Dialogue Writing For Dubbing - An Insider's Perspective (PDFDrive) PDF

Giselle Spiteri Miggiani
DIALOGUE
WRITING FOR
DUBBING
An Insider’s Perspective
Dialogue Writing for Dubbing
“A truly ground-breaking contribution to Audiovisual Translation, Dialogue

Writing for Dubbing: An Insider’s Perspective presents a meticulous picture of the
dubbing industry, rethinking ways in which dubbing scripts can better meet cli-
ent and audience expectations. It illustrates how translators and dialogue writers
can make creative yet systematic choices in their daily work. Based on long-term
professional practice, and accompanied by academic reflection, this beautifully
conceived book provides a detailed didactic guide to translation for dubbing,
and will soon constitute an essential asset in the field.”
—Frederic Chaume, Professor of Audiovisual Translation, Universitat Jaume I,
Spain, and University College London, UK
“Drawing on extensive first-hand practice in the dubbing industry, Spiteri

Miggiani has put together an extremely valuable and very clearly structured vol-
ume about the elaboration of a dialogue script for the revoicing of audiovisual
productions into multiple languages other than the original. Dialogue Writing
for Dubbing: An Insider’s Perspective is a treasure trove of very useful and rarely
found information about the practical and functional aspects of a dubbing
script. It is bound to become a classic and obligatory reading for practitioners,
researchers and trainers in dubbing, as well as for anyone with an interest in
audiovisual translation in general.”
—Pablo Romero-Fresco, Ramón y Cajal Researcher, Universidade de Vigo,
Spain, and Honorary Professor in Translation and Filmmaking, University of
Roehampton, UK
Dialogue Writing for

Dubbing
An Insider's Perspective
Translation, Terminology and Interpreting Studies
University of Malta
Msida, Malta
ISBN 978-3-030-04965-2 ISBN 978-3-030-04966-9 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04966-9
Library of Congress Control Number: 2018966701
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2019

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To Marguerite and Henry.
Preface
This monograph deals with the preparation and elaboration of a dialogue

script for the revoicing of audiovisual productions into multiple lan-
guages other than the original. The script is tackled as a principal working
tool in the recording studios. Thus, focus lies on the practical and func-
tional aspects of a dubbing script rather than on translation issues. The
interlingual lip-synch dubbing process has been chosen over intralingual
dubbing, phrase synch dubbing, voice-over, and partial dubbing.
The subject matter at hand is a non-language-specific endeavour pro-
posing dialogue writing strategies and know-how, supported by an exem-
plified, analytical, and theoretical framework. It puts forward a threefold
perspective, that of a practitioner, researcher, and trainer in the field. This
work strives to bridge academia and the dubbing industry by suggesting
practical approaches and guidelines in a structured and methodical
manner.
The practitioner’s perspective is based on long-term professional dia-
logue writing practice as well as on familiarization with text manipula-
tion in the studios, professional roles, industry jargon, and the dubbing
process in general, acquired by active participation in numerous record-
ing sessions. This, accompanied with the exploration of dubbing scripts
“in the making”, provides an insider’s viewpoint that could be useful to
novice dialogue writers and possibly to scholars whose interest lies in the
analysis of translation for dubbing.
vii
viii Preface
The insider’s perspective is strengthened further by research into and

consultation with dubbing companies, deemed essential so as to widen
the frame of reference by including diverse tendencies in a number of
countries. Undoubtedly, this international outlook can never provide an
exhaustive picture of worldwide strategies and modalities and therefore
only aims at seeking common threads and/or contrasting approaches,
giving this review a more universal feel, and enhancing its potential of
adaptability to the culture and context of the individual reader. Similarly,
the theoretical framework offered in the monograph is in no way com-
prehensive; the selection of concepts and studies mentioned simply seek
to corroborate specific practical issues that are dealt with.
The monograph is divided into three main parts, each adopting a spe-
cific approach:
• Part I. The dialogue writing practice—a descriptive approach

• Part II. Strategies and know-how—a practical approach
• Part III. Black box revealed—an analytical approach
Part I seeks to provide the scenario which paves the way for the devel-
opment of the core of this monograph. This introductory section explores
the dubbing process and the related professional roles and those basic
theoretical notions that are relevant and associable with the contents
offered in Parts II and III. The focus lies on the constraints and numerous
tasks that the dialogue writer necessarily deals with, and on the possibility
of enhancing freedom and creativity in a constrained context. For this
reason, Part I also draws on other disciplines (literary criticism, film stud-
ies, classical poetics, creative writing, and cognitive informatics) in an
attempt to apply a few analogies to the field of dubbing and dialogue
writing. These are meant to have a functional purpose, and the potential
to develop dubbing or screenplay dialogue writing skills is explored.
Part II suggests practical tools that may help in handling the demands
of dialogue writing procedures investigated in Part I. This section seeks to
propose strategies and stratagems that could come in handy in trying to
comply with widespread norms, conