 i ✏1

n n n
2 ✖ ✗
= ✣ xi p ( xi ) ✘ ✔ 2 ✙ 2✔ 2 ✚since ✣ p (xi ) =1and ✔ = ✣ xi p ( xi ) ✛
i ✕1 ✜ i =1 i ✕1 ✢

n
2
= ✞ xi p ( xi ) ✝ ☎ 2
i ✆1

n n 2
2 ✥ ✦
or Var (X) = ✬ xi p ( xi ) ✧ ★ ✬ xi p( xi ) ✩
i ✤1 ✪ i ✤1 ✫

n
2
or Var (X) = E(X2) – [E(X)]2, where E(X2) = ✞ xi p( xi )
i ✆1

Example 28 Find the variance of the number obtained on a throw of an unbiased die.

Solution The sample space of the experiment is S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.

Let X denote the number obtained on the throw. Then X is a random variable
which can take values 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6.
568 MATHEMATICS

1
Also P(1) = P(2) = P(3) = P(4) = P(5) = P(6) =
6
Therefore, the Probability distribution of X is

X 1 2 3 4 5 6
1 1 1 1 1 1
P(X)
6 6 6 6 6 6
n
Now E(X) = ✁ xi p( xi )
i 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 21
= 1✂ ✄ 2✂ ✄ 3✂ ✄ 4 ✂ ✄ 5✂ ✄ 6✂ ☎
6 6 6 6 6 6 6

2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 91
Also E(X2) = 1 ✂ ✄ 2 ✂ ✄3 ✂ ✄ 4 ✂ ✄5 ✂ ✄ 6 ✂ ☎
6 6 6 6 6 6 6
Thus, Var (X) = E (X2) – (E(X))2
2
91 ✆ 21 ✝ 91 441 35
= ✞✠ ✡ ✟ ✞ ☎
6 ☛ 6☞ 6 36 12

Example 29 Two cards are drawn simultaneously (or successively without replacement)
from a well shuffled pack of 52 cards. Find the mean, variance and standard deviation
of the number of kings.
Solution Let X denote the number of kings in a draw of two cards. X is a random
variable which can assume the values 0, 1 or 2.

48!
48
C 2 2!(48 ✍ 2)! 48 ✌ 47 188
Now P(X = 0) = P (no king) ✎
52
✎ ✎ ✎
C2 52! 52 ✌ 51 221
2!(52 ✍ 2)!

4 48
C1 C1
P(X = 1) = P (one king and one non-king) ✏
52
C2

4✑ 48✑ 2 32
= ✒
52✑ 51 221
 PROBABILITY 569

4
C2 4 3 1
and P(X = 2) = P (two kings) = 52
✁ ✁
C 2 52 51 221
Thus, the probability distribution of X is
X 0 1 2
188 32 1
P(X)
221 221 221
n

Now Mean of X = E(X) = ✄ xi p( xi )

✂
i 1

188 32 1 34
= 0☎ ✆ 1☎ ✆ 2☎ ✝
221 221 221 221
n
2
Also E(X2) = ✟ xi p ( xi )
i 1 ✞
188 2 32 1 36
= 02 ☎ ✆1 ☎ ✆ 22 ☎ ✝
221 221 221 221
Now Var(X) = E(X2) – [E(X)]2
2
36 ✠ 34 ✡ 6800
= –☞ ✌ ☛
221 ✍ 221 ✎ (221) 2

6800
Therefore ✏x = Var(X) ✑ ✑ 0.37
221

EXERCISE 13.4
1. State which of the following are not the probability distributions of a random
variable. Give reasons for your answer.
(i) X 0 1 2
P(X) 0.4 0.4 0.2

(ii) X 0 1 2 3 4
P(X) 0.1 0.5 0.2 – 0.1 0.3
570 MATHEMATICS

(iii) Y –1 0 1
P(Y) 0.6 0.1 0.2

(iv) Z 3 2 1 0 –1
P(Z) 0.3 0.2 0.4 0.1 0.05

2. An urn contains 5 red and 2 black balls. Two balls are randomly drawn. Let X
represent the number of black balls. What are the possible values of X? Is X a
random variable ?
3. Let X represent the difference between the number of heads and the number of
tails obtained when a coin is tossed 6 times. What are possible values of X?
4. Find the probability distribution of
(i) number of heads in two tosses of a coin.
(ii) number of tails in the simultaneous tosses of three coins.
(iii) number of heads in four tosses of a coin.

5. Find the probability distribution of the number of successes in two tosses of a die,
where a success is defined as
(i) number greater than 4
(ii) six appears on at least one die

6. From a lot of 30 bulbs which include 6 defectives, a sample of 4 bulbs is drawn

at random with replacement. Find the probability distribution of the number of
defective bulbs.
7. A coin is biased so that the head is 3 times as likely to occur as tail. If the coin is
tossed twice, find the probability distribution of number of tails.
8. A random variable X has the following probability distribution:
X 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
P(X) 0 k 2k 2k 3k k 2k 7k 2 +k
2 2

Determine
(i) k (ii) P(X < 3)
(iii) P(X > 6) (iv) P(0 < X < 3)
 PROBABILITY 571

9. The random variable X has a probability distribution P(X) of the following form,
where k is some number :

✁ k , if x 0
✂ 2k , if x 1
✂
P(X) = ✄
✂3k , if x 2
✂☎0, otherwise

(a) Determine the value of k.

(b) Find P (X < 2), P (X ✍ 2), P(X ☛ 2).
10. Find the mean number of heads in three tosses of a fair coin.
11. Two dice are thrown simultaneously. If X denotes the number of sixes, find the
expectation of X.
12. Two numbers are selected at random (without replacement) from the first six
positive integers. Let X denote the larger of the two numbers obtained. Find
E(X).
13. Let X denote the sum of the numbers obtained when two fair dice are rolled.
Find the variance and standard deviation of X.
14. A class has 15 students whose ages are 14, 17, 15, 14, 21, 17, 19, 20, 16, 18, 20,
17, 16, 19 and 20 years. One student is selected in such a manner that each has
the same chance of being chosen and the age X of the selected student is
recorded. What is the probability distribution of the random variable X? Find
mean, variance and standard deviation of X.
15. In a meeting, 70% of the members favour and 30% oppose a certain proposal.
A member is selected at random and we take X = 0 if he opposed, and X = 1 if
he is in favour. Find E(X) and Var (X).
Choose the correct answer in each of the following:
16. The mean of the numbers obtained on throwing a die having written 1 on three
faces, 2 on two faces and 5 on one face is
8
(A) 1 (B) 2 (C) 5 (D)
3
17. Suppose that two cards are drawn at random from a deck of cards. Let X be the
number of aces obtained. Then the value of E(X) is
37 5 1 2
(A) (B) (C) (D)
221 13 13 13
572 MATHEMATICS

13.7 Bernoulli Trials and Binomial Distribution

13.7.1 Bernoulli trials
Many experiments are dichotomous in nature. For example, a tossed coin shows a
‘head’ or ‘tail’, a manufactured item can be ‘defective’ or ‘non-defective’, the response
to a question might be ‘yes’ or ‘no’, an egg has ‘hatched’ or ‘not hatched’, the decision
is ‘yes’ or ‘no’ etc. In such cases, it is customary to call one of the outcomes a ‘success’
and the other ‘not success’ or ‘failure’. For example, in tossing a coin, if the occurrence
of the head is considered a success, then occurrence of tail is a failure.
Each time we toss a coin or roll a die or perform any other experiment, we call it a
trial. If a coin is tossed, say, 4 times, the number of trials is 4, each having exactly two
outcomes, namely, success or failure. The outcome of any trial is independent of the
outcome of any other trial. In each of such trials, the probability of success or failure
remains constant. Such independent trials which have only two outcomes usually
referred as ‘success’ or ‘failure’ are called Bernoulli trials.
Definition 8 Trials of a random experiment are called Bernoulli trials, if they satisfy
the following conditions :
(i) There should be a finite number of trials.
(ii) The trials should be independent.
(iii) Each trial has exactly two outcomes : success or failure.
(iv) The probability of success remains the same in each trial.
For example, throwing a die 50 times is a case of 50 Bernoulli trials, in which each
trial results in success (say an even number) or failure (an odd number) and the
probability of success (p) is same for all 50 throws. Obviously, the successive throws
of the die are independent experiments. If the die is fair and have six numbers 1 to 6
1 1
written on six faces, then p = and q = 1 – p = = probability of failure.
2 2
Example 30 Six balls are drawn successively from an urn containing 7 red and 9 black
balls. Tell whether or not the trials of drawing balls are Bernoulli trials when after each
draw the ball drawn is
(i) replaced (ii) not replaced in the urn.
Solution
(i) The number of trials is finite. When the drawing is done with replacement, the
7
probability of success (say, red ball) is p = which is same for all six trials
16
(draws). Hence, the drawing of balls with replacements are Bernoulli trials.
 PROBABILITY 573

(ii) When the drawing is done without replacement, the probability of success
7 6
(i.e., red ball) in first trial is , in 2nd trial is if the first ball drawn is red or
7 16 15
if the first ball drawn is black and so on. Clearly, the probability of success is
15
not same for all trials, hence the trials are not Bernoulli trials.
13.7.2 Binomial distribution
Consider the experiment of tossing a coin in which each trial results in success (say,
heads) or failure (tails). Let S and F denote respectively success and failure in each
trial. Suppose we are interested in finding the ways in which we have one success in
six trials.
Clearly, six different cases are there as listed below:
SFFFFF, FSFFFF, FFSFFF, FFFSFF, FFFFSF, FFFFFS.
6!
Similarly, two successes and four failures can have 4! 2! combinations. It will be

lengthy job to list all of these ways. Therefore, calculation of probabilities of 0, 1, 2,...,
n number of successes may be lengthy and time consuming. To avoid the lengthy
calculations and listing of all the possible cases, for the probabilities of number of
successes in n-Bernoulli trials, a formula is derived. For this purpose, let us take the
experiment made up of three Bernoulli trials with probabilities p and q = 1 – p for
success and failure respectively in each trial. The sample space of the experiment is
the set
S = {SSS, SSF, SFS, FSS, SFF, FSF, FFS, FFF}
The number of successes is a random variable X and can take values 0, 1, 2, or 3.
The probability distribution of the number of successes is as below :
P(X = 0) = P(no success)
= P({FFF}) = P(F) P(F) P(F)
= q . q . q = q3 since the trials are independent
P(X = 1) = P(one successes)
= P({SFF, FSF, FFS})
= P({SFF}) + P({FSF}) + P({FFS})
= P(S) P(F) P(F) + P(F) P(S) P(F) + P(F) P(F) P(S)
= p.q.q + q.p.q + q.q.p = 3pq2
P(X = 2) = P (two successes)
= P({SSF, SFS, FSS})
= P({SSF}) + P ({SFS}) + P({FSS})
574 MATHEMATICS

= P(S) P(S) P(F) + P(S) P(F) P(S) + P(F) P(S) P(S)

= p.p.q. + p.q.p + q.p.p = 3p2q
and P(X = 3) = P(three success) = P ({SSS})
= P(S) . P(S) . P(S) = p3
Thus, the probability distribution of X is
X 0 1 2 3
3 2 2
P(X) q 3q p 3qp p3
Also, the binominal expansion of (q + p)3 is

q3 3q 2 p 3qp 2 p3
Note that the probabilities of 0, 1, 2 or 3 successes are respectively the 1st, 2nd,
3rd and 4th term in the expansion of (q + p)3.
Also, since q + p = 1, it follows that the sum of these probabilities, as expected, is 1.
Thus, we may conclude that in an experiment of n-Bernoulli trials, the probabilities
of 0, 1, 2,..., n successes can be obtained as 1st, 2nd,...,(n + 1)th terms in the expansion
of (q + p)n. To prove this assertion (result), let us find the probability of x-successes in
an experiment of n-Bernoulli trials.
Clearly, in case of x successes (S), there will be (n – x) failures (F).
n!
Now, x successes (S) and (n – x) failures (F) can be obtained in x !(n ✁ x)! ways.

In each of these ways, the probability of x successes and (n ❾ x) failures is

= P(x successes) . P(n–x) failures is

P (S).P (S)...P(S) ✄ P (F).P (F)...P(F)

= ☎✆✆✝✆✆✞ ☎✆✆✝✆✆✞ = px qn–x
x times ( n ✂ x ) times

n!
Thus, the probability of x successes in n-Bernoulli trials is px qn–x
x !(n ✁ x)!
or nCx px qn–x
Thus P(x successes) = n C x p x q n ✂ x , x = 0, 1, 2,...,n. (q = 1 – p)
Clearly, P(x successes), i.e. n C x p x q n ✂ x is the (x + 1)th term in the binomial
expansion of (q + p)n.
Thus, the probability distribution of number of successes in an experiment consisting
of n Bernoulli trials may be obtained by the binomial expansion of (q + p)n. Hence, this
 PROBABILITY 575

distribution of number of successes X can be written as

X 0 1 2 ... x ... n
P (X) nC 0 q n nC 1 q n–1p 1 n C 2 q n–2 p 2 n
C x q n–xp x n
Cn pn
The above probability distribution is known as binomial distribution with parameters
n and p, because for given values of n and p, we can find the complete probability
distribution.
The probability of x successes P (X = x) is also denoted by P (x) and is given by
P (x) = nCx qn–xpx, x = 0, 1,..., n. (q = 1 – p)
This P (x) is called the probability function of the binomial distribution.
A binomial distribution with n-Bernoulli trials and probability of success in each
trial as p, is denoted by B (n, p).
Let us now take up some examples.
Example 31 If a fair coin is tossed 10 times, find the probability of
(i) exactly six heads
(ii) at least six heads
(iii) at most six heads

Solution The repeated tosses of a coin are Bernoulli trials. Let X denote the number
of heads in an experiment of 10 trials.
1
Clearly, X has the binomial distribution with n = 10 and p =
2
Therefore P(X = x) = nCxqn–xpx, x = 0, 1, 2,...,n
1 1
Here n = 10, p ,q=1–p=
2 2
10 x ✁ x 10
✂1✄ ✂ 1 ✄ 10 ✂ 1 ✄
✆ 2 ✝ ☎ Cx ✆ 2 ✝
10
Therefore P(X = x) = Cx ✆ ✝
✞ 2✟ ✞ ✟ ✞ ✟

10
✠1✡ 10! 1 105
Now (i) P(X = 6) = C6 ☞ ✌ ☛ ☛
10

✎2✏ 6!✍ 4! 210 512

(ii) P(at least six heads) = P(X ✑ 6)
= P (X = 6) + P (X = 7) + P (X = 8) + P(X = 9) + P (X = 10)
576 MATHEMATICS

10 10 10 10 10
10 1✁ 10 1✁ 10 1✁ 10 1✁ 10 1✁
= C6 ✄ ☎ ✂ C7 ✄ ☎ ✂ C8 ✄ ☎ ✂ C9 ✄ ☎ ✂ C10 ✄☎
✆ 2✝ ✆2✝ ✆2✝ ✆ 2✝ ✆2✝

✞ ✠ 10! ✡ ✠ 10! ✡ ✠ 10! ✡ ✠ 10! ✡ ✠ 10! ✡ ✟ 1 193

= ☞✍ ✎ ☛✍ ✎ ☛✍ ✎ ☛✍ ✎ ☛✍ ✎ ✌ 10 ✕
✓ ✑ 6!✏ 4! ✒ ✑ 7!✏ 3! ✒ ✑ 8!✏ 2! ✒ ✑ 9!✏1! ✒ ✑ 10! ✒ ✔ 2 512
(iii) P(at most six heads) = P(X ✖ 6)
= P (X = 0) + P (X = 1) + P (X = 2) + P (X = 3)
+ P (X = 4) + P (X = 5) + P (X = 6)
10 10 10 10
1✁ 10 1✁ 10 1✁ 10 1✁
= ✄ ☎ ✂ C1 ✄ ☎ ✂ C2 ✄ ☎ ✂ C3 ✄ ☎
✆2✝ ✆2✝ ✆ 2✝ ✆ 2✝
10 10 10
10 1✁ 10 1✁ 10 1✁
+ C4 ✄ ☎ ✂ C5 ✄ ☎ ✂ C6 ✄ ☎
✆2✝ ✆2✝ ✆2✝

848 53
= ✕
1024 64
Example 32 Ten eggs are drawn successively with replacement from a lot containing
10% defective eggs. Find the probability that there is at least one defective egg.
Solution Let X denote the number of defective eggs in the 10 eggs drawn. Since the
drawing is done with replacement, the trials are Bernoulli trials. Clearly, X has the
10 1
binomial distribution with n = 10 and p ✕ ✕ .
100 10
9
Therefore q = 1✗ p ✘
10
Now P(at least one defective egg) = P(X ✙ 1) = 1 – P (X = 0)
10
10 9✁ 910
= 1 ✚ C0 ✄ ☎ = 1✛
✆ 10 ✝ 1010

EXERCISE 13.5
1. A die is thrown 6 times. If ‘getting an odd number’ is a success, what is the
probability of
(i) 5 successes? (ii) at least 5 successes?
(iii) at most 5 successes?
 PROBABILITY 577

2. A pair of dice is thrown 4 times. If getting a doublet is considered a success, find

the probability of two successes.
3. There are 5% defective items in a large bulk of items. What is the probability
that a sample of 10 items will include not more than one defective item?
4. Five cards are drawn successively with replacement from a well-shuffled deck
of 52 cards. What is the probability that
(i) all the five cards are spades?
(ii) only 3 cards are spades?
(iii) none is a spade?
5. The probability that a bulb produced by a factory will fuse after 150 days of use
is 0.05. Find the probability that out of 5 such bulbs
(i) none
(ii) not more than one
(iii) more than one
(iv) at least one
will fuse after 150 days of use.
6. A bag consists of 10 balls each marked with one of the digits 0 to 9. If four balls
are drawn successively with replacement from the bag, what is the probability
that none is marked with the digit 0?
7. In an examination, 20 questions of true-false type are asked. Suppose a student
tosses a fair coin to determine his answer to each question. If the coin falls
heads, he answers 'true'; if it falls tails, he answers 'false'. Find the probability
that he answers at least 12 questions correctly.
1✁
8. Suppose X has a binomial distribution B ✂ 6, ✄ . Show that X = 3 is the most
☎ 2✆
likely outcome.
(Hint : P(X = 3) is the maximum among all P(xi), xi = 0,1,2,3,4,5,6)
9. On a multiple choice examination with three possible answers for each of the
five questions, what is the probability that a candidate would get four or more
correct answers just by guessing ?
10. A person buys a lottery ticket in 50 lotteries, in each of which his chance of
1
winning a prize is . What is the probability that he will win a prize
100
(a) at least once (b) exactly once (c) at least twice?
578 MATHEMATICS

11. Find the probability of getting 5 exactly twice in 7 throws of a die.

12. Find the probability of throwing at most 2 sixes in 6 throws of a single die.
13. It is known that 10% of certain articles manufactured are defective. What is the
probability that in a random sample of 12 such articles, 9 are defective?
In each of the following, choose the correct answer:
14. In a box containing 100 bulbs, 10 are defective. The probability that out of a
sample of 5 bulbs, none is defective is
5 5
–1
1✁ 9✁ 9
(A) 10 (B) ✂ ✄ (C) ✂ ✄ (D)
☎ 2✆ ☎ 10 ✆ 10

1.
15. The probability that a student is not a swimmer is Then the probability that
5
out of five students, four are swimmers is
4 4
5 4✁ 1 4✁ 1
(A) C4 ✂ ✄ (B) ✂ ✄
☎ ✆ 5
5 ☎5✆ 5

4
5 1 4✁
(C) C1 ✂ ✄ (D) None of these
5 ☎ 5✆

Miscellaneous Examples
Example 33 Coloured balls are distributed in four boxes as shown in the following
table:

Box Colour

Black White Red Blue

I 3 4 5 6
II 2 2 2 2
III 1 2 3 1
IV 4 3 1 5

A box is selected at random and then a ball is randomly drawn from the selected
box. The colour of the ball is black, what is the probability that ball drawn is from the
box III?
 PROBABILITY 579

Solution Let A, E1, E2, E3 and E4 be the events as defined below :

A : a black ball is selected E1 : box I is selected
E2 : box II is selected E3 : box III is selected
E4 : box IV is selected
Since the boxes are chosen at random,
1
Therefore P(E1) = P(E2) = P(E3) = P(E4) =
4
3 2 1 4
Also P(A|E1) = , P(A|E2) = , P(A|E3) = and P(A|E4) =
18 8 7 13
P(box III is selected, given that the drawn ball is black) = P(E3|A). By Bayes'
theorem,
P(E 3 ) P(A|E3 )
P(E3|A) =
P(E1 )P(A|E1 ) ✁ P(E 2 ) P(A|E 2 ) + P(E3 ) P (A|E3 ) ✁ P(E 4 ) P(A|E 4 )
1 1
✂
4 7 0.165
= 1 3 1 1 1 1 1 4
✄

✂ ☎ ✂ ☎ ✂ ☎ ✂
4 18 4 4 4 7 4 13
✆ 1✝
Example 34 Find the mean of the Binomial distribution B ✞ 4, ✟.
✠ 3✡
☛ 1☞
Solution Let X be the random variable whose probability distribution is B ✌ 4, ✍.
✎ 3✏
1 1 2
Here n = 4, p = and q = 1 ✑ ✒
3 3 3
4✓ x x
4 ✔ 2✕ ✔ 1✕
We know that P(X = x) = C x ✖ ✗ ✖ ✗ , x = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4.
✘ 3✙ ✘ 3✙
i.e. the distribution of X is
xi P(x i) xi P(xi)
4
4 ✚ 2✛
0 C0 ✜ ✢ 0
✣ 3✤

3 3
4 ✔ 2✕ ✔ 1✕ 4 ✔ 2✕ ✔ 1✕
1 C1 ✖ ✗ ✖ ✗ C1 ✖ ✗ ✖ ✗
✘ 3✙ ✘ 3✙ ✘ 3✙ ✘ 3✙
580 MATHEMATICS

2 2
2 2 ✝ ✝ 2 ✞ ✝ 1✞ ✞
4 2✁ 1✁ 2 ✟ 4 C2 ✟
2 C2 ✂ ✄ ✂ ✄ ✠ ✟ ✠ ✠
☎ 3✆ ☎ 3✆ ✡ ✡ 3 ☛ ✡ 3☛ ☛

3
3 ✒ ✒ 2✓ ✒ 1✓ ✓
☞ 2 ✌ ☞ 1✌
3
4
C3 ✍ ✎ ✍ ✎ 3 ✔ 4 C3 ✔ ✕✔ ✕ ✕
✏ 3 ✑ ✏ 3✑ ✖ ✖ 3 ✗ ✖ 3✗ ✗

4
4 ✝ ✝ 1✞ ✞
4 ☞ 1✌ 4
4 C4 ✍ ✎ 4 ✟ C4 ✟ ✠ ✠
✏ 3✑ ✡ ✡ 3☛ ☛

4
Now Mean (➭) = ✙ xi p ( xi )
i ✘1

3 2 2 3 4
☞ 2✌ ☞ 1✌ ☞ 2✌ ☞ 1✌ 4 2 ✁ 1✁ 4 1✁
= 0 ✚ C1 ✍ ✎ ✍ ✎ ✚ 2 ✛ 4 C2 ✍ ✎ ✍ ✎
4
+ 3 ✜ C3 ✂ ✄ ✂ ✄ ✢ 4 ✜ C4 ✂ ✄
✏ 3 ✑ ✏ 3✑ ✏ 3 ✑ ✏ 3✑ ☎ 3 ✆ ☎ 3✆ ☎ 3✆

23 22 2 1
= 4✣ ✤ 2✣ 6✣ ✤ 3✣ 4 ✣ ✤ 4 ✣ 1✣
34 34 34 34
32 ✥ 48 ✥ 24 ✥ 4 108 4
= ✦ ✦
34 81 3
3
Example 35 The probability of a shooter hitting a target is . How many minimum
4
number of times must he/she fire so that the probability of hitting the target at least
once is more than 0.99?
Solution Let the shooter fire n times. Obviously, n fires are n Bernoulli trials. In each
3
trial, p = probability of hitting the target = and q = probability of not hitting the
4
n✧ x x
1 n n✧ x x n 1✁ 3✁ n 3x
target = . Then P(X = x) = C x q p ★ C x ✂ ✄ ✂ ✄ ★ Cx .
4 ☎ 4✆ ☎ 4✆ 4n
Now, given that,
P(hitting the target at least once) > 0.99
i.e. P(x ✩ 1) > 0.99
 PROBABILITY 581

Therefore, 1 – P (x = 0) > 0.99

n 1
or 1 C0 > 0.99
4n
1 1
or
n
C0 n
✁ 0.01 i.e. n < 0.01
4 4
1
or 4n > = 100 ... (1)
0.01
The minimum value of n to satisfy the inequality (1) is 4.
Thus, the shooter must fire 4 times.
Example 36 A and B throw a die alternatively till one of them gets a ‘6’ and wins the
game. Find their respective probabilities of winning, if A starts first.
Solution Let S denote the success (getting a ‘6’) and F denote the failure (not getting
a ‘6’).
1 5
Thus, P(S) = , P(F) ✂
6 6
1
P(A wins in the first throw) = P(S) =
6
A gets the third throw, when the first throw by A and second throw by B result into
failures.
5 5 1
Therefore, P(A wins in the 3rd throw) = P(FFS) = P(F) P(F) P(S) = ✄ ✄
6 6 6
2
☎ 5✆ 1
=✞ ✟ ✝
✠ 6✡ 6
4
☎ 5✆ ☎ 1 ✆
P(A wins in the 5th throw) = P (FFFFS) ☛ ✞ ✟ ✞ ✟ and so on.
✠ 6✡ ✠ 6✡
2 4
1 ☎ 5✆ ☎ 1 ✆ ☎ 5✆ ☎ 1✆
Hence, P(A wins) = ☞ ✞ ✟ ✞ ✟ ☞ ✞ ✟ ✞ ✟ ☞ ...
6 ✠ 6✡ ✠ 6✡ ✠ 6✡ ✠ 6✡

1
6 6
= =
25 11
1✌
36
582 MATHEMATICS

6 5
P(B wins) = 1 – P (A wins) = 1 ✁
11 11
Remark If a + ar + ar2 + ... + arn–1 + ..., where | r | < 1, then sum of this infinite G.P.
a .
is given by (Refer A.1.3 of Class XI Text book).
1✂ r
Example 37 If a machine is correctly set up, it produces 90% acceptable items. If it is
incorrectly set up, it produces only 40% acceptable items. Past experience shows that
80% of the set ups are correctly done. If after a certain set up, the machine produces
2 acceptable items, find the probability that the machine is correctly setup.
Solution Let A be the event that the machine produces 2 acceptable items.
Also let B1 represent the event of correct set up and B2 represent the event of
incorrect setup.
Now P(B1) = 0.8, P(B2) = 0.2
P(A|B1) = 0.9 × 0.9 and P(A|B2) = 0.4 × 0.4
P (B1 ) P (A|B 1 )
Therefore P(B1|A) =
P (B1 ) P (A|B 1 ) + P (B2 ) P (A|B 2 )

0.8 × 0.9 × 0.9 648

= ✄ ✄ 0.95
0.8 × 0.9 × 0.9 + 0.2 × 0.4 × 0.4 680

Miscellaneous Exercise on Chapter 13

1. A and B are two events such that P (A) ☎ 0. Find P(B|A), if
(i) A is a subset of B (ii) A ✆ B = ✥
2. A couple has two children,
(i) Find the probability that both children are males, if it is known that at least
one of the children is male.
(ii) Find the probability that both children are females, if it is known that the
elder child is a female.
3. Suppose that 5% of men and 0.25% of women have grey hair. A grey haired
person is selected at random. What is the probability of this person being male?
Assume that there are equal number of males and females.
4. Suppose that 90% of people are right-handed. What is the probability that
at most 6 of a random sample of 10 people are right-handed?
 PROBABILITY 583

5. An urn contains 25 balls of which 10 balls bear a mark 'X' and the remaining 15
bear a mark 'Y'. A ball is drawn at random from the urn, its mark is noted down
and it is replaced. If 6 balls are drawn in this way, find the probability that
(i) all will bear 'X' mark.
(ii) not more than 2 will bear 'Y' mark.
(iii) at least one ball will bear 'Y' mark.
(iv) the number of balls with 'X' mark and 'Y' mark will be equal.

6. In a hurdle race, a player has to cross 10 hurdles. The probability that he will
5
clear each hurdle is . What is the probability that he will knock down fewer
6
than 2 hurdles?
7. A die is thrown again and again until three sixes are obtained. Find the probabil-
ity of obtaining the third six in the sixth throw of the die.
8. If a leap year is selected at random, what is the chance that it will contain 53
tuesdays?
9. An experiment succeeds twice as often as it fails. Find the probability that in the
next six trials, there will be atleast 4 successes.
10. How many times must a man toss a fair coin so that the probability of having
at least one head is more than 90%?
11. In a game, a man wins a rupee for a six and loses a rupee for any other number
when a fair die is thrown. The man decided to throw a die thrice but to quit as
and when he gets a six. Find the expected value of the amount he wins / loses.
12. Suppose we have four boxes A,B,C and D containing coloured marbles as given
below:
Box Marble colour
Red White Black
A 1 6 3
B 6 2 2
C 8 1 1
D 0 6 4
One of the boxes has been selected at random and a single marble is drawn from
it. If the marble is red, what is the probability that it was drawn from box A?, box B?,
box C?
584 MATHEMATICS

13. Assume that the chances of a patient having a heart attack is 40%. It is also
assumed that a meditation and yoga course reduce the risk of heart attack by
30% and prescription of certain drug reduces its chances by 25%. At a time a
patient can choose any one of the two options with equal probabilities. It is given
that after going through one of the two options the patient selected at random
suffers a heart attack. Find the probability that the patient followed a course of
meditation and yoga?
14. If each element of a second order determinant is either zero or one, what is the
probability that the value of the determinant is positive? (Assume that the indi-
vidual entries of the determinant are chosen independently, each value being
1
assumed with probability ).
2
15. An electronic assembly consists of two subsystems, say, A and B. From previ-
ous testing procedures, the following probabilities are assumed to be known:
P(A fails) = 0.2
P(B fails alone) = 0.15
P(A and B fail) = 0.15
Evaluate the following probabilities
(i) P(A fails|B has failed) (ii) P(A fails alone)
16. Bag I contains 3 red and 4 black balls and Bag II contains 4 red and 5 black balls.
One ball is transferred from Bag I to Bag II and then a ball is drawn from Bag II.
The ball so drawn is found to be red in colour. Find the probability that the
transferred ball is black.
Choose the correct answer in each of the following:
17. If A and B are two events such that P(A) ✄ 0 and P(B | A) = 1, then
(A) A ✟ B (B) B ✟ A (C) B = ☎ (D) A = ☎
18. If P(A|B) > P(A), then which of the following is correct :
(A) P(B|A) < P(B) (B) P(A ✂ B) < P(A) . P(B)
(C) P(B|A) > P(B) (D) P(B|A) = P(B)
19. If A and B are any two events such that P(A) + P(B) – P(A and B) = P(A), then
(A) P(B|A) = 1 (B) P(A|B) = 1
(C) P(B|A) = 0 (D) P(A|B) = 0
 PROBABILITY 585

Summary
The salient features of the chapter are –
The conditional probability of an event E, given the occurrence of the event F

✂ P (EP(F)✁ F) , P(F) ✄ 0
is given by P (E | F)

0 ✍ P (E|F) ✍ 1, P (E✞|F) = 1 – P (E|F)

P ((E ✆ F)|G) = P (E|G) + P (F|G) – P ((E ☎ F)|G)
P (E ☎ F) = P (E) P (F|E), P (E) ✄ 0
P (E ☎ F) = P (F) P (E|F), P (F) ✄ 0
If E and F are independent, then
☎
P (E F) = P (E) P (F)
P (E|F) = P (E), P (F) 0 ✄
P (F|E) = P (F), P(E) 0 ✄
Theorem of total probability
Let {E1, E2, ...,En) be a partition of a sample space and suppose that each of
E1, E2, ..., En has nonzero probability. Let A be any event associated with S,
then
P(A) = P(E1) P (A|E1) + P (E2) P (A|E2) + ... + P (En) P(A|En)
Bayes' theorem If E1, E2, ..., En are events which constitute a partition of
✝ ✝ ✝
sample space S, i.e. E1, E2, ..., En are pairwise disjoint and E1 E2 ... En = S
and A be any event with nonzero probability, then

P(E i | A) ✠ P(E i ) P (A|E i )

✡✟ P(E ) P (A|E )
n

j j
j 1

A random variable is a real valued function whose domain is the sample

space of a random experiment.
The probability distribution of a random variable X is the system of numbers
X : x1 x2 ... xn
P(X) : p1 p2 ... pn

☞ ✎ p ✌ 1, i ✌ 1, 2,..., n
n

☛
where, pi 0, i
i 1
586 MATHEMATICS

Let X be a random variable whose possible values x1, x2, x3, ..., xn occur with
probabilities p1, p2, p3, ... pn respectively. The mean of X, denoted by , is ➭
✂✁ x p .
n

the number i i
i 1
The mean of a random variable X is also called the expectation of X, denoted
by E (X).
Let X be a random variable whose possible values x1, x2, ..., xn occur with
probabilities p(x1), p(x2), ..., p(xn) respectively.
➭
Let = E(X) be the mean of X. The variance of X, denoted by Var (X) or

✎ , is defined as ✝ ☎ Var (X) = ✂✁ ( x ✆ ✄ )

n
2 2
x
2
x i p ( xi )
i 1

or equivalently ✎ = E (X – ➭)
x
2 2

The non-negative number

☞✠ ☛✟ ( x ✡ ✞)
n
2
x Va r (X) = i p( xi )
i 1

is called the standard deviation of the random variable X.

Var (X) = E (X2) – [E(X)]2
Trials of a random experiment are called Bernoulli trials, if they satisfy the
following conditions :
(i) There should be a finite number of trials.
(ii) The trials should be independent.
(iii) Each trial has exactly two outcomes : success or failure.
(iv) The probability of success remains the same in each trial.
For Binomial distribution B (n, p), P (X = x) = nCx q n–x px, x = 0, 1,..., n
(q = 1 – p)

Historical Note
The earliest indication on measurement of chances in game of dice appeared
in 1477 in a commentary on Dante's Divine Comedy. A treatise on gambling
named liber de Ludo Alcae, by Geronimo Carden (1501-1576) was published
posthumously in 1663. In this treatise, he gives the number of favourable cases
for each event when two dice are thrown.
 PROBABILITY 587

Galileo (1564-1642) gave casual remarks concerning the correct evaluation

of chance in a game of three dice. Galileo analysed that when three dice are
thrown, the sum of the number that appear is more likely to be 10 than the sum 9,
because the number of cases favourable to 10 are more than the number of
cases for the appearance of number 9.
Apart from these early contributions, it is generally acknowledged that the
true origin of the science of probability lies in the correspondence between two
great men of the seventeenth century, Pascal (1623-1662) and Pierre de Fermat
(1601-1665). A French gambler, Chevalier de Metre asked Pascal to explain
some seeming contradiction between his theoretical reasoning and the
observation gathered from gambling. In a series of letters written around 1654,
Pascal and Fermat laid the first foundation of science of probability. Pascal solved
the problem in algebraic manner while Fermat used the method of combinations.
Great Dutch Scientist, Huygens (1629-1695), became acquainted with the
content of the correspondence between Pascal and Fermat and published a first
book on probability, "De Ratiociniis in Ludo Aleae" containing solution of many
interesting rather than difficult problems on probability in games of chances.
The next great work on probability theory is by Jacob Bernoulli (1654-1705),
in the form of a great book, "Ars Conjectendi" published posthumously in 1713
by his nephew, Nicholes Bernoulli. To him is due the discovery of one of the most
important probability distribution known as Binomial distribution. The next
remarkable work on probability lies in 1993. A. N. Kolmogorov (1903-1987) is
credited with the axiomatic theory of probability. His book, ‘Foundations of
probability’ published in 1933, introduces probability as a set function and is
considered a ‘classic!’.

— —
 Chapter 9
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

He who seeks for methods without having a definite problem in mind

seeks for the most part in vain. – D. HILBERT

9.1 Introduction
In Class XI and in Chapter 5 of the present book, we

✂
discussed how to differentiate a given function f with respect
to an independent variable, i.e., how to find f (x) for a given
function f at each x in its domain of definition. Further, in
the chapter on Integral Calculus, we discussed how to find
a function f whose derivative is the function g, which may
also be formulated as follows:
For a given function g, find a function f such that
dy
= g (x), where y = f (x) ... (1)
dx
An equation of the form (1) is known as a differential Henri Poincare
equation. A formal definition will be given later. (1854-1912 )

These equations arise in a variety of applications, may it be in Physics, Chemistry,

Biology, Anthropology, Geology, Economics etc. Hence, an indepth study of differential
equations has assumed prime importance in all modern scientific investigations.
In this chapter, we will study some basic concepts related to differential equation,
general and particular solutions of a differential equation, formation of differential
equations, some methods to solve a first order - first degree differential equation and
some applications of differential equations in different areas.
9.2 Basic Concepts
We are already familiar with the equations of the type:
x2 – 3x + 3 = 0 ... (1)
sin x + cos x = 0 ... (2)
x+y=7 ... (3)
380 MATHEMATICS

Let us consider the equation:

dy
x y =0 ... (4)
dx
We see that equations (1), (2) and (3) involve independent and/or dependent variable
(variables) only but equation (4) involves variables as well as derivative of the dependent
variable y with respect to the independent variable x. Such an equation is called a
differential equation.
In general, an equation involving derivative (derivatives) of the dependent variable
with respect to independent variable (variables) is called a differential equation.
A differential equation involving derivatives of the dependent variable with respect
to only one independent variable is called an ordinary differential equation, e.g.,
3
d 2 y ✁ dy ✂
2 ✄ ☎ ✆ = 0 is an ordinary differential equation .... (5)
dx 2 ✝ dx ✞
Of course, there are differential equations involving derivatives with respect to
more than one independent variables, called partial differential equations but at this
stage we shall confine ourselves to the study of ordinary differential equations only.
Now onward, we will use the term ‘differential equation’ for ‘ordinary differential
equation’.

✟ Note
1. We shall prefer to use the following notations for derivatives:
dy d2y d3y
✡ y✠ , 2 ✡ y ✠✠, 3 ✡ y✠✠✠
dx dx dx
2. For derivatives of higher order, it will be inconvenient to use so many dashes
dny
as supersuffix therefore, we use the notation yn for nth order derivative .
dx n
9.2.1. Order of a differential equation
Order of a differential equation is defined as the order of the highest order derivative of
the dependent variable with respect to the independent variable involved in the given
differential equation.
Consider the following differential equations:
dy
= ex ... (6)
dx
 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 381

d2y
y =0 ... (7)
dx 2
3
✁ d3y ✂ 2 ✁ d 2y ✂
☎ 3 ✆✄ x ☎ 2 ✆ = 0 ... (8)
✝ dx ✞ ✝ dx ✞
The equations (6), (7) and (8) involve the highest derivative of first, second and
third order respectively. Therefore, the order of these equations are 1, 2 and 3 respectively.

9.2.2 Degree of a differential equation

To study the degree of a differential equation, the key point is that the differential
equation must be a polynomial equation in derivatives, i.e., y✟, y✠, y✠✟ etc. Consider the
following differential equations:
2
d 3 y ✡ d 2 y ☛ dy
☞ 2✍ 2 ✎ ✌ ☞ y = 0 ... (9)
dx3 ✏ dx ✑ dx
2
✒ dy ✓ ✒ dy ✓ sin 2 y
✖ dx ✗ ✔ ✖ dx ✗ ✕ =0 ... (10)
✘ ✙ ✘ ✙

dy ✚ dy ✛
✜ sin ✢ ✣ = 0 ... (11)
dx ✤ dx ✥
We observe that equation (9) is a polynomial equation in y✠✟✦ y✠ and y✟, equation (10)
is a polynomial equation in y✟ (not a polynomial in y though). Degree of such differential
equations can be defined. But equation (11) is not a polynomial equation in y✟ and
degree of such a differential equation can not be defined.
By the degree of a differential equation, when it is a polynomial equation in
derivatives, we mean the highest power (positive integral index) of the highest order
derivative involved in the given differential equation.
In view of the above definition, one may observe that differential equations (6), (7),
(8) and (9) each are of degree one, equation (10) is of degree two while the degree of
differential equation (11) is not defined.

✧Note Order and degree (if defined) of a differential equation are always
positive integers.
382 MATHEMATICS

Example 1 Find the order and degree, if defined, of each of the following differential
equations:
2
dy
cos x ✁ 0
d2y ✂ dy ✄ dy
(i) (ii) xy 2 ☎ x ✞ ✟ ✆ y ✝0
dx dx ✠ dx ✡ dx
(iii) y☞☞☞ ✌ y 2 ✌ e y☛ ✍ 0
Solution
dy
(i) The highest order derivative present in the differential equation is , so its
dx
dy
order is one. It is a polynomial equation in y✎ and the highest power raised to
dx
is one, so its degree is one.
d2y
(ii) The highest order derivative present in the given differential equation is , so
dx 2

d2y dy
its order is two. It is a polynomial equation in 2 and and the highest
dx dx

d2y
power raised to is one, so its degree is one.
dx 2
(iii) The highest order derivative present in the differential equation is y✏✏✏ , so its
order is three. The given differential equation is not a polynomial equation in its
derivatives and so its degree is not defined.

EXERCISE 9.1
Determine order and degree (if defined) of differential equations given in Exercises
1 to 10.
4
d4y
✒ sin( y✑✑✑) ✓ 0 ✔ ds ✕ d 2s
1. 2. y✎ + 5y = 0 3. ✘ ✙ ✖ 3s 2 ✗ 0
dx 4 ✚ dt ✛ dt
2
✜ d2y ✢ ✜ dy ✢ d2y
4. ✣ 2 ✤ ✌ cos ✣ ✤ ✍ 0 5. ✓ cos3x ✒ sin 3x
✥ dx ✦ ✥ dx ✦ dx 2

6. ( y☞☞☞) 2 + (y✧)3 + (y✎)4 + y5 = 0 7. y ★★★ + 2y✧ + y✎ = 0

 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 383

8. y✂ + y = ex 9. y✄ + (y✂)2 + 2y = 0 10. y✄ + 2y✂ + sin y = 0

11. The degree of the differential equation
3 2
d2y ✁ dy ✁ dy ✁
✝ 2 ✞
☎✝ ✞ ☎ sin ✝ ✞ ☎ 1 ✆ 0 is
✟ dx ✠ ✟ dx ✠ ✟ dx ✠
(A) 3 (B) 2 (C) 1 (D) not defined
12. The order of the differential equation
d2y dy
2x 2 2
✡3 ☛ y ☞ 0 is
dx dx
(A) 2 (B) 1 (C) 0 (D) not defined
9.3. General and Particular Solutions of a Differential Equation
In earlier Classes, we have solved the equations of the type:
x2 + 1 = 0 ... (1)
2
sin x – cos x = 0 ... (2)
Solution of equations (1) and (2) are numbers, real or complex, that will satisfy the
given equation i.e., when that number is substituted for the unknown x in the given
equation, L.H.S. becomes equal to the R.H.S..
d2y
Now consider the differential equation ✌ y✍0 ... (3)
dx 2
In contrast to the first two equations, the solution of this differential equation is a
function ✎ that will satisfy it i.e., when the function ✎ is substituted for the unknown y
(dependent variable) in the given differential equation, L.H.S. becomes equal to R.H.S..
The curve y = ✎ (x) is called the solution curve (integral curve) of the given
differential equation. Consider the function given by
y = ✎ (x) = a sin (x + b), ... (4)
where a, b ✏ R. When this function and its derivative are substituted in equation (3),
L.H.S. = R.H.S.. So it is a solution of the differential equation (3).
✑
Let a and b be given some particular values say a = 2 and b ✒ , then we get a
4
✓✕
function y= ✎1(x) = 2sin ✔✗ x ✖ ✘ ... (5)
✙ 4✚
When this function and its derivative are substituted in equation (3) again
L.H.S. = R.H.S.. Therefore ✎1 is also a solution of equation (3).
384 MATHEMATICS

Function ☎ consists of two arbitrary constants (parameters) a, b and it is called

general solution of the given differential equation. Whereas function ☎1 contains no
arbitrary constants but only the particular values of the parameters a and b and hence
is called a particular solution of the given differential equation.
The solution which contains arbitrary constants is called the general solution
(primitive) of the differential equation.
The solution free from arbitrary constants i.e., the solution obtained from the general
solution by giving particular values to the arbitrary constants is called a particular
solution of the differential equation.
Example 2 Verify that the function y = e– 3x is a solution of the differential equation
d2y dy
✁ 6y ✂ 0
dx 2 dx
Solution Given function is y = e– 3x. Differentiating both sides of equation with respect
to x , we get

✆ ✝3 e✄3 x
dy
... (1)
dx
Now, differentiating (1) with respect to x, we have
d2y
= 9 e – 3x
dx 2
d 2 y dy
Substituting the values of , and y in the given differential equation, we get
dx 2 dx
L.H.S. = 9 e– 3x + (–3e– 3x) – 6.e– 3x = 9 e– 3x – 9 e– 3x = 0 = R.H.S..
Therefore, the given function is a solution of the given differential equation.
Example 3 Verify that the function y = a cos x + b sin x, where, a, b ✞ R is a solution
2
of the differential equation d y ✟ y ✠ 0
dx 2
Solution The given function is
y = a cos x + b sin x ... (1)
Differentiating both sides of equation (1) with respect to x, successively, we get
dy
= – a sin x + b cos x
dx
d2y
= – a cos x – b sin x
dx 2
 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 385

d2y
Substituting the values of and y in the given differential equation, we get
dx 2
L.H.S. = (– a cos x – b sin x) + (a cos x + b sin x) = 0 = R.H.S..
Therefore, the given function is a solution of the given differential equation.

EXERCISE 9.2
In each of the Exercises 1 to 10 verify that the given functions (explicit or implicit) is a
solution of the corresponding differential equation:
1. y = ex + 1 : y✄ – y ✂ = 0
2
2. y = x + 2x + C : y✂ – 2x – 2 = 0
3. y = cos x + C : y✂ + sin x = 0
xy
4. y = 1 x2 : y✂ =
1 ✁ x2
5. y = Ax : xy✂ = y (x ✝ 0)

6. y = x sin x : xy✂ = y + x x 2 ☎ y 2 (x ✝ 0 and x > y or x < – y)

y2
7. xy = log y + C : y✂ = (xy ✝ 1)
1 ✆ xy
8. y – cos y = x : (y sin y + cos y + x) y✂ = y
9. x + y = tan–1y : y2 y✂ + y2 + 1 = 0
dy
10. y = a 2 ✞ x 2 x ✟ (–a, a) : x+y = 0 (y ✝ 0)
dx
11. The number of arbitrary constants in the general solution of a differential equation
of fourth order are:
(A) 0 (B) 2 (C) 3 (D) 4
12. The number of arbitrary constants in the particular solution of a differential equation
of third order are:
(A) 3 (B) 2 (C) 1 (D) 0

9.4 Formation of a Differential Equation whose General Solution is given

We know that the equation
x2 + y2 + 2x – 4y + 4 = 0 ... (1)
represents a circle having centre at (– 1, 2) and radius 1 unit.
386 MATHEMATICS

Differentiating equation (1) with respect to x, we get

dy x 1
= (y ✝ 2) ... (2)
dx 2✁ y
which is a differential equation. You will find later on [See (example 9 section 9.5.1.)]
that this equation represents the family of circles and one member of the family is the
circle given in equation (1).
Let us consider the equation
x2 + y2 = r 2 ... (3)
By giving different values to r, we get different members of the family e.g.
x2 + y2 = 1, x2 + y2 = 4, x2 + y2 = 9 etc. (see Fig 9.1).
Thus, equation (3) represents a family of concentric
circles centered at the origin and having different radii.
We are interested in finding a differential equation
that is satisfied by each member of the family. The
differential equation must be free from r because r is
different for different members of the family. This
equation is obtained by differentiating equation (3) with
respect to x, i.e.,
dy dy
2x + 2y =0 or x+y =0 ... (4) Fig 9.1
dx dx
which represents the family of concentric circles given by equation (3).
Again, let us consider the equation
y = mx + c ... (5)
By giving different values to the parameters m and c, we get different members of
the family, e.g.,
y=x (m = 1, c = 0)
y= 3x (m = 3 , c = 0)
y=x+1 (m = 1, c = 1)
y=–x (m = – 1, c = 0)
y=–x–1 (m = – 1, c = – 1) etc. ( see Fig 9.2).
Thus, equation (5) represents the family of straight lines, where m, c are parameters.
We are now interested in finding a differential equation that is satisfied by each
member of the family. Further, the equation must be free from m and c because m and
 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 387

c are different for different members of the family. ✸① ✶

❨ ①✁
This is obtained by differentiating equation (5) with ✂ ②
✄ ② ①
☎✆
respect to x, successively we get ✂ ②
✄
☎✆
☎✝
dy d2y
✞ m , and ✟0 ... (6) ❳’ ❳
dx dx 2 ❖

The equation (6) represents the family of straight

lines given by equation (5).
Note that equations (3) and (5) are the general
❨’
solutions of equations (4) and (6) respectively.
Fig 9.2
9.4.1 Procedure to form a differential equation that will represent a given
family of curves
(a) If the given family F1 of curves depends on only one parameter then it is
represented by an equation of the form
F1 (x, y, a) = 0 ... (1)
2
For example, the family of parabolas y = ax can be represented by an equation
of the form f (x, y, a) : y2 = ax.
Differentiating equation (1) with respect to x, we get an equation involving
y✠, y, x, and a, i.e.,
g (x, y, y✠, a) = 0 ... (2)
The required differential equation is then obtained by eliminating a from equations
(1) and (2) as
F (x, y, y✠) = 0 ... (3)
(b) If the given family F2 of curves depends on the parameters a, b (say) then it is
represented by an equation of the from
F2 (x, y, a, b) = 0 ... (4)
Differentiating equation (4) with respect to x, we get an equation involving
y✠, x, y, a, b, i.e.,
g (x, y, y✠, a, b) = 0 ... (5)
But it is not possible to eliminate two parameters a and b from the two equations
and so, we need a third equation. This equation is obtained by differentiating
equation (5), with respect to x, to obtain a relation of the form
h (x, y, y✠, y✡, a, b) = 0 ... (6)
388 MATHEMATICS

The required differential equation is then obtained by eliminating a and b from

✂✄
equations (4), (5) and (6) as
F (x, y, y , y ) = 0 ... (7)

Note The order of a differential equation representing a family of curves is

same as the number of arbitrary constants present in the equation corresponding to
the family of curves.
Example 4 Form the differential equation representing the family of curves y = mx,
where, m is arbitrary constant.
Solution We have
y = mx ... (1)
Differentiating both sides of equation (1) with respect to x, we get
dy

✁ ☎
=m
dx
dy
Substituting the value of m in equation (1) we get y x
dx
dy
or x –y=0
dx
which is free from the parameter m and hence this is the required differential equation.
Example 5 Form the differential equation representing the family of curves
y = a sin (x + b), where a, b are arbitrary constants.
Solution We have
y = a sin (x + b) ... (1)
Differentiating both sides of equation (1) with respect to x, successively we get
dy
= a cos (x + b) ... (2)
dx

d2y
= – a sin (x + b) ... (3)
dx 2

✆
Eliminating a and b from equations (1), (2) and (3), we get
d2y
y =0 ... (4)
dx 2
which is free from the arbitrary constants a and b and hence this the required differential
equation.
 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 389

Example 6 Form the differential equation

representing the family of ellipses having foci on
x-axis and centre at the origin.
Solution We know that the equation of said family
of ellipses (see Fig 9.3) is

x2 y2
=1 ... (1)
a2 b2 Fig 9.3

2 x 2 y dy
Differentiating equation (1) with respect to x, we get ✁ ✂0
a 2 b 2 dx

y ✄ dy ☎ ✠b
2
or ✆ ✝= 2 ... (2)
x ✞ dx ✟ a
Differentiating both sides of equation (2) with respect to x, we get

✡ dy ☛
x ☞y
✡ y ☛ ✡ d 2 y ☛ ✌ dx ✍ dy
✌✏ ✍✑ ✌✏ 2 ✍✑ ✎ ✌✏ ✍ =0
x dx x 2 ✑ dx

2
d2y ✒ dy ✓ dy
or xy ✔x✕ ✖ – y =0 ... (3)
dx 2 ✗ dx ✘ dx
which is the required differential equation.
Example 7 Form the differential equation of the family ❨
of circles touching the x-axis at origin.
Solution Let C denote the family of circles touching
x-axis at origin. Let (0, a) be the coordinates of the
centre of any member of the family (see Fig 9.4).
Therefore, equation of family C is
x2 + (y – a)2 = a2 or x2 + y2 = 2ay ... (1) ❳
❳’ ❖
where, a is an arbitrary constant. Differentiating both
sides of equation (1) with respect to x,we get
dy dy ❨’
2x ✙ 2 y = 2a Fig 9.4
dx dx
390 MATHEMATICS

dy
x✁ y
dy dy dx
or x y = a or a = ... (2)
dx dx dy
dx
Substituting the value of a from equation (2) in equation (1), we get

✂ x ☎ y dy ✄
✆ dx ✝✟
x2 + y2 = 2y ✞
dy
dx

dy 2 dy
or ( x ✠ y 2 ) = 2 xy ✠ 2 y 2
dx dx
dy 2 xy
or = 2 2
dx x –y
This is the required differential equation of the given family of circles.
Example 8 Form the differential equation representing the family of parabolas having
vertex at origin and axis along positive direction of x-axis.
Solution Let P denote the family of above said parabolas (see Fig 9.5) and let (a, 0) be the
focus of a member of the given family, where a is an arbitrary constant. Therefore, equation
of family P is
y2 = 4ax ... (1)
Differentiating both sides of equation (1) with respect to x, we get
dy
2y = 4a ... (2)
dx
Substituting the value of 4a from equation (2)
in equation (1), we get

✡ dy ☛
y2 = ☞ 2 y ✌ ( x)
✍ dx ✎
dy
or y 2 ✏ 2 xy =0
dx
which is the differential equation of the given family
of parabolas. Fig 9.5
 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 391

EXERCISE 9.3
In each of the Exercises 1 to 5, form a differential equation representing the given
family of curves by eliminating arbitrary constants a and b.
x y
1. ✁1 2. y2 = a (b2 – x2) 3. y = a e3x + b e– 2x
a b
4. y = e2x (a + bx) 5. y = ex (a cos x + b sin x)
6. Form the differential equation of the family of circles touching the y-axis at
origin.
7. Form the differential equation of the family of parabolas having vertex at origin
and axis along positive y-axis.
8. Form the differential equation of the family of ellipses having foci on y-axis and
centre at origin.
9. Form the differential equation of the family of hyperbolas having foci on x-axis
and centre at origin.
10. Form the differential equation of the family of circles having centre on y-axis
and radius 3 units.
11. Which of the following differential equations has y = c1 ex + c2 e–x as the general
solution?
d2y d2y d2y d2y
(A) 2
✂ y ✄ 0 (B) 2
☎ y ✄ 0 (C) 2
✂ 1 ✄ 0 (D) ☎1 ✄ 0
dx dx dx dx 2
12. Which of the following differential equations has y = x as one of its particular
solution?
d2y dy d2y dy
(A) 2
✆ x 2 ✝ xy ✞ x (B) 2
✝ x ✝ xy ✞ x
dx dx dx dx
d 2 y 2 dy d2y dy
(C) ☎x ✂ xy ✄ 0 (D) ✂ x ✂ xy ✄ 0
dx2 dx dx 2
dx
9.5. Methods of Solving First Order, First Degree Differential Equations
In this section we shall discuss three methods of solving first order first degree differential
equations.
9.5.1 Differential equations with variables separable
A first order-first degree differential equation is of the form
dy
= F (x, y) ... (1)
dx
392 MATHEMATICS

If F (x, y) can be expressed as a product g (x) h(y), where, g(x) is a function of x

and h(y) is a function of y, then the differential equation (1) is said to be of variable
separable type. The differential equation (1) then has the form
dy
= h (y) . g (x) ... (2)
dx
If h (y) ✝ 0, separating the variables, (2) can be rewritten as

1
dy = g (x) dx ... (3)
h( y )
Integrating both sides of (3), we get
1
dy = ✁ g ( x ) dx ... (4)
h( y )
Thus, (4) provides the solutions of given differential equation in the form
H (y) = G (x) + C
1
Here, H (y) and G (x) are the anti derivatives of h ( y ) and g (x) respectively and
C is the arbitrary constant.

dy x ✂ 1
Example 9 Find the general solution of the differential equation ✄ , (y ✝ 2)
dx 2 ☎ y
Solution We have
dy x ✂1
= ... (1)
dx 2☎ y
Separating the variables in equation (1), we get
(2 – y) dy = (x + 1) dx ... (2)
Integrating both sides of equation (2), we get

✞ (2 ✆ y ) dy = ✞ ( x ✟ 1) dx

y2 x2
or 2y ✠ = ✡ x ✡ C1
2 2
or x2 + y2 + 2x – 4y + 2 C1 = 0
or x2 + y2 + 2x – 4y + C = 0, where C = 2C1
which is the general solution of equation (1).
 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 393

dy 1 y 2
Example 10 Find the general solution of the differential equation ✁ .
dx 1 x 2
Solution Since 1 + y2 ✝ 0, therefore separating the variables, the given differential
equation can be written as
dy dx
= ... (1)
1 y2 1 ✂ x2
Integrating both sides of equation (1), we get
dy dx
✄ 1 y 2 = ☎ 1 ✂ x2
or tan–1 y = tan–1x + C
which is the general solution of equation (1).
dy
Example 11 Find the particular solution of the differential equation ✆ ✞ 4 xy 2 given
dx
that y = 1, when x = 0.
Solution If y ✝ 0, the given differential equation can be written as
dy
= – 4x dx ... (1)
y2
Integrating both sides of equation (1), we get
dy
✄ y 2 = ✟ 4✠ x dx
1
or ✡ = – 2x2 + C
y
1
or y= ... (2)
2x ☛ C 2

Substituting y = 1 and x = 0 in equation (2), we get, C = – 1.

Now substituting the value of C in equation (2), we get the particular solution of the
1
given differential equation as y ☞ .
2x ✂ 1
2

Example 12 Find the equation of the curve passing through the point (1, 1) whose
differential equation is x dy = (2x2 + 1) dx (x ✝ 0).
394 MATHEMATICS

Solution The given differential equation can be expressed as

2 x 2 ✂ 1✁
dy* = ✄ ☎ dx*
✆ x ✝

✞ 1✟
or dy = ✡ 2x ✠ ☛ dx ... (1)
☞ x✌
Integrating both sides of equation (1), we get

✞ 1✟
✍ dy = ✎ ✡ 2x ✠ ☛ dx
☞ x✌
or y = x2 + log | x | + C ... (2)
Equation (2) represents the family of solution curves of the given differential equation
but we are interested in finding the equation of a particular member of the family which
passes through the point (1, 1). Therefore substituting x = 1, y = 1 in equation (2), we
get C = 0.
Now substituting the value of C in equation (2) we get the equation of the required
curve as y = x2 + log | x |.
Example 13 Find the equation of a curve passing through the point (–2, 3), given that
2x
the slope of the tangent to the curve at any point (x, y) is .
y2
dy
Solution We know that the slope of the tangent to a curve is given by .
dx
dy 2x
so, = 2 ... (1)
dx y
Separating the variables, equation (1) can be written as
y2 dy = 2x dx ... (2)
Integrating both sides of equation (2), we get

✍ y 2 dy = ✍ 2x dx
y3
or = x2 + C ... (3)
3
dy
* The notation due to Leibnitz is extremely flexible and useful in many calculation and formal
dx
transformations, where, we can deal with symbols dy and dx exactly as if they were ordinary numbers. By
treating dx and dy like separate entities, we can give neater expressions to many calculations.
Refer: Introduction to Calculus and Analysis, volume-I page 172, By Richard Courant,
Fritz John Spinger – Verlog New York.
 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 395

Substituting x = –2, y = 3 in equation (3), we get C = 5.

Substituting the value of C in equation (3), we get the equation of the required curve as
1
y3
x 2 ✁ 5 or y ✂ (3x 2 ✄ 15) 3
3
Example 14 In a bank, principal increases continuously at the rate of 5% per year. In
how many years Rs 1000 double itself?
Solution Let P be the principal at any time t. According to the given problem,
dp ☎ 5 ✆ P
= ✞ ✟✝
dt ✠ 100 ✡
dp P
or = ... (1)
dt 20
separating the variables in equation (1), we get
dp dt
= ... (2)
P 20
Integrating both sides of equation (2), we get
t
log P = ☛ C1
20
t

P = e 20 ☞ e 1
C
or
t
or P = C e 20 (where e C1 ✌ C ) ... (3)
Now P = 1000, when t = 0
Substituting the values of P and t in (3), we get C = 1000. Therefore, equation (3),
gives
t

P = 1000 e 20
Let t years be the time required to double the principal. Then
t
2000 = 1000 e 20 ✍ t = 20 loge2

EXERCISE 9.4
For each of the differential equations in Exercises 1 to 10, find the general solution:
dy 1 ✎ cos x dy
1. ✏ 2. ✏ 4 ✎ y 2 (✎2 ✒ y ✒ 2)
dx 1 ✑ cos x dx
396 MATHEMATICS

dy
3. y ✁ 1 ( y ✂ 1) 4. sec2 x tan y dx + sec2 y tan x dy = 0
dx
dy
5. (ex + e–x) dy – (ex – e–x) dx = 0 6. ✄ (1 ☎ x 2 ) (1 ☎ y 2 )
dx
dy
7. y log y dx – x dy = 0 8. x5 ✄ ✆ y5
dx

✁ sin ✝1 x
dy
9. 10. ex tan y dx + (1 – ex) sec2 y dy = 0
dx
For each of the differential equations in Exercises 11 to 14, find a particular solution
satisfying the given condition:
dy
11. ( x ☎ x ☎ x ☎ 1)
3 2
= 2x2 + x; y = 1 when x = 0
dx
dy
12. x ( x 2 ✆ 1) ✄ 1 ; y = 0 when x = 2
dx
✞ dy ✟ ✠ a
13. cos ✡ ☛ (a ✍ R); y = 1 when x = 0
☞ dx ✌
dy
14. ✄ y tan x ; y = 1 when x = 0
dx
15. Find the equation of a curve passing through the point (0, 0) and whose differential
equation is y✎ = ex sin x.
dy
16. For the differential equation xy ✄ ( x ☎ 2) ( y ☎ 2) , find the solution curve
dx
passing through the point (1, –1).
17. Find the equation of a curve passing through the point (0, –2) given that at any
point (x, y) on the curve, the product of the slope of its tangent and y coordinate
of the point is equal to the x coordinate of the point.
18. At any point (x, y) of a curve, the slope of the tangent is twice the slope of the
line segment joining the point of contact to the point (– 4, –3). Find the equation
of the curve given that it passes through (–2, 1).
19. The volume of spherical balloon being inflated changes at a constant rate. If
initially its radius is 3 units and after 3 seconds it is 6 units. Find the radius of
balloon after t seconds.
 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 397

20. In a bank, principal increases continuously at the rate of r% per year. Find the
value of r if Rs 100 double itself in 10 years (loge2 = 0.6931).
21. In a bank, principal increases continuously at the rate of 5% per year. An amount
of Rs 1000 is deposited with this bank, how much will it worth after 10 years
(e0 5 = 1.648).
22. In a culture, the bacteria count is 1,00,000. The number is increased by 10% in 2
hours. In how many hours will the count reach 2,00,000, if the rate of growth of
bacteria is proportional to the number present?
dy x y
23. The general solution of the differential equation ✁e is
dx
(A) ex + e–y = C (B) ex + ey = C
(C) e–x + ey = C (D) e–x + e–y = C

9.5.2 Homogeneous differential equations

Consider the following functions in x and y
F1 (x, y) = y2 + 2xy, F2 (x, y) = 2x – 3y,

✂ y✄
F3 (x, y) = cos ☎ ✆, F4 (x, y) = sin x + cos y
✝ x✞
If we replace x and y by ✟x and ✟y respectively in the above functions, for any nonzero
constant ✟, we get
F1 (✟x, ✟y) = ✟2 (y2 + 2xy) = ✟2 F1 (x, y)
F2 (✟x, ✟y) = ✟ (2x – 3y) = ✟ F2 (x, y)

✂ ✠y ✄ ✂ y✄
F3 (✟x, ✟y) = cos ☎ ✆ ✡ cos ☎
0
✆ = ✟ F3 (x, y)
✝ ✠x ✞ ✝ x✞
F4 (✟x, ✟y) = sin ✟x + cos ✟y ☛ ✟n F4 (x, y), for any n ☞ N
Here, we observe that the functions F1, F 2, F 3 can be written in the form
F(✟x, ✟y) = ✟n F (x, y) but F4 can not be written in this form. This leads to the following
definition:
A function F(x, y) is said to be homogeneous function of degree n if
F(✟x, ✟y) = ✟n F(x, y) for any nonzero constant ✟.
We note that in the above examples, F1, F2, F3 are homogeneous functions of
degree 2, 1, 0 respectively but F4 is not a homogeneous function.
398 MATHEMATICS

We also observe that

y2 2y ✁ y✁
F1(x, y) = x 2 ☎ ✂
2
✆ ✄ x h1 ☎ ✆
✝ x2 x ✞ ✝ x✞

2 ✟ 2x ✠ 2 ✟ x✠
or F1(x, y) = y ☞ 1 ✡ ☛ y h2 ☞ ✌
✍ y ✌✎ ✍ y✎

3y ✑ 1 ✏ y ✑
F2(x, y) = x1 ✏✔ 2 ✒ ✕ ✓ x h3 ✔ ✕
✖ x ✗ ✖ x✗

1 ✘ x ✙ 1 ✘ x✙
or F2(x, y) = y ✜ 2 ✚ 3 ✢ ✛ y h4 ✜ ✢
✣ y ✤ ✣ y✤

0 ✥ y✦ 0 ✥ y✦
F3(x, y) = x cos ★ ✩ ✧ x h5 ★ ✩
✪ x✫ ✪ x✫

✥ y✦
F4(x, y) ✬ x n h6 ★ ✩ , for any n ✭ N
✪ x✫
✟ x✠
or F4 (x, y) ✬ y n h7 ☞ , for any n ✭ N
✍ y ✌✎
Therefore, a function F (x, y) is a homogeneous function of degree n if

n ✟ y✠ ✟ x✠
F (x, y) = x g ☞ ✌ or ynh ☞
✍ x✎ ✍ y ✎✌
dy
A differential equation of the form = F (x, y) is said to be homogenous if
dx
F(x, y) is a homogenous function of degree zero.
To solve a homogeneous differential equation of the type

dy ✥ y✦
✰ F ✮ x, y ✯ = g ★ ✩ ... (1)
dx ✪x✫
We make the substitution y = v.x ... (2)
Differentiating equation (2) with respect to x, we get
dy dv
= v✱ x ... (3)
dx dx
dy
Substituting the value of from equation (3) in equation (1), we get
dx
 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 399

dv
v x = g (v)
dx
dv
or x= g (v) – v ... (4)
dx
Separating the variables in equation (4), we get
dv dx
= ... (5)
g (v) ✁ v x
Integrating both sides of equation (5), we get
dv 1
✂ g (v ) ✁ v = ☎ x dx ✄ C ... (6)

Equation (6) gives general solution (primitive) of the differential equation (1) when
y
we replace v by .
x
dx
✆Note If the homogeneous differential equation is in the form dy ✝ F( x , y )
where, F (x, y) is homogenous function of degree zero, then we make substitution
x
✞ v i.e., x = vy and we proceed further to find the general solution as discussed
y
✡ F( x, y ) ✡ h ✟☛ ✠☞ .
dx x
above by writing
dy ✌ y✍
dy
Example 15 Show that the differential equation (x – y) = x + 2y is homogeneous
dx
and solve it.
Solution The given differential equation can be expressed as
dy x ✎ 2y
= ... (1)
dx x✁ y

x✎ 2y
Let F (x, y) =
x✁ y

✑ ( x ✒ 2 y) 0
Now F (✏ x, ✏ y) = ✞ ✑ ✓ f ( x, y )
✑ ( x ✔ y)
400 MATHEMATICS

Therefore, F(x, y) is a homogenous function of degree zero. So, the given differential
equation is a homogenous differential equation.
Alternatively,
2y ✁
✄ ✂
1
dy
✆✄
x ☎ g✠ y ✡
= ☛ ☞ ... (2)
dx ✄ 1✝
y ☎☎ ✌x✍
✞ x ✟
✎ y✏
R.H.S. of differential equation (2) is of the form g ✑ ✒ and so it is a homogeneous
✓ x✔
function of degree zero. Therefore, equation (1) is a homogeneous differential equation.
To solve it we make the substitution
y = vx ... (3)
Differentiating equation (3) with respect to, x we get
dy dv
= v✕x ... (4)
dx dx
dy
Substituting the value of y and in equation (1) we get
dx
dv 1 ✕ 2v
v✕ x =
dx 1✖ v
dv 1 ✕ 2v
or x = ✖v
dx 1✖ v

dv v2 ✗ v ✗ 1
or x =
dx 1✘ v
v ✙1 ✛ dx
or 2
dv =
v ✚ v ✚1 x
Integrating both sides of equation (5), we get
v ✙1 dx
✜ 2 dv = ✖✢
v ✚ v ✚1 x
1 2v ✚ 1 ✙ 3
or dv = – log | x | + C1
2 ✜ v2 ✚ v ✚ 1
 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 401

1 2v 1 3 1
dv ✁ ✄ 2 dv ✂ ✁ log x
2 ✄ v2 v 1
or C1
2 v v 1
1 3 1
or log v 2 ☎ v ☎ 1 ✆ ✌ 2
dv ✝ ✆ log x ☎ C1
2 2 ✞ 1✟ ✞ 3 ✟
2

✠☛ v ☎ 2 ✡☞ ☎ ✠ 2 ✡
☛ ☞

✏ 2v ✎ 1✑
tan ✍1 ✔
1 3 2
log v 2 ✎ v ✎ 1 ✒ . ✓ ✒ log x ✎ C1
or 2 2 3 ✖ 3 ✕✗

✏ 2v ✎ 1✑
log v 2 ✎ v ✎ 1 ✎ log x 2 ✓ 3 tan ✍1 ✔
1 1
✎C
✖ 3 ✕✗ 1
or (Why?)
2 2

y
Replacing v by , we get
x

y2 y ✚ 2 y ✙ x✛
log 2 ✙ ✙ 1 ✙ log x 2 ✜ 3 tan ✘1 ✢
1 1
✙C
or
2 x x 2 ✤ 3x ✣✥ 1

✧ y2 y ★ ✧ 2y ✩ x ★
log ✫ 2 ✩ ✩ 1✬ x 2 ✪ 3 tan ✦1 ✫
1
or ✬ ✩ C1
2 ✭x x ✮ ✭ 3x ✮

log ( y 2 ✰ xy ✰ x 2 ) ✳ 2 3 tan ✯1 ✴
✱ 2 y ✰ x ✲ 2C
or ✵✰ 1
✶ 3x ✷
✱ x ✰ 2y ✲
or log ( x 2 ✰ xy ✰ y 2 ) ✳ 2 3 tan ✯1 ✴ ✵ ✰C
✶ 3x ✷
which is the general solution of the differential equation (1)
✸ y ✹ dy ✸ y✹
Example 16 Show that the differential equation x cos ✼ ✽ ✺ y cos ✼ ✽ ✻ x is
✾ x ✿ dx ✾ x✿
homogeneous and solve it.
Solution The given differential equation can be written as
❀ y❁
y cos ❃ ❄ ❂ x
dy
=
❅ x❆ ... (1)
dx ❀ y❁
x cos ❃ ❄
❅ x❆
402 MATHEMATICS

dy
It is a differential equation of the form F( x, y ) .
dx

✁ y✂
y cos ☎ ✆ ✄ x
Here F (x, y) =
✝ x✞
✁ y✂
x cos ☎ ✆
✝ x✞
Replacing x by ✟x and y by ✟y, we get

☛ [ y cos ✠✌ ✡✍ ☞ x ]
y
✎ x✏ ✑ ☛ 0 [F( x, y )]
F (✟x, ✟y) =
✠ x cos y ✡
☛✌ ✍
✎ x✏
Thus, F(x, y) is a homogeneous function of degree zero.
Therefore, the given differential equation is a homogeneous differential equation.
To solve it we make the substitution
y = vx ... (2)
Differentiating equation (2) with respect to x, we get

dy dv
= v✒ x ... (3)
dx dx
dy
Substituting the value of y and in equation (1), we get
dx
dv v cos v ✒ 1
v✒x =
dx cos v
dv v cos v ✒ 1
or x = ✓v
dx cos v
dv 1
or x =
dx cos v
dx
or cos v dv =
x
1
Therefore ✔ cos v dv = ✕ x dx
 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 403

or sin v = log | x | + log | C |

or sin v = log | Cx |
y
Replacing v by , we get
x
y✁
sin ✂✄ = log | Cx |
☎ x✆
which is the general solution of the differential equation (1).
x x
✝ ✞
Example 17 Show that the differential equation 2 y e y dx ✡ ✟✌ y ☛ 2 x e y ✠✍ dy ☞ 0 is
homogeneous and find its particular solution, given that, x = 0 when y = 1.
Solution The given differential equation can be written as
x

dx 2x e y ✎ y
= x ... (1)
dy y
2y e

2 xe y ✎y
Let F(x, y) = x

2 ye y

x
✑ ✒
y
✕ ✓ 2 xe ✖ y✔
✓ ✔
✗ ✘ 0
Then F (✏x, ✏ y) = ✙✕ [F( x, y )]
x
✑ ✒
y
✕ ✓ 2 ye ✔
✓ ✔
✗ ✘

Thus, F(x, y) is a homogeneous function of degree zero. Therefore, the given

differential equation is a homogeneous differential equation.
To solve it, we make the substitution
x = vy ... (2)
Differentiating equation (2) with respect to y, we get
dx dv
= v+ y
dy dy
404 MATHEMATICS

dx
Substituting the value of x and in equation (1), we get
dy

dv 2v ev ✁ 1
v y =
dy 2ev

dv 2v e v ✁ 1
or y = ✁v
dy 2e v
dv 1
or y = ✂ v
dy 2e

✁ dy
or 2ev dv =
y

dy
☎ 2e ✄ dv = ✁ ✆ y
v
or

or 2 ev = – log |y| + C
x
and replacing v by y , we get
x
y
2 e + log | y | = C ... (3)
Substituting x = 0 and y = 1 in equation (3), we get
2 e0 + log | 1| = C ✞ C = 2
Substituting the value of C in equation (3), we get
x
y
2 e + log | y | = 2
which is the particular solution of the given differential equation.
Example 18 Show that the family of curves for which the slope of the tangent at any

point (x, y) on it is x ✝ y , is given by x2 – y2 = cx.

2 2

2 xy
dy
Solution We know that the slope of the tangent at any point on a curve is .
dx
dy x2 ✝ y2
Therefore, =
dx 2 xy
 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 405

y2
1
dy x2
or = ... (1)
dx 2y
x
Clearly, (1) is a homogenous differential equation. To solve it we make substitution
y = vx
Differentiating y = vx with respect to x, we get

dy dv
= v✁ x
dx dx

dv 1 ✂ v 2
or v✁ x =
dx 2v

dv 1 ✄ v 2
or x =
dx 2v

2v dx
dv =
1☎ v 2
x

2v dx
or dv = ✆
v ☎1
2
x

2v 1
Therefore ✝ v 2 ☎ 1 dv = ✞✟ x dx
or log | v2 – 1 | = – log | x | + log | C1 |
or log | (v2 – 1) (x) | = log |C1|
or (v2 – 1) x = ± C1

y
Replacing v by , we get
x

✠ y2 ✡
☞ 2 ☛ 1✌ x = ± C1
✍x ✎
or (y2 – x2) = ± C1 x or x2 – y2 = Cx
406 MATHEMATICS

EXERCISE 9.5
In each of the Exercises 1 to 10, show that the given differential equation is homogeneous
and solve each of them.

x y
1. (x2 + xy) dy = (x2 + y2) dx 2. y✁ ✂
x
3. (x – y) dy – (x + y) dx = 0 4. (x2 – y2) dx + 2xy dy = 0
dy
5. x2 ✂ x2 ✄ 2 y 2 xy 6. x dy – y dx = x 2 ☎ y 2 dx
dx

✆ ✞ y✟ ✞ y ✟✝ ✆ ✞ y✟ ✞ y ✟✝
7. ☞ x cos ✍ ✎ ✠ y sin ✍ ✎✌ y dx ✡ ☞ y sin ✍ ✎ ☛ x cos ✍ ✎✌ x dy
✒ ✏ x✑ ✏ x ✑✓ ✒ ✏ x✑ ✏ x ✑✓

✖ y ✗ x sin ✔✙ ✕✚ ✘ 0 ✔ y✕
dy y
8. x 9. y dx ✗ x log ✙ ✚ dy ✖ 2 x dy ✘ 0
dx ✛ x✜ ✛ x✜

✢ x
✣ x
y ✢ x✣
10. ✧ 1✤ e ★ dx ✤ e ✧✩1 ✥ y ★✪ dy ✦ 0
y

✩ ✪
For each of the differential equations in Exercises from 11 to 15, find the particular
solution satisfying the given condition:
11. (x + y) dy + (x – y) dx = 0; y = 1 when x = 1
12. x2 dy + (xy + y2) dx = 0; y = 1 when x = 1
✫ 2 ✮ y✯ ✬ ✭
13. ✵ x sin ✳✷ ✴✸ ✰ y ✶ dx ✱ x dy ✲ 0; y ✲ when x = 1
✹ x ✺ 4

✖ ✗ cosec ✔✙ ✕✚ ✘ 0 ; y = 0 when x = 1
dy y y
14.
dx x ✛ x✜
dy
15. 2 xy y2 ✄ 2x2 ✂ 0 ; y = 2 when x = 1
dx
dx ✻x✼
16. A homogeneous differential equation of the from ✽ h ✾ ✿ can be solved by
dy ❀ y❁
making the substitution.
(A) y = vx (B) v = yx (C) x = vy (D) x = v
 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 407

17. Which of the following is a homogeneous differential equation?

(A) (4x + 6y + 5) dy – (3y + 2x + 4) dx = 0
(B) (xy) dx – (x3 + y3) dy = 0
(C) (x3 + 2y2) dx + 2xy dy = 0
(D) y2 dx + (x2 – xy – y2) dy = 0
9.5.3 Linear differential equations
A differential equation of the from
dy
Py = Q
dx
where, P and Q are constants or functions of x only, is known as a first order linear
differential equation. Some examples of the first order linear differential equation are
dy
✁ y = sin x
dx
dy ✂ 1 ✄
☎ ✆ ✝ y = ex
dx ✞ x ✟
dy ✠ y ✡ 1
☛☞ ✌ =
dx ✍ x log x ✎ x
Another form of first order linear differential equation is
dx
✏ P1 x = Q 1
dy
where, P1 and Q1 are constants or functions of y only. Some examples of this type of
differential equation are
dx
✑ x = cos y
dy
dx ✒2 x
✏ = y2e – y
dy y
To solve the first order linear differential equation of the type
dy
✁ Py = Q ... (1)
dx
Multiply both sides of the equation by a function of x say g (x) to get
dy
g (x) + P. (g (x)) y = Q . g (x) ... (2)
dx
408 MATHEMATICS

Choose g (x) in such a way that R.H.S. becomes a derivative of y . g (x).

dy d
i.e. g (x) + P. g (x) y = [y . g (x)]
dx dx

dy dy
or g (x) + P. g (x) y = g (x) + y g✂ (x)
dx dx
✞ P. g (x) = g✂ (x)
g ( x)
or P=
g ( x)
Integrating both sides with respect to x, we get

g ( x)
✁
Pdx = ✄
dx
g ( x)

or ✁
P ☎ dx = log (g (x))

or g (x) = e✆ P dx
P dx
On multiplying the equation (1) by g(x) = e ✝ , the L.H.S. becomes the derivative
P dx
of some function of x and y. This function g(x) = e ✝ is called Integrating Factor
(I.F.) of the given differential equation.
Substituting the value of g (x) in equation (2), we get

P dx dy ✟ P dx P dx
e✟ ✠ Pe y = Q☛e ✡
dx

d ✟
P dx P dx
or ☞y e ✌ =
Qe ✍
dx
Integrating both sides with respect to x, we get
P dx
y✎e✍
P dx
= ✔
✏ Q✓ e ✒ ✑ dx

✗ ✘ P dx P dx
or y= e ✙
✛
✕ Q✙e ✘ ✖ dx ✚ C

which is the general solution of the differential equation.

 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 409

Steps involved to solve first order linear differential equation:

dy
(i) Write the given differential equation in the form Py ✁ Q where P, Q are
dx
constants or functions of x only.
(ii) Find the Integrating Factor (I.F) = e ✂ P dx .
(iii) Write the solution of the given differential equation as
y (I.F) = ✝ ✄ Q × I.F ☎ dx ✆ C

dx
In case, the first order linear differential equation is in the form ✞ P1 x ✟ Q1 ,
dy

where, P1 and Q1 are constants or functions of y only. Then I.F = e ✂ P1 dy and the
solution of the differential equation is given by
x . (I.F) = ☞ ✠ Q1 × I.F ✡ dy ☛ C

dy
Example 19 Find the general solution of the differential equation ✌ y ✍ cos x .
dx
Solution Given differential equation is of the form
dy
Py ✁ Q , where P = –1 and Q = cos x
dx
✎1 dx
✂ ✏ e✎ x
Therefore I.F = e
Multiplying both sides of equation by I.F, we get

e✑ x
dy ✑ x
✒ e y = e–x cos x
dx

✓ y e ✑ x ✔ = e–x cos x
dy
or
dx
On integrating both sides with respect to x, we get
✕x
ye– x = ☞ e cos x dx ☛ C ... (1)
✖x
Let I = ✗ e cos x dx

✙ e✘ x ✚ ✘x
= cos x ✜ ✢ ✛ (✛ sin x) (✛e ) dx
✣ ✛1 ✤ ✥
410 MATHEMATICS

x x
= ✁ cos x e ✁ ✂ sin x e dx

= ✝ cos x e✄ x ✝ ☎ sin x (– e
✄x
) ✝ ✠ cos x (✝e ✄ x ) dx ✆
✞ ✟
x x x
= ✁ cos x e ✡ sin x e ✁ cos x e dx
✂
or I = – e–x cos x + sin x e–x – I
or 2I = (sin x – cos x) e–x
(sin x ☞ cos x ) e☛ x
or I=
2
Substituting the value of I in equation (1), we get
✌ sin x ☞ cos x ✍ ☛ x
ye– x = ✏ ✑e ✎ C
✒ 2 ✓

✌ sin x ☞ cos x ✍ x
or y= ✏ ✑ ✎ Ce
✒ 2 ✓

which is the general solution of the given differential equation.

dy 2
Example 20 Find the general solution of the differential equation x ✔ 2 y ✕ x ( x ✖ 0) .
dx
Solution The given differential equation is
dy
✔ 2 y = x2
x ... (1)
dx
Dividing both sides of equation (1) by x, we get
dy 2
✔ y =x
dx x
dy 2
which is a linear differential equation of the type ✔ Py ✕ Q , where P ✕ and Q = x.
dx x
2 log x 2 2
log f ( x )
So I.F = e✗ x dx = e2 log x = e ✘ x [ as e ✙ f ( x )]

Therefore, solution of the given equation is given by

y . x2 = ✛
( x ) ( x 2 ) dx ✚ C = ✛
x3 dx ✚ C

x2 ✜2
or ✢Cx
y=
4
which is the general solution of the given differential equation.
 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 411

Example 21 Find the general solution of the differential equation y dx – (x + 2y2) dy = 0.

Solution The given differential equation can be written as
dx x
= 2y
dy y

dx 1
This is a linear differential equation of the type ✁ P1 x ✂ Q1 , where P1 ✂ ✄ and
dy y

✝ ✆ y dy
1
☎ 1
Q1 = 2y. Therefore I.F ✞ e ✞ e✆ log y ✞ elog ( y ) ✞
1

y
Hence, the solution of the given differential equation is

1 ✟1✠
x = ✎ (2 y ) ☛ ☞ dy ✡ C
y ✌ y✍
x
or = ✑ (2dy ) ✏ C
y

x
or = 2y + C
y
or x = 2y2 + Cy
which is a general solution of the given differential equation.

Example 22 Find the particular solution of the differential equation

dx
✒ y cot x = 2x + x2 cot x (x ✓ 0)
dy

✔
given that y = 0 when x ✕ .
2
dy
Solution The given equation is a linear differential equation of the type ✖ Py ✕ Q ,
dx
where P = cot x and Q = 2x + x2 cot x. Therefore

I.F = e ✗
cot x dx
✘ e log sin x ✘ sin x
Hence, the solution of the differential equation is given by
y . sin x ❂ ✙ (2x + x2 cot x) sin x dx + C
412 MATHEMATICS

or y sin x ❂ 2x sin x dx + x2 cos x dx + C

✁2 x2 ✂ 2
✁ 2x ✂
2
or y sin x = sin x ✆ ✝ ✄ ✠ cos x ✆ ✝ dx ☎ ✠ x cos x dx ☎ C
✞ 2 ✟ ✞ 2 ✟

2 2 2
or y sin x = x sin x ✡ ☞ x cos x dx ☛ ☞ x cos x dx ☛ C
or y sin x = x2 sin x + C ... (1)
✌
Substituting y = 0 and x ✍ in equation (1), we get
2
2
✏ ✎✑ ✏✎✑
0= ✓ ✔ sin ✓ ✔✒ C
✕2 ✖ ✕ ✖ 2
2
✗✘
or C=
4
Substituting the value of C in equation (1), we get
2
2 ✘
y sin x = x sin x ✗
4
2
2 ✎
or y= x ✙ (sin x ✚ 0)
4 sin x
which is the particular solution of the given differential equation.
Example 23 Find the equation of a curve passing through the point (0, 1). If the slope
of the tangent to the curve at any point (x, y) is equal to the sum of the x coordinate
(abscissa) and the product of the x coordinate and y coordinate (ordinate) of that point.
dy
Solution We know that the slope of the tangent to the curve is .
dx
dy
Therefore, = x + xy
dx
dy
or ✛ xy = x ... (1)
dx
dy
This is a linear differential equation of the type ✜ Py ✍ Q , where P = – x and Q = x.
dx
2
✢x
✣ ✢ x dx 2
Therefore, I.F = e ✤ e
 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 413

Hence, the solution of equation is given by

x2 ☎ x2
y ✁e 2
= ( x) ✂ e 2 ✄ dx ✆ C ... (2)
✝

✞ x2
Let I = ✟ ( x) e 2 dx
2
✠x
Let ✡ t , then – x dx = dt or x dx = – dt.
2
✞ x2
t t
Therefore, I = ☛ ✟ e dt ☞ ☛e ☞ –e 2

Substituting the value of I in equation (2), we get

✌ x2 ✍ x2
ye 2
= 2 +C
✎e
x2
or y = ✏1 ✑ C e 2 ... (3)
Now (3) represents the equation of family of curves. But we are interested in
finding a particular member of the family passing through (0, 1). Substituting x = 0 and
y = 1 in equation (3) we get
1 = – 1 + C . e0 or C = 2
Substituting the value of C in equation (3), we get
x2
y = ✏1 ✑ 2 e2
which is the equation of the required curve.

EXERCISE 9.6
For each of the differential equations given in Exercises 1 to 12, find the general solution:
dy dy ✔2 x dy y 2
1. ✒ 2 y ✓ sin x 2. ✒ 3y ✓ e 3. ✒ ✓ x
dx dx dx x
dy ✖ ✕✗ 2 dy ✖ ✕✗
4. ✆ sec xy ✡ tan x ✚ 0 ✘ x ✙ ✛ 5. cos x ✒ y ✓ tan x ✚0 ✘ x✙ ✛
dx ✜ 2✢ dx ✜ 2✢
dy 2 dy 2
6. x✒ 2 y ✓ x log x 7. x log x ✒ y ✓ log x
dx dx x
8. (1 + x2) dy + 2xy dx = cot x dx (x ✣ 0)
414 MATHEMATICS

dy dy
9. x y ✁ x xy cot x ✂ 0 ( x ✄ 0) 10. ( x y) ✂1
dx dx
dy
12. ( x ☎ 3 y )
✆ y ( y ✝ 0) .
2
11. y dx + (x – y2) dy = 0
dx
For each of the differential equations given in Exercises 13 to 15, find a particular
solution satisfying the given condition:
dy ✞
13. 2 y tan x ✂ sin x; y ✂ 0 when x ✂
dx 3
dy 1
14. (1 ✟ x ) ✟ 2 xy ✠ ; y ✠ 0 when x ✠ 1
2
dx 1 ✟ x2
dy ✞
15. ✁ 3 y cot x ✂ sin 2 x; y ✂ 2 when x ✂
dx 2
16. Find the equation of a curve passing through the origin given that the slope of the
tangent to the curve at any point (x, y) is equal to the sum of the coordinates of
the point.
17. Find the equation of a curve passing through the point (0, 2) given that the sum of
the coordinates of any point on the curve exceeds the magnitude of the slope of
the tangent to the curve at that point by 5.
dy
The Integrating Factor of the differential equation x ✁ y ✂ 2 x is
2
18.
dx
1
(A) e –x (B) e –y (C) (D) x
x
19. The Integrating Factor of the differential equation
dx
☛ yx = ay (☞1 ✌ y ✌ 1) is
(1 ✡ y 2 )
dy
1 1 1 1
(A) 2 (B) (C) (D)
y ✍1 y ✎1
2
1 ✍ y2 1✎ y2

Miscellaneous Examples
Example 24 Verify that the function y = c1 eax cos bx + c2 eax sin bx, where c1, c2 are
arbitrary constants is a solution of the differential equation
d2y dy
2
✡ 2a ☛ ✏ a 2 ☛ b2 ✑ y ✒ 0
dx dx
 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 415

Solution The given function is

y = eax [c1 cosbx + c2 sinbx] ... (1)
Differentiating both sides of equation (1) with respect to x, we get
dy
= e ax – bc1 sin bx ✂ b c2 cos bx ✁ ✂ c1 cos bx ✂ c2 sin bx✁ e ax ✄ a
dx
dy
or = e ax [(b c2 ☎ a c1 ) cos bx ☎ ( a c2 ✆ b c1 ) sin bx] ... (2)
dx
Differentiating both sides of equation (2) with respect to x, we get

d2y
= e ax [(b c2 ☎ a c1 ) ( ✆ b sin bx ) ☎ (a c2 ✆ b c1 ) (b cos bx)]
dx 2

+ [(b c2 ☎ a c1 ) cos bx ☎ ( a c2 ✆ b c1 ) sin bx] e ax . a

= e ax [( a 2 c2 ✆ 2ab c1 ✆ b 2 c2 ) sin bx ☎ (a 2 c1 ☎ 2ab c2 ✆ b 2c1 ) cos bx]

d 2 y dy
Substituting the values of , and y in the given differential equation, we get
dx 2 dx

L.H.S. = e ax [ a 2 c2 ✆ 2abc1 ✆ b 2 c2 )sin bx ☎ (a 2 c1 ☎ 2abc2 ✆ b 2 c1 ) cos bx ]

✆ 2ae ax [(bc2 ☎ ac1 )cos bx ☎ ( ac2 ✆ bc1 )sin bx ]

☎ ( a 2 ☎ b2 ) e ax [c1 cos bx ☎ c2 sin bx]

ax
✟
✝ a 2 c2 ✡ 2abc1 ✡ b 2c2 ✡ 2a 2 c2 ☛ 2abc1 ☛ a 2c2 ☛ b 2 c2 ✞ sin bx ✠

=e ☞ ✌
☞ 2 2 2 2 2 ✌
✍☛ ( a c1 ☛ 2abc2 ✡ b c1 ✡ 2abc2 ✡ 2a c1 ☛ a c1 ☛ b c1 )cos bx ✎

= e ax [0 ✏ sin bx ☎ 0 cos bx] = eax × 0 = 0 = R.H.S.

Hence, the given function is a solution of the given differential equation.
Example 25 Form the differential equation of the family of circles in the second
quadrant and touching the coordinate axes.
Solution Let C denote the family of circles in the second quadrant and touching the
coordinate axes. Let (–a, a) be the coordinate of the centre of any member of
this family (see Fig 9.6).
416 MATHEMATICS

Equation representing the family C is

Y
(x + a)2 + (y – a)2 = a2 ... (1)
or x + y + 2ax – 2ay + a2 = 0
2 2
... (2)
Differentiating equation (2) with respect to x, we get (–a, a)

dy dy X’ X
2x 2 y 2a ✁ 2a =0 O
dx dx
dy ✄ dy ☎
or x✂ y = a ✝ ✆ 1✞
dx ✟ dx ✠
Y’
x ☛ y y✡ Fig 9.6
or a=
y✡ ☞ 1
Substituting the value of a in equation (1), we get

✎ x ✍ y y✌ ✏ ✎ x ✍ y y✌ ✏ ✎ x ✍ y y✌ ✏
2 2 2

✒ x ✍ ✍ y ✑
y✌ ✑ 1 ✓✕ ✒✔ y✌ ✑ 1 ✓✕ ✒ y✌ ✑ 1 ✓
=
✔ ✔ ✕
or [xy✖ – x + x + y y✖ ]2 + [y y✖ – y – x – y y✖]2 = [x + y y✖]2
or (x + y)2 y✖2 + [x + y]2 = [x + y y✖]2
or (x + y)2 [(y✖)2 + 1] = [x + y y✖ ]2
which is the differential equation representing the given family of circles.

Example 26 Find the particular solution of the differential equation log ✄✝

dy ☎
✞ ✗ 3x ✘ 4 y
✟ ✠
dx
given that y = 0 when x = 0.
Solution The given differential equation can be written as
dy
= e(3x + 4y)
dx
dy
or = e3x . e4y ... (1)
dx
Separating the variables, we get
dy
= e3x dx
e4 y
✙ 4 y dy = e3x dx
Therefore ✚e ✚
 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 417

4y
e e3 x
or = ✂C
✁4 3
3x – 4y
or 4 e + 3 e + 12 C = 0 ... (2)
Substituting x = 0 and y = 0 in (2), we get
✄7
4 + 3 + 12 C = 0 or C =
12
Substituting the value of C in equation (2), we get
4 e3x + 3 e– 4y – 7 = 0,
which is a particular solution of the given differential equation.
Example 27 Solve the differential equation

☎ y✆ ☎ y✆
(x dy – y dx) y sin ✝ ✞ = (y dx + x dy) x cos ✝ ✞.
✟ x✠ ✟ x✠
Solution The given differential equation can be written as
✡ ☞ y✌ 2 ☞ y ✌☛ ✡ ☞ y✌ 2 ☞ y ✌☛
✓x y sin ✑ ✒ ✍ x cos ✑ ✒ ✔ dy ✎ ✓ xy cos ✑ ✒ ✏ y sin ✑ ✒ ✔ dx
✗ ✕ x✖ ✕ x ✖✘ ✗ ✕ x✖ ✕ x ✖✘

✙ y✚ 2 ✙ y✚
xy cos ✜ ✢ ✛ y sin ✜ ✢
dy ✣ x✤ ✣ x✤
or =
dx ✙ y✚ 2 ✙ y✚
xy sin ✜ ✢ ✥ x cos ✜ ✢
✣ x✤ ✣ x✤

Dividing numerator and denominator on RHS by x2, we get

2
y ✦ y✧ ✦ y ✧ ✦ y✧
cos ✩ ✪ ★ ✩ 2 ✪ sin ✩ ✪
dy x ✫ x✬ ✫ x ✬ ✫ x✬
= ... (1)
dx y y
✦ ✧ y
✦ ✧
sin ✩ ✪ ✭ cos ✩ ✪
x ✫ x✬ ✫ x✬

dy ☎ y✆
Clearly, equation (1) is a homogeneous differential equation of the form ✮ g✝ ✞.
dx ✟ x✠
To solve it, we make the substitution
y = vx ... (2)
dy dv
or = v✯x
dx dx
418 MATHEMATICS

dv v cos v ✁ v 2 sin v
or v x = (using (1) and (2))
dx v sin v ✂ cos v
dv 2v cos v
or x =
dx v sin v ✄ cos v

✆ v sin v ☎ cos v ✝ dv 2 dx
or ✞ ✟ = x
✠ v cos v ✡
✆ v sin v ☎ cos v ✝ 1
Therefore ☛ ✞✠ v cos v ✟✡ dv = 2 ☞ x dx
1 1
or ☞ tan v dv ✌ ☞ v dv = 2 ☞ x dx
or log sec v ✍ log | v | = 2 log | x | ✎ log | C1 |
sec v
or log = log | C1 |
v x2
secv
or = ± C1 ... (3)
v x2
y
Replacing v by in equation (3), we get
x
✏ y✑
sec ✒ ✓
✔ x ✕ = C where, C = ± C
✏ ✑ ( x2 )
y 1
✒ ✓
✔ x✕
✆ y✝
sec ✞
or ✟ = C xy
✠ x✡
which is the general solution of the given differential equation.
Example 28 Solve the differential equation
(tan–1y – x) dy = (1 + y2) dx.
Solution The given differential equation can be written as

dx x tan ✗1 y
✖ = ... (1)
dy 1 ✖ y 2 1✁ y2
 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 419

dx
Now (1) is a linear differential equation of the form P1 x = Q1,
dy

1 tan ✁ 1y .
where, P1 = 2 and Q1 ✂
1 y 1 ✄ y2
1
Therefore, I . F = ✝ 1✆ y 2 dy ☎1
e ✞ e tan y
Thus, the solution of the given differential equation is

✟ ☛ tan✡1 y ☞ tan ✠1y

tan 1
y = ✒✍ 2 ✎
e dy ✌ C ... (2)
✏ 1✌ y ✑
xe

☛ tan ✡1 y ☞ tan ✠1 y
Let I= ✒✍ 2 ✎
e dy
✏ 1✌ y ✑
✓ 1 ✔ dy dt
Substituting tan–1 y = t so that ✖ ✗ ✕ , we get
✙ 1✘ y
2
✚
I = ✛ t e dt = t et – ✜1 . et dt = t et – et = et (t – 1)
t

I = etan✢ y (tan–1y –1)

1
or
Substituting the value of I in equation (2), we get
✣ ✣
✥ e tan y (tan ✤1 y ✦ 1) ✧ C
1 1
x . e tan y

✣
x = (tan ✤1y ✦ 1) ✧ C e✤ tan y
1
or
which is the general solution of the given differential equation.

Miscellaneous Exercise on Chapter 9

1. For each of the differential equations given below, indicate its order and degree
(if defined).
2 3 2
✪ 5 x ★✭ ✩✮ ✫ 6 y ✬ log x ★ dy ✩ ✫ 4 ★ dy ✩ ✪ 7 y ✬ sin x
d2y dy
(i) (ii) ✭ ✮ ✭ ✮
dx 2
✯ dx ✰ ✯ dx ✰ ✯ dx ✰
d4y ✓ d3y ✔
(iii) ✱ sin ✖ 3 ✗ ✕ 0
dx 4
✙ dx ✚
420 MATHEMATICS

2. For each of the exercises given below, verify that the given function (implicit or
explicit) is a solution of the corresponding differential equation.
d2y dy
(i) y = a ex + b e–x + x2 : x 2 ✁ xy x2 ✁ 2 ✂ 0
dx 2 dx

d2y dy
(ii) y = ex (a cos x + b sin x) : 2
✄ 2 ☎ 2y ✆ 0
dx dx

d2y
(iii) y = x sin 3x : 9 y ✁ 6cos3 x ✂ 0
dx 2
dy
: (x ✝ y ) ✞ xy ✟ 0
2 2
(iv) x2 = 2y2 log y
dx
3. Form the differential equation representing the family of curves given by
(x – a)2 + 2y2 = a2, where a is an arbitrary constant.
4. Prove that x2 – y2 = c (x2 + y2)2 is the general solution of differential equation
(x3 – 3x y2) dx = (y3 – 3x2y) dy, where c is a parameter.
5. Form the differential equation of the family of circles in the first quadrant which
touch the coordinate axes.

dy 1 ✠ y2
6. Find the general solution of the differential equation ✡ ☛0.
dx 1 ✠ x2

dy y 2 y 1
7. Show that the general solution of the differential equation ✂ 0 is
dx x 2 x 1
given by (x + y + 1) = A (1 – x – y – 2xy), where A is parameter.

✌ ☞✍
8. Find the equation of the curve passing through the point ✎ 0, ✏ whose differential
✑ 4✒
equation is sin x cos y dx + cos x sin y dy = 0.
9. Find the particular solution of the differential equation
(1 + e2x) dy + (1 + y2) ex dx = 0, given that y = 1 when x = 0.
x
✓ x
✔
10. Solve the differential equation y e y dx ✗ ✕✚ x e y ✘ y 2 ✖✛ dy ( y ✙ 0) .
11. Find a particular solution of the differential equation (x – y) (dx + dy) = dx – dy,
given that y = –1, when x = 0. (Hint: put x – y = t)
 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 421

✁e 2 x y ✂ dx
12. Solve the differential equation ✝ ✄ ✞ ☎ 1 ( x ✆ 0) .
✟ x x ✠ dy

dy
13. Find a particular solution of the differential equation ✡ y cot x = 4x cosec x
dx
☞
(x ☛ 0), given that y = 0 when x ✌ .
2

dy
14. Find a particular solution of the differential equation (x + 1) = 2 e–y – 1, given
dx
that y = 0 when x = 0.
15. The population of a village increases continuously at the rate proportional to the
number of its inhabitants present at any time. If the population of the village was
20, 000 in 1999 and 25000 in the year 2004, what will be the population of the
village in 2009?
y dx ✍ x dy
16. The general solution of the differential equation ✎ 0 is
y
(A) xy = C (B) x = Cy2 (C) y = Cx (D) y = Cx2
dx
17. The general solution of a differential equation of the type ✏ P1 x ✑ Q1 is
dy

P1 dy P1 dy
(A) y e✔ ✕
✗
✒ Q1e ✔ ✓ dy ✖ C

P1 dx P1 dx
(B) y . e✚ ✛
✢
✘ Q1e ✚ ✙ dx ✜ C

P1 dy P1 dy
(C) x e✚ ✛
✢
✣ Q1e✚ ✤ dy ✜ C

P1 dx P1 dx
(D) x e✔ ✕
✗
✥ Q1e ✔ ✦ dx ✖ C

18. The general solution of the differential equation ex dy + (y ex + 2x) dx = 0 is

(A) x ey + x2 = C (B) x ey + y2 = C
(C) y ex + x2 = C (D) y ey + x2 = C
422 MATHEMATICS

Summary
An equation involving derivatives of the dependent variable with respect to
independent variable (variables) is known as a differential equation.
Order of a differential equation is the order of the highest order derivative
occurring in the differential equation.
Degree of a differential equation is defined if it is a polynomial equation in its
derivatives.
Degree (when defined) of a differential equation is the highest power (positive
integer only) of the highest order derivative in it.
A function which satisfies the given differential equation is called its solution.
The solution which contains as many arbitrary constants as the order of the
differential equation is called a general solution and the solution free from
arbitrary constants is called particular solution.
To form a differential equation from a given function we differentiate the
function successively as many times as the number of arbitrary constants in
the given function and then eliminate the arbitrary constants.
Variable separable method is used to solve such an equation in which variables
can be separated completely i.e. terms containing y should remain with dy
and terms containing x should remain with dx.
A differential equation which can be expressed in the form
dy
dx
✁ f ( x, y ) or
dx
dy
✁
g ( x, y ) where, f (x, y) and g(x, y) are homogenous

functions of degree zero is called a homogeneous differential equation.

A differential equation of the form

dy
dx
✂
+ Py Q , where P and Q are constants

or functions of x only is called a first order linear differential equation.

Historical Note
One of the principal languages of Science is that of differential equations.
Interestingly, the date of birth of differential equations is taken to be November,
11,1675, when Gottfried Wilthelm Freiherr Leibnitz (1646 - 1716) first put in black

and white the identity ✄ y dy ✂ 2 y

1 2
✠
, thereby introducing both the symbols and dy.
 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 423

Leibnitz was actually interested in the problem of finding a curve whose tangents
were prescribed. This led him to discover the ‘method of separation of variables’
1691. A year later he formulated the ‘method of solving the homogeneous
differential equations of the first order’. He went further in a very short time
to the discovery of the ‘method of solving a linear differential equation of the
first-order’. How surprising is it that all these methods came from a single man
and that too within 25 years of the birth of differential equations!
In the old days, what we now call the ‘solution’ of a differential equation,
was used to be referred to as ‘integral’ of the differential equation, the word
being coined by James Bernoulli (1654 - 1705) in 1690. The word ‘solution was
first used by Joseph Louis Lagrange (1736 - 1813) in 1774, which was almost
hundred years since the birth of differential equations. It was Jules Henri Poincare
(1854 - 1912) who strongly advocated the use of the word ‘solution’ and thus the
word ‘solution’ has found its deserved place in modern terminology. The name of
the ‘method of separation of variables’ is due to John Bernoulli (1667 - 1748),
a younger brother of James Bernoulli.
Application to geometric problems were also considered. It was again John
Bernoulli who first brought into light the intricate nature of differential equations.
In a letter to Leibnitz, dated May 20, 1715, he revealed the solutions of the
differential equation
✄
x2 y = 2y,
which led to three types of curves, viz., parabolas, hyperbolas and a class of
cubic curves. This shows how varied the solutions of such innocent looking
differential equation can be. From the second half of the twentieth century attention
has been drawn to the investigation of this complicated nature of the solutions of
differential equations, under the heading ‘qualitative analysis of differential
equations’. Now-a-days, this has acquired prime importance being absolutely
necessary in almost all investigations.

— —
 Chapter 11
THREE DIMENSIONAL GEOMETRY

✁ The moving power of mathematical invention is not

reasoning but imagination. – A. DEMORGAN ✁

11.1 Introduction
In Class XI, while studying Analytical Geometry in two
dimensions, and the introduction to three dimensional
geometry, we confined to the Cartesian methods only. In
the previous chapter of this book, we have studied some
basic concepts of vectors. We will now use vector algebra
to three dimensional geometry. The purpose of this
approach to 3-dimensional geometry is that it makes the
study simple and elegant*.
In this chapter, we shall study the direction cosines
and direction ratios of a line joining two points and also
discuss about the equations of lines and planes in space
under different conditions, angle between two lines, two
Leonhard Euler
planes, a line and a plane, shortest distance between two (1707-1783)
skew lines and distance of a point from a plane. Most of
the above results are obtained in vector form. Nevertheless, we shall also translate
these results in the Cartesian form which, at times, presents a more clear geometric
and analytic picture of the situation.
11.2 Direction Cosines and Direction Ratios of a Line
From Chapter 10, recall that if a directed line L passing through the origin makes
angles , ✂ and ✄ with x, y and z-axes, respectively, called direction angles, then cosine
of these angles, namely, cos , cos ✂ and cos ✄ are called direction cosines of the
directed line L.
If we reverse the direction of L, then the direction angles are replaced by their supplements,
i.e., ☎ ✝✆ , ✞ ✠ ✟ and ✞ ✠ ✡ . Thus, the signs of the direction cosines are reversed.
* For various activities in three dimensional geometry, one may refer to the Book
“A Hand Book for designing Mathematics Laboratory in Schools”, NCERT, 2005
464 MATHEMATICS

Fig 11.1
Note that a given line in space can be extended in two opposite directions and so it
has two sets of direction cosines. In order to have a unique set of direction cosines for
a given line in space, we must take the given line as a directed line. These unique
direction cosines are denoted by l, m and n.
Remark If the given line in space does not pass through the origin, then, in order to find
its direction cosines, we draw a line through the origin and parallel to the given line.
Now take one of the directed lines from the origin and find its direction cosines as two
parallel line have same set of direction cosines.
Any three numbers which are proportional to the direction cosines of a line are
called the direction ratios of the line. If l, m, n are direction cosines and a, b, c are
direction ratios of a line, then a = l, b= m and c = n, for any nonzero ✁ R.

✂Note Some authors also call direction ratios as direction numbers.

Let a, b, c be direction ratios of a line and let l, m and n be the direction cosines
(d.c’s) of the line. Then
l m n
= = ✄ k (say), k being a constant.
a b c
Therefore l = ak, m = bk, n = ck ... (1)
But l2 + m2 + n2 = 1
Therefore k (a + b2 + c2) =
2 2
1
1
or k= ☎
a 2 ✆ b2 ✆ c2
 THREE DIMENSIONAL GEOMETRY 465

Hence, from (1), the d.c.’s of the line are

a b c
l ✁ ,m ✁ ,n ✁
a ✂b ✂c
2 2 2
a ✂b ✂c
2 2 2
a ✂ b2 ✂ c2
2

where, depending on the desired sign of k, either a positive or a negative sign is to be

taken for l, m and n.
For any line, if a, b, c are direction ratios of a line, then ka, kb, kc; k ✄ 0 is also a
set of direction ratios. So, any two sets of direction ratios of a line are also proportional.
Also, for any line there are infinitely many sets of direction ratios.
11.2.1 Relation between the direction cosines of a line
Consider a line RS with direction cosines l, m, n. Through Z
the origin draw a line parallel to the given line and take a S
point P(x, y, z) on this line. From P draw a perpendicular
R
PA on the x-axis (Fig. 11.2). P (x, y , z)
OA x
Let OP = r. Then cos ☎ ✆ ✆ . This gives x = lr. O
a Y
OP r P
Similarly, y = mr and z = nr A r
Thus x2 + y2 + z2 = r2 (l2 + m2 + n2) X a
O x A
2 2 2 2
But x +y +z =r
Hence l + m2 + n2 = 1
2
Fig 11.2
11.2.2 Direction cosines of a line passing through two points
Since one and only one line passes through two given points, we can determine the
direction cosines of a line passing through the given points P(x1, y1, z1) and Q(x2, y2, z2)
as follows (Fig 11.3 (a)).

Fig 11.3
466 MATHEMATICS

Let l, m, n be the direction cosines of the line PQ and let it makes angles , ✁ and ✂
with the x, y and z-axis, respectively.
Draw perpendiculars from P and Q to XY-plane to meet at R and S. Draw a
perpendicular from P to QS to meet at N. Now, in right angle triangle PNQ, ✄PQN=
✂ (Fig 11.3 (b).
NQ z2 ☎ z1
Therefore, cos ✂ = ✆
PQ PQ
x2 ☎ x1 y ☎y
Similarly cos = and cos ✝✆ 2 1
PQ PQ
Hence, the direction cosines of the line segment joining the points P(x1, y1, z1) and
Q(x2, y2, z2) are
x2 ☎ x1 y2 ☎ y1 z2 ☎ z1
, ,
PQ PQ PQ

where PQ = ( x2 ✠ x1 ) 2 ✡ ( y2 ✠ y1 ) 2 ✡ ✞ z2 ✠ z1 ✟2

☛Note The direction ratios of the line segment joining P(x1, y1, z1) and Q(x2, y2, z2)
may be taken as
x2 – x1, y2 – y1, z2 – z1 or x1 – x2, y1 – y2, z1 – z2
Example 1 If a line makes angle 90°, 60° and 30° with the positive direction of x, y and
z-axis respectively, find its direction cosines.
1
Solution Let the d . c . 's of the lines be l , m, n. Then l = cos 900 = 0, m = cos 600 = ,
2
3
n = cos 300 = .
2
Example 2 If a line has direction ratios 2, – 1, – 2, determine its direction cosines.
Solution Direction cosines are
2 ✠1 ✠2
, ,
2✡ (✠1) ✡ (✠2)
2 2 2
2 2
✡ (✠1) 2 ✡ (✠2) 2 2 2
✡ ☞✠ 1✌2 ✡ (✠2) 2
2 ✍ 1 ✍2
or , ,
3 3 3
Example 3 Find the direction cosines of the line passing through the two points
(– 2, 4, – 5) and (1, 2, 3).
 THREE DIMENSIONAL GEOMETRY 467

Solution We know the direction cosines of the line passing through two points
P(x1, y1, z1) and Q(x2, y2, z2) are given by
x2 x1 y2 y1 z2 z1
, ,
PQ PQ PQ

( x2 ✄ x1 ) 2 ☎ ( y 2 ✄ y1 ) 2 ☎ ✁z 2 ✄ z1 ✂
2
where PQ =
Here P is (– 2, 4, – 5) and Q is (1, 2, 3).
So PQ = (1 ✄ (✄2)) 2 ☎ (2 ✄ 4) 2 ☎ (3 ✄ (✄5)) 2 = 77
Thus, the direction cosines of the line joining two points is
3
,
✄2 , 8
77 77 77
Example 4 Find the direction cosines of x, y and z-axis.
Solution The x-axis makes angles 0°, 90° and 90° respectively with x, y and z-axis.
Therefore, the direction cosines of x-axis are cos 0°, cos 90°, cos 90° i.e., 1,0,0.
Similarly, direction cosines of y-axis and z-axis are 0, 1, 0 and 0, 0, 1 respectively.
Example 5 Show that the points A (2, 3, – 4), B (1, – 2, 3) and C (3, 8, – 11) are
collinear.
Solution Direction ratios of line joining A and B are
1 – 2, – 2 – 3, 3 + 4 i.e., – 1, – 5, 7.
The direction ratios of line joining B and C are
3 –1, 8 + 2, – 11 – 3, i.e., 2, 10, – 14.
It is clear that direction ratios of AB and BC are proportional, hence, AB is parallel
to BC. But point B is common to both AB and BC. Therefore, A, B, C are
collinear points.

EXERCISE 11.1
1. If a line makes angles 90°, 135°, 45° with the x, y and z-axes respectively, find its
direction cosines.
2. Find the direction cosines of a line which makes equal angles with the coordinate
axes.
3. If a line has the direction ratios –18, 12, – 4, then what are its direction cosines ?
4. Show that the points (2, 3, 4), (– 1, – 2, 1), (5, 8, 7) are collinear.
5. Find the direction cosines of the sides of the triangle whose vertices are
(3, 5, – 4), (– 1, 1, 2) and (– 5, – 5, – 2).
468 MATHEMATICS

11.3 Equation of a Line in Space

We have studied equation of lines in two dimensions in Class XI, we shall now study
the vector and cartesian equations of a line in space.
A line is uniquely determined if
(i) it passes through a given point and has given direction, or
(ii) it passes through two given points.
✁
11.3.1 Equation of a line through a given point and parallel to a given vector b
✁
Let a be the position vector of the given point
A with respect to the origin O of the
rectangular coordinate system. Let l be the
line which passes through the point A and is
✂
parallel to a given vector b . Let r be the
position vector of an arbitrary point P on the
line (Fig 11.4).
✄✄✄✂ ✁
Then AP is parallel to the vector b , i.e.,
✄✄✄✂ ✁
AP = ☎ b , where ☎ is some real number. Fig 11.4
✄✄✄✂ ✄✄✄✂ ✄✄✄✂
But AP = OP – OA
✁ ✂ ✂
i.e. = r ✆a
☎b
Conversely, for each value of the parameter ☎, this equation gives the position
vector of a point P on the line. Hence, the vector equation of the line is given by
✂ ✂ ✂
r = a+✝ b ... (1)
✂
Remark If b ✞ aiˆ ✟ bjˆ ✟ ckˆ , then a, b, c are direction ratios of the line and conversely,
✂
if a, b, c are direction ratios of a line, then b ✞ aiˆ ✟ bjˆ ✟ ckˆ will be the parallel to
✁
the line. Here, b should not be confused with | b |.
Derivation of cartesian form from vector form
Let the coordinates of the given point A be (x1, y1, z1) and the direction ratios of
the line be a, b, c. Consider the coordinates of any point P be (x, y, z). Then
✁ ✁
r ✡ xiˆ ✠ yˆj ✠ zkˆ ; a ✡ x iˆ ✠ y ˆj ✠ z kˆ
1 1 1
✂
and b ✞ a iˆ ✟ b ˆj ✟ c kˆ
Substituting these values in (1) and equating the coefficients of iˆ, ˆj and k̂ , we get
x = x1 + ☎ a; y = y1 + ☎ b; z = z1+ ☎ c ... (2)
 THREE DIMENSIONAL GEOMETRY 469

These are parametric equations of the line. Eliminating the parameter from (2),
we get
x – x1 y – y1 z – z1
= = ... (3)
a b c
This is the Cartesian equation of the line.

✁Note If l, m, n are the direction cosines of the line, the equation of the line is
x – x1 y – y1 z – z1
= =
l m n
Example 6 Find the vector and the Cartesian equations of the line through the point
(5, 2, – 4) and which is parallel to the vector 3 iˆ ✂ 2 ˆj ✄ 8 kˆ .
Solution We have
☎ ✝
a = 5 iˆ ✂ 2 ˆj ✄ 4 kˆ and b ✆ 3 iˆ ✂ 2 ˆj ✄ 8 kˆ
Therefore, the vector equation of the line is
✝
r = 5 iˆ ✂ 2 ˆj ✄ 4 kˆ ✂ ✞ ( 3 iˆ ✂ 2 ˆj ✄ 8 kˆ )
✝
Now, r is the position vector of any point P(x, y, z) on the line.
Therefore, xiˆ ✂ y ˆj ✂ z kˆ = 5 iˆ ✂ 2 ˆj ✄ 4 kˆ ✂ ✞ ( 3 iˆ ✂ 2 ˆj ✄ 8 kˆ)

= (5 ✡ 3☛ ) ✌i ✡ (2 ✡ 2☛ ) ✟j ✡ ( ☞ 4 ☞ 8☛ ) k✠
Eliminating , we get
x ✍5 y✄2 z✂4
= ✆
3 2 ✄8
which is the equation of the line in Cartesian form.
11.3.2 Equation of a line passing through two given points
✎ ✎
Let a and b be the position vectors of two
points A (x 1, y 1 , z 1 ) and B (x 2 , y 2 , z 2 ),
respectively that are lying on a line (Fig 11.5).
✝
Let r be the position vector of an
arbitrary point P(x, y, z), then P is a point on
✒✒✒✎ ✎ ✎
the line if and only if AP ✏ r ✑ a and
✔✔✔☎ ☎ ☎
AB ✓ b ☞ a are collinear vectors. Therefore,
P is on the line if and only if
✝ ✝ ✝ ✝
r ✄ a ✆ ✞ (b ✄ a ) Fig 11.5
470 MATHEMATICS

or r a (b a ) , ✁ R. ... (1)
This is the vector equation of the line.
Derivation of cartesian form from vector form
We have
☎ ☎ ☎
r ✂ xiˆ ✄ y ˆj ✄ z kˆ, a ✂ x1iˆ ✄ y1 ˆj ✄ z1 kˆ and b ✂ x2iˆ ✄ y2 ˆj ✄ z2 kˆ,
Substituting these values in (1), we get
x ☛i ✞ y ✆j ✞ z k✝ ✟ x1 ☛i ✞ y1 ✆j ✞ z1 k✝ ✞ ✠ [( x2 ✡ x1 ) ☛i ✞ ( y2 ✡ y1 ) ✆j ✞ ( z2 ✡ z1 ) k✝ ]
Equating the like coefficients of iˆ, ˆj , kˆ , we get
x = x1 + (x2 – x1); y = y1 + (y2 – y1); z = z1 + (z2 – z1)
On eliminating , we obtain
x x1 y y1 z z1
x2 x1 y2 y1 z2 z1
which is the equation of the line in Cartesian form.
Example 7 Find the vector equation for the line passing through the points (–1, 0, 2)
and (3, 4, 6).
☞ ☞
Solution Let a and b be the position vectors of the point A (– 1, 0, 2) and B (3, 4, 6).
☎
Then a ✂ ✌ iˆ ✄ 2 kˆ
☎
and b ✂ 3 iˆ ✄ 4 ˆj ✄ 6 kˆ
☎ ☎
Therefore b ✌ a ✂ 4 iˆ ✄ 4 ˆj ✄ 4 kˆ
☎
Let r be the position vector of any point on the line. Then the vector equation of
the line is
☎
r ✂ ✌ iˆ ✄ 2 kˆ ✄ ✍ (4 iˆ ✄ 4 ˆj ✄ 4 kˆ)
Example 8 The Cartesian equation of a line is
x✎3 y✏5 z ✎6
✑ ✑
2 4 2
Find the vector equation for the line.
Solution Comparing the given equation with the standard form
x ✏ x1 y ✏ y1 z ✏ z1
✑ ✑
a b c
We observe that x1 = – 3, y1 = 5, z1 = – 6; a = 2, b = 4, c = 2.
 THREE DIMENSIONAL GEOMETRY 471

Thus, the required line passes through the point (– 3, 5, – 6) and is parallel to the
✁
vector 2 iˆ 4 ˆj 2 kˆ . Let r be the position vector of any point on the line, then the
vector equation of the line is given by
✁
r ✂ ( ✄ 3 iˆ 5 ˆj ✄ 6 kˆ) + ☎ (2 iˆ 4 ˆj 2kˆ)

11.4 Angle between Two Lines

Let L1 and L2 be two lines passing through the origin
and with direction ratios a1, b1, c1 and a2, b2, c2,
respectively. Let P be a point on L1 and Q be a point
on L2. Consider the directed lines OP and OQ as
given in Fig 11.6. Let ✆ be the acute angle between
OP and OQ. Now recall that the directed line
segments OP and OQ are vectors with components
a1, b1, c1 and a2, b2, c2, respectively. Therefore, the
angle ✆ between them is given by Fig 11.6

a1a2 b1b2 c1c2

cos ✆ = ... (1)
a12 b12 c12 a22 b22 c22

The angle between the lines in terms of sin ✆ is given by

sin ✆ = 1 ✄ cos 2 ✝

(a1a2 b1b2 c1c2 ) 2

= 1✄
✞ a12 b12 c12 ✟✞ a22 b22 c22 ✟
2
✞ a12 b12 c12 ✟✞ a22 b22 c22 ✟ ✄ ✠ a1a2 b1b2 c1c2 ✡
=
✞ a12 b12 c12 ✟ ✞ a22 b22 c22 ✟

(a1 b2 ✄ a2 b1 )2 (b1 c2 ✄ b2 c1 )2 (c1 a2 ✄ c2 a1 )2

= ... (2)
a12 b12 c12 a22 b22 c22

☛Note In case the lines L1 and L2 do not pass through the origin, we may take
lines L☞1 and L☞2 which are parallel to L1 and L2 respectively and pass through
the origin.
472 MATHEMATICS

If instead of direction ratios for the lines L1 and L2, direction cosines, namely,
l1, m1, n1 for L1 and l2, m2, n2 for L2 are given, then (1) and (2) takes the following form:
cos = | l1 l2 + m1m2 + n1n2 | (as l12 ✁ m12 ✁ n12 ✂1 ✂ l22 ✁ m22 ✁ n22 ) ... (3)

2
✄l1 m2 ✆ l2 m1 ☎ ✆ ( m1 n2 ✆ m2 n1 ) ✁ ( n1 l2 ✆ n2 l1 )
2 2
and sin = ... (4)

Two lines with direction ratios a1, b1, c1 and a2, b2, c2 are
(i) perpendicular i.e. if = 90° by (1)
a1a2 + b1b2 + c1c2 = 0
(ii) parallel i.e. if = 0 by (2)
a1 b1 c1
a2 =
b2 c2
Now, we find the angle between two lines when their equations are given. If is
acute the angle between the lines
✝ = ✟✝ ✝ ✝ ✝
r a1 ✁ ✞ b 1
and r = a 2 ✁ ✠ b2
☛ ☛
b1 ✡ b 2
then cos = ☛ ☛
b1 b 2
In Cartesian form, if is the angle between the lines
x ✆ x1 y ✆ y1 z ✆ z1
= ✂ ... (1)
a1 b1 c1

x ✆ x2 y ✆ y2 z ✆ z2
and = ✂ ... (2)
a2 b2 c2

where, a1, b1, c1 and a2, b2, c2 are the direction ratios of the lines (1) and (2), respectively,
then

a1a2 ✁ b1b2 ✁ c1c2

cos =
a12 ✁ b12 ✁ c12 a22 ✁ b22 ✁ c22

Example 9 Find the angle between the pair of lines given by

✝
r = 3 iˆ ✁ 2 ˆj ✆ 4 kˆ ✁ ✞ (iˆ ✁ 2 ˆj ✁ 2 kˆ)
✝
and r = 5 iˆ ✆ 2 ˆj ✁ ✠ (3 iˆ ✁ 2 ˆj ✁ 6 kˆ)
 THREE DIMENSIONAL GEOMETRY 473

✁ ✁
Solution Here b1 = iˆ 2 ˆj 2 kˆ and b2 = 3 iˆ 2 ˆj 6 kˆ
The angle ✂ between the two lines is given by
✁ ✁
b1 ✄ b2 (iˆ 2 ˆj 2kˆ) ✄ (3 iˆ 2 ˆj 6 kˆ)
cos ✂ = ✁ ✁ ☎
b1 b2 1 4 4 9 4 36

3 ✆ 4 ✆ 12 19
= ✝
3✞ 7 21
✟ 19 ✠
Hence ✂ = cos–1 ✡ ☛
☞ 21 ✌
Example 10 Find the angle between the pair of lines
x 3 y ✍1 z 3
= ☎
3 5 4
x 1 y ✍4 z ✍5
and = ☎
1 1 2
Solution The direction ratios of the first line are 3, 5, 4 and the direction ratios of the
second line are 1, 1, 2. If ✂ is the angle between them, then
3.1 ✆ 5.1 ✆ 4.2 16 16 8 3
cos ✂ = ✝ ✝ ✝
32 ✆ 52 ✆ 42 12 ✆ 12 ✆ 22 50 6 5 2 6 15

✟8 3✠
Hence, the required angle is cos–1 ✡✡ ☛☛ .
☞ 15 ✌
11.5 Shortest Distance between Two Lines
If two lines in space intersect at a point, then the shortest distance between them is
zero. Also, if two lines in space are parallel,
then the shortest distance between them
will be the perpendicular distance, i.e. the
length of the perpendicular drawn from a
point on one line onto the other line.
Further, in a space, there are lines which
are neither intersecting nor parallel. In fact,
such pair of lines are non coplanar and
are called skew lines. For example, let us
consider a room of size 1, 3, 2 units along
x, y and z-axes respectively Fig 11.7. Fig 11.7
474 MATHEMATICS

The line GE that goes diagonally across the ceiling and the line DB passes through
one corner of the ceiling directly above A and goes diagonally down the wall. These
lines are skew because they are not parallel and also never meet.
By the shortest distance between two lines we mean the join of a point in one line
with one point on the other line so that the length of the segment so obtained is the
smallest.
For skew lines, the line of the shortest distance will be perpendicular to both
the lines.
11.5.1 Distance between two skew lines
We now determine the shortest distance between two skew lines in the following way:
Let l1 and l2 be two skew lines with equations (Fig. 11.8)
✁ ✁ ✁
r = a1 ✂ b1 ... (1)
✁ ✁ ✁
and r = a2 ✄ b2 ... (2)
☎ ✆
Take any point S on l1 with position vector a1 and T on l2, with position vector a 2.
Then the magnitude of the shortest distance vector
T
will be equal to that of the projection of ST along the Q
direction of the line of shortest distance (See 10.6.2). l2
✝✝✝✁
If PQ is the shortest distance vector between
✁
l1 and l2 , then it being perpendicular to both b1 and
✁ ✝✝✝✁ S P
l1
b2 , the unit vector n̂ along PQ would therefore be
✁ ✁ Fig 11.8
b1 ✞ b2
n̂ = ✁ ✁ ... (3)
| b1 ✞ b2 |
✝✝✝✁
Then PQ = d n̂
where, d is the magnitude of the shortest distance vector. Let ✟ be the angle between
✠✠☎ ✝✝✝✁
ST and PQ . Then
PQ = ST | cos ✟ |
✝✝✝✁ ✝✝✁
PQ ✡ ST
But cos ✟ = ✝✝✝✝✁ ✝✝✁
| PQ | | ST |
☎ ☎
d nˆ ☛ (a2 ☞ a1 ) ✝✝✁ ✁ ✁
= (since ST ✌ a2 ✍ a1 )
d ST
✁ ✁ ✁ ✁
(b1 ✞ b2 ) ✡ (a2 ✍ a1)
= ✁ ✁ [From (3)]
ST b1 ✞ b2
 THREE DIMENSIONAL GEOMETRY 475

Hence, the required shortest distance is

d = PQ = ST | cos |
( b1 b2 ) . (a2 a1 )
or d=
| b1 b2 |
Cartesian form
The shortest distance between the lines
x ✁ x1 y ✂ y1 z ✂ z1
l1 : = ✄
a1 b1 c1
x ✁ x2 y ✂ y2 z ✂ z2
and l2 : = ✄
a2 b2 c2

x2 x1 y2 y1 z2 z1
a1 b1 c1
is a2 b2 c2
(b1c2 b2 c1 )2 (c1a2 c2 a1 )2 (a1b2 a2 b1 )2

11.5.2 Distance between parallel lines

If two lines l1 and l2 are parallel, then they are coplanar. Let the lines be given by
☎ ☎ ☎
r = a1 ✆ ✝ b ... (1)
☎ ☎ ☎
and r = a2 ✆ ✞ b … (2)
✟
where, a1 is the position vector of a point S on l1 and
✟
a2 is the position vector of a point T on l2 Fig 11.9.
As l1, l2 are coplanar, if the foot of the perpendicular
from T on the line l1 is P, then the distance between the
lines l1 and l2 = | TP |.
✠✠✟ ✡
Let be the angle between the vectors ST and b .
Fig 11.9
Then
☎ ☞☞☎ ☎ ☞☞☎
b ☛ ST = ( | b | | ST| sin ✌) nˆ ... (3)

where n̂ is the unit vector perpendicular to the plane of the lines l1 and l2
✠✠✟ ✟ ✟
But ST = a2 ✍ a1
476 MATHEMATICS

Therefore, from (3), we get

✂ ✂ ✂ ✂
b (a2 ✁ a1 ) = | b | PT nˆ (since PT = ST sin ✄)
✂ ✂ ✂ ✂
i.e., | b (a2 ✁ a1 )| = | b | PT ☎ 1 (as | n̂ | = 1)
Hence, the distance between the given parallel lines is

b (a2 a1 )
d = | PT |
|b |

Example 11 Find the shortest distance between the lines l1 and l2 whose vector
equations are
✂
r = iˆ ✆ ˆj ✆ ✝ (2 iˆ ✁ ˆj ✆ kˆ ) ... (1)
✂
and r = 2 iˆ ✆ ˆj ✁ kˆ ✆ ✞ (3 iˆ ✁ 5 ˆj ✆ 2 kˆ ) ... (2)
✂ ✂ ✂ ✂ ✂
Solution Comparing (1) and (2) with r✂ = a1 ✆ ✝ b1 and r ✠ a2 ✆ ✟ b2 respectively,
✡ ✂
we get a1 = iˆ ✆ ˆj , b1 ✠ 2 iˆ ✁ ˆj ✆ kˆ
☛ ✂
a2 = 2 iˆ + ĵ – k̂ and b2 = 3 iˆ – 5 ĵ + 2 k̂
✡ ✡
Therefore a2 ☞ a1 = iˆ ✁ kˆ
✂ ✂
and b1 b2 = ( 2 iˆ ✁ ˆj ✆ kˆ ) ( 3 iˆ ✁ 5 ˆj ✆ 2 kˆ )

iˆ ˆj kˆ
= 2 ✁1 1 ✠ 3 iˆ ✁ ˆj ✁ 7 kˆ
3 ✁5 2
✂ ✂
So | b1 b2 | = 9 ✌ 1 ✌ 49 ✍ 59
Hence, the shortest distance between the given lines is given by
☛ ☛ ☛ ☛
( b1 ✎ b2 ) . ( a2 ✏ a1 ) | 3✏ 0 ✒ 7 | 10
d = ☛ ☛ ✑ ✑
| b1 ✎ b2 | 59 59

Example 12 Find the distance between the lines l1 and l2 given by

✂
r = iˆ ✆ 2 ˆj ✁ 4 kˆ ✆ ✝ ( 2 iˆ ✆ 3 ˆj ✆ 6 kˆ )
✂
and r = 3 iˆ ✆ 3 ˆj ✁ 5 kˆ ✆ ✞ ( 2 iˆ ✆ 3 ˆj ✆ 6 kˆ )
 THREE DIMENSIONAL GEOMETRY 477

Solution The two lines are parallel (Why? ) We have

✁ ✄ ✄
a1 = iˆ 2 ˆj ✂ 4 kˆ , a2 = 3 iˆ 3 ˆj ✂ 5 kˆ and b = 2 iˆ 3 ˆj 6 kˆ
Therefore, the distance between the lines is given by

iˆ ˆj kˆ
✆ ✆ ✆
b ☎ (a2 ✂ a1 ) 2 3 6
d= ✆ =
|b | 2 1 ✂1
4 9 36

| ✂ 9 iˆ 14 ˆj ✂ 4 kˆ | 293 293
or = ✝ ✝
49 49 7

EXERCISE 11.2
1. Show that the three lines with direction cosines
12 ✂3 ✂4 4 12 3 3 ✂4 12
, , ; , , ; , , are mutually perpendicular.
13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13
2. Show that the line through the points (1, – 1, 2), (3, 4, – 2) is perpendicular to the
line through the points (0, 3, 2) and (3, 5, 6).
3. Show that the line through the points (4, 7, 8), (2, 3, 4) is parallel to the line
through the points (– 1, – 2, 1), (1, 2, 5).
4. Find the equation of the line which passes through the point (1, 2, 3) and is
parallel to the vector 3 iˆ 2 ˆj ✂ 2 kˆ .
5. Find the equation of the line in vector and in cartesian form that passes through
the point with position vector 2 iˆ ✂ j 4 kˆ and is in the direction iˆ 2 ˆj ✂ kˆ .
6. Find the cartesian equation of the line which passes through the point (– 2, 4, – 5)
x✞3 y✟4 z✞8
and parallel to the line given by ✠ ✠ .
3 5 6
x✟5 y✞4 z✟6
7. The cartesian equation of a line is ✠ ✠ . Write its vector form.
3 7 2
8. Find the vector and the cartesian equations of the lines that passes through the
origin and (5, – 2, 3).
478 MATHEMATICS

9. Find the vector and the cartesian equations of the line that passes through the
points (3, – 2, – 5), (3, – 2, 6).
10. Find the angle between the following pairs of lines:
☎
(i) r 2 iˆ ✁ 5 ˆj ✂ kˆ ✂ ✄ (3 iˆ ✂ 2 ˆj ✂ 6 kˆ) and
☎
r 7 iˆ ✁ 6 kˆ ✂ ✆ ( iˆ ✂ 2 ˆj ✂ 2 kˆ)
☎
3 iˆ ✂ ˆj ✁ 2 kˆ ✂ ✄ ( iˆ ✁ ˆj ✁ 2 kˆ) and
(ii) r
☎
r 2 iˆ ✁ ˆj ✁ 56 kˆ ✂ ✆ (3 iˆ ✁ 5 ˆj ✁ 4 kˆ)
11. Find the angle between the following pair of lines:
x ✁ 2 y ✁1 z ✂ 3 x✂ 2 y✁ 4 z ✁5
(i) and
2 5 ✁3 ✁1 8 4
x y z x✝5 y✝2 z✝3
✞ ✞ and
(ii) ✞ ✞
2 2 1 4 1 8
1✁ x 7 y ✁ 14 z✁3
12. Find the values of p so that the lines
3 2p 2
7 ✁ 7x y✁5 6✁ z
and are at right angles.
3p 1 5
x✝5 y✟2 z x y z
13. Show that the lines ✞ ✞ and ✞ ✞ are perpendicular to
7 ✝5 1 1 2 3
each other.
14. Find the shortest distance between the lines
☎
r ( iˆ ✂ 2 ˆj ✂ kˆ) + ✄ (iˆ ✁ ˆj ✂ kˆ ) and
☎
r 2 iˆ ✁ ˆj ✁ kˆ ✂ ✆ (2 iˆ ✂ ˆj ✂ 2 kˆ)
15. Find the shortest distance between the lines
x ✂1 y ✂1 z ✂1 x✝3 y✝5 z✝7
and ✞ ✞
7 ✁6 1 1 ✝2 1
16. Find the shortest distance between the lines whose vector equations are
☎
r (iˆ ✂ 2 ˆj ✂ 3 kˆ ) + ✄ (iˆ ✁ 3 ˆj ✂ 2 kˆ)
☎
and r 4 iˆ ✂ 5 ˆj ✂ 6 kˆ ✂ ✆ (2 iˆ ✂ 3 ˆj ✂ kˆ)
17. Find the shortest distance between the lines whose vector equations are
☎
r (1 ✁ t ) iˆ ✂ (t ✁ 2) ˆj ✂ (3 ✁ 2 t ) kˆ and
☎
r ( s ✂ 1) iˆ ✂ (2s ✁ 1) ˆj ✁ (2s ✂ 1) kˆ
 THREE DIMENSIONAL GEOMETRY 479

11.6 Plane
A plane is determined uniquely if any one of the following is known:
(i) the normal to the plane and its distance from the origin is given, i.e., equation of
a plane in normal form.
(ii) it passes through a point and is perpendicular to a given direction.
(iii) it passes through three given non collinear points.
Now we shall find vector and Cartesian equations of the planes.
11.6.1 Equation of a plane in normal form
Consider a plane whose perpendicular distance from the origin is d (d 0). Fig 11.10.
✂✂✂✁
If ON is the normal from the origin to the plane, and n̂ is the unit normal vector
✄✄✄☎ ✂✂✂✁ ❩
along ON . Then ON = d n̂ . Let P be any
✂✂✂✁
point on the plane. Therefore, NP is
✄✄✄☎
perpendicular to ON .
✂✂✂✁ ✂✂✂✁
Therefore, NP ✆ ON = 0 ... (1) P✏ ①✑✒✑✱ ✮
✝
Let r be the position vector of the point P, r
✂✂✂✁ ✁ ✡✡✡✝ ✡✡✡✝ ✡✡✡✝
then NP = r ✞ d nˆ (as ON ✟ NP ✠ OP ) ❞ ◆
Therefore, (1) becomes ❖ ❨
✍ ☛ ☛
( r ☞ d n) ✌ d n = 0 ❳
✍ ☛ ☛ Fig 11.10
or ( r ☞ d n) ✌ n = 0 (d 0)
✍ ☛ ☛ ☛
or r ✌n☞ d n✌n = 0
☛ ☛
i.e., r n =d (as n ✌ n ✎ 1) … (2)
This is the vector form of the equation of the plane.
Cartesian form
Equation (2) gives the vector equation of a plane, where n̂ is the unit vector normal to
the plane. Let P(x, y, z) be any point on the plane. Then
✂✂✂✁ ✝
OP = r ✠ x iˆ ✟ y ˆj ✟ z kˆ
Let l, m, n be the direction cosines of n̂ . Then
n̂ = l iˆ ✟ m ˆj ✟ n kˆ
480 MATHEMATICS

Therefore, (2) gives

( x iˆ y ˆj z kˆ) ✁ (l iˆ m ˆj n kˆ) ✂ d
i.e., lx + my + nz = d ... (3)
This is the cartesian equation of the plane in the normal form.
☎
✄Note Equation (3) shows that if r ✁ (a i b ˆj c kˆ) = d is the vector equation
ˆ
of a plane, then ax + by + cz = d is the Cartesian equation of the plane, where a, b
and c are the direction ratios of the normal to the plane.
6
Example 13 Find the vector equation of the plane which is at a distance of
29
from the origin and its normal vector from the origin is 2 iˆ ✆ 3 ˆj ˆ
4 k . Also find its
cartesian form.
✠
Solution Let n ✟ 2 iˆ ✞ 3 ˆj ✝ 4 kˆ . Then
☎
n 2 iˆ ✆ 3 ˆj 4 kˆ 2 iˆ ✆ 3 ˆj 4 kˆ
nˆ ✂ ☎ = ✂
| n| 4 9 16 29
Hence, the required equation of the plane is
☎ ✡ 2 ˆ ✆3 ˆ 4 ˆ☛ 6
r ✁☞ i j k✌✂
✍ 29 29 29 ✎ 29
Example 14 Find the direction cosines of the unit vector perpendicular to the plane
☎
r ✁ (6 iˆ ✆ 3 ˆj ✆ 2 kˆ) 1 = 0 passing through the origin.
Solution The given equation can be written as
☎
r ✁ ( ✆ 6 iˆ 3 ˆj 2 kˆ ) = 1 ... (1)
Now | ✆ 6 iˆ 3 ˆj 2 kˆ | = 36 ✝ 9 ✝ 4 ✟ 7
Therefore, dividing both sides of (1) by 7, we get
☎ ✡ 6ˆ 3 ˆ 2 ˆ☛ 1
r ✁☞✆ i j k✌ =
✍ 7 7 7 ✎ 7
✠
which is the equation of the plane in the form r ✏ nˆ ✟ d .
6 ˆ 3 ˆ 2 ˆ
This shows that nˆ ✂ ✆ i j k is a unit vector perpendicular to the
7 7 7

plane through the origin. Hence, the direction cosines of n̂ are ✆ 6 , 3 , 2 .

7 7 7
 THREE DIMENSIONAL GEOMETRY 481

Example 15 Find the distance of the plane 2x – 3y + 4z – 6 = 0 from the origin.

Solution Since the direction ratios of the normal to the plane are 2, –3, 4; the direction
cosines of it are
2
,
3
,
4 2 ✂3 4
, i.e., , ,
2 ✁ ( 3) ✁ 4
2 2 2
2 ✁ ( 3) ✁ 4
2 2 2
2 ✁ ( 3) ✁ 4
2 2 2
29 29 29
Hence, dividing the equation 2x – 3y + 4z – 6 = 0 i.e., 2x – 3y + 4z = 6 throughout by
29 , we get
2 ✂3 4 6
x ✄ y ✄ z ☎
29 29 29 29
This is of the form lx + my + nz = d, where d is the distance of the plane from the
6
origin. So, the distance of the plane from the origin is .
29
Example 16 Find the coordinates of the foot of the perpendicular drawn from the
origin to the plane 2x – 3y + 4z – 6 = 0.
Solution Let the coordinates of the foot of the perpendicular P from the origin to the
plane is (x1, y1, z1) (Fig 11.11).
Z
Then, the direction ratios of the line OP are
x1, y1, z1.
P(x1 , y1 , z1)
Writing the equation of the plane in the normal
form, we have
2 3 4 6
x✂ y✄ z☎ O Y
29 29 29 29
2
,
✂3 4
where, , are the direction X
29 29 29
cosines of the OP. Fig 11.11
Since d.c.’s and direction ratios of a line are proportional, we have
x1 y1 z1
= ✆ =k
2 3 4
29 29 29

2k ✂3k , 4k
i.e., x1 = , y1 = z1 ☎
29 29 29
482 MATHEMATICS

6
Substituting these in the equation of the plane, we get k = .
29

Hence, the foot of the perpendicular is ✄

✁ 12 , 18 , 24 ✂ .
☎
✆ 29 29 29 ✝

✞Note If d is the distance from the origin and l, m, n are the direction cosines of
the normal to the plane through the origin, then the foot of the perpendicular is
(ld, md, nd).

11.6.2 Equation of a plane perpendicular to a

given vector and passing through a given point
In the space, there can be many planes that are
perpendicular to the given vector, but through a given
point P(x1, y1, z1), only one such plane exists (see
Fig 11.12).
Let a plane pass through a point A with position
✟ ✠✟ Fig 11.12
vector a and perpendicular to the vector N .
✡
Let r be the position vector of any point P(x, y, z) in the plane. (Fig 11.13).
Then the point P lies in the plane if and only if
☛☛☛✡ ✠✟ ☛☛☛✡ ✠✟
AP is perpendicular to N . i.e., AP . N = 0. But
☛☛☛✡ ✡ ✡
AP ☞ r ✌ a . Therefore, ( r a ) N 0 … (1)
This is the vector equation of the plane.
Cartesian form
Let the given point A be (x1, y1, z1), P be (x, y, z)
✍✎ Fig 11.13
and direction ratios of N are A, B and C. Then,
✡ ✡ ✡
a ☞ x1 iˆ ✏ y1 ˆj ✏ z1 kˆ, r ☞ xiˆ ✏ y ˆj ✏ z kˆ and N ☞ A iˆ ✏ B ˆj ✏ C kˆ
✡ ✡ ✡
Now (r – a ) ✑ N = 0

So ✔✒ x ✖ x1 ✓ iˆ ✗ ✒ y ✖ y1 ✓ ˆj ✗ ✒ z ✖ z1 ✓ kˆ ✕ ✘ (A iˆ ✗ B ˆj ✗ C kˆ) ✙ 0
✚ ✛
i.e. A (x – x1) + B (y – y1) + C (z – z1) = 0
Example 17 Find the vector and cartesian equations of the plane which passes through
the point (5, 2, – 4) and perpendicular to the line with direction ratios 2, 3, – 1.
 THREE DIMENSIONAL GEOMETRY 483

☎
Solution We have the position vector of point (5, 2, – 4) as a ✁ 5 iˆ ✂ 2 ˆj ✄ 4kˆ and the
✆ ☎
normal vector N perpendicular to the plane as N = 2 iˆ +3 ˆj ✄ kˆ
☎ ☎ ☎
Therefore, the vector equation of the plane is given by (r ✄ a ).N ✁ 0
☎
or [r ✄ (5 iˆ ✂ 2 ˆj ✄ 4 kˆ)] ✝ (2 iˆ ✂ 3 ˆj ✄ kˆ) ✁ 0 ... (1)
Transforming (1) into Cartesian form, we have
[( x – 5) iˆ ✂ ( y ✄ 2) ˆj ✂ ( z ✂ 4) kˆ] ✝ (2 iˆ ✂ 3 ˆj ✄ kˆ ) ✁ 0
or 2( x ✄ 5) ✂ 3( y ✄ 2) ✄ 1( z ✂ 4) ✁ 0
i.e. 2x + 3y – z = 20
which is the cartesian equation of the plane.
11.6.3 Equation of a plane passing through three non collinear points
✆ ✆
Let R, S and T be three non collinear points on the plane with position vectors a , b and
✆
c respectively (Fig 11.14).

✭❘❙ X ❘❚
❘
P

r ❛ ❙
❝ ❚
❜
❖
❨

Fig 11.14
✞✞✞
✆ ✟✟✟☎ ✟✟✟☎ ✟✟✟☎
The vectors RS and RT are in the given plane. Therefore, the vector RS ✠ RT
☎
is perpendicular to the plane containing points R, S and T. Let r be the position vector
of any point P in the plane. Therefore, the equation of the plane passing through R and
✟✟✟☎ ✟✟✟☎
perpendicular to the vector RS ✠ RT is
☎ ☎ ✟✟✟☎ ✟✟✟☎
(r ✄ a ) ✝ (RS✠ RT) = 0
☎ ☎ ☎ ☎ ☎ ☎
or ( r – a ) ×[( b – a )×( c – a )] = 0 … (1)
484 MATHEMATICS

This is the equation of the plane in vector form passing through three noncollinear
points.

Note Why was it necessary to say that the three points

✁
had to be non collinear? If the three points were on the same
R
line, then there will be many planes that will contain them
(Fig 11.15). S
These planes will resemble the pages of a book where the T
line containing the points R, S and T are members in the binding
of the book.
Cartesian form Fig 11.15
Let (x1, y1, z1), (x2, y2, z2) and (x3, y3, z3) be the coordinates of the points R, S and T
respectively. Let (x, y, z) be the coordinates of any point P on the plane with position
vector r . Then
✂✂✂
RP = (x – x1) iˆ + (y – y1) ĵ + (z – z1) k̂
✄✄✄☎
RS = (x2 – x1) iˆ + (y2 – y1) ĵ + (z2 – z1) k̂
✂✂✂
RT = (x3 – x1) iˆ + (y3 – y1) ĵ + (z3 – z1) k̂
Substituting these values in equation (1) of the vector form and expressing it in the
form of a determinant, we have
x x1 y y1 z z1
x2 x1 y2 y1 z2 z1 0
x3 x1 y3 y1 z3 z1
which is the equation of the plane in Cartesian form passing through three non collinear
points (x1, y1, z1), (x2, y2, z2) and (x3, y3, z3).
Example 18 Find the vector equations of the plane passing through the points
R (2, 5, – 3), S (– 2, – 3, 5) and T(5, 3,– 3).
Solution Let a ✆ 2 iˆ ✝ 5 ˆj ✞ 3 kˆ , b ✆ ✞ 2 iˆ ✞ 3 ˆj ✝ 5 kˆ , c ✆ 5 iˆ ✝ 3 ˆj ✞ 3 kˆ
☎ ☎
Then the vector equation of the plane passing through a☎ , b and c and is
given by
✂✂✂ ✂✂✂
(r ✞ a ) ✟ (RS✠ RT) = 0 (Why?)
or (r ✞ a ) ✟ [(b ✞ a ) ✠ (c ✞ a ) ] = 0
i.e. [r ✞ (2 iˆ ✝ 5 ˆj ✞ 3 kˆ)] ✟ [(✞4 iˆ ✞ 8 ˆj ✝ 8 kˆ) ✠ (3 iˆ ✞ 2 ˆj )] ✆ 0
 THREE DIMENSIONAL GEOMETRY 485

11.6.4 Intercept form of the equation of a plane

In this section, we shall deduce the equation of a plane in terms of the intercepts made
by the plane on the coordinate axes. Let the equation of the plane be
Ax + By + Cz + D = 0 (D 0) ... (1)
Let the plane make intercepts a, b, c on x, y and z axes, respectively (Fig 11.16).
Hence, the plane meets x, y and z-axes at (a, 0, 0),
(0, b, 0), (0, 0, c), respectively.
✁D
Therefore Aa + D = 0 or A =
a
✂D
Bb + D = 0 or B =
b
✂D
Cc + D = 0 or C =
c
Substituting these values in the equation (1) of the Fig 11.16
plane and simplifying, we get
x y z
✄ ✄ =1 ... (1)
a b c
which is the required equation of the plane in the intercept form.
Example 19 Find the equation of the plane with intercepts 2, 3 and 4 on the x, y and
z-axis respectively.
Solution Let the equation of the plane be
x y z
☎ ☎ =1 ... (1)
a b c
Here a = 2, b = 3, c = 4.
Substituting the values of a, b and c in (1), we get the required equation of the
x y z
plane as ✄ ✄ ✆ 1 or 6x + 4y + 3z = 12.
2 3 4
11.6.5 Plane passing through the intersection
of two given planes
Let ✝ 1 and ✝ 2 be two planes with equations
✟ ✟
r ✞ nˆ1 = d1 and r ✞ nˆ2 = d2 respectively. The position
vector of any point on the line of intersection must
satisfy both the equations (Fig 11.17). Fig 11.17
486 MATHEMATICS

✁
If t is the position vector of a point on the line, then
✁ ✁
t nˆ1 = d1 and t nˆ2 = d2
Therefore, for all real values of ✂, we have
✁
t ( nˆ1 ✄ ☎ nˆ2 ) = d1 ✄ ☎ d 2
✆
Since t is arbitrary, it satisfies for any point on the line.
✁ ✁ ✁
Hence, the equation r ( n1 ✄ ☎ n2 ) ✝ d1 ✄ ☎ d 2 represents a plane ✞3 which is such
✟
that if any vector r satisfies both the equations ✞1 and ✞2, it also satisfies the equation
✞ i.e., any plane passing through the intersection of the planes
3
✁ ✁ ✁ ✁
r n1 = d1 and r n2 ✝ d 2
has the equation r ( n1 n2 ) = d1 + ✂d2 ... (1)
Cartesian form
In Cartesian system, let
✠
n1 = A1 iˆ ✡ B2 ˆj ✡ C1 kˆ
✠
n2 = A 2 iˆ ✡ B2 ˆj ✡ C2 kˆ
✟
and r = xiˆ ✡ y ˆj ✡ z kˆ
Then (1) becomes
x (A1 + ✂A2) + y (B1 + ✂B2) + z (C1 + ✂C2) = d1 + ✂d2
or (A1 x + B1 y + C1z – d1) + ✂ (A2 x + B2 y + C2 z – d2) = 0 ... (2)
which is the required Cartesian form of the equation of the plane passing through the
intersection of the given planes for each value of ✂.
Example 20 Find the vector equation of the plane passing through the intersection of
✟ ✟
the planes r ☛ (iˆ ✡ ˆj ✡ kˆ) ☞ 6 and r ☛ (2iˆ ✡ 3 ˆj ✡ 4kˆ) ☞ ✌ 5, and the point (1, 1, 1).
✟ ✁
Solution Here, n1 ☞ iˆ ✡ ˆj ✡ kˆ and n2 = 2 iˆ ✡ 3 ˆj ✡ 4kˆ;
and d1 = 6 and d2 = –5
✁ ✁ ✁
Hence, using the relation r ( n1 ✄ ☎ n2 ) ✝ d1 ✄ ☎ d 2 , we get
✟
r ☛ [iˆ ✡ ˆj ✡ kˆ ✡ ✍ (2 iˆ ✡ 3 ˆj ✡ 4 kˆ )] = 6 ✌ 5✍
✟
or r ☛ [(1 ✡ 2✍) iˆ ✡ (1✡ 3✍ ) ˆj ✡ (1✡ 4✍)kˆ] = 6 ✌ 5✍ … (1)
where, ✂ is some real number.
 THREE DIMENSIONAL GEOMETRY 487

✂
Taking r xiˆ ✁ y ˆj ✁ z kˆ , we get

( xiˆ ✁ y ˆj ✁ z kˆ) ✄[(1✁ 2☎ ) iˆ ✁ (1✁ 3☎ ) ˆj ✁ (1✁ 4☎ )kˆ] 6 ✆ 5☎

or (1 + 2✝ ) x + (1 + 3✝) y + (1 + 4✝) z = 6 – 5✝
or (x + y + z – 6 ) + ✝ (2x + 3y + 4 z + 5) = 0 ... (2)
Given that the plane passes through the point (1,1,1), it must satisfy (2), i.e.
(1 + 1 + 1 – 6) + ✝ (2 + 3 + 4 + 5) = 0
3
or ✝=
14
Putting the values of ✝ in (1), we get

✔ ✞✠ 3 ✡ ✠ 9 ✡ ✠ 6 ✡ ✟ 15
r ✍☞ 1☛ ✌ iˆ ☛ ☞ 1☛ ✌ ˆj ☛ ☞ 1☛ ✌ kˆ ✎ = 6 ✕
✒✏ 7 ✑ ✏ 14 ✑ ✏ 7 ✑ ✓ 14

✂ ✖ 10 ˆ 23 ˆ 13 ˆ ✗ 69
or r✘ i✁ j✁ k ✙ =
✚ 7 14 7 ✛ 14
✂
or r ✄ (20 iˆ ✁ 23 ˆj ✁ 26 kˆ) = 69
which is the required vector equation of the plane.
11.7 Coplanarity of Two Lines
Let the given lines be
✂ ✂ ✂
r = a1 ✁ ☎ b1 ... (1)
✂ ✂ ✂
and r = a2 ✁ ✜b2 ... (2)
✢
The line (1) passes through the point, say A, with position vector a1 and is parallel
✂ ✢
to b1 . The line (2) passes through the point, say B with position vector a2 and is parallel
✂
to b2 .
✣✣✣✂ ✔ ✔
Thus, AB = a2 ✤ a1
✣✣✣✂ ✂ ✂
The given lines are coplanar if and only if AB is perpendicular to b1 ✥ b2 .
✣✣✣✂ ✂ ✂ ✂ ✂ ✂ ✂
i.e. AB.(b1 ✥ b2 ) = 0 or (a2 ✆ a1 ) ✄ (b1 ✥ b2 ) = 0
Cartesian form
Let (x1, y1, z1) and (x2, y2, z2) be the coordinates of the points A and B respectively.
488 MATHEMATICS

✁ ✁
Let a1, b1, c1 and a2, b2, c2 be the direction ratios of b1 and b2 , respectively. Then
☎☎☎✁
AB ( x2 ✂ x1 ) iˆ ✄ ( y2 ✂ y1 ) ˆj ✄ ( z2 ✂ z1 )kˆ
✁ ✁
b1 a1 iˆ ✄ b1 ˆj ✄ c1 kˆ and b2 a2 iˆ ✄ b2 ˆj ✄ c2 kˆ
✡✡✡☛ ☛ ☛
The given lines are coplanar if and only if AB✞ ✆b1 ✟ b2 ✝ ✠ 0 . In the cartesian form,
it can be expressed as
x2 ☞ x1 y2 ☞ y1 z2 ☞ z1
a1 b2 c1 ✌0 ... (4)
a2 b2 c2
Example 21 Show that the lines
x +3 y ✂ 1 z ✂ 5 x +1 y ✂ 2 z ✂ 5
and are coplanar.
–3 1 5 –1 2 5
Solution Here, x1 = – 3, y1 = 1, z1 = 5, a1 = – 3, b1 = 1, c1 = 5
x2 = – 1, y2 = 2, z2 = 5, a2 = –1, b2 = 2, c2 = 5
Now, consider the determinant
x2 ☞ x1 y2 ☞ y1 z2 ☞ z1 2 1 0
a1 b1 c1 ✌ ☞3 1 5 ✌ 0
a2 b2 c2 ☞1 2 5
Therefore, lines are coplanar.
11.8 Angle between Two Planes
Definition 2 The angle between two planes is defined as the angle between their
normals (Fig 11.18 (a)). Observe that if ✍ is an angle between the two planes, then so
is 180 – ✍ (Fig 11.18 (b)). We shall take the acute angle as the angles between
two planes.

Fig 11.18
 THREE DIMENSIONAL GEOMETRY 489

✁ ✁
If n1 and n2 are normals to the planes and be the angle between the planes
✁ ✁ ✁ ✁
r ✂ n1 = d1 and r . n2 ✄ d 2 .
Then is the angle between the normals to the planes drawn from some common
point.
n1 n2
We have, cos =
| n1 | | n2 |
✁ ✁
☎Note The planes are perpendicular to each other if n1 . n2 = 0 and parallel if
✆ ✆
n1 is parallel to n2 .
Cartesian form Let be the angle between the planes,
A1 x + B1 y + C1z + D1 = 0 and A2x + B2 y + C2 z + D2 = 0
The direction ratios of the normal to the planes are A1, B1, C1 and A2, B2, C2
respectively.

A1 A 2 B1 B 2 C1 C2
Therefore, cos =
A12 B12 C12 A 22 B 22 C22

☎ Note
1. If the planes are at right angles, then = 90 o and so cos = 0.
Hence, cos = A1A2 + B1B2 + C1C2 = 0.
A1 B C
2. If the planes are parallel, then ✝ 1 ✝ 1.
A2 B2 C2

Example 22 Find the angle between the two planes 2x + y – 2z = 5 and 3x – 6y – 2z = 7

using vector method.

Solution The angle between two planes is the angle between their normals. From the
equation of the planes, the normal vectors are
✞✁ ✡☛
N1 = 2 iˆ ✟ ˆj ✠ 2 kˆ and N 2 ✝ 3 iˆ ✠ 6 ˆj ✠ 2 kˆ
✏✆ ✏✆
N1 ☞ N 2 (2 iˆ ✌ ˆj ✍ 2 kˆ) ☞ (3 iˆ ✍ 6 ˆj ✍ 2 kˆ) ✑ 4✒
Therefore cos = ✏✆ ✏✆ ✎ =✓ ✔
| N1 | | N 2 | 4 ✌ 1 ✌ 4 9 ✌ 36 ✌ 4 ✕ 21 ✖
✑ 4✒
Hence = cos – 1 ✓ ✔
✕ 21 ✖
490 MATHEMATICS

Example 23 Find the angle between the two planes 3x – 6y + 2z = 7 and 2x + 2y – 2z =5.
Solution Comparing the given equations of the planes with the equations
A1 x + B1 y + C1 z + D1 = 0 and A2 x + B2 y + C2 z + D2 = 0
We get A1 = 3, B1 = – 6, C1 = 2
A2 = 2, B2 = 2, C2 = – 2
3 ✄ 2 ☎ (✆6) (2) ☎ (2) (✆2)
cos =
✁32 ☎ (✆ 6) 2 ☎ (✆2)2 ✂ ✁ 22 ☎ 22 ☎ (✆2) 2 ✂
✆ 10 5 5 3
= ✝ ✝
7✄2 3 7 3 21

✞5 3✟
Therefore, = cos-1 ✠✠ ✡✡
☛ 21 ☞
11.9 Distance of a Point from a Plane
Vector form
✌
Consider a point P with position vector a and a plane ✍ 1 whose equation is
✏
r ✎ nˆ = d (Fig 11.19).
Z Z

p1 p2
p2
Q P
P p1 a
d N’
a N’ N Y
O
O d
Y N
X X
(a) (b)
Fig 11.19

Consider a plane ✍2 through P parallel to the plane ✍1. The unit vector normal to
✌ ✌
✍2 is n̂ . Hence, its equation is ( r ✑ a ) ✒ nˆ ✓ 0
✏ ✏
i.e., r ✎ nˆ = a ✎ nˆ
✌
Thus, the distance ON✔ of this plane from the origin is | a ✒ nˆ | . Therefore, the distance
PQ from the plane ✍1 is (Fig. 11.21 (a))
✌
i.e., ON – ON✔ = | d – a ✒ nˆ |
 THREE DIMENSIONAL GEOMETRY 491

which is the length of the perpendicular from a point to the given plane.
We may establish the similar results for (Fig 11.19 (b)).

✁ Note
✆ ☎✆ ✝✞
1. If the equation of the plane 2
is in the form r ✂ N ✄ d , where N is normal
☛ ✡☛
| a✟N ✠ d | .
to the plane, then the perpendicular distance is ✡☛
|N|

2.
✆ ☎✆ |d |
The length of the perpendicular from origin O to the plane r ✂ N ✄ d is ☎✆
|N|
✞
(since a = 0).
Cartesian form
✞
Let P(x1, y1, z1) be the given point with position vector a and
Ax + By + Cz = D
be the Cartesian equation of the given plane. Then
✞
a = x1 iˆ ☞ y1 ˆj ☞ z1 kˆ
✝✞
N = A iˆ ☞ B ˆj ☞ C kˆ
Hence, from Note 1, the perpendicular from P to the plane is

( x1 iˆ ☞ y1 ˆj ☞ z1 kˆ ) ✂ ( A iˆ ☞ B ˆj ☞ C kˆ ) ✌ D
A 2 ☞ B2 ☞ C2

A x1 ☞ B y1 ☞ C z1 ✌ D
=
A 2 ☞ B2 ☞ C2

Example 24 Find the distance of a point (2, 5, – 3) from the plane

✆
r ✂ ( 6 iˆ ✌ 3 ˆj ☞ 2 kˆ ) = 4
✆ ☎✆
Solution Here, a ✄ 2 iˆ ☞ 5 ˆj ✌ 3 kˆ , N ✄ 6 iˆ ✌ 3 ˆj ☞ 2 kˆ and d = 4.
Therefore, the distance of the point (2, 5, – 3) from the given plane is

| (2 iˆ ☞ 5 ˆj ✌ 3 kˆ) ✂ (6 iˆ ✌ 3 ˆj ☞ 2 kˆ) ✌ 4| | 12 ✌ 15 ✌ 6 ✌ 4 | 13
= ✄
| 6 i ✌3 j ☞ 2 k |
ˆ ˆ ˆ 36 ☞ 9 ☞ 4 7
492 MATHEMATICS

11.10 Angle between a Line and a Plane

Definition 3 The angle between a line and a plane is
the complement of the angle between the line and
normal to the plane (Fig 11.20).
Vector form If the equation of the line is
✁ ✁ ✁
r ✄a✂ b and the equation of the plane is
✁ ✁
r ☎ n ✄ d . Then the angle ✆ between the line and the
normal to the plane is Fig 11.20
✁ ✁
b ☎n
cos ✆ = ✁ ✁
| b |☎| n |
and so the angle ✝ between the line and the plane is given by 90 – ✆, i.e.,
sin (90 – ✆) = cos ✆
✁ ✁
b ☎n –1 b ☎ n
i.e. sin ✝ = ✁ ✁ or ✝ = sin
|b | |n| b n

Example 25 Find the angle between the line

x ✂1 y z✞3
= ✄
2 3 6
and the plane 10 x + 2y – 11 z = 3.
Solution Let ✆ be the angle between the line and the normal to the plane. Converting the
given equations into vector form, we have
✁
r = ( – iˆ ✂ 3 kˆ) ✂ ✟ ( 2 iˆ ✂ 3 ˆj ✂ 6 kˆ )
✁
and r ☎ ( 10 iˆ ✂ 2 ˆj ✞ 11 kˆ ) = 3
✠ ✠
Here b = 2 iˆ ✂ 3 ˆj ✂ 6 kˆ and n ☞ 10 iˆ ☛ 2 ˆj ✡ 11 kˆ

(2 iˆ ✂ 3 ˆj ✂ 6 kˆ) ☎ (10 iˆ ✂ 2 ˆj ✞ 11 kˆ)

sin ✝ =
2 2 ✂ 32 ✂ 6 2 102 ✂ 22 ✂ 112

✌ 40 ✌8 ✏8✑
or ✝ = sin ✎1 ✒ ✓
8
= = =
7 ✍ 15 21 21 ✔ 21 ✕
 THREE DIMENSIONAL GEOMETRY 493

EXERCISE 11.3
1. In each of the following cases, determine the direction cosines of the normal to
the plane and the distance from the origin.
(a) z = 2 (b) x + y + z = 1
(c) 2x + 3y – z = 5 (d) 5y + 8 = 0
2. Find the vector equation of a plane which is at a distance of 7 units from the
origin and normal to the vector 3 iˆ ✁ 5 ˆj 6 kˆ.
3. Find the Cartesian equation of the following planes:
✝
(a) r ✂ (iˆ ✄ ˆj ☎ kˆ) ✆ 2
✝
(b) r ✂ (2 iˆ ✄ 3 ˆj ☎ 4 kˆ ) ✆ 1
✝
(c) r ✂ [( s ☎ 2t ) iˆ ✄ (3 ☎ t ) ˆj ✄ (2 s ✄ t ) kˆ] ✆ 15
4. In the following cases, find the coordinates of the foot of the perpendicular
drawn from the origin.
(a) 2x + 3y + 4z – 12 = 0 (b) 3y + 4z – 6 = 0
(c) x + y + z = 1 (d) 5y + 8 = 0
5. Find the vector and cartesian equations of the planes
(a) that passes through the point (1, 0, – 2) and the normal to the plane is
iˆ ✄ ˆj ☎ kˆ .
(b) that passes through the point (1,4, 6) and the normal vector to the plane is
iˆ ☎ 2 ˆj ✄ kˆ .
6. Find the equations of the planes that passes through three points.
(a) (1, 1, – 1), (6, 4, – 5), (– 4, – 2, 3)
(b) (1, 1, 0), (1, 2, 1), (– 2, 2, – 1)
7. Find the intercepts cut off by the plane 2x + y – z = 5.
8. Find the equation of the plane with intercept 3 on the y-axis and parallel to ZOX
plane.
9. Find the equation of the plane through the intersection of the planes
3x – y + 2z – 4 = 0 and x + y + z – 2 = 0 and the point (2, 2, 1).
10. Find the vector equation of the plane passing through the intersection of the
✝ ✝
planes r .( 2 iˆ ✄ 2 ˆj ☎ 3 kˆ ) ✆ 7 , r .( 2 iˆ ✄ 5 ˆj ✄ 3 kˆ ) ✆ 9 and through the point
(2, 1, 3).
11. Find the equation of the plane through the line of intersection of the
planes x + y + z = 1 and 2x + 3y + 4z = 5 which is perpendicular to the plane
x – y + z = 0.
494 MATHEMATICS

12. Find the angle between the planes whose vector equations are
☎ ☎
r (2 iˆ ✁ 2 ˆj ✂ 3 kˆ) ✄ 5 and r (3 iˆ ✂ 3 ˆj ✁ 5 kˆ ) ✄ 3.
13. In the following cases, determine whether the given planes are parallel or
perpendicular, and in case they are neither, find the angles between them.
(a) 7x + 5y + 6z + 30 = 0 and 3x – y – 10z + 4 = 0
(b) 2x + y + 3z – 2 = 0 and x – 2y + 5 = 0
(c) 2x – 2y + 4z + 5 = 0 and 3x – 3y + 6z – 1 = 0
(d) 2x – y + 3z – 1 = 0 and 2x – y + 3z + 3 = 0
(e) 4x + 8y + z – 8 = 0 and y + z – 4 = 0

14. In the following cases, find the distance of each of the given points from the
corresponding given plane.
Point Plane
(a) (0, 0, 0) 3x – 4y + 12 z = 3
(b) (3, – 2, 1) 2x – y + 2z + 3 = 0
(c) (2, 3, – 5) x + 2y – 2z = 9
(d) (– 6, 0, 0) 2x – 3y + 6z – 2 = 0

Miscellaneous Examples
Example 26 A line makes angles ✆, ✝, ✞ and ✟ with the diagonals of a cube, prove that
4
cos2 ✆ + cos2 ✝ + cos2 ✞ + cos2 ✟ =
3
Solution A cube is a rectangular parallelopiped having equal length, breadth and height.
Let OADBFEGC be the cube with each side of length a units. (Fig 11.21)
The four diagonals are OE, AF, BG and CD. ❩

The direction cosines of the diagonal OE which

❈✡☛☞ ☛☞ ✌✵
is the line joining two points O and E are ❋✡☛☞ ✌ ☞ ✌✵

✡✌☞ ☛☞ ✌✵ ●
a✂0 a✂0 a✂0 ❊✍✑✎✑✎✑✏
, ,
a2 ✁ a2 ✁ a2 a2 ✁ a2 ✁ a2 a2 ✁ a2 ✁ a2 ❨
❖ ❇✡☛☞ ✌ ☞ ☛✵

1 1 1 ❆✭❛✱ ✠✱ ✠✮ ❉✡✌☞ ✌ ☞ ☛✵
i.e., , , ❳
3 3 3 Fig 11.21
 THREE DIMENSIONAL GEOMETRY 495

–1 1 1 1
Similarly, the direction cosines of AF, BG and CD are , , ; ,
3 3 3 3
–1 1 1 1 –1
, and , , , respectively.
3 3 3 3 3
Let l, m, n be the direction cosines of the given line which makes angles , ✁, ✂, ✄
with OE, AF, BG, CD, respectively. Then
1 1
cos = (l + m+ n); cos ✁ = (– l + m + n);
3 3
1 1
cos ✂ = (l – m + n); cos ✄ = (l + m – n) (Why?)
3 3
Squaring and adding, we get
cos2 + cos2 ✁ + cos2 ✂ + cos2 ✄
1
= [ (l + m + n )2 + (–l + m + n)2 ] + (l – m + n)2 + (l + m –n)2]
3
1 4
= [ 4 (l2 + m2 + n2 ) ] = (as l2 + m2 + n2 = 1)
3 3
Example 27 Find the equation of the plane that contains the point (1, – 1, 2) and is
perpendicular to each of the planes 2x + 3y – 2z = 5 and x + 2y – 3z = 8.
Solution The equation of the plane containing the given point is
A (x – 1) + B(y + 1) + C (z – 2) = 0 ... (1)
Applying the condition of perpendicularly to the plane given in (1) with the planes
2x + 3y – 2z = 5 and x + 2y – 3z = 8, we have
2A + 3B – 2C = 0 and A + 2B – 3C = 0
Solving these equations, we find A = – 5C and B = 4C. Hence, the required
equation is
– 5C (x – 1) + 4 C (y + 1) + C(z – 2) = 0
i.e. 5x – 4y – z = 7
Example 28 Find the distance between the point P(6, 5, 9) and the plane determined
by the points A (3, – 1, 2), B (5, 2, 4) and C(– 1, – 1, 6).
Solution Let A, B, C be the three points in the plane. D is the foot of the perpendicular
drawn from a point P to the plane. PD is the required distance to be determined, which
☎☎☎✆ ☎☎☎✆ ☎☎☎✆
is the projection of AP on AB ✝ AC .
496 MATHEMATICS

✂✂✂✁ ✂✂✂✁ ✂✂✂✁

Hence, PD = the dot product of AP with the unit vector along AB AC .
✂✂✂✁
So AP = 3 iˆ ✄ 6 ˆj ✄ 7 kˆ

iˆ ˆj kˆ
✂✂✂✁ ✂✂✂✁
and AB AC = 2 3 2 ☎ 12 iˆ ✆ 16 ˆj ✝ 12 kˆ
✆4 0 4

✂✂✂✁ ✂✂✂✁ 3 iˆ ✆ 4 ˆj ✝ 3 kˆ
Unit vector along AB AC =
34

PD = ( 3 iˆ ✞ 6 ˆj ✞ 7 kˆ ) . 3 i ✆ 4 j ✝ 3 k
ˆ ˆ ˆ
Hence
34
3 34
=
17
Alternatively, find the equation of the plane passing through A, B and C and then
compute the distance of the point P from the plane.
Example 29 Show that the lines
x✆a✝d y✆a z✆a✆d
= ☎
✟✆✠ ✟ ✟✝✠
x✆b✝c y✆b z✆b✆c
and = ☎ are coplanar.
✡✆ ☛ ✡ ✡✝☛
Solution
Here x1 = a – d x2 = b–c
y1 = a y2 = b
z1 = a + d z2 = b+c
a1 = ☞ – ✌ a2 = ✍–✎
b1 = ☞ b2 = ✍
c1 = ☞ + ✌ c2 = ✍+✎
Now consider the determinant
x2 ✆ x1 y2 ✆ y1 z2 ✆ z1 b ✆c✆ a ✝ d b ✆ a b ✝c ✆ a ✆ d
a1 b1 c1
=
✟✆✠ ✟ ✟✝✠
a2 b2 c2 ✡✆☛ ✡ ✡✝☛
 THREE DIMENSIONAL GEOMETRY 497

Adding third column to the first column, we get

b a b a b ✁c a d
2 ✂ ✂ ✂ ✁✄ =0
☎ ☎ ☎✁ ✆
Since the first and second columns are identical. Hence, the given two lines are
coplanar.
Example 30 Find the coordinates of the point where the line through the points
A (3, 4, 1) and B (5, 1, 6) crosses the XY-plane.
Solution The vector equation of the line through the points A and B is
✝
r = 3 iˆ ✁ 4 ˆj ✁ kˆ ✁ ✞ [ (5 3) iˆ ✁ (1 4) ˆj ✁ ( 6 1) kˆ ]
✝
i.e. r = 3 iˆ ✁ 4 ˆj ✁ kˆ ✁ ✞ ( 2 iˆ 3 ˆj ✁ 5 kˆ ) ... (1)
Let P be the point where the line AB crosses the XY-plane. Then the position
vector of the point P is of the form x iˆ ✁ y ˆj .
This point must satisfy the equation (1). (Why ?)
i.e. x iˆ ✁ y ˆj = (3 ✁ 2 ✞ ) iˆ ✁ ( 4 3 ✞ ) ˆj ✁ ( 1 ✁ 5 ✞ ) kˆ
Equating the like coefficients of iˆ, ˆj and kˆ , we have
x= 3+2✟
y= 4–3✟
0= 1+5✟
Solving the above equations, we get
13 23
x= and y ✠
5 5
✎ 13 23 ☞
Hence, the coordinates of the required point are ✌ , , 0✡ .
✍5 5 ☛

Miscellaneous Exercise on Chapter 11

1. Show that the line joining the origin to the point (2, 1, 1) is perpendicular to the
line determined by the points (3, 5, – 1), (4, 3, – 1).
2. If l1, m1, n1 and l2, m2, n2 are the direction cosines of two mutually perpendicular
lines, show that the direction cosines of the line perpendicular to both of these
are m1 n2 m2 n1 , n1 l2 n2 l1 , l1 m2 l2 m1
498 MATHEMATICS

3. Find the angle between the lines whose direction ratios are a, b, c and
b – c, c – a, a – b.
4. Find the equation of a line parallel to x-axis and passing through the origin.
5. If the coordinates of the points A, B, C, D be (1, 2, 3), (4, 5, 7), (– 4, 3, – 6) and
(2, 9, 2) respectively, then find the angle between the lines AB and CD.
x 1 y 2 z 3 x 1 y 1 z 6
6. If the lines ✁ ✁ and ✁ ✁ are perpendicular,
3 2k 2 3k 1 5
find the value of k.
7. Find the vector equation of the line passing through (1, 2, 3) and perpendicular to
✆
the plane r . ( iˆ ✄ 2 ˆj ☎ 5 kˆ ) ✄ 9 ✂ 0 .
8. Find the equation of the plane passing through (a, b, c) and parallel to the plane
✠
r ✝ (iˆ ✞ ˆj ✞ kˆ) ✟ 2.
✠
9. Find the shortest distance between lines r ✟ 6 iˆ ✞ 2 ˆj ✞ 2 kˆ ✞ ✡ (iˆ ☛ 2 ˆj ✞ 2 kˆ)
✠
and r ✟ ☛ 4 iˆ ☛ kˆ ✞ ☞ (3 iˆ ☛ 2 ˆj ☛ 2 kˆ) .
10. Find the coordinates of the point where the line through (5, 1, 6) and (3, 4,1)
crosses the YZ-plane.
11. Find the coordinates of the point where the line through (5, 1, 6) and (3, 4, 1)
crosses the ZX-plane.
12. Find the coordinates of the point where the line through (3, – 4, – 5) and
(2, – 3, 1) crosses the plane 2x + y + z = 7.
13. Find the equation of the plane passing through the point (– 1, 3, 2) and perpendicular
to each of the planes x + 2y + 3z = 5 and 3x + 3y + z = 0.
14. If the points (1, 1, p) and (– 3, 0, 1) be equidistant from the plane
✠
r ✝ (3 iˆ ✞ 4 ˆj ☛ 12 kˆ) ✞ 13 ✟ 0, then find the value of p.
15. Find the equation of the plane passing through the line of intersection of the
✠ ✠
planes r ✝ (iˆ ✞ ˆj ✞ kˆ) ✟ 1 and r ✝ (2 iˆ ✞ 3 ˆj ☛ kˆ) ✞ 4 ✟ 0 and parallel to x-axis.
16. If O be the origin and the coordinates of P be (1, 2, – 3), then find the equation of
the plane passing through P and perpendicular to OP.
17. Find the equation of the plane which contains the line of intersection of the planes
✠ ✠
r ✝ (iˆ ✞ 2 ˆj ✞ 3 kˆ) ☛ 4 ✟ 0 , r ✝ (2 iˆ ✞ ˆj ☛ kˆ) ✞ 5 ✟ 0 and which is perpendicular to the
✠
plane r ✝ (5 iˆ ✞ 3 ˆj ☛ 6 kˆ) ✞ 8 ✟ 0 .
 THREE DIMENSIONAL GEOMETRY 499

18. Find the distance of the point (– 1, – 5, – 10) from the point of intersection of the
☎ ☎
line r 2 iˆ ✁ ˆj ✂ 2 kˆ ✂ ✄ (3 iˆ ✂ 4 ˆj ✂ 2 kˆ) and the plane r ✆ (iˆ ✁ ˆj ✂ kˆ) 5 .
19. Find the vector equation of the line passing through (1, 2, 3) and parallel to the
☎ ☎
planes r ✆ (iˆ ✁ ˆj ✂ 2 kˆ) 5 and r ✆ (3 iˆ ✂ ˆj ✂ kˆ) 6 .
20. Find the vector equation of the line passing through the point (1, 2, – 4) and
perpendicular to the two lines:
x ✝ 8 y ✟ 19 z ✝10 x ✝ 15 y ✝ 29 z ✝ 5 .
✞ ✞ and = ✞
3 ✝ 16 7 3 8 ✝5
21. Prove that if a plane has the intercepts a, b, c and is at a distance of p units from
1 1 1 1
the origin, then 2
✂ 2 ✂ 2 .
a b c p2
Choose the correct answer in Exercises 22 and 23.
22. Distance between the two planes: 2x + 3y + 4z = 4 and 4x + 6y + 8z = 12 is
2
(A) 2 units (B) 4 units (C) 8 units (D) units
29
23. The planes: 2x – y + 4z = 5 and 5x – 2.5y + 10z = 6 are
(A) Perpendicular (B) Parallel
✠ 5✡
(C) intersect y-axis (D) passes through ☛ 0,0, ☞
✌ 4✍

Summary
✎ Direction cosines of a line are the cosines of the angles made by the line
with the positive directions of the coordinate axes.
✎ If l, m, n are the direction cosines of a line, then l + m + n = 1.
2 2 2

✎ Direction cosines of a line joining two points P(x1, y1, z1) and Q(x2, y2, z2) are
x2 ✏ x1 y2 ✏ y1 z2 ✏ z1
, ,
PQ PQ PQ

( x2 ✏ x1 ) 2 ✓ ( y2 ✏ y1 ) 2 ✓ ✑z 2 ✏ z1 ✒
2
where PQ =
✎ Direction ratios of a line are the numbers which are proportional to the
direction cosines of a line.
✎ If l, m, n are the direction cosines and a, b, c are the direction ratios of a line
500 MATHEMATICS

then
a b c
l= ;m= ;n=
a2 b2 c2 a2 b2 c2 a2 b2 c2
✂ Skew lines are lines in space which are neither parallel nor intersecting.
They lie in different planes.
✂ Angle between skew lines is the angle between two intersecting lines
drawn from any point (preferably through the origin) parallel to each of the
skew lines.
✂ If l1, m1, n1 and l2, m2, n2 are the direction cosines of two lines; and ✁ is the
acute angle between the two lines; then
cos✁ = | l1l2 + m1m2 + n1n2 |
✂ If a1, b1, c1 and a2, b2, c2 are the direction ratios of two lines and ✁ is the
acute angle between the two lines; then
a1 a2 b1 b2 c1 c2
cos ✁ =
a12 b12 c12 a22 b22 c22
✂ Vector equation of a line that passes through the given point whose position
✄ ✝ ✝ ✝
✄
vector is a and parallel to a given vector b is r ☎ a ✆ b .
✂ Equation of a line through a point (x1, y1, z1) and having direction cosines l, m, n is
x ✞ x1 y ✞ y1 z ✞ z1
✟ ✟
l m n
✂ The vector equation ✄of a line which passes
✝ ✝
through two points whose position
✄ ✝ ✝
vectors are a and b is r ☎ a ✆ (b ✠ a ) .
✂ Cartesian equation of a line that passes through two points (x1, y1, z1) and
x ✠ x1 y ✠ y1 z ✠ z1 .
(x2, y2, z2) is ☎ ☎
x2 ✠ x1 y2 ✠ y1 z2 ✠ z1
✝ ✝ ✝ ✝ ✝ ✝
✂ If ✁ is the acute angle between r ☎ a1 ✆ b1 and r ☎ a2 ✆ b2 , then
✝ ✝
b ✡b
cos ☛ ☎ ✝ 1 2✝
| b1 | | b2 |
x ✠ x1 y ✠ y1 z ✠ z1 x ☞ x2 y ☞ y2 z ☞ z2
✂ If ☎ ☎ and ✌ ✌
l1 m1 n1 l2 m2 n2
are the equations of two lines, then the acute angle between the two lines is
given by cos ✁ = |l1 l2 + m1 m2 + n1 n2 |.
 THREE DIMENSIONAL GEOMETRY 501

✂ Shortest distance between two skew lines is the line segment perpendicular
to both the lines.
☎ ☎ ☎ ☎ ☎ ☎
✂ Shortest distance between r a1 ✁ ✄ b1 and r a2 ✁ ✆ b2 is
☎ ☎ ☎ ☎
(b1 ✝ b2 ) ✞ (a2 – a1 )
☎ ☎
| b1 ✝ b2 |

x ✟ x1 y ✟ y1 z ✟ z1
✂ Shortest distance between the lines: a1 b1 c1
and

x ✠ x2 y ✠ y2 z ✟ z2
✡ = is
a2 b2 c2

x2 ✟ x1 y2 ✟ y1 z2 ✟ z1
a1 b1 c1
a2 b2 c2
(b1c2 ✟ b2 c1 )2 ✁ (c1a2 ✟ c2 a1 ) 2 ✁ (a1b2 ✟ a2b1 ) 2
☎ ☎ ☎ ☎ ☎ ☎
✂ Distance between parallel lines r a1 ✁ ✄ b and r a2 ✁ ✆ b is
☎ ☎ ☎
b ✝ (a2 ✟ a1 )
☎
|b |

✂ In the vector form, equation of a plane which is at a distance d from the

origin, and n̂ is the unit vector normal to the plane through the origin is
✌
r ☛ nˆ ☞ d .
✂ Equation of a plane which is at a distance of d from the origin and the direction
cosines of the normal to the plane as l, m, n is lx + my + nz = d.
✌
✂ The equation of a plane through
✍✌
a point whose position vector is a and
☎ ☎ ✎☎
perpendicular to the vector N is ( r ✟ a ) . N 0 .
✂ Equation of a plane perpendicular to a given line with direction ratios A, B, C
and passing through a given point (x1, y1, z1) is
A (x – x1) + B (y – y1) + C (z – z1 ) = 0
✂ Equation of a plane passing through three non collinear points (x1, y1, z1),
502 MATHEMATICS

(x2, y2, z2) and (x3, y3, z3) is

x x1 y y1 z z1
x2 x1 y2 y1 z2 z1
=0
x3 x1 y3 y1 z3 z1

✂ Vector equation of a plane that contains three non collinear points having
✁ ✁ ✄ ✁ ✁ ✁ ✁ ✁ ✁
position vectors a , b and c is ( r a ) . [ (b a ) ☎ ( c a ) ] ✆ 0

✂ Equation of a plane that cuts the coordinates axes at (a, 0, 0), (0, b, 0) and
(0, 0, c) is

x y z
✞ ✞ ✝1
a b c
✂ Vector equation of a plane that passes through the intersection of
✡ ✡ ✡ ✡ ✡ ✡ ✡
planes r ✟ n1 ✠ d1 and r ✟ n2 ✠ d 2 is r ✟ (n1 ☛ ☞ n2 ) ✠ d1 ☛ ☞ d 2 , where ✌ is any
nonzero constant.
✂ Vector equation of a plane that passes through the intersection of two given
planes A1 x + B1 y + C1 z + D1 = 0 and A2 x + B2 y + C2 z + D2 = 0
is (A1 x + B1 y + C1 z + D1) + ✌ (A2 x + B2 y + C2 z + D2) = 0.
✁ ✁ ✁ ✁ ✁ ✁
✂ Two planes r ✆ a1 ✍ ✎ b1 and r ✆ a2 ✍ ✏ b2 are coplanar if
✁ ✁ ✁ ✁
(a2 a1 ) ✑ (b1 ☎ b2 ) = 0
✂ Two planes a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1 = 0 and a2 x + b2 y + c2 z + d2 = 0 are
x2 ✒ x1 y2 ✒ y1 z 2 ✒ z1
a1 b1 c1
coplanar if = 0.
a2 b2 c2
✄ ✄
✂ In the vector form, if ✓ is the angle between the two planes, r ✔ n1 ✕ d1 and
✁ ✁
✡ ✡ | n1 ✑ n2 |
r ✟ n2 ✠ d 2 , then ✓ = cos ✁ ✁ .
–1
| n1 | | n2 |
✁ ✁ ✁ ✄
✂ The angle ✖ between the line r ✆ a ✍ ✎ b and the plane r ✔ nˆ ✕ d is
✁
b ✑ nˆ
sin ✗ ✆ ✁
| b | | nˆ |
 THREE DIMENSIONAL GEOMETRY 503

✂ The angle between the planes A1x + B1y + C1z + D1 = 0 and

A2 x + B2 y + C2 z + D2 = 0 is given by

A1 A 2 ✁ B1 B2 ✁ C1 C2
cos =
A12 ✁ B12 ✁ C12 A 22 ✁ B22 ✁ C 22
✄ ✄
✂ The distance of a point whose position vector is a from the plane r ☎ nˆ ✆ d is
✄
| d ✝ a ☎ nˆ |
✂ The distance from a point (x1, y1, z1) to the plane Ax + By + Cz + D = 0 is
Ax1 ✞ By1 ✞ Cz1 ✞ D
.
A 2 ✞ B2 ✞ C 2

—✟ —
 Chapter 12
LINEAR PROGRAMMING

The mathematical experience of the student is incomplete if he never had

the opportunity to solve a problem invented by himself. – G. POLYA

12.1 Introduction
In earlier classes, we have discussed systems of linear
equations and their applications in day to day problems. In
Class XI, we have studied linear inequalities and systems
of linear inequalities in two variables and their solutions by
graphical method. Many applications in mathematics
involve systems of inequalities/equations. In this chapter,
we shall apply the systems of linear inequalities/equations
to solve some real life problems of the type as given below:
A furniture dealer deals in only two items–tables and
chairs. He has Rs 50,000 to invest and has storage space
of at most 60 pieces. A table costs Rs 2500 and a chair
Rs 500. He estimates that from the sale of one table, he
can make a profit of Rs 250 and that from the sale of one L. Kantorovich
chair a profit of Rs 75. He wants to know how many tables and chairs he should buy
from the available money so as to maximise his total profit, assuming that he can sell all
the items which he buys.
Such type of problems which seek to maximise (or, minimise) profit (or, cost) form
a general class of problems called optimisation problems. Thus, an optimisation
problem may involve finding maximum profit, minimum cost, or minimum use of
resources etc.
A special but a very important class of optimisation problems is linear programming
problem. The above stated optimisation problem is an example of linear programming
problem. Linear programming problems are of much interest because of their wide
applicability in industry, commerce, management science etc.
In this chapter, we shall study some linear programming problems and their solutions
by graphical method only, though there are many other methods also to solve such
problems.
 LINEAR PROGRAMMING 505

12.2 Linear Programming Problem and its Mathematical Formulation

We begin our discussion with the above example of furniture dealer which will further
lead to a mathematical formulation of the problem in two variables. In this example, we
observe
(i) The dealer can invest his money in buying tables or chairs or combination thereof.
Further he would earn different profits by following different investment
strategies.
(ii) There are certain overriding conditions or constraints viz., his investment is
limited to a maximum of Rs 50,000 and so is his storage space which is for a
maximum of 60 pieces.
Suppose he decides to buy tables only and no chairs, so he can buy 50000 ÷ 2500,
i.e., 20 tables. His profit in this case will be Rs (250 × 20), i.e., Rs 5000.
Suppose he chooses to buy chairs only and no tables. With his capital of Rs 50,000,
he can buy 50000 ÷ 500, i.e. 100 chairs. But he can store only 60 pieces. Therefore, he
is forced to buy only 60 chairs which will give him a total profit of Rs (60 × 75), i.e.,
Rs 4500.
There are many other possibilities, for instance, he may choose to buy 10 tables
and 50 chairs, as he can store only 60 pieces. Total profit in this case would be
Rs (10 × 250 + 50 × 75), i.e., Rs 6250 and so on.
We, thus, find that the dealer can invest his money in different ways and he would
earn different profits by following different investment strategies.
Now the problem is : How should he invest his money in order to get maximum
profit? To answer this question, let us try to formulate the problem mathematically.

12.2.1 Mathematical formulation of the problem

Let x be the number of tables and y be the number of chairs that the dealer buys.
Obviously, x and y must be non-negative, i.e.,
x 0✁ ... (1)
✂ (Non-negative constraints)
y 0✄ ... (2)
The dealer is constrained by the maximum amount he can invest (Here it is
Rs 50,000) and by the maximum number of items he can store (Here it is 60).
Stated mathematically,
2500x + 500y ☎ 50000 (investment constraint)
or 5x + y ☎ 100 ... (3)
and x + y ☎ 60 (storage constraint) ... (4)
506 MATHEMATICS

The dealer wants to invest in such a way so as to maximise his profit, say, Z which
stated as a function of x and y is given by
Z = 250x + 75y (called objective function) ... (5)
Mathematically, the given problems now reduces to:
Maximise Z = 250x + 75y
subject to the constraints:
5x + y ✂ 100
x + y ✂ 60
x ✄ 0, y ✄ 0
So, we have to maximise the linear function Z subject to certain conditions determined
by a set of linear inequalities with variables as non-negative. There are also some other
problems where we have to minimise a linear function subject to certain conditions
determined by a set of linear inequalities with variables as non-negative. Such problems
are called Linear Programming Problems.
Thus, a Linear Programming Problem is one that is concerned with finding the
optimal value (maximum or minimum value) of a linear function (called objective
function) of several variables (say x and y), subject to the conditions that the variables
are non-negative and satisfy a set of linear inequalities (called linear constraints).
The term linear implies that all the mathematical relations used in the problem are
linear relations while the term programming refers to the method of determining a
particular programme or plan of action.
Before we proceed further, we now formally define some terms (which have been
used above) which we shall be using in the linear programming problems:
Objective function Linear function Z = ax + by, where a, b are constants, which has
to be maximised or minimized is called a linear objective function.
In the above example, Z = 250x + 75y is a linear objective function. Variables x and
y are called decision variables.
Constraints The linear inequalities or equations or restrictions on the variables of a
linear programming problem are called constraints. The conditions x ✄ 0, y ✄ 0 are
called non-negative restrictions. In the above example, the set of inequalities (1) to (4)
are constraints.
Optimisation problem A problem which seeks to maximise or minimise a linear
function (say of two variables x and y) subject to certain constraints as determined by
a set of linear inequalities is called an optimisation problem. Linear programming
problems are special type of optimisation problems. The above problem of investing a
 LINEAR PROGRAMMING 507

given sum by the dealer in purchasing chairs and tables is an example of an optimisation
problem as well as of a linear programming problem.
We will now discuss how to find solutions to a linear programming problem. In this
chapter, we will be concerned only with the graphical method.
12.2.2 Graphical method of solving linear programming problems
In Class XI, we have learnt how to graph a system of linear inequalities involving two
variables x and y and to find its solutions graphically. Let us refer to the problem of
investment in tables and chairs discussed in Section 12.2. We will now solve this problem
graphically. Let us graph the constraints stated as linear inequalities:
5x + y ✂ 100 ... (1)
x + y ✂ 60 ... (2)
x✄0 ... (3)
y✄0 ... (4)
The graph of this system (shaded region) consists of the points common to all half
planes determined by the inequalities (1) to (4) (Fig 12.1). Each point in this region
represents a feasible choice open to the dealer for investing in tables and chairs. The
region, therefore, is called the feasible region for the problem. Every point of this
region is called a feasible solution to the problem. Thus, we have,
Feasible region The common region determined by all the constraints including
non-negative constraints x, y ✄ 0 of a linear programming problem is called the feasible
region (or solution region) for the problem. In Fig 12.1, the region OABC (shaded) is
the feasible region for the problem. The region other than feasible region is called an
infeasible region.
Feasible solutions Points within and on the
boundary of the feasible region represent
feasible solutions of the constraints. In
Fig 12.1, every point within and on the
boundary of the feasible region OABC
represents feasible solution to the problem.
For example, the point (10, 50) is a feasible
solution of the problem and so are the points
(0, 60), (20, 0) etc.
Any point outside the feasible region is
called an infeasible solution. For example,
the point (25, 40) is an infeasible solution of
the problem. Fig 12.1
508 MATHEMATICS

Optimal (feasible) solution: Any point in the feasible region that gives the optimal
value (maximum or minimum) of the objective function is called an optimal solution.
Now, we see that every point in the feasible region OABC satisfies all the constraints
as given in (1) to (4), and since there are infinitely many points, it is not evident how
we should go about finding a point that gives a maximum value of the objective function
Z = 250x + 75y. To handle this situation, we use the following theorems which are
fundamental in solving linear programming problems. The proofs of these theorems
are beyond the scope of the book.
Theorem 1 Let R be the feasible region (convex polygon) for a linear programming
problem and let Z = ax + by be the objective function. When Z has an optimal value
(maximum or minimum), where the variables x and y are subject to constraints described
by linear inequalities, this optimal value must occur at a corner point* (vertex) of the
feasible region.
Theorem 2 Let R be the feasible region for a linear programming problem, and let
Z = ax + by be the objective function. If R is bounded**, then the objective function
Z has both a maximum and a minimum value on R and each of these occurs at a
corner point (vertex) of R.

Remark If R is unbounded, then a maximum or a minimum value of the objective

function may not exist. However, if it exists, it must occur at a corner point of R.
(By Theorem 1).
In the above example, the corner points (vertices) of the bounded (feasible) region
are: O, A, B and C and it is easy to find their coordinates as (0, 0), (20, 0), (10, 50) and
(0, 60) respectively. Let us now compute the values of Z at these points.
We have

Vertex of the Corresponding value

Feasible Region of Z (in Rs)

☎
O (0,0) 0
A (0,60) 4500
B (10,50) 6250 Maximum
C (20,0) 5000

* A corner point of a feasible region is a point in the region which is the intersection of two boundary lines.
** A feasible region of a system of linear inequalities is said to be bounded if it can be enclosed within a
circle. Otherwise, it is called unbounded. Unbounded means that the feasible region does extend
indefinitely in any direction.
 LINEAR PROGRAMMING 509

We observe that the maximum profit to the dealer results from the investment
strategy (10, 50), i.e. buying 10 tables and 50 chairs.
This method of solving linear programming problem is referred as Corner Point
Method. The method comprises of the following steps:
1. Find the feasible region of the linear programming problem and determine its
corner points (vertices) either by inspection or by solving the two equations of
the lines intersecting at that point.
2. Evaluate the objective function Z = ax + by at each corner point. Let M and m,
respectively denote the largest and smallest values of these points.
3. (i) When the feasible region is bounded, M and m are the maximum and
minimum values of Z.
(ii) In case, the feasible region is unbounded, we have:
4. (a) M is the maximum value of Z, if the open half plane determined by
ax + by > M has no point in common with the feasible region. Otherwise, Z
has no maximum value.
(b) Similarly, m is the minimum value of Z, if the open half plane determined by
ax + by < m has no point in common with the feasible region. Otherwise, Z
has no minimum value.
We will now illustrate these steps of Corner Point Method by considering some
examples:
Example 1 Solve the following linear programming problem graphically:
Maximise Z = 4x + y ... (1)
subject to the constraints:
x + y ✂ 50 ... (2)
3x + y ✂ 90 ... (3)
x ✄ 0, y ✄ 0 ... (4)
Solution The shaded region in Fig 12.2 is the feasible region determined by the system
of constraints (2) to (4). We observe that the feasible region OABC is bounded. So,
we now use Corner Point Method to determine the maximum value of Z.
The coordinates of the corner points O, A, B and C are (0, 0), (30, 0), (20, 30) and
(0, 50) respectively. Now we evaluate Z at each corner point.
510 MATHEMATICS

Corner Point Corresponding value

of Z
(0, 0) 0
(30, 0) 120 ☎ Maximum
(20, 30) 110
(0, 50) 50

Fig 12.2
Hence, maximum value of Z is 120 at the point (30, 0).
Example 2 Solve the following linear programming problem graphically:
Minimise Z = 200 x + 500 y ... (1)
subject to the constraints:
x + 2y ✄ 10 ... (2)
3x + 4y ✂ 24 ... (3)
x ✄ 0, y ✄ 0 ... (4)
Solution The shaded region in Fig 12.3 is the feasible region ABC determined by the
system of constraints (2) to (4), which is bounded. The coordinates of corner points

Corner Point Corresponding value

of Z
(0, 5) 2500
(4, 3) 2300 ☎ Minimum
(0, 6) 3000

Fig 12.3
 LINEAR PROGRAMMING 511

A, B and C are (0,5), (4,3) and (0,6) respectively. Now we evaluate Z = 200x + 500y
at these points.
Hence, minimum value of Z is 2300 attained at the point (4, 3)
Example 3 Solve the following problem graphically:
Minimise and Maximise Z = 3x + 9y ... (1)
subject to the constraints: x + 3y ✂ 60 ... (2)
x + y ✄ 10 ... (3)
x✂y ... (4)
x ✄ 0, y ✄ 0 ... (5)
Solution First of all, let us graph the feasible region of the system of linear inequalities
(2) to (5). The feasible region ABCD is shown in the Fig 12.4. Note that the region is
bounded. The coordinates of the corner points A, B, C and D are (0, 10), (5, 5), (15,15)
and (0, 20) respectively.

Corner Corresponding value of

Point Z = 3x + 9y
A (0, 10) 90
B (5, 5) 60 ☎ Minimum
C (15, 15)
D (0, 20)
180
180 }
☎
Maximum
(Multiple
optimal
solutions)

Fig 12.4
We now find the minimum and maximum value of Z. From the table, we find that
the minimum value of Z is 60 at the point B (5, 5) of the feasible region.
The maximum value of Z on the feasible region occurs at the two corner points
C (15, 15) and D (0, 20) and it is 180 in each case.
Remark Observe that in the above example, the problem has multiple optimal solutions
at the corner points C and D, i.e. the both points produce same maximum value 180. In
such cases, you can see that every point on the line segment CD joining the two corner
points C and D also give the same maximum value. Same is also true in the case if the
two points produce same minimum value.
512 MATHEMATICS

Example 4 Determine graphically the minimum value of the objective function

Z = – 50x + 20y ... (1)
subject to the constraints:
2x – y ✄ – 5 ... (2)
3x + y ✄ 3 ... (3)
2x – 3y ✂ 12 ... (4)
x ✄ 0, y ✄ 0 ... (5)
Solution First of all, let us graph the feasible region of the system of inequalities (2) to
(5). The feasible region (shaded) is shown in the Fig 12.5. Observe that the feasible
region is unbounded.
We now evaluate Z at the corner points.

Corner Point Z = – 50x + 20y

(0, 5) 100
(0, 3) 60
(1, 0) –50
(6, 0) – 300 ☎ smallest

Fig 12.5
From this table, we find that – 300 is the smallest value of Z at the corner point
(6, 0). Can we say that minimum value of Z is – 300? Note that if the region would
have been bounded, this smallest value of Z is the minimum value of Z (Theorem 2).
But here we see that the feasible region is unbounded. Therefore, – 300 may or may
not be the minimum value of Z. To decide this issue, we graph the inequality
– 50x + 20y < – 300 (see Step 3(ii) of corner Point Method.)
i.e., – 5x + 2y < – 30
and check whether the resulting open half plane has points in common with feasible
region or not. If it has common points, then –300 will not be the minimum value of Z.
Otherwise, –300 will be the minimum value of Z.
 LINEAR PROGRAMMING 513

As shown in the Fig 12.5, it has common points. Therefore, Z = –50 x + 20 y

has no minimum value subject to the given constraints.
In the above example, can you say whether z = – 50 x + 20 y has the maximum
value 100 at (0,5)? For this, check whether the graph of – 50 x + 20 y > 100 has points
in common with the feasible region. (Why?)
Example 5 Minimise Z = 3x + 2y
subject to the constraints:
x+y✄8 ... (1)
3x + 5y ✂ 15 ... (2)
x ✄ 0, y ✄ 0 ... (3)
Solution Let us graph the inequalities (1) to (3) (Fig 12.6). Is there any feasible region?
Why is so?
From Fig 12.6, you can see that
there is no point satisfying all the
constraints simultaneously. Thus, the
problem is having no feasible region and
hence no feasible solution.
Remarks From the examples which we
have discussed so far, we notice some
general features of linear programming
problems:
(i) The feasible region is always a
convex region.
Fig 12.6
(ii) The maximum (or minimum)
solution of the objective function occurs at the vertex (corner) of the feasible
region. If two corner points produce the same maximum (or minimum) value
of the objective function, then every point on the line segment joining these
points will also give the same maximum (or minimum) value.

EXERCISE 12.1
Solve the following Linear Programming Problems graphically:
1. Maximise Z = 3x + 4y
subject to the constraints : x + y ✂ 4, x ✄ 0, y ✄ 0.
514 MATHEMATICS

2. Minimise Z = – 3x + 4 y
subject to x + 2y ✂ 8, 3x + 2y ✂ 12, x ✄ 0, y ✄ 0.
3. Maximise Z = 5x + 3y
subject to 3x + 5y ✂ 15, 5x + 2y ✂ 10, x ✄ 0, y ✄ 0.
4. Minimise Z = 3x + 5y
such that x + 3y ✄ 3, x + y ✄ 2, x, y ✄ 0.
5. Maximise Z = 3x + 2y
subject to x + 2y ✂ 10, 3x + y ✂ 15, x, y ✄ 0.
6. Minimise Z = x + 2y
subject to 2x + y ✄ 3, x + 2y ✄ 6, x, y ✄ 0.
Show that the minimum of Z occurs at more than two points.
7. Minimise and Maximise Z = 5x + 10 y
subject to x + 2y ✂ 120, x + y ✄ 60, x – 2y ✄ 0, x, y ✄ 0.
8. Minimise and Maximise Z = x + 2y
subject to x + 2y ✄ 100, 2x – y ✂ 0, 2x + y ✂ 200; x, y ✄ 0.
9. Maximise Z = – x + 2y, subject to the constraints:
x ✄ 3, x + y ✄ 5, x + 2y ✄ 6, y ✄ 0.
10. Maximise Z = x + y, subject to x – y ✂ –1, –x + y ✂ 0, x, y ✄ 0.

12.3 Different Types of Linear Programming Problems

A few important linear programming problems are listed below:
1. Manufacturing problems In these problems, we determine the number of units
of different products which should be produced and sold by a firm
when each product requires a fixed manpower, machine hours, labour hour per
unit of product, warehouse space per unit of the output etc., in order to make
maximum profit.
2. Diet problems In these problems, we determine the amount of different kinds
of constituents/nutrients which should be included in a diet so as to minimise the
cost of the desired diet such that it contains a certain minimum amount of each
constituent/nutrients.
3. Transportation problems In these problems, we determine a transportation
schedule in order to find the cheapest way of transporting a product from
plants/factories situated at different locations to different markets.
 LINEAR PROGRAMMING 515

Let us now solve some of these types of linear programming problems:

Example 6 (Diet problem): A dietician wishes to mix two types of foods in such a
way that vitamin contents of the mixture contain atleast 8 units of vitamin A and 10
units of vitamin C. Food ‘I’ contains 2 units/kg of vitamin A and 1 unit/kg of vitamin C.
Food ‘II’ contains 1 unit/kg of vitamin A and 2 units/kg of vitamin C. It costs
Rs 50 per kg to purchase Food ‘I’ and Rs 70 per kg to purchase Food ‘II’. Formulate
this problem as a linear programming problem to minimise the cost of such a mixture.
Solution Let the mixture contain x kg of Food ‘I’ and y kg of Food ‘II’. Clearly, x ✄ 0,
y ✄ 0. We make the following table from the given data:

Resources Food Requirement

I II
(x) (y)
Vitamin A 2 1 8
(units/kg)
Vitamin C 1 2 10
(units/kg)
Cost (Rs/kg) 50 70

Since the mixture must contain at least 8 units of vitamin A and 10 units of
vitamin C, we have the constraints:
2x + y ✄ 8
x + 2y ✄ 10
Total cost Z of purchasing x kg of food ‘I’ and y kg of Food ‘II’ is
Z = 50x + 70y
Hence, the mathematical formulation of the problem is:
Minimise Z = 50x + 70y ... (1)
subject to the constraints:
2x + y ✄ 8 ... (2)
x + 2y ✄ 10 ... (3)
x, y ✄ 0 ... (4)
Let us graph the inequalities (2) to (4). The feasible region determined by the
system is shown in the Fig 12.7. Here again, observe that the feasible region is
unbounded.
516 MATHEMATICS

Let us evaluate Z at the corner points A(0,8), B(2,4) and C(10,0).

Corner Point Z = 50x + 70y

(0,8) 560
(2,4) 380 ☎ Minimum
(10,0) 500

Fig 12.7
In the table, we find that smallest value of Z is 380 at the point (2,4). Can we say
that the minimum value of Z is 380? Remember that the feasible region is unbounded.
Therefore, we have to draw the graph of the inequality
50x + 70y < 380 i.e., 5x + 7y < 38
to check whether the resulting open half plane has any point common with the feasible
region. From the Fig 12.7, we see that it has no points in common.
Thus, the minimum value of Z is 380 attained at the point (2, 4). Hence, the optimal
mixing strategy for the dietician would be to mix 2 kg of Food ‘I’ and 4 kg of Food ‘II’,
and with this strategy, the minimum cost of the mixture will be Rs 380.
Example 7 (Allocation problem) A cooperative society of farmers has 50 hectare
of land to grow two crops X and Y. The profit from crops X and Y per hectare are
estimated as Rs 10,500 and Rs 9,000 respectively. To control weeds, a liquid herbicide
has to be used for crops X and Y at rates of 20 litres and 10 litres per hectare. Further,
no more than 800 litres of herbicide should be used in order to protect fish and wild life
using a pond which collects drainage from this land. How much land should be allocated
to each crop so as to maximise the total profit of the society?
Solution Let x hectare of land be allocated to crop X and y hectare to crop Y. Obviously,
x ✄ 0, y ✄ 0.
Profit per hectare on crop X = Rs 10500
Profit per hectare on crop Y = Rs 9000
Therefore, total profit = Rs (10500x + 9000y)
 LINEAR PROGRAMMING 517

The mathematical formulation of the problem is as follows:

Maximise Z = 10500 x + 9000 y
subject to the constraints:
x + y ✂ 50 (constraint related to land) ... (1)
20x + 10y ✂ 800 (constraint related to use of herbicide)
i.e. 2x + y ✂ 80 ... (2)
x ✄ 0, y ✄ 0 (non negative constraint) ... (3)
Let us draw the graph of the system of inequalities (1) to (3). The feasible region
OABC is shown (shaded) in the Fig 12.8. Observe that the feasible region is bounded.
The coordinates of the corner points O, A, B and C are (0, 0), (40, 0), (30, 20) and
(0, 50) respectively. Let us evaluate the objective function Z = 10500 x + 9000y at
these vertices to find which one gives the maximum profit.

Corner Point Z = 10500x + 9000y

O (0, 0) 0
A ( 40, 0) 420000
B (30, 20) 495000 ☎ Maximum
C(0,50) 450000

Fig 12.8
Hence, the society will get the maximum profit of Rs 4,95,000 by allocating 30
hectares for crop X and 20 hectares for crop Y.
Example 8 (Manufacturing problem) A manufacturing company makes two models
A and B of a product. Each piece of Model A requires 9 labour hours for fabricating
and 1 labour hour for finishing. Each piece of Model B requires 12 labour hours for
fabricating and 3 labour hours for finishing. For fabricating and finishing, the maximum
labour hours available are 180 and 30 respectively. The company makes a profit of
Rs 8000 on each piece of model A and Rs 12000 on each piece of Model B. How many
pieces of Model A and Model B should be manufactured per week to realise a maximum
profit? What is the maximum profit per week?
518 MATHEMATICS

Solution Suppose x is the number of pieces of Model A and y is the number of pieces
of Model B. Then
Total profit (in Rs) = 8000 x + 12000 y
Let Z = 8000 x + 12000 y
We now have the following mathematical model for the given problem.
Maximise Z = 8000 x + 12000 y ... (1)
subject to the constraints:
9x + 12y ✂ 180 (Fabricating constraint)
i.e. 3x + 4y ✂ 60 ... (2)
x + 3y ✂ 30 (Finishing constraint) ... (3)
x ✄ 0, y ✄ 0 (non-negative constraint) ... (4)
The feasible region (shaded) OABC determined by the linear inequalities (2) to (4)
is shown in the Fig 12.9. Note that the feasible region is bounded.

Fig 12.9
Let us evaluate the objective function Z at each corner point as shown below:
Corner Point Z = 8000 x + 12000 y
0 (0, 0) 0
A (20, 0) 160000
B (12, 6) 168000 ☎ Maximum
C (0, 10) 120000
We find that maximum value of Z is 1,68,000 at B (12, 6). Hence, the company
should produce 12 pieces of Model A and 6 pieces of Model B to realise maximum
profit and maximum profit then will be Rs 1,68,000.
 LINEAR PROGRAMMING 519

EXERCISE 12.2
1. Reshma wishes to mix two types of food P and Q in such a way that the vitamin
contents of the mixture contain at least 8 units of vitamin A and 11 units of
vitamin B. Food P costs Rs 60/kg and Food Q costs Rs 80/kg. Food P contains
3 units/kg of Vitamin A and 5 units / kg of Vitamin B while food Q contains
4 units/kg of Vitamin A and 2 units/kg of vitamin B. Determine the minimum cost
of the mixture.
2. One kind of cake requires 200g of flour and 25g of fat, and another kind of cake
requires 100g of flour and 50g of fat. Find the maximum number of cakes which
can be made from 5kg of flour and 1 kg of fat assuming that there is no shortage
of the other ingredients used in making the cakes.
3. A factory makes tennis rackets and cricket bats. A tennis racket takes 1.5 hours
of machine time and 3 hours of craftman’s time in its making while a cricket bat
takes 3 hour of machine time and 1 hour of craftman’s time. In a day, the factory
has the availability of not more than 42 hours of machine time and 24 hours of
craftsman’s time.
(i) What number of rackets and bats must be made if the factory is to work
at full capacity?
(ii) If the profit on a racket and on a bat is Rs 20 and Rs 10 respectively, find
the maximum profit of the factory when it works at full capacity.
4. A manufacturer produces nuts and bolts. It takes 1 hour of work on machine A
and 3 hours on machine B to produce a package of nuts. It takes 3 hours on
machine A and 1 hour on machine B to produce a package of bolts. He earns a
profit of Rs17.50 per package on nuts and Rs 7.00 per package on bolts. How
many packages of each should be produced each day so as to maximise his
profit, if he operates his machines for at the most 12 hours a day?
5. A factory manufactures two types of screws, A and B. Each type of screw
requires the use of two machines, an automatic and a hand operated. It takes
4 minutes on the automatic and 6 minutes on hand operated machines to
manufacture a package of screws A, while it takes 6 minutes on automatic and
3 minutes on the hand operated machines to manufacture a package of screws
B. Each machine is available for at the most 4 hours on any day. The manufacturer
can sell a package of screws A at a profit of Rs 7 and screws B at a profit of
Rs 10. Assuming that he can sell all the screws he manufactures, how many
packages of each type should the factory owner produce in a day in order to
maximise his profit? Determine the maximum profit.
520 MATHEMATICS

6. A cottage industry manufactures pedestal lamps and wooden shades, each

requiring the use of a grinding/cutting machine and a sprayer. It takes 2 hours on
grinding/cutting machine and 3 hours on the sprayer to manufacture a pedestal
lamp. It takes 1 hour on the grinding/cutting machine and 2 hours on the sprayer
to manufacture a shade. On any day, the sprayer is available for at the most 20
hours and the grinding/cutting machine for at the most 12 hours. The profit from
the sale of a lamp is Rs 5 and that from a shade is Rs 3. Assuming that the
manufacturer can sell all the lamps and shades that he produces, how should he
schedule his daily production in order to maximise his profit?
7. A company manufactures two types of novelty souvenirs made of plywood.
Souvenirs of type A require 5 minutes each for cutting and 10 minutes each for
assembling. Souvenirs of type B require 8 minutes each for cutting and 8 minutes
each for assembling. There are 3 hours 20 minutes available for cutting and 4
hours for assembling. The profit is Rs 5 each for type A and Rs 6 each for type
B souvenirs. How many souvenirs of each type should the company manufacture
in order to maximise the profit?
8. A merchant plans to sell two types of personal computers – a desktop model and
a portable model that will cost Rs 25000 and Rs 40000 respectively. He estimates
that the total monthly demand of computers will not exceed 250 units. Determine
the number of units of each type of computers which the merchant should stock
to get maximum profit if he does not want to invest more than Rs 70 lakhs and if
his profit on the desktop model is Rs 4500 and on portable model is Rs 5000.
9. A diet is to contain at least 80 units of vitamin A and 100 units of minerals. Two
foods F1 and F2 are available. Food F1 costs Rs 4 per unit food and F2 costs
Rs 6 per unit. One unit of food F1 contains 3 units of vitamin A and 4 units of
minerals. One unit of food F2 contains 6 units of vitamin A and 3 units of minerals.
Formulate this as a linear programming problem. Find the minimum cost for diet
that consists of mixture of these two foods and also meets the minimal nutritional
requirements.
10. There are two types of fertilisers F1 and F2. F1 consists of 10% nitrogen and 6%
phosphoric acid and F2 consists of 5% nitrogen and 10% phosphoric acid. After
testing the soil conditions, a farmer finds that she needs atleast 14 kg of nitrogen
and 14 kg of phosphoric acid for her crop. If F1 costs Rs 6/kg and F2 costs
Rs 5/kg, determine how much of each type of fertiliser should be used so that
nutrient requirements are met at a minimum cost. What is the minimum cost?
11. The corner points of the feasible region determined by the following system of
linear inequalities:
2x + y ✂ 10, x + 3y ✂ 15, x, y ✄ 0 are (0, 0), (5, 0), (3, 4) and (0, 5). Let
Z = px + qy, where p, q > 0. Condition on p and q so that the maximum of Z
occurs at both (3, 4) and (0, 5) is
(A) p = q (B) p = 2q (C) p = 3q (D) q = 3p
 LINEAR PROGRAMMING 521

Miscellaneous Examples
Example 9 (Diet problem) A dietician has to develop a special diet using two foods
P and Q. Each packet (containing 30 g) of food P contains 12 units of calcium, 4 units
of iron, 6 units of cholesterol and 6 units of vitamin A. Each packet of the same quantity
of food Q contains 3 units of calcium, 20 units of iron, 4 units of cholesterol and 3 units
of vitamin A. The diet requires atleast 240 units of calcium, atleast 460 units of iron and
at most 300 units of cholesterol. How many packets of each food should be used to
minimise the amount of vitamin A in the diet? What is the minimum amount of vitamin A?
Solution Let x and y be the number of packets of food P and Q respectively. Obviously
x ✄ 0, y ✄ 0. Mathematical formulation of the given problem is as follows:
Minimise Z = 6x + 3y (vitamin A)
subject to the constraints
12x + 3y ✄ 240 (constraint on calcium), i.e. 4x + y ✄ 80 ... (1)
4x + 20y ✄ 460 (constraint on iron), i.e. x + 5y ✄ 115 ... (2)
6x + 4y ✂ 300 (constraint on cholesterol), i.e. 3x + 2y ✂ 150 ... (3)
x ✄ 0, y ✄ 0 ... (4)
Let us graph the inequalities (1) to (4).
The feasible region (shaded) determined by the constraints (1) to (4) is shown in
Fig 12.10 and note that it is bounded.

Fig 12.10
522 MATHEMATICS

The coordinates of the corner points L, M and N are (2, 72), (15, 20) and (40, 15)
respectively. Let us evaluate Z at these points:

Corner Point Z=6x+3y

(2, 72) 228
(15, 20) 150 ☎ Minimum
(40, 15) 285

From the table, we find that Z is minimum at the point (15, 20). Hence, the amount
of vitamin A under the constraints given in the problem will be minimum, if 15 packets
of food P and 20 packets of food Q are used in the special diet. The minimum amount
of vitamin A will be 150 units.
Example 10 (Manufacturing problem) A manufacturer has three machines I, II
and III installed in his factory. Machines I and II are capable of being operated for
at most 12 hours whereas machine III must be operated for atleast 5 hours a day. She
produces only two items M and N each requiring the use of all the three machines.
The number of hours required for producing 1 unit of each of M and N on the three
machines are given in the following table:
Items Number of hours required on machines
I II III
M 1 2 1
N 2 1 1.25
She makes a profit of Rs 600 and Rs 400 on items M and N respectively. How many
of each item should she produce so as to maximise her profit assuming that she can sell
all the items that she produced? What will be the maximum profit?
Solution Let x and y be the number of items M and N respectively.
Total profit on the production = Rs (600 x + 400 y)
Mathematical formulation of the given problem is as follows:
Maximise Z = 600 x + 400 y
subject to the constraints:
x + 2y ✂ 12 (constraint on Machine I) ... (1)
2x + y ✂ 12 (constraint on Machine II) ... (2)
5
x+ y ✄ 5 (constraint on Machine III) ... (3)
4
x ✄ 0, y ✄ 0 ... (4)
 LINEAR PROGRAMMING 523

Let us draw the graph of constraints (1) to (4). ABCDE is the feasible region
(shaded) as shown in Fig 12.11 determined by the constraints (1) to (4). Observe that
the feasible region is bounded, coordinates of the corner points A, B, C, D and E are
(5, 0) (6, 0), (4, 4), (0, 6) and (0, 4) respectively.

Fig 12.11
Let us evaluate Z = 600 x + 400 y at these corner points.

Corner point Z = 600 x + 400 y

(5, 0) 3000

☎
(6, 0) 3600
(4, 4) 4000 Maximum
(0, 6) 2400
(0, 4) 1600

We see that the point (4, 4) is giving the maximum value of Z. Hence, the
manufacturer has to produce 4 units of each item to get the maximum profit of Rs 4000.
Example 11 (Transportation problem) There are two factories located one at
place P and the other at place Q. From these locations, a certain commodity is to be
delivered to each of the three depots situated at A, B and C. The weekly requirements
of the depots are respectively 5, 5 and 4 units of the commodity while the production
capacity of the factories at P and Q are respectively 8 and 6 units. The cost of
524 MATHEMATICS

transportation per unit is given below:

From/To Cost (in Rs)
A B C
P 160 100 150
Q 100 120 100
How many units should be transported from each factory to each depot in order that
the transportation cost is minimum. What will be the minimum transportation cost?
Solution The problem can be explained diagrammatically as follows (Fig 12.12):
Let x units and y units of the commodity be transported from the factory at P to
the depots at A and B respectively. Then (8 – x – y) units will be transported to depot
at C (Why?) Factory
P
8 units
R

8
s1

x 0 –x
16
50

y –y
s Rs 100
R
A B C
Depot 5 units 5 units Depot 4 units Depot
]
0

y)
10

Rs 100 –
Rs

5–x (5
5 – y Rs 120 +
x)
–
[ (5
Q –
6 units 6

Factory
Fig 12.12
Hence, we have x ✄ 0, y ✄ 0 and 8 – x – y ✄ 0
i.e. x ✄ 0, y ✄ 0 and x + y ✂ 8
Now, the weekly requirement of the depot at A is 5 units of the commodity. Since
x units are transported from the factory at P, the remaining (5 – x) units need to be
transported from the factory at Q. Obviously, 5 – x ✄ 0, i.e. x ✂ 5.
Similarly, (5 – y) and 6 – (5 – x + 5 – y) = x + y – 4 units are to be transported from
the factory at Q to the depots at B and C respectively.
Thus, 5 – y ✄ 0 , x + y – 4 ✄0
i.e. y✂5 , x+y✄ 4
 LINEAR PROGRAMMING 525

Total transportation cost Z is given by

Z = 160 x + 100 y + 100 ( 5 – x) + 120 (5 – y) + 100 (x + y – 4) + 150 (8 – x – y)
= 10 (x – 7 y + 190)
Therefore, the problem reduces to
Minimise Z = 10 (x – 7y + 190)
subject to the constraints:
x ✄ 0, y ✄ 0 ... (1)
x+y✂8 ... (2)
x✂5 ... (3)
y✂5 ... (4)
and x+y✄4 ... (5)
The shaded region ABCDEF
represented by the constraints (1) to
(5) is the feasible region (Fig 12.13). Fig 12.13
Observe that the feasible region is bounded. The coordinates of the corner points
of the feasible region are (0, 4), (0, 5), (3, 5), (5, 3), (5, 0) and (4, 0).
Let us evaluate Z at these points.
Corner Point Z = 10 (x – 7 y + 190)
(0, 4) 1620
(0, 5) 1550 ☎ Minimum
(3, 5) 1580
(5, 3) 1740
(5, 0) 1950
(4, 0) 1940
From the table, we see that the minimum value of Z is 1550 at the point (0, 5).
Hence, the optimal transportation strategy will be to deliver 0, 5 and 3 units from
the factory at P and 5, 0 and 1 units from the factory at Q to the depots at A, B and C
respectively. Corresponding to this strategy, the transportation cost would be minimum,
i.e., Rs 1550.

Miscellaneous Exercise on Chapter 12

1. Refer to Example 9. How many packets of each food should be used to maximise
the amount of vitamin A in the diet? What is the maximum amount of vitamin A
in the diet?
526 MATHEMATICS

2. A farmer mixes two brands P and Q of cattle feed. Brand P, costing Rs 250 per
bag, contains 3 units of nutritional element A, 2.5 units of element B and 2 units
of element C. Brand Q costing Rs 200 per bag contains 1.5 units of nutritional
element A, 11.25 units of element B, and 3 units of element C. The minimum
requirements of nutrients A, B and C are 18 units, 45 units and 24 units respectively.
Determine the number of bags of each brand which should be mixed in order to
produce a mixture having a minimum cost per bag? What is the minimum cost of
the mixture per bag?
3. A dietician wishes to mix together two kinds of food X and Y in such a way that
the mixture contains at least 10 units of vitamin A, 12 units of vitamin B and
8 units of vitamin C. The vitamin contents of one kg food is given below:
Food Vitamin A Vitamin B Vitamin C
X 1 2 3
Y 2 2 1
One kg of food X costs Rs 16 and one kg of food Y costs Rs 20. Find the least
cost of the mixture which will produce the required diet?
4. A manufacturer makes two types of toys A and B. Three machines are needed
for this purpose and the time (in minutes) required for each toy on the machines
is given below:
Types of Toys Machines
I II III
A 12 18 6
B 6 0 9
Each machine is available for a maximum of 6 hours per day. If the profit on
each toy of type A is Rs 7.50 and that on each toy of type B is Rs 5, show that 15
toys of type A and 30 of type B should be manufactured in a day to get maximum
profit.
5. An aeroplane can carry a maximum of 200 passengers. A profit of Rs 1000 is
made on each executive class ticket and a profit of Rs 600 is made on each
economy class ticket. The airline reserves at least 20 seats for executive class.
However, at least 4 times as many passengers prefer to travel by economy class
than by the executive class. Determine how many tickets of each type must be
sold in order to maximise the profit for the airline. What is the maximum profit?
 LINEAR PROGRAMMING 527

6. Two godowns A and B have grain capacity of 100 quintals and 50 quintals
respectively. They supply to 3 ration shops, D, E and F whose requirements are
60, 50 and 40 quintals respectively. The cost of transportation per quintal from
the godowns to the shops are given in the following table:
Transportation cost per quintal (in Rs)
From/To A B
D 6 4
E 3 2
F 2.50 3
How should the supplies be transported in order that the transportation cost is
minimum? What is the minimum cost?
7. An oil company has two depots A and B with capacities of 7000 L and 4000 L
respectively. The company is to supply oil to three petrol pumps, D, E and F
whose requirements are 4500L, 3000L and 3500L respectively. The distances
(in km) between the depots and the petrol pumps is given in the following table:
Distance in (km.)
From / To A B
D 7 3
E 6 4
F 3 2
Assuming that the transportation cost of 10 litres of oil is Re 1 per km, how
should the delivery be scheduled in order that the transportation cost is minimum?
What is the minimum cost?
8. A fruit grower can use two types of fertilizer in his garden, brand P and brand Q.
The amounts (in kg) of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, potash, and chlorine in a bag of
each brand are given in the table. Tests indicate that the garden needs at least
240 kg of phosphoric acid, at least 270 kg of potash and at most 310 kg of
chlorine.
If the grower wants to minimise the amount of nitrogen added to the garden,
how many bags of each brand should be used? What is the minimum amount of
nitrogen added in the garden?
528 MATHEMATICS

kg per bag
Brand P Brand Q
Nitrogen 3 3.5
Phosphoric acid 1 2
Potash 3 1.5
Chlorine 1.5 2
9. Refer to Question 8. If the grower wants to maximise the amount of nitrogen
added to the garden, how many bags of each brand should be added? What is
the maximum amount of nitrogen added?
10. A toy company manufactures two types of dolls, A and B. Market tests and available
resources have indicated that the combined production level should not exceed 1200
dolls per week and the demand for dolls of type B is at most half of that for dolls of
type A. Further, the production level of dolls of type A can exceed three times the
production of dolls of other type by at most 600 units. If the company makes profit of
Rs 12 and Rs 16 per doll respectively on dolls A and B, how many of each should be
produced weekly in order to maximise the profit?

Summary
A linear programming problem is one that is concerned with finding the optimal
value (maximum or minimum) of a linear function of several variables (called
objective function) subject to the conditions that the variables are
non-negative and satisfy a set of linear inequalities (called linear constraints).
Variables are sometimes called decision variables and are non-negative.
A few important linear programming problems are:
(i) Diet problems
(ii) Manufacturing problems
(iii) Transportation problems
The common region determined by all the constraints including the non-negative
✄ ✄
constraints x 0, y 0 of a linear programming problem is called the feasible
region (or solution region) for the problem.
Points within and on the boundary of the feasible region represent feasible
solutions of the constraints.
Any point outside the feasible region is an infeasible solution.
 LINEAR PROGRAMMING 529

Any point in the feasible region that gives the optimal value (maximum or
minimum) of the objective function is called an optimal solution.
The following Theorems are fundamental in solving linear programming
problems:
Theorem 1 Let R be the feasible region (convex polygon) for a linear
programming problem and let Z = ax + by be the objective function. When Z
has an optimal value (maximum or minimum), where the variables x and y
are subject to constraints described by linear inequalities, this optimal value
must occur at a corner point (vertex) of the feasible region.
Theorem 2 Let R be the feasible region for a linear programming problem,
and let Z = ax + by be the objective function. If R is bounded, then the
objective function Z has both a maximum and a minimum value on R and
each of these occurs at a corner point (vertex) of R.
If the feasible region is unbounded, then a maximum or a minimum may not
exist. However, if it exists, it must occur at a corner point of R.
Corner point method for solving a linear programming problem. The method
comprises of the following steps:
(i) Find the feasible region of the linear programming problem and determine
its corner points (vertices).
(ii) Evaluate the objective function Z = ax + by at each corner point. Let M
and m respectively be the largest and smallest values at these points.
(iii) If the feasible region is bounded, M and m respectively are the maximum
and minimum values of the objective function.
If the feasible region is unbounded, then
(i) M is the maximum value of the objective function, if the open half plane
determined by ax + by > M has no point in common with the feasible
region. Otherwise, the objective function has no maximum value.
(ii) m is the minimum value of the objective function, if the open half plane
determined by ax + by < m has no point in common with the feasible
region. Otherwise, the objective function has no minimum value.
If two corner points of the feasible region are both optimal solutions of the
same type, i.e., both produce the same maximum or minimum, then any point
on the line segment joining these two points is also an optimal solution of the
same type.
530 MATHEMATICS

Historical Note
In the World War II, when the war operations had to be planned to economise
expenditure, maximise damage to the enemy, linear programming problems
came to the forefront.
The first problem in linear programming was formulated in 1941 by the Russian
mathematician, L. Kantorovich and the American economist, F. L. Hitchcock,
both of whom worked at it independently of each other. This was the well
known transportation problem. In 1945, an English economist, G.Stigler,
described yet another linear programming problem – that of determining an
optimal diet.
In 1947, the American economist, G. B. Dantzig suggested an efficient method
known as the simplex method which is an iterative procedure to solve any
linear programming problem in a finite number of steps.
L. Katorovich and American mathematical economist, T. C. Koopmans were
awarded the nobel prize in the year 1975 in economics for their pioneering
work in linear programming. With the advent of computers and the necessary
softwares, it has become possible to apply linear programming model to
increasingly complex problems in many areas.

— —
 Chapter 10
VECTOR ALGEBRA

In most sciences one generation tears down what another has built and what
one has established another undoes. In Mathematics alone each generation
builds a new story to the old structure. – HERMAN HANKEL

10.1 Introduction
In our day to day life, we come across many queries such
as – What is your height? How should a football player hit
the ball to give a pass to another player of his team? Observe
that a possible answer to the first query may be 1.6 meters,
a quantity that involves only one value (magnitude) which
is a real number. Such quantities are called scalars.
However, an answer to the second query is a quantity (called
force) which involves muscular strength (magnitude) and
direction (in which another player is positioned). Such
quantities are called vectors. In mathematics, physics and
engineering, we frequently come across with both types of
W.R. Hamilton
quantities, namely, scalar quantities such as length, mass,
(1805-1865)
time, distance, speed, area, volume, temperature, work,
money, voltage, density, resistance etc. and vector quantities like displacement, velocity,
acceleration, force, weight, momentum, electric field intensity etc.
In this chapter, we will study some of the basic concepts about vectors, various
operations on vectors, and their algebraic and geometric properties. These two type of
properties, when considered together give a full realisation to the concept of vectors,
and lead to their vital applicability in various areas as mentioned above.
10.2 Some Basic Concepts
Let ‘l’ be any straight line in plane or three dimensional space. This line can be given
two directions by means of arrowheads. A line with one of these directions prescribed
is called a directed line (Fig 10.1 (i), (ii)).
 VECTOR ALGEBRA 425

Fig 10.1
Now observe that if we restrict the line l to the line segment AB, then a magnitude
is prescribed on the line l with one of the two directions, so that we obtain a directed
line segment (Fig 10.1(iii)). Thus, a directed line segment has magnitude as well as
direction.
Definition 1 A quantity that has magnitude as well as direction is called a vector.
✁
Notice that a directed line segment is a vector (Fig 10.1(iii)), denoted as AB or
✄✄✄☎ ✆
simply as a✂ , and read as ‘vector AB ’ or ‘vector a ’.
✄✄✄☎
The point A from where the vector AB starts is called its initial point, and the
point B where it ends is called its terminal point. The distance between initial and
terminal points of a vector is called the magnitude (or length) of the vector, denoted as
✄✄✄☎ ✆
| AB |, or | a |, or a. The arrow indicates the direction of the vector.
✆
✝
Note Since the length is never negative, the notation | a | < 0 has no meaning.
Position Vector
From Class XI, recall the three dimensional right handed rectangular coordinate
system (Fig 10.2(i)). Consider a point P in space, having coordinates (x, y, z) with
✞✞✞✟
respect to the origin O (0, 0, 0). Then, the vector OP having O and P as its initial and
terminal points, respectively, is called the position vector of the point P with respect
✠✠✠✡ ☛
to O. Using distance formula (from Class XI), the magnitude of OP (or r ) is given by
☞☞☞☛
| OP | = x2 ✌ y 2 ✌ z2
In practice, the position vectors of points A, B, C, etc., with respect to the origin O
✆ ☛ ☛
are denoted by a , b , c , etc., respectively (Fig 10.2 (ii)).
426 MATHEMATICS

Fig 10.2
Direction Cosines
✂✂✂✄ ✄
Consider the position vector OP or r ✁ of a point P(x, y, z) as in Fig 10.3. The angles ☎,
✞
✆, ✝ made by the vector r with the positive directions of x, y and z-axes respectively,
are called its direction angles. The cosine values of these angles, i.e., cos ☎, cos ✆ and
✞
cos ✝ are called direction cosines of the vector r , and usually denoted by l, m and n,
respectively. Z

z P(x,y,z)
r
O y
Y
B
P
x

A
O
90°
X
A

Fig 10.3 X
From Fig 10.3, one may note that the triangle OAP is right angled, and in it, we
x ☞
have cos ✡ ☛ ✟ r stands for | r |✠ . Similarly, from the right angled triangles OBP and
r
y z
OCP, we may write cos ✌ ☛ and cos ✍ ☛ . Thus, the coordinates of the point P may
r r
also be expressed as (lr, mr,nr). The numbers lr, mr and nr, proportional to the direction
✎
cosines are called as direction ratios of vector r , and denoted as a, b and c, respectively.
 ✆
VECTOR ALGEBRA 427

Note One may note that l2 + m2 + n2 = 1 but a2 + b2 + c2 1, in general.

✁
10.3 Types of Vectors
Zero Vector A vector whose initial and terminal points coincide, is called a zero

✂✂✂✄ ✂ ✂✄
vector (or null vector), and denoted as 0 . Zero vector can not be assigned a definite
direction as it has zero magnitude. Or, alternatively otherwise, it may be regarded as

☎
having any direction. The vectors AA, BB represent the zero vector,
Unit Vector A vector whose magnitude is unity (i.e., 1 unit) is called a unit vector. The
unit vector in the direction of a given vector a is denoted by â .
Coinitial Vectors Two or more vectors having the same initial point are called coinitial
vectors.

✁ ✁
Collinear Vectors Two or more vectors are said to be collinear if they are parallel to
the same line, irrespective of their magnitudes and directions.

✄✄
Equal Vectors Two vectors a and b are said to be equal, if they have the same
magnitude and direction regardless of the positions of their initial points, and written

✝✝✝✞
as a = b .

✝✝✝✞ ✝✝✝✞ ✂✂✂✄ ✟✠ ✂✂✂✄

Negative of a Vector A vector whose magnitude is the same as that of a given vector
(say, AB ), but direction is opposite to that of it, is called negative of the given vector.
For example, vector BA is negative of the vector AB , and written as BA AB .
Remark The vectors defined above are such that any of them may be subject to its
parallel displacement without changing its magnitude and direction. Such vectors are
called free vectors. Throughout this chapter, we will be dealing with free vectors only.

✡✡✡✁
Example 1 Represent graphically a displacement
of 40 km, 30° west of south.
Solution The vector OP represents the required
displacement (Fig 10.4).

Example 2 Classify the following measures as

scalars and vectors.
(i) 5 seconds
(ii) 1000 cm3
Fig 10.4
428 MATHEMATICS

(iii) 10 Newton (iv) 30 km/hr (v) 10 g/cm3

(vi) 20 m/s towards north

Solution
(i) Time-scalar (ii) Volume-scalar (iii) Force-vector
(iv) Speed-scalar (v) Density-scalar (vi) Velocity-vector

Example 3 In Fig 10.5, which of the vectors are:

(i) Collinear (ii) Equal (iii) Coinitial

Solution
(i) Collinear vectors : a , c and d .
✁ ✁
(ii) Equal vectors : a and c .

(iii) Coinitial vectors : b , c and d .

Fig 10.5
EXERCISE 10.1
1. Represent graphically a displacement of 40 km, 30° east of north.
2. Classify the following measures as scalars and vectors.
(i) 10 kg (ii) 2 meters north-west (iii) 40°
(iv) 40 watt (v) 10–19 coulomb (vi) 20 m/s2
3. Classify the following as scalar and vector quantities.
(i) time period (ii) distance (iii) force
(iv) velocity (v) work done
4. In Fig 10.6 (a square), identify the following vectors.
(i) Coinitial (ii) Equal
(iii) Collinear but not equal
5. Answer the following as true or false.
✂ ☎
(i) a and ✄ a are collinear.
(ii) Two collinear vectors are always equal in
magnitude. Fig 10.6
(iii) Two vectors having same magnitude are collinear.
(iv) Two collinear vectors having the same magnitude are equal.
 VECTOR ALGEBRA 429

10.4 Addition of Vectors

✁
A vector AB simply means the displacement from a
point A to the point B. Now consider a situation that a
girl moves from A to B and then from B to C
(Fig 10.7). The net displacement made by the girl from
✂✂✂✄
point A to the point C, is given by the vector AC and Fig 10.7
expressed as
✂✂✂✄ ✂✂✂✄ ✂✂✂✄
AC = AB ☎ BC
This is known as the triangle law of vector addition.
✆ ✄
In general, if we have two vectors a and b (Fig 10.8 (i)), then to add them, they
are positioned so that the initial point of one coincides with the terminal point of the
other (Fig 10.8(ii)).
C C
b
+b b b
a
a
A B A B
a a
–b
a –
b
(i) (ii) (iii)
C➆
Fig 10.8
✝
For example, in Fig 10.8 (ii), we have shifted vector b without changing its magnitude
✆
and direction, so that it’s initial point coincides with the terminal point of a . Then, the
✝ ✝
vector a ✞ b , represented by the third side AC of the triangle ABC, gives us the sum
✆ ✄
(or resultant) of the vectors a and b i.e., in triangle ABC (Fig 10.8 (ii)), we have
✂✂✂✄ ✂✂✂✄ ✂✂✂✄
AB ☎ BC = AC
✡✡✡☛ ✡✡✡☛
Now again, since AC ✟ ✠ CA , from the above equation, we have
☞☞☞✝ ☞☞☞✝ ☞☞☞✝ ☞☞☞✝ ✝
AB ✞ BC ✞ CA = AA ✌ 0
This means that when the sides of a triangle are taken in order, it leads to zero
resultant as the initial and terminal points get coincided (Fig 10.8(iii)).
430 MATHEMATICS

✁✁✁✁
✂ ✁✁✁
✂
Now, construct a vector BC so that its magnitude is same as the vector BC , but
the direction opposite to that of it (Fig 10.8 (iii)), i.e.,
✁✁✁✁
✂ ☎☎☎
✆
BC = ✄ BC
Then, on applying triangle law from the Fig 10.8 (iii), we have
✠✠✠✠
✡ ✠✠✠
✡ ✠✠✠✠
✡ ☎☎☎✆ ☎☎☎✆ ✡
✡
AC✝ ✞ AB ✟ BC✝ = AB ☛ (✄ BC) ✞ a ☞b
✠✠✠✠
✡ ✆
✆
The vector AC✝ is said to represent the difference of a and b .
Now, consider a boat in a river going from one bank of the river to the other in a
direction perpendicular to the flow of the river. Then, it is acted upon by two velocity
vectors–one is the velocity imparted to the boat by its engine and other one is the
velocity of the flow of river water. Under the simultaneous influence of these two
velocities, the boat in actual starts travelling with a different velocity. To have a precise
idea about the effective speed and direction
(i.e., the resultant velocity) of the boat, we have
the following law of vector addition.
✆
✆
If we have two vectors a and b represented
by the two adjacent sides of a parallelogram in
magnitude and direction (Fig 10.9), then their
✆
✆
sum a + b is represented in magnitude and
direction by the diagonal of the parallelogram
through their common point. This is known as Fig 10.9
the parallelogram law of vector addition.

✌
Note From Fig 10.9, using the triangle law, one may note that
✁✁✁✂ ✁✁✁✂ ✁✁✁✂
OA ✍ AC = OC
✠✠✠✡ ✠✠✠
✡ ✠✠✠✡ ✠✠✠
✡ ✠✠✠✡
or OA ✟ OB = OC (since AC ✞ OB )
which is parallelogram law. Thus, we may say that the two laws of vector
addition are equivalent to each other.
Properties of vector addition
✆
✆
Property 1 For any two vectors a and b ,
✆ ✆
✆ ✆
a ☛b = b ☛ a (Commutative property)
 VECTOR ALGEBRA 431

Proof Consider the parallelogram ABCD

✁✁✁✂ ✂ ✁✁✁✂ ✂
(Fig 10.10). Let AB a and BC b , then using
the triangle law, from triangle ABC, we have
✄✄✄☎ ✂ ✂
AC = a + b
Now, since the opposite sides of a
parallelogram are equal and parallel, from
✆✆✆✝ ✆✆✆✝ ✝
Fig 10.10, we have, AD = BC = b and
✆✆✆✝ ✆✆✆✝ ✝
DC = AB = a . Again using triangle law, from Fig 10.10
triangle ADC, we have
✁✁✁✁✂ ✁✁✁✂ ✁✁✁✂ ✂ ✂
AC = AD + DC = b + a
☎ ☎ ☎ ☎
Hence a✞b = b ✞a
✂ ✂ ✂
Property 2 For any three vectors a , b and c

✂ ✂ ✂ ✂ ✂ ✂
( a ✟ b ) ✟ c = a ✟ (b ✟ c ) (Associative property)
✂ ✂ ✂ ✁✁✁✂ ✁✁✁✂ ✁✁✁✂
Proof Let the vectors a, b and c be represented by PQ, QR and RS , respectively,
as shown in Fig 10.11(i) and (ii).

Fig 10.11
☎ ☎ ✁✁✁✂ ✁✁✁✂ ✁✁✁✂
Then a ✞ b = PQ + QR = PR
✝ ✝ ✁✁✁✂ ✁✁✁✂ ✁✁✁✂
and b ✠ c = QR + RS = QS
✂ ✂ ✂ ✁✁✁✂ ✁✁✁✂ ✁✁✂
So (a ✟ b ) ✟ c = PR + RS = PS
432 MATHEMATICS

✞ ✟✟✟
✞ ✟✟✟
✞ ✟✟✞
✞ ✞
and a ✝ (b ✝ c ) = PQ + QS = PS
✞ ✞
✞ ✞ ✞ ✞
Hence ( a ✝ b ) ✝ c = a ✝ (b ✝ c )
Remark The associative property of vector addition enables us to write the sum of
✞ ✞
✞ ✞ ✞ ✞
three vectors a , b , c as a ✝ b ✝ c without using brackets.
✠
Note that for any vector a , we have
☛ ☛ ☛ ☛ ☛
a✡0 = 0✡ a ☞ a
☛
Here, the zero vector 0 is called the additive identity for the vector addition.
10.5 Multiplication of a Vector by a Scalar
✌ ✌
Let a be a given vector and ✍ a scalar. Then the product of the vector a by the scalar
✎ ✌
✍, denoted as ✍ a , is called the multiplication of vector a by the scalar ✍. Note that,
✌ ✌ ✎
✍ a is also a vector, collinear to the vector a . The vector ✍ a has the direction same
✌
(or opposite) to that of vector a according as the value of ✍ is positive (or negative).
✌ ✌
Also, the magnitude of vector ✍ a is | ✍ | times the magnitude of the vector a , i.e.,
✑ ✑
| ✏a | = | ✏ | | a |
A geometric visualisation of multiplication of a vector by a scalar is given
in Fig 10.12.

✄
✆ ☎
✷ ➊
❛ ✶ ✁
✷ ✂

Fig 10.12
✕ ✕
When ✍ = – 1, then ✒ a ✓ ✔ a, which is a vector having magnitude equal to the
✎ ✎ ✎
magnitude of a and direction opposite to that of the direction of a . The vector – a is
✎
called the negative (or additive inverse) of vector a and we always have
✞ ✞ ✞
✕ ✕
a ✖ (– a ) = (– a ) ✝ a ✗ 0
1 ✛ ✛
Also, if ✘ = ✙ , provided a ✚ 0, i.e. a is not a null vector, then
|a |
✕ ✕
1 ✙
| ✒a |✓| ✒ | | a | = ✙ | a |✜ 1
|a |
 VECTOR ALGEBRA 433

So, ✝ a represents the unit vector in the direction of a . We write it as

1 ✁
â = ✁ a
|a |
✄ ✄
✂
Note For any scalar k, k 0 = 0.

10.5.1 Components of a vector

Let us take the points A(1, 0, 0), B(0, 1, 0) and C(0, 0, 1) on the x-axis, y-axis and
z-axis, respectively. Then, clearly
✆✆✆✄ ✆✆✆✄ ✆✆✆✄
| OA |☎ 1, | OB | = 1 and | OC | ☎ 1
✆✆✆✄ ✆✆✆✄ ✆✆✆✄
The vectors OA, OB and OC , each having magnitude 1,
are called unit vectors along the axes OX, OY and OZ,
respectively, and denoted by iˆ, ˆj and kˆ , respectively
(Fig 10.13). Fig 10.13
✞✞✞✟
Now, consider the position vector OP of a point P (x, y, z) as in Fig 10.14. Let P1
be the foot of the perpendicular from P on the plane XOY. We, thus, see that P1 P is

Fig 10.14

parallel to z-axis. As iˆ, ˆj and kˆ are the unit vectors along the x, y and z-axes,
✆✆✆✄ ✆✆✆✄
respectively, and by the definition of the coordinates of P, we have P1P ☎ OR ☎ zkˆ .
✆✆✆✄ ✆✆✆✄ ✆✆✆✄
Similarly, QP1 ☎ OS ☎ yjˆ and OQ ☎ xiˆ .
434 MATHEMATICS

✁ ✁ ✁
Therefore, it follows that OP1 = OQ + QP1 ✂ xiˆ ✄ yjˆ
☎☎☎✆ ✁ ✁
and OP = OP1 + P1P ✂ xiˆ ✄ yjˆ ✄ zkˆ
Hence, the position vector of P with reference to O is given by
✁ ✁
OP (or r ) = xiˆ ✄ yjˆ ✄ zkˆ
This form of any vector is called its component form. Here, x, y and z are called
✁
as the scalar components of r , and xiˆ, yjˆ and zkˆ are called the vector components
✁
of r along the respective axes. Sometimes x, y and z are also termed as rectangular
components.
✁
The length of any vector r ✂ xiˆ ✄ yjˆ ✄ zkˆ , is readily determined by applying the
Pythagoras theorem twice. We note that in the right angle triangle OQP1 (Fig 10.14)
✁ ✟✟✟✟✠ ✟✟✟✠
| OP 1 | = | OQ |2 +|QP1|2 ✝ x 2 ✞ y 2 ,
and in the right angle triangle OP1P, we have
✁ ☞☞☞✌ ☞☞☞✌
| OP 1 | = | OP1 |2 ✡ | P1P |2 ☛ ( x 2 ✡ y 2 ) ✡ z 2
✁
Hence, the length of any vector r ✂ xiˆ ✄ yjˆ + zkˆ is given by
✍
| r | = | xiˆ ✞ yjˆ ✞ zkˆ | = x 2 ✞ y 2 ✞ z 2
✆ ✆
If a and b are any two vectors given in the component form a1iˆ ✄ a2 ˆj + a3kˆ and
b1iˆ ✄ b2 ˆj ✄ b3 kˆ , respectively, then
✎ ✎
(i) the sum (or resultant) of the vectors a and b is given by
✆ ✆
a ✏ b = (a1 ✄ b1 )iˆ ✄ (a2 ✄ b2 ) ˆj ✄ (a3 ✄ b3 )kˆ
✆ ✆
(ii) the difference of the vector a and b is given by
✆ ✆
a ✑ b = ( a1 ✒ b1 )iˆ ✄ ( a2 ✒ b2 ) ˆj ✄ (a3 ✒ b3 )kˆ
✎ ✎
(iii) the vectors a and b are equal if and only if
a1 = b1, a2 = b2 and a3 = b3
✓
(iv) the multiplication of vector a by any scalar ✔ is given by
✓
✕a = ( ✖a1 )iˆ ✄ (✖a2 ) ˆj ✄ (✖a3 )kˆ
 VECTOR ALGEBRA 435

The addition of vectors and the multiplication of a vector by a scalar together give
the following distributive laws:
Let a and b be any two vectors, and k and m be any scalars. Then
(i) ka✄ ✁ ma✄ ✂ ( k ✁ m) a✄
✆ ✆
(ii) k (ma) ☎ (km)a
✟ ✟ ✟ ✟
(iii) k ( a ✝ b ) ✞ ka ✝ kb

Remarks
☛
(i) One may observe that whatever be the value of ✠, the vector ✡a is always
☛
collinear to the vector a . In fact, two vectors a and b are collinear if and only
if there exists a nonzero scalar ✠ such that b ☞ ✌a . If the vectors a and b are
✟ ✟
given in the component form, i.e. a ✞ a1iˆ ✝ a2 ˆj ✝ a3kˆ and b ✞ b1iˆ ✝ b2 ˆj ✝ b3 kˆ ,
then the two vectors are collinear if and only if

b1iˆ ✝ b2 ˆj ✝ b3 kˆ = ✍ ( a1iˆ ✝ a2 ˆj ✝ a3kˆ )

✎ b1iˆ ✝ b2 ˆj ✝ b3 kˆ = (✍a1 )iˆ ✝ (✍a2 ) ˆj ✝ (✍a3 ) kˆ

✎ b1 ☞ ✌ a1 , b2 ☞ ✌ a2 , b3 ☞ ✌ a3
b1 b2 b3
✎ ✥ ✏ ✏✑
a1 a2 a3
✟ ✒
(ii) If a ✞ a1iˆ ✝ a2 ˆj ✝ a3 kˆ , then a1, a2, a3 are also called direction ratios of a .
(iii) In case if it is given that l, m, n are direction cosines of a vector, then liˆ ✝ mjˆ ✝ nkˆ

= (cos ✓ )iˆ ✝ (cos ✔) ˆj ✝ (cos ✕ )kˆ is the unit vector in the direction of that vector,
where ✖, ✗ and ✘ are the angles which the vector makes with x, y and z axes
respectively.
✟
Example 4 Find the values of x, y and z so that the vectors a ✞ xiˆ ✝ 2 ˆj ✝ zkˆ and
✟
b ✞ 2iˆ ✝ yjˆ ✝ kˆ are equal.
Solution Note that two vectors are equal if and only if their corresponding components
✙ ✙
are equal. Thus, the given vectors a and b will be equal if and only if
x = 2, y = 2, z = 1
436 MATHEMATICS

✂ ˆ ˆ ✂ ✂ ✂ ✄ ✄
Example 5 Let a i ✁ 2 j and b 2iˆ ✁ ˆj . Is | a | | b | ? Are the vectors a and b
equal?
✝ ✝
Solution We have | a | ☎ 12 ✆ 22 ☎ 5 and | b | ☎ 2 ✆ 1 ☎ 5
2 2

✂ ✂
So, | a | | b | . But, the two vectors are not equal since their corresponding components
are distinct.
✂
Example 6 Find unit vector in the direction of vector a 2iˆ ✁ 3 ˆj ✁ kˆ

✞ 1 ✠
Solution The unit vector in the direction of a vector a is given by aˆ ✟ ✠ a .
|a|
✡
Now |a| = 22 ☛ 32 ☛ 12 ☞ 14

1 2 ˆ 3 ˆ 1 ˆ
Therefore aˆ ✟ (2iˆ ✌ 3 ˆj ✌ kˆ) = i✌ j✌ k
14 14 14 14
✂ ˆ ˆ that has magnitude
Example 7 Find a vector in the direction of vector a i ✍2j
7 units.
Solution The unit vector in the direction of the given vector a✎ is
1 ✠ 1 ˆ 1 ˆ 2 ˆ
aˆ ✟ ✠ a = (i ✏ 2 ˆj ) ✟ i✏ j
|a| 5 5 5
Therefore, the vector having magnitude equal to 7 and in the direction of a is
✞

✑ ✓ 1 ✒ 2 ✒✔ 7 ˆ 14 ˆ
i✚
7 a = 7✖ i✕ j✗ = j
✘ 5 5 ✙ 5 5

Example 8 Find the unit vector in the direction of the sum of the vectors,
✂ ✂
a 2iˆ ✁ 2 ˆj – 5kˆ and b 2iˆ ✁ ˆj ✁ 3kˆ .
Solution The sum of the given vectors is
✂ ✂ ✂
a ✁ b ( c , say) = 4iˆ ✁ 3 ˆj ✍ 2kˆ

✡
and |c | = 42 ✛ 32 ✛ (✜2)2 ✢ 29
 VECTOR ALGEBRA 437

Thus, the required unit vector is

1 ✄ 1 4 ˆ 3 ˆ 2 ˆ
cˆ ✄ c (4iˆ ✁ 3 ˆj ✂ 2kˆ) i✁ j✂ k
|c | 29 29 29 29
✞
Example 9 Write the direction ratio’s of the vector a ☎ iˆ ✆ ˆj ✝ 2kˆ and hence calculate
its direction cosines.
✞
Solution Note that the direction ratio’s a, b, c of a vector r ☎ xiˆ ✆ yjˆ ✆ zkˆ are just
the respective components x, y and z of the vector. So, for the given vector, we have
a = 1, b = 1 and c = –2. Further, if l, m and n are the direction cosines of the given
vector, then
a 1 b 1 c ✟2 ✡
l✠ ✡ ✠ , m✠ ✡ ✠ , n✠ ✡ ✠ as |r | ✠ 6
|r | 6 |r | 6 |r | 6

☛ 1 1 2 ☞
Thus, the direction cosines are ✌ , ,– ✍.
✎ 6 6 6✏

10.5.2 Vector joining two points

If P1(x1, y1, z1) and P2(x2, y2, z2) are any two points, then the vector joining P1 and P2
✑✑✑✑✞
is the vector P1P2 (Fig 10.15).
Joining the points P1 and P2 with the origin
O, and applying triangle law, from the triangle
OP1P2 , we have
✑✑✑✞ ✑✑✑✑✞ ✑✑✑✑✞
OP1 ✆ P1P2 = OP2 .
Using the properties of vector addition, the
above equation becomes
✑✑✑✑✞ ✑✑✑✑✞ ✑✑✑✞ Fig 10.15
P1P2 = OP2 ✝ OP1
✑✑✑✑✞
i.e. P1P2 = ( x2iˆ ✆ y2 ˆj ✆ z2 kˆ ) ✝ ( x1iˆ ✆ y1 ˆj ✆ z1kˆ )
= ( x2 ✝ x1 )iˆ ✆ ( y2 ✝ y1 ) ˆj ✆ ( z2 ✝ z1 ) kˆ
✑✑✑✑✞
The magnitude of vector P1P2 is given by
✑✑✑✑✞
P1P2 = ( x2 ✒ x1 ) 2 ✓ ( y2 ✒ y1 )2 ✓ ( z2 ✒ z1 ) 2
438 MATHEMATICS

Example 10 Find the vector joining the points P(2, 3, 0) and Q(– 1, – 2, – 4) directed
from P to Q.
Solution Since the vector is to be directed from P to Q, clearly P is the initial point
✁
and Q is the terminal point. So, the required vector joining P and Q is the vector PQ ,
given by
✁
PQ = (✂1 ✂ 2)iˆ ✄ (✂ 2 ✂ 3) ˆj ✄ (✂ 4 ✂ 0) kˆ
✁
i.e. PQ = ✂ 3iˆ ✂ 5 ˆj ✂ 4kˆ.
10.5.3 Section formula
✁ ✁
Let P and Q be two points represented by the position vectors OP and OQ , respectively,
with respect to the origin O. Then the line segment
joining the points P and Q may be divided by a third
point, say R, in two ways – internally (Fig 10.16)
and externally (Fig 10.17). Here, we intend to find
☎☎☎✆
the position vector OR for the point R with respect
to the origin O. We take the two cases one by one.
Case I When R divides PQ internally (Fig 10.16).
✁ ✁ ✁ Fig 10.16
If R divides PQ such that m RQ = n PR ,
✁
where m and n are positive scalars, we say that the point R divides PQ internally in the
ratio of m : n. Now from triangles ORQ and OPR, we have
✁ ✁ ✁ ✁ ✁
RQ = OQ ✂ OR ✝ b ✂ r
✞✞✞✟ ☎☎☎✆ ☎☎☎✆ ✆ ✆
and PR = OR ✠ OP ✡ r ✠ a ,
✁ ✁ ☞ ☞
Therefore, we have m (b ✂ r ) = n (r ☛ a ) (Why?)
✍ ✍
✁ mb ✌ na
or r = (on simplification)
m✌n
Hence, the position vector of the point R which divides P and Q internally in the
ratio of m : n is given by
✍ ✍
☎☎☎✆mb ✌ na
OR = m n
✌
 VECTOR ALGEBRA 439

Case II When R divides PQ externally (Fig 10.17).

We leave it to the reader as an exercise to verify
that the position vector of the point R which divides
the line segment PQ externally in the ratio
PR m✁
m : n ✄ i.e. ✂ is given by
✆ QR n ☎✝
✡ ✡
mb ✠ na
✞✞✞✟
OR = m ✠ n Fig 10.17
Remark If R is the midpoint of PQ , then m = n. And therefore, from Case I, the
☛☛☛☞
midpoint R of PQ , will have its position vector as
✡ ✡
✞✞✞✟a ✌b
OR = 2
✞✞✞✟ ✟ ✟
Example 11 Consider two points P and Q with position vectors OP ✍ 3a ✎ 2b and
☛☛☛☞ ☞ ☞
OQ ✏ a ✑ b . Find the position vector of a point R which divides the line joining P and Q
in the ratio 2:1, (i) internally, and (ii) externally.
Solution
(i) The position vector of the point R dividing the join of P and Q internally in the
ratio 2:1 is
✡ ✡ ✡ ✡ ✡
2( a ✌ b ) ✌ (3a ✠ 2b ) 5a
✞✞✞✟
OR = ✒
2 ✌1 3
(ii) The position vector of the point R dividing the join of P and Q externally in the
ratio 2:1 is
✡ ✡ ✡ ✡
✓✓✓✔ 2( a ✌ b ) ✠ (3a ✠ 2b ) ✡ ✡
OR = ✒ 4b ✠ a
2 ✠1
Example 12 Show that the points A(2iˆ ✕ ˆj ✑ kˆ ), B(iˆ ✕ 3 ˆj ✕ 5kˆ), C(3iˆ ✕ 4 j ✕ 4kˆ) are
the vertices of a right angled triangle.
Solution We have
✖✖✖✗
AB = (1 ✕ 2)iˆ ✑ (✕3 ✑ 1) ˆj ✑ (✕5 ✕ 1)kˆ ✏ ✕ iˆ ✕ 2 ˆj ✕ 6kˆ
✞✞✞✟
BC = (3 ✕ 1)iˆ ✑ (✕4 ✑ 3) ˆj ✑ (✕4 ✑ 5) kˆ ✏ 2iˆ ✕ ˆj ✑ kˆ
✓✓✓✔
and CA = (2 ✕ 3)iˆ ✑ (✕1 ✑ 4) ˆj ✑ (1 ✑ 4)kˆ ✏ ✕ iˆ ✑ 3 ˆj ✑ 5 kˆ
440 MATHEMATICS

Further, note that

✁ ✁ ✁
| AB |2 = 41 ✂ 6 ✄ 35 ✂| BC |2 ✄ | CA |2
Hence, the triangle is a right angled triangle.

EXERCISE 10.2
1. Compute the magnitude of the following vectors:
✞ ✞ ✞ 1 ˆ 1 ˆ 1 ˆ
b ☎ 2iˆ ✝ 7 ˆj ✝ 3kˆ; c ☎
a ☎ iˆ ✆ ˆj ✆ k; i✆ j✝ k
3 3 3
2. Write two different vectors having same magnitude.
3. Write two different vectors having same direction.
4. Find the values of x and y so that the vectors 2iˆ ✄ 3 ˆj and xiˆ ✄ yjˆ are equal.
5. Find the scalar and vector components of the vector with initial point (2, 1) and
terminal point (– 5, 7).
✁ ✁ ✁
6. Find the sum of the vectors a ✂ iˆ ✟ 2 ˆj ✄ kˆ, b ✂ ✟2iˆ ✄ 4 ˆj ✄ 5kˆ and c ✂ iˆ ✟ 6 ˆj – 7kˆ .
✁
7. Find the unit vector in the direction of the vector a ✂ iˆ ✄ ˆj ✄ 2kˆ .
✁
8. Find the unit vector in the direction of vector PQ, where P and Q are the points
(1, 2, 3) and (4, 5, 6), respectively.
✁ ✁
9. For given vectors, a ✂ 2iˆ ✟ ˆj ✄ 2kˆ and b ✂ ✟iˆ ✄ ˆj ✟ kˆ , find the unit vector in the
✡ ✡
direction of the vector a ✠ b .
10. Find a vector in the direction of vector 5iˆ ✟ ˆj ✄ 2kˆ which has magnitude 8 units.
11. Show that the vectors 2iˆ ✟ 3 ˆj ✄ 4kˆ and ✟ 4iˆ ✄ 6 ˆj ✟ 8kˆ are collinear.
12. Find the direction cosines of the vector iˆ ✄ 2 ˆj ✄ 3kˆ .
13. Find the direction cosines of the vector joining the points A (1, 2, –3) and
B(–1, –2, 1), directed from A to B.
14. Show that the vector iˆ ✄ ˆj ✄ kˆ is equally inclined to the axes OX, OY and OZ.
15. Find the position vector of a point R which divides the line joining two points P
and Q whose position vectors are iˆ ✄ 2 ˆj ✟ kˆ and – iˆ ✄ ˆj ✄ kˆ respectively, in the
ratio 2 : 1
(i) internally (ii) externally
 VECTOR ALGEBRA 441

16. Find the position vector of the mid point of the vector joining the points P(2, 3, 4)
and Q(4, 1, –2).
✂
17. Show that the points A, B and C with position vectors, a 3iˆ ✁ 4 ˆj ✁ 4kˆ,
✂ ✂
b 2iˆ ✁ ˆj ✄ kˆ and c iˆ ✁ 3 ˆj ✁ 5kˆ , respectively form the vertices of a right angled
triangle.
18. In triangle ABC (Fig 10.18), which of the following is not true:
☎☎☎✂ ☎☎☎☎✂ ☎☎☎✂ ✂
(A) AB + BC + CA = 0
✟✟✟✠ ✟✟✟✠ ✟✟✟✠ ✠
(B) AB ✆ BC ✝ AC ✞ 0
✟✟✟✠ ✟✟✟✠ ✟✟✟✠ ✠
(C) AB ✆ BC ✝ CA ✞ 0
✌✌✌✍ ✌✌✌✍ ✌✌✌✍ ✍ Fig 10.18
(D) AB ✡ CB ☛ CA ☞ 0
✂ ✂
19. If a and b are two collinear vectors, then which of the following are incorrect:
✑ ✑
(A) b ✎ ✏a , for some scalar ✏
✂ ✂
(B) a ✒b
✂ ✂
(C) the respective components of a and b are proportional
✂ ✂
(D) both the vectors a and b have same direction, but different magnitudes.

10.6 Product of Two Vectors

So far we have studied about addition and subtraction of vectors. An other algebraic
operation which we intend to discuss regarding vectors is their product. We may
recall that product of two numbers is a number, product of two matrices is again a
matrix. But in case of functions, we may multiply them in two ways, namely,
multiplication of two functions pointwise and composition of two functions. Similarly,
multiplication of two vectors is also defined in two ways, namely, scalar (or dot)
product where the result is a scalar, and vector (or cross) product where the
result is a vector. Based upon these two types of products for vectors, they have
found various applications in geometry, mechanics and engineering. In this section,
we will discuss these two types of products.
10.6.1 Scalar (or dot) product of two vectors
✂ ✂ ✂ ✂
Definition 2 The scalar product of two nonzero vectors a and b , denoted by a ✓ b , is
442 MATHEMATICS

✁ ✁
✁ ✁
defined as a b = | a | | b | cos ✂ ,
✁
✁
where, ✟ is the angle between a and b , 0 ✄ ✂ ✄ ☎ (Fig 10.19).
✁ ✁ ✁
✁
If either a ✆ 0 or b ✆ 0, then ✟ is not defined, and in this case,
Fig 10.19
✠ ✠
we define a ✝ b ✞ 0
Observations
✁
✁
1. a b is a real number.
✁ ✁ ✁
✁ ✁ ✁
2. Let a and b be two nonzero vectors, then a b ✆ 0 if and only if a and b are
perpendicular to each other. i.e.
✁ ✁
✁ ✁
a b ✆0✡ a☛b
✁ ✁
✁ ✁
3. If ✟ = 0, then a b ✆ | a | | b |
✁ ✁ ✁
In particular, a a ✆ | a |2 , as ✟ in this case is 0.
✁ ✁
✁ ✁
4. If ✟ = ☞, then a b ✆ ✌ | a | | b |
✁ ✁ ✁
In particular, a (✌ a ) ✆ ✌ | a |2 , as ✟ in this case is ☞.
5. In view of the Observations 2 and 3, for mutually perpendicular unit vectors
iˆ, ˆj and kˆ, we have
iˆ iˆ ✆ ˆj ˆj = kˆ ✍ kˆ ✎ 1,
iˆ ˆj ✆ ˆj kˆ = kˆ ✏ iˆ ✑ 0
✒
✒
6. The angle between two nonzero vectors a and b is given by
✖
✖ ✁ ✁
a✓b a.b ✘
–1 ✗
cos ✔ ✕ ✖ , or ✂ ✆ cos ✁ ✚
✖ ✙ ✁
| a || b | ✛ | a || b | ✜

7. The scalar product is commutative. i.e.

✁ ✢ ✢
✁
a b = b ✏a (Why?)
Two important properties of scalar product
✣
✣ ✣
Property 1 (Distributivity of scalar product over addition) Let a, b and c be
any three vectors, then
✁ ✠ ✠ ✠ ✠
✁ ✁
a (b ✤ c ) = a ✝ b ✥ a ✝c
 VECTOR ALGEBRA 443

☞ ☞
Property 2 Let a and b be any two vectors, and ✌ be any scalar. Then
✏ ✏ ✏ ✏
✏ ✏ ✏ ✏
( ✍ a ) ✎ b = ( ✍ a ) ✎ b ✑ ✍ ( a ✎ b ) ✑ a ✎ ( ✍b )
✒ ✒
If two vectors a and b are given in component form as a1iˆ ✓ a2 ˆj ✓ a3kˆ and

b1iˆ ✓ b2 ˆj ✓ b3 kˆ , then their scalar product is given as

✏
✏
a ✎ b = (a1iˆ ✓ a2 ˆj ✓ a3kˆ ) ✎ (b1iˆ ✓ b2 ˆj ✓ b3kˆ )

= a1iˆ ✎ (b1iˆ ✓ b2 ˆj ✓ b3kˆ ) ✓ a2 ˆj ✎ (b1iˆ ✓ b2 ˆj ✓ b3 kˆ ) + a3kˆ ✎ (b1iˆ ✓ b2 ˆj ✓ b3 kˆ)

= a1b1 (iˆ ✎ iˆ) ✓ a1b2 (iˆ ✎ ˆj ) ✓ a1b3 (iˆ ✎ kˆ ) ✓ a2b1 ( ˆj ✎ iˆ) ✓ a2b2 ( ˆj ✎ ˆj ) ✓ a2b3 ( ˆj ✎ kˆ)
+ a3b1 ( kˆ ✎ iˆ) ✓ a3b2 (kˆ ✎ ˆj ) ✓ a3b3 ( kˆ ✎ kˆ ) (Using the above Properties 1 and 2)
= a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3 (Using Observation 5)
✒ ✒
Thus a ✔ b = a1b1 ✕ a2 b2 ✕ a3 b3
10.6.2 Projection of a vector on a line
✖✖✖
✗
Suppose a vector AB makes an angle ✘ with a given directed line l (say), in the
✖✖✖
✗ ✙
anticlockwise direction (Fig 10.20). Then the projection of AB on l is a vector p
✛✛✛
✜ ✢
(say) with magnitude | AB | cos ✚ , and the direction of p being the same (or opposite)
✢
to that of the line l, depending upon whether cos ✘ is positive or negative. The vector p

❇
❇

✆ ☎

❧ ❧

❆ ❈ ❆
♣ ❈ ♣
✵ ✵ ✵ ✵
✭✞ ❁ ❁ ✝✞ ✁ ✭✝✞ ❁ ❁ ✶✟✞ ✁

✭ ✁ ✭ ✁

♣ ♣ ❧
❈ ❧ ❈
✂
❆

❛
✆
❇ ❇
✵ ✵ ✵ ✵
✭✶✟✞ ❁ ❁ ✠✡✞ ✁ ✭✠✡✞ ❁ ❁ ✸☛✞ ✁

✭ ✄✁
✭ ✁
Fig 10.20
444 MATHEMATICS

is called the projection vector, and its magnitude | p | is simply called as the projection
✁✁✁✂
of the vector AB on the directed line l.
For example, in each of the following figures (Fig 10.20 (i) to (iv)), projection vector
✄✄✄☎ ✆✆✆✝
of AB along the line l is vector AC .
Observations
✞
1. If p̂ is the unit vector along a line l, then the projection of a vector a on the line
✠
l is given by a ✟ pˆ .
✞ ✠
2. Projection of a vector a on other vector b , is given by
✓
☛ ✓ ☞ b ✌ 1 ✓ ✓
a ✡ bˆ, or a ✍ ✎ ✓ ✏ , or ✓ ( a ✍ b )
✑ |b |✒ |b |
✕✕✕✖ ✕✕✕✖
3. If ✔ = 0, then the projection vector of AB will be AB itself and if ✔ = ✗, then the
✘✘✘✙ ✘✘✘✙
projection vector of AB will be BA .
✚ 3✚ ✕✕✕✖
4. If ✛ = or ✛ =
, then the projection vector of AB will be zero vector.
2 2
✓
Remark If ✜, ✢ and ✣ are the direction angles of vector a ✤ a1iˆ ✥ a2 ˆj ✥ a3 kˆ , then its
direction cosines may be given as
✫
a ✦ iˆ a a a
cos ✧ ★ ✫ ★ ✫1 , cos ✩ ★ ✫2 , and cos ✪ ★ ✫3
ˆ
| a || i | | a | |a| |a|
✖ ✖ ✖
Also, note that | a | cos ✬, | a |cos✭ and | a |cos✮ are respectively the projections of
✞ ✞
a along OX, OY and OZ. i.e., the scalar components a1, a2 and a3 of the vector a ,
✯
are precisely the projections of a along x-axis, y-axis and z-axis, respectively. Further,
✞
if a is a unit vector, then it may be expressed in terms of its direction cosines as
✓
a ✤ cos ✰ iˆ ✥ cos ✱ˆj ✥ cos ✲ kˆ
✠ ✠
Example 13 Find the angle between two vectors a and b with magnitudes 1 and 2
✓ ✓
respectively and when a ✍ b ✤1 .
✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Solution Given a ✍ b ✤ 1, | a | ✤ 1 and | b | ✤ 2 . We have

✓ ✓
✳1 ☞ a ✍ b✓ ✌ ✳1 ☞ 1 ✌ ✴
✵ ✤ cos ✎ ✓ ✏ ✤ cos ✎✑ 2 ✏✒ ✤ 3
✑ | a || b | ✒
 VECTOR ALGEBRA 445

✄ ✄
Example 14 Find angle ‘✟’ between the vectors a iˆ ✁ ˆj ✂ kˆ and b iˆ ✂ ˆj ✁ kˆ .
☎ ☎
Solution The angle ✟ between two vectors a and b is given by
✝ ✝
a✆b
cos✟ = ✝ ✝
| a || b |
✠ ✠
Now a ✞ b = (iˆ ✁ ˆj ✂ kˆ) ✡ ( iˆ ✂ ˆj ✁ kˆ ) 1 ✂ 1 ✂ 1 ✂ 1 .
☛1
Therefore, we have cos✟ =
3
☞1 ✌ 1 ✍
hence the required angle is ✟ = cos ✏✒ ✎ ✑✓
3
✄ ✄
Example 15 If a 5iˆ ✂ ˆj ✂ 3kˆ and b iˆ ✁ 3 ˆj ✂ 5kˆ , then show that the vectors
☎ ☎ ☎ ☎
a ✔ b and a ✕ b are perpendicular.
Solution We know that two nonzero vectors are perpendicular if their scalar product
is zero.
☎ ☎
Here a ✔ b = (5iˆ ✂ ˆj ✂ 3kˆ ) ✁ ( iˆ ✁ 3 ˆj ✂ 5kˆ) 6iˆ ✁ 2 ˆj ✂ 8kˆ
☎ ☎
and a ✕ b = (5iˆ ✂ ˆj ✂ 3kˆ) ✂ ( iˆ ✁ 3 ˆj ✂ 5kˆ ) 4iˆ ✂ 4 ˆj ✁ 2kˆ
✄ ✄ ✄ ✄
So (a ✁ b ) ✡ (a ✂ b ) (6iˆ ✁ 2 ˆj ✂ 8kˆ ) ✡ (4iˆ ✂ 4 ˆj ✁ 2kˆ) 24 ✂ 8 ✂ 16 0.
☎ ☎ ☎ ☎
Hence a ✔ b and a ✕ b are perpendicular vectors.
✄
Example 16 Find the projection of the vector a 2iˆ ✁ 3 ˆj ✁ 2kˆ on the vector
✄
b iˆ ✁ 2 ˆj ✁ kˆ .
✖ ☎
Solution The projection of vector a on the vector b is given by
1 ✘ ✘ (2 ✙ 1 ✚ 3 ✙ 2 ✚ 2 ✙ 1) 10 5
✘ (a ✗ b ) = ✛ ✛ 6
|b | (1) 2 ✚ (2) 2 ✚ (1)2 6 3
✄ ✄ ✄ ✄ ✄ ✄
Example 17 Find | a ✂ b | , if two vectors a and b are such that | a | 2, | b | 3
☎ ☎
and a ✜ b ✢ 4 .
Solution We have
✄ ✄ ✄ ✄ ✄ ✄
| a ✂ b |2 = (a ✂ b ) ✡ ( a ✂ b )
✠✠ ✠ ✠ ✠ ✠ ✠ ✠
= a.a ✣ a ✞ b ✣ b ✞ a ✤ b ✞ b
446 MATHEMATICS

✄ ✄ ✄ ✄
= | a |2 2( a ✁ b )✂ | b |2
= (2)2 2(4) ✂ (3) 2
Therefore
✄ ✄
|a b | = 5
☎ ✠ ✠ ✠ ✠ ✠
Example 18 If a is a unit vector and ( x ✆ a ) ✝ ( x ✞ a ) ✟ 8 , then find | x | .
☎ ☛
Solution Since a is a unit vector, | a |✡ 1 . Also,
✎ ✎ ✎ ✎
( x ☞ a ) ✌ ( x ✍ a) = 8
✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
or x✏ x ✑ x✏a ✒ a✏ x ✒ a✏a = 8
✄ ✓
or | x |2 1 = 8 i.e. | x | 2 = 9
✎
Therefore | x | = 3 (as magnitude of a vector is non negative).
✄ ✄ ✄ ✄ ✄ ✄
Example 19 For any two vectors a and b , we always have | a ✁ b | ✔ | a | | b | (Cauchy-
Schwartz inequality).
✖ ✖ ✖ ✖
Solution The inequality holds trivially when either a ✕ 0 or b ✕ 0 . Actually, in such a
✄ ✄ ✄
situation we have | a✄ ✁ b | ✗ 0 ✗ | a✄ | | b | . So, let us assume that | a✄ | ✘ 0 ✘ | b | .
Then, we have
✚ ✚
| a ✙b |
✚ ✚ = | cos ✛ | ✜ 1
| a || b |
✄ ✄ ✄
Therefore | a ✁ b | ✢ | a✄ | | b |
✄
Example 20 For any two vectors a✄ and b , we always C
✄ ✄ ✄ ✄ a +
b
have | a ✂ b | ✔ | a | ✂ | b | (triangle inequality).
b
A B
Solution The inequality holds trivially in case either a
✄ ✄ ✄ ✄ ✄ ✄ ✄
a ✗ 0 or b ✗ 0 (How?). So, let | a | ✘ 0 ✘ | b | . Then,
✄ ✄ ✄ ✄ ✄ ✄ ✄ ✄ Fig 10.21
| a ✂ b |2 = ( a ✂ b ) 2 ✗ ( a ✂ b ) ✁ ( a ✂ b )
✥ ✥ ✥ ✥ ✥ ✥ ✥ ✥
= a ✣a ✤ a ✣b ✤ b ✣a ✤ b ✣b
✄ ✄ ✄ ✄
= | a |2 ✂2a ✁ b ✂ | b |2 (scalar product is commutative)
✄2 ✄ ✄ ✄2
✢ | a | ✂2 | a ✁ b | ✂ | b | (since x ✦ | x | ✧ x ★ R )
✄2 ✄ ✄ ✄2
✢ | a | ✂2 | a || b | ✂ | b | (from Example 19)
✄ ✄ 2
= (| a | ✂ | b |)
 VECTOR ALGEBRA 447

✁ ✁ ✁ ✁
Hence |a b |✡ |a | |b |
Remark If the equality holds in triangle inequality (in the above Example 20), i.e.
✁ ✁ ✁ ✁
| a b | = | a | | b |,
✂✂✂✁ ✂✂✂✁ ✂✂✂✁
then | AC | = | AB | | BC |
showing that the points A, B and C are collinear.
Example 21 Show that the points A (✄2iˆ 3 ˆj 5kˆ ), B( iˆ 2 ˆj 3kˆ) and C(7iˆ ✄ kˆ)
are collinear.
Solution We have
☎☎☎✆
AB = (1 2) iˆ (2 ✄ 3) ˆj (3 ✄ 5) kˆ ✝ 3iˆ ✄ ˆj ✄ 2kˆ ,
✞✞✞✟
BC = (7 ✄ 1) iˆ (0 ✄ 2) ˆj (✄1 ✄ 3) kˆ ✝ 6iˆ ✄ 2 ˆj ✄ 4kˆ ,
✞✞✞✟
AC = (7 2) iˆ (0 ✄ 3) ˆj (✄ 1 ✄ 5)kˆ ✝ 9iˆ ✄ 3 ˆj ✄ 6kˆ
✂✂✂✁ ✂✂✂✁ ✂✂✂✁
| AB | = 14, | BC | ✝ 2 14 and | AC |✝ 3 14
☎☎☎✆ ✂✂✂✁ ✂✂✂✁
Therefore AC = | AB | | BC |
Hence the points A, B and C are collinear.
✞✞✞✟ ✞✞✞✟ ✞✞✞✟ ✟
✠Note In Example 21, one may note that although AB ☛ BC ☛ CA ☞ 0 but the
points A, B and C do not form the vertices of a triangle.

EXERCISE 10.3
✟ ✟
1. Find the angle between two vectors a and b with magnitudes 3 and 2 ,
✎
respectively having a✎ ✌ b ✍ 6 .

2. Find the angle between the vectors iˆ ✏ 2 ˆj ✑ 3kˆ and 3iˆ ✏ 2 ˆj ✑ kˆ

3. Find the projection of the vector iˆ ✄ ˆj on the vector iˆ ˆj .
4. Find the projection of the vector iˆ 3 ˆj 7kˆ on the vector 7iˆ ✄ ˆj 8kˆ .
5. Show that each of the given three vectors is a unit vector:
1 ˆ 1 1 ˆ
(2i ✒ 3 ˆj ✒ 6kˆ ), (3iˆ ✓ 6 ˆj ✒ 2kˆ ), (6i ✒ 2 ˆj ✓ 3kˆ)
7 7 7
Also, show that they are mutually perpendicular to each other.
448 MATHEMATICS

6. Find | a | and | b | , if (a ✁ b ) ✂ (a ✄ b ) ☎ 8 and | a |☎ 8 | b | .

7. Evaluate the product (3a ✄ 5b ) ✂ (2a ✁ 7b ) .

✆ ✆
8. Find the magnitude of two vectors a and b , having the same magnitude and
1
such that the angle between them is 60o and their scalar product is .
2
✝ ✞ ✝ ✝ ✝ ✝
9. Find | x | , if for a unit vector a , ( x ✟ a ) ✠ ( x ✡ a ) ☛ 12 .
✍
10. If a ☎ 2iˆ ✁ 2 ˆj ✁ 3kˆ, b ☎ ✄ iˆ ✁ 2 ˆj ✁ kˆ and c ☎ 3iˆ ✁ ˆj are such that a✍ ☞ ✌ b is
✎
perpendicular to c , then find the value of ✏.
11. Show that | a | b ✁ | b | a is perpendicular to | a | b ✄ | b | a , for any two nonzero
✍ ✍
vectors a and b .
✍ ✍ ✍ ✍ ✍
12. If a ✑ a ✒ 0 and a ✑ b ✒ 0 , then what can be concluded about the vector b ?
13. If a , b , c are unit vectors such that a ✁ b ✁ c ☎ 0 , find the value of

a✂b ✁b ✂c ✁c ✂a .
14. If either vector a ☎ 0 or b ☎ 0, then a ✂ b ☎ 0 . But the converse need not be
true. Justify your answer with an example.
15. If the vertices A, B, C of a triangle ABC are (1, 2, 3), (–1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 2),
✔✔✔✕
respectively, then find ✓ABC. [✓ABC is the angle between the vectors BA
✖✖✖✆
and BC ].
16. Show that the points A(1, 2, 7), B(2, 6, 3) and C(3, 10, –1) are collinear.
17. Show that the vectors 2iˆ ✄ ˆj ✁ kˆ, iˆ ✄ 3 ˆj ✄ 5kˆ and 3iˆ ✄ 4 ˆj ✄ 4kˆ form the vertices
of a right angled triangle.
✞ ✎
18. If a is a nonzero vector of magnitude ‘a’ and ✏ a nonzero scalar, then ✏ a is unit
vector if
(A) ✏ = 1 (B) ✏ = – 1 (C) a = | ✏ | (D) a = 1/| ✏ |

10.6.3 Vector (or cross) product of two vectors

In Section 10.2, we have discussed on the three dimensional right handed rectangular
coordinate system. In this system, when the positive x-axis is rotated counterclockwise
 VECTOR ALGEBRA 449

into the positive y-axis, a right handed (standard) screw would advance in the direction
of the positive z-axis (Fig 10.22(i)).
In a right handed coordinate system, the thumb of the right hand points in the
direction of the positive z-axis when the fingers are curled in the direction away from
the positive x-axis toward the positive y-axis (Fig 10.22(ii)).

Fig 10.22 (i), (ii)

Definition 3 The vector product of two nonzero vectors a and b , is denoted by a ✁ b
and defined as
✄ ✄
a ✂ b = | a || b | sin ☎ nˆ ,
where, ✟ is the angle between a and b , 0 ✆ ✝ ✆ ✞ and n̂ is
✠ ✠
a unit vector perpendicular to both a and b , such that
a , b and nˆ form a right handed system (Fig 10.23). i.e., the
right handed system rotated from a to b moves in the
Fig 10.23
direction of n̂ .
✠ ✠ ✠
If either a ✡ 0 or b ✡ 0 , then ✟ is not defined and in this case, we define a ☛ b ☞ 0 .
Observations
✠ ✠
1. a ☛ b is a vector.
✠ ✠ ✠ ✠ ✠
2. Let a and b be two nonzero vectors. Then a ☛ b ☞ 0 if and only if a and b
are parallel (or collinear) to each other, i.e.,
✠ ✠
a☛b = 0✌ a ✍b
450 MATHEMATICS

✂ ✂ ✂ ✝ ✝ ✝
In particular, a a ✁ 0 and a ✄ (☎ a ) ✆ 0 , since in the first situation, ✟ = 0
and in the second one, ✟ ✞ ✠ , making the value of sin ✟ to be 0.
✡ ✝ ✝ ✝ ✝
3. If ☛ ☞ then a ✄ b ✆ | a || b | .
2
4. In view of the Observations 2 and 3, for mutually perpendicular
unit vectors iˆ, ˆj and kˆ (Fig 10.24), we have
✝
iˆ ✌ iˆ = ˆj ✄ ˆj ✆ kˆ ✄ kˆ ✆ 0
iˆ ✄ ˆj = kˆ, ˆj ✄ kˆ ✆ iˆ, kˆ ✄ iˆ ✆ ˆj Fig 10.24
✍ ✍
5. In terms of vector product, the angle between two vectors a and b may be
given as
✏ ✏
| a ✎b |
sin ✟ = ✏ ✏
| a || b |
✑ ✑ ✝ ✝
6. It is always true that the vector product is not commutative, as a ✌ b = ☎ b ✄ a .
✝ ✝ ✝ ✝ ✝ ✝
Indeed, a ✄ b ✆ | a || b | sin ✒ nˆ , where a , b and nˆ form a right handed system,
✝ ✝ ✝ ✝ ✝ ✝
i.e., ✟ is traversed from a to b , Fig 10.25 (i). While, b ✄ a ✆| a || b | sin ✒ nˆ1 , where
✝ ✝ ✝ ✝
b , a and nˆ1 form a right handed system i.e. ✟ is traversed from b to a ,
Fig 10.25(ii).

Fig 10.25 (i), (ii)

✝ ✝
Thus, if we assume a and b to lie in the plane of the paper, then nˆ and nˆ1 both
will be perpendicular to the plane of the paper. But, n̂ being directed above the
paper while n̂1 directed below the paper. i.e. nˆ1 ✓ ✔ nˆ .
 VECTOR ALGEBRA 451

✁ ✁ ✁ ✁
Hence a b = | a || b | sin ✂ nˆ
✁ ✁ ✁ ✁
= ✄ | a || b | sin ✂ nˆ1 ☎ ✄ b a
7. In view of the Observations 4 and 6, we have
ˆj iˆ ☎ ✄ kˆ, kˆ ˆj ☎ ✄ iˆ and iˆ kˆ ☎ ✄ ˆj.
✁ ✁
8. If a and b represent the adjacent sides of a triangle then its area is given as
1 ✝ ✝
|a ✆b |.
2
By definition of the area of a triangle, we have from
Fig 10.26,
1
Area of triangle ABC = AB ✞ CD.
2 Fig 10.26
✁ ✟
But AB ☎ | b | (as given), and CD = | a | sin ✠.
1 ☛ ☛ 1 ☛ ☛
Thus, Area of triangle ABC = | b || a | sin ✡ ☞ | a ✌ b | .
2 2
✍ ✍
9. If a and b represent the adjacent sides of a parallelogram, then its area is
✁ ✁
given by | a b | .
From Fig 10.27, we have
Area of parallelogram ABCD = AB. DE.
✁
But AB ☎ | b | (as given), and
✑
DE ✎ | a | sin ✏ .
Thus, Fig 10.27
✁ ✁ ✁ ✁
Area of parallelogram ABCD = | b || a | sin ✂ ☎ | a b | .
We now state two important properties of vector product.
Property 3 (Distributivity of vector product over addition): If a , b and c
✁ ✁ ✁
are any three vectors and ✒ be a scalar, then
✁ ✁ ✁ ✁ ✁ ✁ ✁
(i) a (b ✓ c) = a b ✓ a c
✁ ✁ ✁ ✁ ✁ ✁
(ii) ✔ ( a b ) = (✔a ) b ☎ a (✔b )
452 MATHEMATICS

Let a and b be two vectors given in component form as a1iˆ ✁ a2 ˆj ✁ a3kˆ and
b iˆ ✁ b ˆj ✁ b kˆ , respectively. Then their cross product may be given by
1 2 3

iˆ ˆj kˆ
✄ ✄
a ✂ b = a1 a2 a3
b1 b2 b3
Explanation We have
a ☎ b = (a1iˆ ✁ a2 ˆj ✁ a3kˆ ) ☎ (b1iˆ ✁ b2 ˆj ✁ b3kˆ )
= a1b1 (iˆ ☎ iˆ) ✁ a1b2 (iˆ ☎ ˆj ) ✁ a1b3 (iˆ ☎ kˆ ) ✁ a2b1 ( ˆj ☎ iˆ)
+ a2b2 ( ˆj ☎ ˆj ) ✁ a2b3 ( ˆj ☎ kˆ)
+ a3b1 ( kˆ ☎ iˆ) ✁ a3b2 (kˆ ☎ ˆj ) ✁ a3b3 ( kˆ ☎ kˆ) (by Property 1)
= a1b2 (iˆ ☎ ˆj ) ✆ a1b3 (kˆ ☎ iˆ) ✆ a2b1 (iˆ ☎ ˆj )
+ a2b3 ( ˆj ☎ kˆ ) ✁ a3b1 (kˆ ☎ iˆ) ✆ a3b2 ( ˆj ☎ kˆ)
(as iˆ ☎ iˆ ✝ ˆj ☎ ˆj ✝ kˆ ☎ kˆ ✝ 0 and iˆ ☎ kˆ ✝ ✆ kˆ ☎ iˆ, ˆj ☎ iˆ ✝ ✆ iˆ ☎ ˆj and kˆ ☎ ˆj ✝ ✆ ˆj ☎ kˆ)
= a1b2 kˆ ✆ a1b3 ˆj ✆ a2b1kˆ ✁ a2b3iˆ ✁ a3b1 ˆj ✆ a3b2iˆ
(as iˆ ☎ ˆj ✝ kˆ, ˆj ☎ kˆ ✝ iˆ and kˆ ☎ iˆ ✝ ˆj )
= (a2b3 ✆ a3b2 )iˆ ✆ (a1b3 ✆ a3b1 ) ˆj ✁ ( a1b2 ✆ a2b1 ) kˆ

iˆ ˆj kˆ
= a1 a2 a3
b1 b2 b3

Example 22 Find | a ☎ b |, if a ✝ 2iˆ ✁ ˆj ✁ 3kˆ and b ✝ 3iˆ ✁ 5 ˆj ✆ 2kˆ

Solution We have
iˆ ˆj kˆ
✄ ✄
a✂ b = 2 1 3
3 5 ✞2

= iˆ(✆2 ✆ 15) ✆ (✆ 4 ✆ 9) ˆj ✁ (10 – 3)kˆ ✝ ✆17iˆ ✁ 13 ˆj ✁ 7kˆ

Hence | a ☎b | = ( ✟17) 2 ✠ (13) 2 ✠ (7)2 ✡ 507

 VECTOR ALGEBRA 453

Example 23 Find a unit vector perpendicular to each of the vectors (a b ) and

✁ ✁
✁ ✁ ✁
(a ✂ b ), where a✁ ✄ iˆ
ˆj kˆ, b ✄ iˆ 2 ˆj 3kˆ .
✁ ✁ ✁ ✁
Solution We have a b ✄ 2iˆ 3 ˆj 4kˆ and a ✂ b ✄ ✂ ˆj ✂ 2kˆ
✁ ✁ ✁ ✁
A vector which is perpendicular to both a b and a ✂ b is given by

iˆ ˆj kˆ
✁ ✁ ✁ ✁ ✟
3 4 ✆ ✝2iˆ ✞ 4 ˆj ✝ 2kˆ (✆ c , say)
(a b ) ☎ ( a ✂ b ) = 2
0 ✝ 1 ✝2
✠
Now |c | = 4 16 4 ✄ 24 ✄ 2 6
Therefore, the required unit vector is
✡
c ☛1 ˆ 2 ˆ 1 ˆ
✡ = i☞ j☛ k
|c | 6 6 6

✌Note There are two perpendicular directions to any plane. Thus, another unit
✏ ✏
vector perpendicular to a✏ ✍ b and a✏ ✎ b will be
1 ˆ 2 ˆ 1 ˆ
i☛ j☞ k . But that will
6 6 6
✁ ✁ ✁ ✁
be a consequence of (a ✂ b ) ☎ ( a b ) .

Example 24 Find the area of a triangle having the points A(1, 1, 1), B(1, 2, 3)
and C(2, 3, 1) as its vertices.
✑✑✑✁ ✑✑✑✁
Solution We have AB ✄ ˆj 2kˆ and AC ✄ iˆ 2 ˆj . The area of the given triangle
1 ✓✓✓✔ ✓✓✓✔
is | AB ✒ AC | .
2

iˆ ˆj kˆ
✑✑✑✁ ✑✑✑✁
AB ☎ AC = 0 1 2 ✆ ✝ 4iˆ ✞ 2 ˆj ✝ k
Now, ˆ
1 2 0
✑✑✑✁ ✑✑✑✁
Therefore | AB ☎ AC | = 16 ✕ 4 ✕ 1 ✖ 21
1
Thus, the required area is 21
2
454 MATHEMATICS

Example 25 Find the area of a parallelogram whose adjacent sides are given
✄
by the vectors a✄ 3iˆ ✁ ˆj ✁ 4kˆ and b iˆ ✂ ˆj ✁ kˆ
✄ ✄
Solution The area of a parallelogram with a and b as its adjacent sides is given
✄
by | a✄ ☎ b | .

iˆ ˆj kˆ
✝ ✝ 1 4 ✞ 5iˆ ✟ ˆj ✠ 4kˆ
Now a✆b = 3
1 ✠1 1

✄ ✄
Therefore | a☎b | = 25 ✡ 1 ✡ 16 ☛ 42
and hence, the required area is 42 .

EXERCISE 10.4
✄ ✄ ✄ ✄
1. Find | a ☎ b |, if a iˆ ✂ 7 ˆj ✁ 7 kˆ and b 3iˆ ✂ 2 ˆj ✁ 2kˆ .
2. Find a unit vector perpendicular to each of the vector a ✁ b and a ✂ b , where
✄ ✄ ✄ ✄
✄ ✄
a 3iˆ ✁ 2 ˆj ✁ 2kˆ and b iˆ ✁ 2 ˆj ✂ 2kˆ .
☞ ✌ ✌
3. If a unit vector a makes angles with iˆ, with ˆj and an acute angle ✍ with
3 4
✎
k̂ , then find ✍ and hence, the components of a .
4. Show that
✄ ✄ ✄ ✄ ✄
(a ✂ b ) ☎ ( a ✁ b ) = 2( a✄ ☎ b )
✄
5. Find ✏ and ➭ if (2iˆ ✁ 6 ˆj ✁ 27kˆ ) ☎ (iˆ ✁ ✑ˆj ✁ ✒kˆ) 0 .
✝ ✝ ✝ ✝ ✝
6. Given that a ✓ b ✔ 0 and a ✆ b ✔ 0 . What can you conclude about the vectors
✄ ✄
a and b ?
✄ ✄ ✄
7. Let the vectors a, b , c be given as a1iˆ ✁ a2 ˆj ✁ a3kˆ, b1iˆ ✁ b2 ˆj ✁ b3kˆ,
✄ ✄ ✄ ✄ ✄ ✄ ✄
c1iˆ ✁ c2 ˆj ✁ c3 kˆ . Then show that a ☎ ( b ✁ c ) a ☎ b ✁ a ☎ c .
✕ ✕ ✕ ✕ ✝ ✝ ✝
8. If either a ☛ 0 or b ☛ 0, then a ✆ b ✔ 0 . Is the converse true? Justify your
answer with an example.
9. Find the area of the triangle with vertices A(1, 1, 2), B(2, 3, 5) and C(1, 5, 5).
 VECTOR ALGEBRA 455

10. Find the area of the parallelogram whose adjacent sides are determined by the
✄ ✄
vectors a iˆ ✁ ˆj ✂ 3kˆ and b 2iˆ ✁ 7 ˆj ✂ kˆ .
☎ ☎ ✝ ✝ 2 ✄ ✄
11. Let the vectors a and b be such that | a |✆ 3 and | b |✆ , then a ✞ b is a
3
☎ ☎
unit vector, if the angle between a and b is
(A) ✠/6 (B) ✠/4 (C) ✠/3 (D) ✠/2
12. Area of a rectangle having vertices A, B, C and D with position vectors
1 1 1 1
– iˆ ✟ ˆj ✟ 4kˆ, iˆ ✟ ˆj ✟ 4kˆ , iˆ ✡ ˆj ☛ 4kˆ and – iˆ ✡ ˆj ☛ 4kˆ , respectively is
2 2 2 2
1
(A) (B) 1
2
(C) 2 (D) 4

Miscellaneous Examples
Example 26 Write all the unit vectors in XY-plane.
✎ ☞ ☞
Solution Let r ✌ x i ✍ y j be a unit vector in XY-plane (Fig 10.28). Then, from the
figure, we have x = cos ✏ and y = sin ✏ (since | r✑ | = 1). So, we may write the vector r✑ as
✖ ✕✕✕✖
r ✒ ✔ OP ✓ = cos ✗ iˆ ✂ sin ✗ ˆj ... (1)
✘
Clearly, |r | = cos 2 ✙ ✚ sin 2 ✙ ✛ 1

Fig 10.28
Also, as ✏ varies from 0 to 2✠, the point P (Fig 10.28) traces the circle x2 + y2 = 1
counterclockwise, and this covers all possible directions. So, (1) gives every unit vector
in the XY-plane.
456 MATHEMATICS

Example 27 If iˆ ˆj kˆ, 2iˆ 5 ˆj, 3iˆ 2 ˆj ✁ 3kˆ and iˆ ✁ 6 ˆj ✁ kˆ are the position
✂✂✂✄
vectors of points A, B, C and D respectively, then find the angle between AB and
☎☎☎✆ ✂✂✂✄ ✝✝✝✞
CD . Deduce that AB and CD are collinear.
Solution Note that if ✟ is the angle between AB and CD, then ✟ is also the angle
✠✠✠✡ ✠✠✠✡
between AB and CD .
☛☛☛☞
Now AB = Position vector of B – Position vector of A
= (2iˆ 5 ˆj ) ✁ (iˆ ˆj kˆ) ✌ iˆ 4 ˆj ✁ kˆ
✍✍✍✎
Therefore | AB | = (1) 2 ✏ (4) 2 ✏ ( ✑1) 2 ✒ 3 2
☎☎☎✆ ✍✍✍✎
Similarly CD = ✁ 2iˆ ✁ 8 ˆj 2kˆ and |CD |✌ 6 2
✔✔✔✕ ✔✔✔✕
AB ✓ CD
Thus cos ✟ = ✔✔✔✕ ✔✔✔✕
|AB||CD|

1(✖2) ✗ 4(✖8) ✗ (✖1)(2) ✖36

= ✘ ✘ ✖1
(3 2)(6 2) 36
✛✛✛✜ ☎☎☎✆
Since 0 ✙ ✟ ✙ ✚, it follows that ✟ = ✚. This shows that AB and CD are collinear.
✤✤✤✥ 1 ✤✤✤✥ ✍✍✍✎ ✍✍✍✎
Alternatively, AB ✢ ✣ CD which implies that AB and CD are collinear vectors.
2
✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎
Example 28 Let a , b and c be three vectors such that | a |✌ 3, | b |✌ 4, | c |✌ 5 and
✧ ✧ ✧
each one of them being perpendicular to the sum of the other two, find | a ✦ b ✦ c | .
✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎
Solution Given a ★ (b c ) = 0, b ★ (c a ) ✌ 0, c ★ ( a b ) ✌ 0.
✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎
Now |a b c |2 = (a b c ) 2 ✌ (a b c ) ★ (a b c)
✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎
= a ★ a a ★ (b c ) b ★ b b ★ (a c )
✎ ✎ ✎ ✎✎
+ c .(a b ) c .c
✎ ✎ ✎
= | a |2 | b |2 | c |2
= 9 + 16 + 25 = 50
✎ ✎ ✎ =
Therefore |a b c| 50 ✩ 5 2
 VECTOR ALGEBRA 457

✄ ✄ ✄ ✄
Example 29 Three vectors a, b and c satisfy the condition a ✁ b ✁ c ✂ 0 . Evaluate
✟ ✟ ✟ ✟ ✟ ✟ ✟ ✟ ✟
the quantity ☎ ✆ a ✝ b ✞ b ✝ c ✞ c ✝ a , if | a |✆ 1, | b |✆ 4 and | c |✆ 2 .
✄ ✄ ✄ ✄
Solution Since a ✁ b ✁ c ✂ 0 , we have
✟ ✟ ✟ ✟
a ✝ (a ✞ b ✞ c ) = 0
✟ ✟ ✟ ✟ ✟ ✟
or a ✝ a ✞ a ✝b ✞ a ✝c = 0
✟ ✟ ✟ ✟ ☛ 2
Therefore a ✝ b ✞ a ✝c = ✠ a ✡ ✠1 ... (1)
✏ ✏ ✏
✏
Again, b ✍☞a ✎ b ✎ c ✌ = 0
✟ ✟ ✟ ✟ ✓ 2
or a ✝ b ✞ b✝c = ✑ b ✒ ✑16 ... (2)
✄ ✄ ✄ ✄
Similarly a ✔ c ✁ b ✔ c = – 4. ... (3)
Adding (1), (2) and (3), we have
✟ ✟ ✟ ✟ ✟ ✟
2 ( a ✝ b ✞ b ✝ c ✞ a ✝ c ) = – 21

✕21
or 2➭ = – 21, i.e., ➭ =
2
Example 30 If with reference to the right handed system of mutually perpendicular
✟ ✟ ✟
unit vectors iˆ, ˆj and kˆ, ✖ ✆ 3iˆ ✗ ˆj, ✘ ✆ 2iˆ ✞ ˆj – 3kˆ , then express ✘ in the form
✟ ✟ ✟ ✟ ✟ ✟ ✚
✘ ✆ ✘1 ✞ ✘ 2 , where ✘1 is parallel to ✖ and ✘ 2 is perpendicular to ✙ .
✟ ✟ ✟
Solution Let ✘1 ✆ ✛✖ , ✛ is a scalar, i.e., ✘1 ✆ 3✛ iˆ ✗ ✛ˆj .
✟ ✟ ✟
Now ✘ 2 ✆ ✘ ✗ ✘1 = (2 ✗ 3✛ )iˆ ✞ (1 ✞ ✛ ) ˆj ✗ 3kˆ .
✢ ✚ ✟ ✟
Now, since ✜ 2 is to be perpendicular to ✙ , we should have ✖ ✝✘ 2 ✆ 0 . i.e.,
3(2 ✣ 3✤ ) ✣ (1 ✥ ✤ ) = 0
1
or ✦=
2
✟ 3 1 ✪ 1 3
Therefore ✘1 = iˆ ✕ ˆj and ✧2 ★ iˆ ✩ ˆj – 3kˆ
2 2 2 2
458 MATHEMATICS

Miscellaneous Exercise on Chapter 10

1. Write down a unit vector in XY-plane, making an angle of 30° with the positive
direction of x-axis.
2. Find the scalar components and magnitude of the vector joining the points
P(x1, y1, z1) and Q (x2, y2, z2).
3. A girl walks 4 km towards west, then she walks 3 km in a direction 30° east of
north and stops. Determine the girl’s displacement from her initial point of
departure.
✂ ✂ ✂ ✆
4. If a b ✁ c , then is it true that | a✆ |✄| b | ☎ | c✆ | ? Justify your answer.
5. Find the value of x for which x(iˆ ☎ ˆj ☎ kˆ) is a unit vector.
6. Find a vector of magnitude 5 units, and parallel to the resultant of the vectors
✆ ✆
a ✄ 2iˆ ☎ 3 ˆj ✝ kˆ and b ✄ iˆ ✝ 2 ˆj ☎ kˆ .
✆ ✆ ✆
7. If a ✄ iˆ ☎ ˆj ☎ kˆ , b ✄ 2iˆ ✝ ˆj ☎ 3kˆ and c ✄ iˆ ✝ 2 ˆj ☎ kˆ , find a unit vector parallel
✂ ✂ ✂
to the vector 2a – b ✁ 3c .
8. Show that the points A (1, – 2, – 8), B (5, 0, – 2) and C (11, 3, 7) are collinear, and
find the ratio in which B divides AC.
9. Find the position vector of a point R which divides the line joining two points
✆ ✆ ✆ ✆
P and Q whose position vectors are (2a ☎ b ) and (a – 3b ) externally in the ratio
1 : 2. Also, show that P is the mid point of the line segment RQ.
10. The two adjacent sides of a parallelogram are 2iˆ ✝ 4 ˆj ☎ 5kˆ and iˆ ✝ 2 ˆj ✝ 3kˆ .
Find the unit vector parallel to its diagonal. Also, find its area.
11. Show that the direction cosines of a vector equally inclined to the axes OX, OY
1 1 1
and OZ are , , .
3 3 3
✆ ✆ ✆ ✂
12. Let a ✄ iˆ ☎ 4 ˆj ☎ 2kˆ, b ✄ 3iˆ ✝ 2 ˆj ☎ 7kˆ and c ✄ 2iˆ ✝ ˆj ☎ 4kˆ . Find a vector d
✆ ✆ ✠ ✠
which is perpendicular to both a and b , and c ✞ d ✟ 15 .
13. The scalar product of the vector iˆ ☎ ˆj ☎ kˆ with a unit vector along the sum of
vectors 2iˆ ☎ 4 ˆj ✝ 5kˆ and ✡iˆ ☎ 2 ˆj ☎ 3kˆ is equal to one. Find the value of ☛.
✆ ✆ ✆
14. If a , b , c are mutually perpendicular vectors of equal magnitudes, show that
✂ ✂ ✂ ✆
the vector a ✁ b ✁ c is equally inclined to a✆ , b and c✆ .
 VECTOR ALGEBRA 459

✄ ✄ ✄ ✄ ✄ ✄ ✄ ✄
15. Prove that (a b ) ✁ ( a b ) ✂| a |2 | b |2 , if and only if a, b are perpendicular,
✄ ✄ ✄ ✄
given a ☎ 0, b ☎ 0 .
Choose the correct answer in Exercises 16 to 19.
✆ ✆ ✆ ✆
16. If ✟ is the angle between two vectors a and b , then a ✝ b ✞ 0 only when
✠ ✠
(A) 0 ✡ ☛ ✡ (B) 0 ☞ ☛ ☞
2 2
(C) 0 < ✟ < ✌ (D) 0 ✍ ✟ ✍ ✌
✆ ✆ ✏ ✏
17. Let a and b be two unit vectors and ✟ is the angle between them. Then a ✎ b
is a unit vector if
✠ ✠ ✠ 2✠
(A) ☛ ✑ (B) ☛ ✑ (C) ☛ ✑ (D) ☛ ✑
4 3 2 3
18. The value of iˆ.( ˆj ✒ kˆ) ˆj ✁ (iˆ ✒ kˆ) kˆ ✁ (iˆ ✒ ˆj ) is
(A) 0 (B) –1 (C) 1 (D) 3
✆ ✆ ✄ ✄ ✄ ✄
19. If ✟ is the angle between any two vectors a and b , then | a ✁ b | ✂ | a ✒ b | when
✟ is equal to
✠ ✠
(A) 0 (B) (C) (D) ✌
4 2

Summary
✔✔✔✄ ✄
✓ Position vector of a point P(x, y, z) is given as OP(✂ r ) ✂ xiˆ yjˆ zkˆ , and its
magnitude by x2 ✕ y 2 ✕ z2 .
✓ The scalar components of a vector are its direction ratios, and represent its
projections along the respective axes.
✓ The magnitude (r), direction ratios (a, b, c) and direction cosines (l, m, n) of
any vector are related as:
a b c
l✑ , m✑ , n✑
r r r
✆
✓ The vector sum of the three sides of a triangle taken in order is 0 .
460 MATHEMATICS

The vector sum of two coinitial vectors is given by the diagonal of the
parallelogram whose adjacent sides are the given vectors.
✝
The multiplication of a given vector by a scalar , changes the magnitude of
✝
the vector by the multiple | |, and keeps the direction same (or makes it
✝
opposite) according as the value of is positive (or negative).

✁ ✄
For a given vector a , the vector aˆ ✂ ✄ gives the unit vector in the direction
a

☎
|a |
of a .

✆ ✆
The position vector of a point R dividing a line segment joining the points
P and Q whose position vectors are a and b respectively, in the ratio m : n
✄ ✄
na ✞ mb
m✞n
(i) internally, is given by .
✄ ✄
mb ✟ na
m✟n
(ii) externally, is given by .

✆ ✆
The scalar product of two given vectors a and b having angle ✠ between

✆✆ ✆ ✆
them is defined as

a ✡ b ☛ | a || b | cos ☞ .
✍✍ ✆ ✆
Also, when a ✌ b is given, the angle ‘✠’ between the vectors a and b may be

✏✏
determined by
a ✎b
cos ✠ = ✏ ✏
| a || b |
✆ ✆
If ✠ is the angle between two vectors a and b , then their cross product is

✍ ✍ ✆ ✆
given as
a ✑ b = | a || b | sin ☞ nˆ
✆ ✆
✆✆
where n̂ is a unit vector perpendicular to the plane containing a and b . Such
that a, b, nˆ form right handed system of coordinate axes.
✆ ✆
✆
If we have two vectors a and b , given in component form as
✆
a ☛ a iˆ ✒ a ˆj ✒ a kˆ and b ☛ b iˆ ✒ b ˆj ✒ b kˆ and ✝ any scalar,
1 2 3 1 2 3
 VECTOR ALGEBRA 461

✁ ✁
then a b = (a1 ✂ b1 ) iˆ ✂ (a2 ✂ b2 ) ˆj ✂ ( a3 ✂ b3 ) kˆ ;
☎
✄a = (✆a1 )iˆ ✂ (✆a2 ) ˆj ✂ (✆a3 ) kˆ ;
✝✝
a.b = a1b1 ✞ a2b2 ✞ a3b3 ;

iˆ ˆj kˆ
✁ ✁
and a ✟ b = a1 b1 c1 .
a2 b2 c2

Historical Note
The word vector has been derived from a Latin word vectus, which means
“to carry”. The germinal ideas of modern vector theory date from around 1800
when Caspar Wessel (1745-1818) and Jean Robert Argand (1768-1822) described
that how a complex number a + ib could be given a geometric interpretation with
the help of a directed line segment in a coordinate plane. William Rowen Hamilton
(1805-1865) an Irish mathematician was the first to use the term vector for a
directed line segment in his book Lectures on Quaternions (1853). Hamilton’s
method of quaternions (an ordered set of four real numbers given as:
a ✂ biˆ ✂ cjˆ ✂ dkˆ, iˆ, ˆj , kˆ following certain algebraic rules) was a solution to the
problem of multiplying vectors in three dimensional space. Though, we must
mention here that in practice, the idea of vector concept and their addition was
known much earlier ever since the time of Aristotle (384-322 B.C.), a Greek
philosopher, and pupil of Plato (427-348 B.C.). That time it was supposed to be
known that the combined action of two or more forces could be seen by adding
them according to parallelogram law. The correct law for the composition of
forces, that forces add vectorially, had been discovered in the case of perpendicular
forces by Stevin-Simon (1548-1620). In 1586 A.D., he analysed the principle of
geometric addition of forces in his treatise DeBeghinselen der Weeghconst
(“Principles of the Art of Weighing”), which caused a major breakthrough in the
development of mechanics. But it took another 200 years for the general concept
of vectors to form.
In the 1880, Josaih Willard Gibbs (1839-1903), an American physicist
and mathematician, and Oliver Heaviside (1850-1925), an English engineer, created
what we now know as vector analysis, essentially by separating the real (scalar)
462 MATHEMATICS

part of quaternion from its imaginary (vector) part. In 1881 and 1884, Gibbs
printed a treatise entitled Element of Vector Analysis. This book gave a systematic
and concise account of vectors. However, much of the credit for demonstrating
the applications of vectors is due to the D. Heaviside and P.G. Tait (1831-1901)
who contributed significantly to this subject.

— —
 ANSWERS
EXERCISE 7.1

1 1 1 2x
1. cos 2 x 2. sin 3x 3. e
2 3 2
1 1 4 4 3x
4. ( ax ✁ b)3 5. ✂ cos 2 x ✂ e3 x 6. e ✁ x✁C
3a 2 3 3
x3 ax 3 bx 2 2 3 x
7. ✄ x☎C 8. ☎ ☎ cx ☎ C 9. x ✁e ✁C
3 3 2 3

x2 x2 4
10. ✆ log x ✝ 2 x ✆ C 11. ✆ 5x ✆ ✆ C
2 2 x
7 3
2 2 x3
12. x ✞ 2 x2 ✞ 8 x ✞ C 13. ☎ x☎ C
7 3
3 5 7 5 3
2 2 2 2 6 2 4 2
14. x ✟ x ✠C 15. x ✠ x ✠ 2x2 ✠ C
3 5 7 5
3
2 3 10
16. x ✡ 3sin x + e ☛ C
2 x
17. x ✞ 3cos x ✞ x 2 ✞ C
3 3
18. tan x + sec x + C 19. tan x – x + C
20. 2 tan x – 3 sec x + C 21. C
22. A

EXERCISE 7.2

1
1. log (1 + x2) + C 2. (log| x |)3 ✁ C 3. log 1+ log x ☛ C
3
1
4. cos (cos x) + C 5. ✂ cos 2( ax ✁ b) ✁ C
4a
3 5 3
2 2 4
6. (ax ✠ b) 2 ✠ C 7. ( x ✠ 2) 2 ✟ ( x ✠ 2) 2 ✠ C
3a 5 3
 ANSWERS 589

3 3
1 4 2
8. (1 2 x 2 ) 2 C 9. ( x x 1) 2 C 10. 2log x ✁1 ✂ C
6 3
2
11. x ✄ 4( x ☎ 8) ✄ C
3
7 4 1
1 3 1 3
12. ( x ✆ 1) 3 ( x ✆ 1) 3 C 13. ✆ C
7 4 18(2 3x 3 ) 2

(log x)1✝ m 1 1 2 x✡3

14. ✞C 15. ✠ log | 9 ✠ 4 x 2 | 16. e ☛C
1✟ m 8 2

1 ✍ ✏x
17. ☞ ✌C 19. log (e ✑ e ) +C
x
✎C
1
2 18. e tan x
2 ex

log (e 2 x ✄ e✒2 x ) ✄ C
1 1
20. 21. tan (2 x ☎ 3) ☎ x ✄ C
2 2

(sin ✒1 x )2 ✄ C
1 1
22. ☎ tan (7 ☎ 4 x) ✄ C 23.
4 2

1 1
24. log 2sin x ✄ 3cos x ✄ C 25. C
2 (1✆ tan x)
3
1
26. 2sin x ✑ C 27. (sin 2 x ) 2 C 28. 2 1+sin x ✎ C
3

1 1
29. (log sin x ) 2 ☛ C 30. – log (1+ cos x ) 31. 1+ cos x ✓ C
2

x 1 x 1
32. ☎ log cos x ✄ sin x ✄ C 33. ☎ log cos x ☎ sin x ✄ C
2 2 2 2
1 1
34. 2 tan x ✔ C 35. (1✄ log x)3 ✄ C 36. ( x ✄ log x )3 ✄ C
3 3

☎ cos(tan ✒1 x 4 ) ✄ C
1
37. 38. D
4
39. B
590 MATHEMATICS

EXERCISE 7.3

x 1 1 1
1. sin (4 x ✁ 10) ✁ C 2. cos 7 x ✁ cos x ✁ C
2 8 14 2
1✂ 1 1 1 ✄
3. ✆ sin12 x ☎ x ☎ sin 8 x ☎ sin 4 x✝ ☎ C
4 ✞12 8 4 ✟
1 1 1 1
4. cos (2 x ✁ 1) ✁ cos3 (2 x ✁ 1) ✁ C 5. cos6 x cos 4 x ✁ C
2 6 6 4
1 ✠1 1 1 ✡
cos 6 x ☛ cos 4 x ☛ cos 2 x✍ ☞ C
4 ✌✎ 6
6.
4 2 ✏
1 ✂1 1 ✄ x
sin 4 x ✑ sin12 x✝ ☎ C 2 tan x✁ C
2 ✆✞ 4
7. 8.
12 ✟ 2
x 3x 1 1
9. x tan ✁ C 10. sin 2 x ✁ sin 4 x ✁ C
2 8 4 32
3x 1 1
11. ✁ sin 4 x ✁ sin 8 x ✁ C 12. x – sin x + C
8 8 64
1
13. 2 (sinx + x cos✒) + C 14. ✑ cos x +sin x ☎ C

1 3 1 1 3
15. sec 2 x sec 2 x ✁ C 16. tan x tan x ✁ x ✁ C
6 2 3
17. sec x – cosec x + C 18. tan x + C
1 2
19. log tan x ✁ tan x ✁ C 20. log cos x ✓ sin x ✓ C
2

✔ x x2 1 cos ( x ✗ a )
21. ✕ ✖C 22. log ✘C
2 2 sin (a ✗ b) cos ( x ✗ b)
23. A 24. B

EXERCISE 7.4
1
1. tan ✙1 x 3 + C 2. log 2 x ✁ 1 ✁ 4 x 2 ✁ C
2
 ANSWERS 591

1 1 –1 5 x
3. log C 4. sin ✂C
2✁ x x ✁ 4x 5
2
5 3

1 x3
tan ✄1 2 x 2 ☎ C
3 1
5. 6. log C
2 2 6 1 ✁ x3

1
7. x 2 ✆ 1 ✆ log x ✝ x 2 ✆ 1 ✝ C 8. log x 3 ✂ x 6 ✂ a 6 ✂ C
3

9. log tan x + tan x + 4 ✝ C 10. log x ✝ 1✝ x ✝ 2 x ✝ 2 ✝ C

2 2

1 ✞1 ✠ 3 x ✟ 1✡ ✠ x ✟ 3✡
tan ☛ ✟C –1
☞ ✟C
11.
6 ✌ 2 ☞✍ 12. sin ☛✌
4 ✍

3 ✑ 2 x ✏ 3✒
13. log x – ✟ x ✎ 3x ✟ 2 ✟ C ✕ ✓C
2 –1
14. sin ✔✖
2 41 ✗

a +b
15. log x – ✘ ( x ✙ a)( x ✙ b) ✘ C
2

16. 2 2x 2 + x ✚ 3 ✛ C 17. x 2 ✆ 1 ✝ 2log x ✝ x 2 ✆ 1 ✝ C

✣ 3x ✢ 1✤
tan ✜1 ✦
5 11
log 3x 2 ✢ 2 x ✢ 1 ✥ ✢C
18. 6 3 2 ★ 2 ✧✩

9
19. 6 x – 9x + 20 ✟ 34 log x ✎ ✟ x ✎ 9 x ✟ 20 ✟ C
2 2
2

✫ x ✙ 2✬
– 4x – x2 ✘ 4 sin ✪1 ✭ ✘C
✯ 2 ✮✰
20.

21. x2 ✱ 2 x +3 ✱ log x ✱ 1✱ x2 ✱ 2 x ✱ 3 ✱ C

1 2 x ✲1 ✲ 6
22. log x 2 ✲ 2 x ✲ 5 ✳ log ✳C
2 6 x ✲1✳ 6
592 MATHEMATICS

23. 5 x
2
4 x +10 ✁ 7 log x 2 x2 4 x 10 C
24. B 25. B

EXERCISE 7.5

( x ✂ 2)2 1 x✄3
1. log ✂C 2. log ☎C
x ✂1 6 x☎3
3. log x ✆ 1 ✆ 5log x ✆ 2 ✝ 4log x ✆ 3 ✝ C
1 3
4. log x ✞ 1 ✞ 2log x ✞ 2 ✟ log x ✞ 3 ✟ C
2 2
x 3
5. 4log x +2 ✆ 2log x ✝ 1 ✝ C 6. ✠ log x ✡ log 1 ✡ 2 x ✠ C
2 4

log x ✞ 1 ✞ log ( x 2 ✟ 1) ✟ tan ☛1 x ✟ C

1 1 1
7.
2 4 2
2 x ✄1 1 1 x☎1 4
8. log ✄ ☎C 9. log ✄ ☎C
9 x ☎ 2 3( x ✄ 1) 2 x ✄1 x ✄1
5 1 12
10. log x ✟ 1 ✞ log x ✞ 1 ✞ log 2 x ✟ 3 ✟ C
2 10 5
5 5 5
11. log x ✟ 1 ✞ log x ✟ 2 ✟ log x ✞ 2 ✟ C
3 2 6
x2 1 3
12. ☞ log x ☞ 1 ☞ log x ✌ 1 ☞ C
2 2 2
1
13. – log x ✆ 1 + log (1 + x2) + tan–1x + C
2
x✎1 1
✎ tan ✍1 x ✏ C
5 1
14. 3log x – 2 ✞ ✟C 15. log
x✞2 4 x ✏1 2
1 xn 2 – sin x
16. log n ✝C 17. log ✑C
n x ✝1 1– sinx
✓ x2 ✝ 1✔
tan ✒1 ✎ 3tan ✒1 ✏ C 19.
2 x x 1
18. x+ log ✕ 2 ✖ ✝ C
3 3 2 2 ✗ x ✝ 3✘
 ANSWERS 593

1 x4 1 ✂ ex – 1 ✄
20. log ✁C 21. log ☎ x ✆
✁C
4 x4 ✝ e ✞
22. B 23. A

EXERCISE 7.6
x 1
1. – x cos x + sin x + C 2. ✟ cos3 x ✠ sin 3 x ✠ C
3 9
x2 x2
3. e x (x2 – 2x + 2) + C 4. log x ✡ ☛ C
2 4
x2 x2 x3 x3
5. log 2 x ✡ ☛C 6. log x ✡ ☛ C
2 4 3 9

x 1 ✌ x2 x2
(2 x 2 ✌ 1) sin ☞1 x ✍ tan ✎1 x ✡ ☛ tan ✎1 x ☛ C
1 x 1
7. ✍C 8.
4 4 2 2 2
cos –1 x x
9. (2 x ✡ 1) ✡ 1 ✡ x2 ☛ C
2
4 4

10. ✏ sin –1 x✑ x ✁ 2 1 x2 sin✒1 x

2
2x✁C

11. – ✓✖ 1–x2 cos –1 x ✕ x✔✗ ✕ C 12. x tan x + log cos x + C

✘ ✙

x tan ✚ 1 x ✛ log (1✜ x 2 ) ✜ C

1 x2 x2 x2
13. 14. (log x ) 2 ✡ log x ☛ ☛ C
2 2 2 4
✂ x3 ✄ x3
15. ☎ ✁ x✆ log x x✁C 16. ex sin x + C
✝ 3 ✞ 9

ex x
17. ✢C 18. e tan ✠ C
x
1+ x 2

ex ex
19. ☛C 20. ✣C
x ( x ✤ 1) 2
e2 x
21. (2sin x ✡ cos x) ☛ C 22. 2x tan–1x – log (1 + x2) + C
5
23. A 24. B
594 MATHEMATICS

EXERCISE 7.7

1 x 1 1
1. x 4 ✁ x2 ✂ 2sin
1
✂C 2. sin 1 2 x ✂ x 1 ✁ 4 x 2 ✂C
2 2 4 2
(x +2) 2
3. x ✂ 4 x ✂ 6 ✂ log x ✂ 2 ✂ x 2 ✂ 4 x ✂ 6 ✂C
2
(x +2) 2 3
4. x ✂ 4 x ✂ 1 ✁ log x ✂ 2 ✂ x 2 ✂ 4 x ✂ 1 ✂C
2 2
5 ✄1 ✆ x ☎ 2 ✝ x ☎ 2
5. sin ✟ ✠☎ 1 ✞ 4x ✞ x2 ☎ C
2 ✡ 5 ☛ 2
(x +2) 2 9
6. x ✂ 4 x ✁ 5 ✁ log x ✂ 2 ✂ x 2 ✂ 4 x ✁ 5 ✂C
2 2
(2x ✞ 3) 13 ✆ 2 x ✞ 3✝
7. 1☎ 3x ✞ x 2 ☎ sin ✄1 ✟ ✠ ☎C
4 8 ✡ 13 ☛
2x +3 2 9 3
8. x ☞ 3x ✌ log x ☞ ☞ x 2 ☞ 3x ☞C
4 8 2
x 2 3
9. x ✂ 9 ✂ log x ✂ x 2 ✂ 9 ✂C
6 2
10. A 11. D

EXERCISE 7.8

1 2 2 35 19
1. (b ✍ a ) 2. 3.
2 2 3
27 1 15 ✎ e8
4. 5. e ✁ 6.
2 e 2

EXERCISE 7.9
3 64
1. 2 2. log 3.
2 3
1
4. 5. 0 6. e4 (e – 1)
2
 ANSWERS 595

1 2 ✂1 ✁ ✞
7. log 2 8. log ✄ ☎ 9.
2 ✆ 2✂ 3 ✝ 2
✞ 1 3 ✞
10. 11. log 12.
4 2 2 4
1 1 3
13. log 2 14. log 6 ✠ tan ✟1 5
2 5 5
1 5✡ 5 3☛
15. (e – 1) 16. 5 – ✌ 9log ☞ log ✍
2 2✎ 4 2✏
4
✑ ✑ 3✓
17. ✒ ✒2 18. 0 19. 3log 2 ✔
1024 2 8
4 2 2
20. 1 + ✖ 21. D 22. C
✕ ✕

EXERCISE 7.10

1 64 ✞
1. log 2 2. 3. – log 2
2 231 2
16 2 ✞ 1 21 ✗ 5 17
4. ( 2 ✠ 1) 5. 6. log
15 4 17 4

✞ e2 (e2 ✘ 2)
7. 8. 9. D
8 4
10. B

EXERCISE 7.11

✙ ✙ ✙ ✙
1. 2. 3. 4.
4 4 4 4
1
5. 29 6. 9 7. (n ✚ 1) (n ✚ 2)

✞ 16 2 ✞ 1 ✞
8. log 2 9. 10. log 11.
8 15 2 2 2
596 MATHEMATICS

12. ✄ 13. 0 14. 0 15. 0

a
16. – ✄ log 2 17. 18. 5 20. C
2
21. C

MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE ON CHAPTER 7

1 x2 2 ✂ 3 3
☎
1. log C 2. ✞( x ✆ a) 2 ✝ ( x ✆ b) 2 ✟ ✆ C
2 1 ✁ x2 3(a ✝ b) ✞✠ ✟✡

1
2 ( a ☛ x) ✌ 1 ✍4
3. – ☞C 4. – ✏ 1+ 4 ✑ ✎ C
a x ✒ x ✓
1 1 1
5. 2 x ✔ 3x 3 ✕ 6 x 6 ✔ 6log (1✕ x 6 ) ✕ C
1 1 3 ✖1 x ✘ C
6. ✗ log x ✘ 1 ✘ log ( x ✘ 9) ✘ tan
2
2 4 2 3
x3
7. sin a log sin ( x ✁ a) x cos a C 8. ✙C
3
✚ sin x ✛ 1
–1
9. sin ✢✤ ✜C 10. ✗ sin 2 x ✘ C
2 ✣✥ 2
1 cos ( x ✦ b) 1 ✖1 4
11. log ✦ C 12. sin ( x ) ✘ C
sin (a – b) cos( x ✦ a) 4

✧ 1+e x ★ 1 ✖1 1 ✖ 1 x
13. log ✩ C tan x ✗ tan ✘C
✫ 2+e x ✪✬
14.
3 6 2
1 1
15. ✗ cos x ✘ C log ( x 4 ✘ 1) ✘ C
4
16.
4 4
[f (ax + b)]n +1 –2 sin ( x ✮ ✭ )
17. ✦C 18. ✮C
a (n+1) sin ✭ sin x

2(2x ✱ 1) 2 x ✱ x2
19. sin ✰1 x ✲ ✱ x✲C
✯ ✯
 ANSWERS 597

1
20. –2 1– x ✁ cos x ✁ x ✂ x2 ✁C

1
21. ex tan x + C 22. ✄ 2log x +1 ✄ ☎ 3log x ☎ 2 ☎C
x ☎1
3
1✝ 1✍ 1✎2 ☞ ✍ 1✎ 2✌
23. x cos ✆1 x ✄ 1 ✄ x 2 ✞✠ ☎ C 24. – ✒ 1 ✏ 2 ✓ ✔ log ✒ 1 ✏ 2 ✓ ✑ ✏C
2 ✡✟ ☛ 3✖ x ✗ ✘ ✖ x ✗ 3 ✕✙

✚ ✛
25. e 2 26.
8

✛ ( 3 ✢ 1)
27. 28. 2sin ✜1
6 2

4 2 1
29. 30. log 9
3 40
✣ ✣
31. ✄1 32. (✣ ✄ 2)
2 2

19 1 ✤ 2 1✥
33. 40. ✧e ✦ ★
2 3✩ e✪
41. A 42. B
43. D 44. B

EXERCISE 8.1

14 32 ✢ 8 2
1. 2. 16 ✫ 4 2 3.
3 3
✣
4. 12✬ 5. 6✬ 6.
3

a2 ✮ ✭ ✯ 2 1
7. ✱ ✰ 1✲ 8. (4) 3 9.
2 ✳2 ✴ 3

9
10. 11. 8 3 12. A 13. B
8
598 MATHEMATICS

EXERCISE 8.2

2 9 1 2 2 ✄ 2✂ 3☎
1. ✁ sin 2. ✝ ✆ ✞
6 4 3 ✝ 3 2 ✞✠
✟

21
3. 4. 4 5. 8
2
6. B 7. B

Miscellaneous Exercise on Chapter 8

7
1. (i) (ii) 624.8
3
1 7
2. 3. 4. 9 5. 4
6 3

8 a2 3
6. 7. 27 8. (✡ ☛ 2)
3 m3 2
ab 9 1
9. ( ✡ ☛ 2) 10. 11. 2 12.
4 2 3
7 9☞ 9 ✍ 1✎ 1
13. 7 14. 15. ✏ sin ✌1 ✒ ✓ ✑
2 8 4 ✔ 3✕ 3 2
16. D 17. C 18. C 19. B

EXERCISE 9.1
1. Order 4; Degree not defined 2. Order 1; Degree 1
3. Order 2; Degree 1 4. Order 2; Degree not defined
5. Order 2; Degree 1 6. Order 3; Degree 2
7. Order 3; Degree 1 8. Order 1; Degree 1
9. Order 2; Degree 1 10. Order 2; Degree 1
11. D 12. A

EXERCISE 9.2
11. D 12. D
 ANSWERS 599

EXERCISE 9.3
1. y☎ = 0 2. xy y☎ + x (y✆)² – y y✆ = 0
3. y☎ – y✆– 6y = 0 4. y☎ – 4y✆ + 4y = 0
5. y☎ – 2y✆ + 2y = 0 6. 2xyy✆ + x2 = y2
7. xy✆ – 2y = 0 8. xyy☎ + x(y✆)² – yy✆ = 0
9. xyy ☎ + x(y✆)² – yy✆ = 0 10. (x² – 9) (y✆)² + x² = 0
11. B 12. C

EXERCISE 9.4
x
1. y 2 tan ✁ x✂C 2. y = 2 sin (x + C)
2
3. y = 1 + Ae–x 4. tan x tan y ✄ C
x3
5. y = log (ex + e–x) + C 6. tan –1 y = x + ✝C
3
7. y = ecx 8. x – 4 + y – 4 =C
9. y = x sin–1x + 1– x 2 + C 10. tan y = C ( 1 – ex)
1 1
11. y log ✞✠ ( x ✂ 1) 2 ( x 2 ✂ 1)3 ✟✡ ✁ tan –1 x ✂ 1
4 2
1 ☛ x 2 ✌ 1☞ ✔ y✓2 ✕ a
12. y ✍ log ✎✑ x 2 ✏✒ 13. cos ✗✙ ✘✖
2 x ✚
14. y = sec x 15. 2y – 1 = ex ( sin x – cos x)
16. y – x + 2 = log (x2 (y + 2)2) 17. y2 – x2 = 4
1
2
18. (x + 4) = y + 3 19. (63t ✛ 27) 3
20. 6.93% 21. Rs 1648
2log 2
22. 23. A
✜ 11✢
log ✣ ✤
✥ 10 ✦

EXERCISE 9.5
✧y
1. ( x ★ y) ✩ Cx e
2 x
2. y ✍ x log x ✪ Cx
600 MATHEMATICS

y✁ 1
3. tan –1 ☎ 2 2
✆ ✂ log ( x ✄ y ) ✄ C 4. x2 + y2 = Cx
✝ x✞ 2

1 x✟ 2y
log ✠ log x ✟C
5.
2 2 x✡ 2y
6. y + x2 + y 2 ☛ Cx
2

☞ y✌ ✒ ✔ y✕✓ ✔ y✕
7. xy cos 8. x ✚1 ✖ cos ✘ ✙ ✛ ✗ Csin ✘ ✙
✍ ✎ =C x✢✤
✏ x✑ ✣ ✜ ✜ x✢

x
y ye y ✦ x✧C
9. cy = log ✥ 1 10.
x
y ★
11. log ( x2 + y2) + 2 tan–1 = ✩ log 2
x 2
☞ y✌
12. y + 2x = 3x2 y 13. cot ✍ ✎ ✪ log ex
✏ x✑

☞ y✌ 2x
14. cos ✍ ✎ ✪ log ex 15. y✫ ( x ✬ 0, x ✬ e)
✏ x✑ 1 ✭ log x
16. C 17. D

EXERCISE 9.6
1
1. y = (2sin x – cos x) + C e–2x 2. y = e–2x + Ce–3x
5
x4
3. xy ✮ ✯C 4. y (sec x + tan x) = sec x + tan x – x + C
4
x2
5. y = (tan x – 1) + C e–tanx 6. y✮ (4 log x ✱ 1) ✯ Cx ✰2
16
✥2
7. y log x ✲ (1 ✩ log x ) ✩ C 8. y = (1+ x) ✳2 log sin x ✴ C (1✴ x 2 )✳ 1
x
1 C
9. y✪ ✵ cot x ✶ 10. (x + y + 1) = C ey
x x sin x

y2 C
11. x✷ ✸ 12. x = 3y2 + Cy
3 y
 ANSWERS 601

13. y = cos x – 2 cos2 x 14. y (1 + x2) = tan–1 x –

4
15. y = 4 sin3 x – 2 sin2 x 16. x + y + 1 = ex
17. y = 4 – x – 2 ex 18. C 19. D

Miscellaneous Exercise on Chapter 9

1. (i) Order 2; Degree 1 (ii) Order 1; Degree 3
(iii) Order 4; Degree not defined

2 y 2 ✁ x2
3. y ✂✄ 5. (x + yy✆ )² = (x – y)2 (1 + ( y✆ )2)
4 xy
sec x
6. sin–1y + sin–1x = C 8. cos y =
2
☎ x

9. tan–1 y + tan–1(ex) = 10. e y ✝ y ✞ C

2
11. log x – y ✟ x ✠ y ✠ 1 12. y e2 x
✡ (2 x ☛ C)

☞2 2 x ✏1
13. y sin x ✌ 2 x 2 ✍ (sin x ✎ 0) 14. y ✑ log , x ✒ ✓1
2 x ✏1
15. 31250 16. C
17. C 18. C

EXERCISE 10.1
✔✔✔✕
1. In the adjoining figure, the vector OP represents the required displacement.
602 MATHEMATICS

2. (i) scalar (ii) vector (iii) scalar (iv) scalar (v) scalar
(vi) vector
3. (i) scalar (ii) scalar (iii) vector (iv) vector (v) scalar
✁
4. (i) Vectors a and b are coinitial
✁ ✂✁
(ii) Vectors b and d are equal
✄ ✄
(iii) Vectors a and c are collinear but not equal
5. (i) True (ii) False (iii) False (iv) False

EXERCISE 10.2
✆ ✆ ✆
1. a ☎ 3, b ☎ 62, c ☎ 1
2. An infinite number of possible answers.
3. An infinite number of possible answers.
4. x = 2, y = 3 5. – 7 and 6; –7 iˆ and 6 ˆj
1 ˆ 1 ˆ 2 ˆ
6. ✝ 4 ˆj ✝ kˆ 7. i✞ j✞ k
6 6 6
1 ˆ 1 ˆ 1 ˆ 1 ˆ 1 ˆ
8. i✞ j✞ k 9. i✞ k
3 3 3 2 2
40 ˆ 8 ˆ 16 ˆ 1 2 3
10. i✟ j✞ k 12. , ,
30 30 30 14 14 14
1 2 2 1 4 1
13. ✠ , ✠ , 15. (i) ✠ iˆ ✡ ˆj ✡ kˆ (ii) ✝3iˆ ☛ 3 kˆ
3 3 3 3 3 3
16. 3iˆ ☛ 2 ˆj ☛ kˆ 18. (C) 19. (D)

EXERCISE 10.3

☞ ✌ 5✍
1. 2. cos –1 ✎ ✏ 3. 0
4 ✑ 7✒

60 16 2 2 2 ✓2 ✓ ✓ ✓2
4. 6. , 7. 6 a ☛ 11a.b – 35 b
114 3 7 3 7
✕ ✕
8. a ✔ 1, b ✔ 1 9. 13 10. 8
 ANSWERS 603

✁3
12. Vector b can be any vector 13.
2
✂ ✄
14. Take any two non-zero perpendicular vectors a and b

–1 ☎ 10 ✆
15. cos ✝✟ ✞ 18. (D)
102 ✠

EXERCISE 10.4

2 2 1 ☞ 1 1 1
1. 19 2 2. ✡ iˆ ☛ ˆj ☛ kˆ 3. ,; ,
3 3 3 3 2 2 2
27 ✍ ✍
5. 3, 6. Either a ✌ 0 or b ✌ 0
2
8. No; take any two nonzero collinear vectors

9. 61 10. 15 2 11. (B) 12. (C)

2

Miscellaneous Exercise on Chapter 10

3ˆ 1 ˆ
1. i✎ j
2 2

2. x2 – x1 , y2 – y1 , z2 ✏ z1; ( x2 ✏ x1 ) 2 ✑ ( y2 ✏ y1 ) 2 ✑ ( z2 ✏ z1 ) 2
✒5 ˆ3 3ˆ
3. i✓ j
2 2
✂ ✂
4. No; take a , b and c to represent the sides of a triangle.
1 3 10 ˆ 3 ˆ 3 ˆ 2 ˆ
5. ✔ 6. 10 iˆ ✎ j 7. i✕ j✎ k
3 2 2 22 22 22

✂ 1 ˆ
8. 2 : 3 9. 3 a + 5 b 10. (3i – 6 ˆj ✖ 2kˆ); 11 5
7
1
12. (160iˆ – 5 ˆj ✖ 70kˆ) 13. ✗ = 1 16. (B)
3
17. (D) 18. (C) 19. (B)
604 MATHEMATICS

EXERCISE 11.1
1 1 1 1 1 ✂9 6 ✂ 2
1. 0, , 2. ✁ ,✁ ,✁ 3. , ,
2 2 3 3 3 11 11 11
2 2 3 2 3 2 4 5 1
5. , , ; , , ; , ,
17 17 17 17 17 17 42 42 42

EXERCISE 11.2
✞
4. r ✄ iˆ ☎ 2 ˆj ☎ 3 kˆ ☎ ✆ ( 3 iˆ ☎ 2 ˆj ✝ 2 kˆ ) , where ✟ is a real number
✞
5. r ✄ 2 iˆ ✝ ˆj ☎ 4 kˆ ☎ ✆ ( iˆ ☎ 2 ˆj ✝ kˆ ) and cartesian form is
x ✂2 y ✡ 1 z ✂ 4
✠ ✠
1 2 ✂1
x✡2 y✂4 z✡5
6. ✠ ✠
3 5 6
✞
7. r ✄ (5 iˆ ✝ 4 ˆj ☎ 6 kˆ) ☎ ✆ (3 iˆ ☎ 7 ˆj ☎ 2 kˆ)
✞
8. Vector equation of the line: r ✄ ✆ ( 5 iˆ ✝ 2 ˆj ☎ 3 kˆ ) ;
x y z
Cartesian equation of the line: ☛ ☛
5 ☞2 3
✞ ˆ ˆ ˆ
9. Vector equation of the line: r ✄ 3i ✝ 2 j ✝ 5k ☎ ✆ (11kˆ)
x✂3 y✡2 z✡5
Cartesian equation of the line: ✠ ✠
0 0 11

✍1
10. (i) ✌ = cos ✑
✎ 19 ✏ ✕1 ✖ 8 ✗
(ii) ✌ = cos ✘✘
✒ ✙✙
✓ 21 ✔ ✚5 3✛

✕1 ✖ 26 ✗
11. (i) ✌ = cos ✘✘
1 ✢ 2✣
(ii) ✌ = cos ✜ ✤ ✥
✙✙ ✦ 3✧
✚ 9 38 ✛
70 3 2
12. p✠ 14. 15. 2 29
11 2
3 8
16. 17.
19 29
 ANSWERS 605

EXERCISE 11.3
1 1 1 1
1. (a) 0, 0, 1; 2 (b) , , ;
3 3 3 3
2 3 1 5 8
(c) , , ; (d) 0, 1, 0;
14 14 14 14 5

☛ ✁ 3 iˆ ✄ 5 ˆj ☎ 6 kˆ ✂
2. r✆✞ ✟✟ ✝ 7
✞
✠ 70 ✡
3. (a) x + y – z = 2 (b) 2x + 3y – 4 z = 1
(c) (s – 2t) x + (3 – t) y + (2s + t) z = 15
☞ 24 36 48 ✌ ☞ 18 24 ✌
4. (a) ✍ , , ✎ (b) ✍ 0, , ✎
✏ 29 29 29 ✑ ✏ 5 5 ✑
☞1 1 1✌ ☞ ✒8 ✌
(c) ✍ , , ✎ (d) ✍ 0, , 0✎
✏3 3 3✑ ✏ 5 ✑
✗
5. (a) [ r ✓ ( iˆ ✓ 2 kˆ )] ✔ (iˆ ✕ ˆj ✓ kˆ) ✖ 0; x + y – z = 3
✗
(b) [ r ✓ ( iˆ ✕ 4 ˆj ✕ 6 kˆ ) ] ✔ ( iˆ ✓ 2 ˆj ✕ kˆ) ✖ 0; x – 2y + z + 1 = 0
6. (a) The points are collinear. There will be infinite number of planes
passing through the given points.
(b) 2x + 3y – 3z = 5
5
7. , 5, –5 8. y = 3 9. 7x – 5y + 4z – 8 = 0
2
✢
10. r ✚ ✘ 38 iˆ ✛ 68 ˆj ✛ 3 kˆ ✙ ✜ 153 11. x – z + 2 = 0

✤ 15 ✥
12. cos ✣1 ✦ ✧
★ 731 ✩
☞ 2✌
13. (a) cos✪1 ✍ ✎ (b) The planes are perpendicular
✏ 5✑
(c) The planes are parallel (d) The planes are parallel
(e) 45o
3 13
14. (a) (b)
13 3
(c) 3 (d) 2
606 MATHEMATICS

Miscellaneous Exercise on Chapter 11

x y z ✁1 ✂ 5 ✄
3. 90° 4. 5. cos ☎ ✆
1 0 0 ✝ 187 ✞
✟10
6. k 7. r✚ ✖ iˆ ✗ 2 ˆj ✗ 3 kˆ ✗ ✘ ( iˆ ✗ 2 ˆj ✙ 5 kˆ )
7
8. x + y + z = a + b + c 9. 9
✡ 17 ✠13 ☛ ✏ 17 , 0, 23 ✑
10. ☞ 0, , ✌ 11. ✒ ✓ 12. (1, – 2, 7)
✍ 2 2 ✎ ✔3 3✕
7
13. 7x – 8y + 3z + 25 = 0 14. p = 1 or
3
15. y – 3z + 6 = 0 16. x + 2y – 3z – 14 = 0
17. 33 x + 45 y + 50 z – 41 = 0 18. 13
✚
19. r ✖ iˆ ✗ 2 ˆj ✗ 3 kˆ ✗ ✘ (✙ 3 iˆ ✗ 5 ˆj ✗ 4kˆ)
✚
20. r ✖ iˆ ✗ 2 ˆj ✙ 4 kˆ ✗ ✘ (2 iˆ ✗ 3 ˆj ✗ 6 kˆ) 22. D
23. B

EXERCISE 12.1
1. Maximum Z = 16 at (0, 4)
2. Minimum Z = – 12 at (4, 0)

235 ✛ 20 45✜
3. Maximum Z = at ✢ , ✣
19 ✤ 19 19 ✥

✦ 3 1✧
4. Minimum Z = 7 at ★✪ , ✩✫
2 2
5. Maximum Z = 18 at (4, 3)
6. Minimum Z = 6 at all the points on the line segment joining the points (6, 0)
and (0, 3).
7. Minimum Z = 300 at (60, 0);
Maximum Z = 600 at all the points on the line segment joining the points (120, 0)
and (60, 30).
 ANSWERS 607

8. Minimum Z = 100 at all the points on the line segment joining the points (0, 50)
and (20, 40);
Maximum Z = 400 at (0, 200)
9. Z has no maximum value
10. No feasible region, hence no maximum value of Z.

EXERCISE 12.2

8 ✁ ✝ 1✞
1. Minimum cost = Rs 160 at all points lying on segment joining ✂ ,0✄ and ✟✡ 2, ✠.
☎3 ✆ 2☛
2. Maximum number of cakes = 30 of kind one and 10 cakes of another kind.
3. (i) 4 tennis rackets and 12 cricket bats
(ii) Maximum profit = Rs 200
4. 3 packages of nuts and 3 packages of bolts; Maximum profit = Rs 73.50.
5. 30 packages of screws A and 20 packages of screws B; Maximum profit
= Rs 410
6. 4 Pedestal lamps and 4 wooden shades; Maximum profit = Rs 32
7. 8 Souvenir of types A and 20 of Souvenir of type B; Maximum profit
= Rs 1600.
8. 200 units of desktop model and 50 units of portable model; Maximum profit
= Rs 1150000.
9. Minimise Z = 4x + 6y
subject to 3x + 6y ☞ 80, 4x + 3y ☞ 100, x ☞ 0 and y ☞ 0, where x and y denote the
number of units of food F1 and food F2 respectively; Minimum cost = Rs 104
10. 100 kg of fertiliser F1 and 80 kg of fertiliser F2; Minimum cost = Rs 1000
11. (D)

Miscellaneous Exercise on Chapter 12

1. 40 packets of food P and 15 packets of food Q; Maximum amount of vitamin A
= 285 units.
2. 3 bags of brand P and 6 bags of brand Q; Minimum cost of the mixture = Rs 1950
3. Least cost of the mixture is Rs 112 (2 kg of Food X and 4 kg of food Y).
608 MATHEMATICS

5. 40 tickets of executive class and 160 tickets of economy class; Maximum profit
= Rs 136000.
6. From A : 10,50, 40 units; From B: 50,0,0 units to D, E and F respectively and
minimum cost = Rs 510
7. From A: 500, 3000 and 3500 litres; From B: 4000, 0, 0 litres to D, E and F
respectively; Minimum cost = Rs 4400
8. 40 bags of brand P and 100 bags of brand Q; Minimum amount of nitrogen
= 470 kg.
9. 140 bags of brand P and 50 bags of brand Q; Maximum amount of nitrogen
= 595 kg.
10. 800 dolls of type A and 400 dolls of type B; Maximum profit = Rs 16000

EXERCISE 13.1

2 1 16
1. P E|F✁ ✂ , P F|E ✁ ✂ 2. P ✄ A|B☎ ✂
3 3 25
3. (i) 0.32 (ii) 0.64 (iii) 0.98
11
4.
26
4 4 2
5. (i) (ii) (iii)
11 5 3
1 3 6
6. (i) (ii) (iii)
2 7 7
7. (i) 1 (ii) 0
1 1 1
8. 9. 1 10. (a) , (b)
6 3 9
1 1 1 2 3 1
11. (i) , (ii) , (iii) ,
2 3 2 3 4 4
1 1 5
12. (i) (ii) 13.
2 3 9
1
14. 15. 0 16. C 17. D
15
 ANSWERS 609

EXERCISE 13.2
3 25 44
1. 2. 3.
25 102 91
4. A and B are independent 5. A and B are not independent
6. E and F are not independent
1 1
7. (i) p (ii) p
10 5
8. (i) 0.12 (ii) 0.58 (iii) 0.3 (iv) 0.4
3
9. 10. A and B are not independent
8
11. (i) 0.18 (ii) 0.12 (iii) 0.72 (iv) 0.28
7 16 20 40
12. 13. (i) , (ii) , (iii)
8 81 81 81
2 1 1 1 1
14. (i) , (ii) 15. (i) , (ii) 16. (a) , (b) , (c)
3 2 5 3 2
17. D 18. B

EXERCISE 13.3
1 2 9 12
1. 2. 3. 4.
2 3 13 13
198 4 1 1
5. 6. 7. 8.
1197 9 52 4
2 8 5 11
9. 10. 11. 12.
9 11 34 50
13. A 14. C

EXERCISE 13.4
1. (ii), (iii) and (iv) 2. X = 0, 1, 2; yes 3. X = 6, 4, 2, 0
4. (i) X 0 1 2
1 1 1
P(X)
4 2 4
(ii) X 0 1 2 3
1 3 3 1
P(X)
8 8 8 8
610 MATHEMATICS

(iii) X 0 1 2 3 4
1 1 3 1 1
P(X)
16 4 8 4 16
5. (i) X 0 1 2
4 4 1
P(X)
9 9 9
(ii) X 0 1
25 11
P(X)
36 36
6. X 0 1 2 3 4
256 256 96 16 1
P(X)
625 625 625 625 625
7. X 0 1 2
9 6 1
P(X)
16 16 16

1 3 17
8. (i) k (ii) P(X ✁ 3) (iii) P(X ✂ 6) ✄
10 10 100
3
(iv) P(0 ✁ X ✁ 3)
10
1 1 1
9. (a) k , P(X ☎ 2) 1, P(X ✆ 2)
(b) P(X ✁ 2)
6 2 2
1 14
10. 1.5 11. 12.
3 3
13. Var(X) = 5.833, S.D = 2.415
14. X 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
2 1 2 3 1 2 3 1
P(X)
15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15
Mean = 17.53, Var(X) = 4.78 and S.D(X) = 2.19
15. E(X) = 0.7 and Var (X) = 0.21 16. B 17. D
 ANSWERS 611

EXERCISE 13.5
3 7 63
1. (i) (ii) (iii)
32 64 64
9
25 29 ✁ 19 ✁
2. 3. ✂ ✄ ✂ ✄
216 ☎ 20 ✆ ☎ 20 ✆

1 45 243
4. (i) (ii) (iii)
1024 512 1024
5. (i) (0.95)5 (ii) (0.95)4 × 1.2 (iii) 1 – (0.95)4 × 1.2
(iv) 1 – (0.95)5
4 20
✝ 9✞ ☞1✌ 20 20
6. ✟ ✠ 7. ✑ ✒ ✍
✓ 20C12 ✏ C13 ✏ ... ✏ C 20 ✎
✔
✡ 10 ☛ ✕ 2✖

11
9.
243
50 49 49
99 ✁ 1 99 ✁ 149 99 ✁
10. (a) 1 ✗ ✂ ✄ (b) (c) 1 ✗
☎ 100 ✆ 2 ✂☎ 100 ✄✆ 100 ✂☎ 100 ✄✆
5 4
7 5✁ 35 5 ✁ 22 ✘ 93
11. ✂ ✄ 12. ✂ ✄ 13.
12 ☎ 6 ✆ 18 ☎ 6 ✆ 1011
14. C 15. A

Miscellaneous Exercise on Chapter 13

1. (i) 1 (ii) 0
1 1
2. (i) (ii)
3 2
20
3.
21
10
4. 1 ✛ ✜ 10 Cr (0.9) r (0.1)10✙ r
r✚7

6 4 6
✢ 2✣ ✢ 2✣ ✢ 2✣ 864
5. (i) ✤ ✥ (ii) 7 ✤ ✥ (iii) 1 ★ ✤ ✥ (iv)
✦ 5✧ ✦ 5✧ ✦ 5✧ 3125
612 MATHEMATICS

510 625 2
6. 7. 8.
2 69 23328 7
4
31 ✁ 2 ✂ 11
9. ✄ ☎ 10. n ✟ 4 11.
9 ✆ 3✝ 216
1 2 8 14 3
12. , , 13. 14.
15 5 15 29 16
16
15. (i) 0.5 (ii) 0.05 16.
31
17. A 18. C 19. B

—✞—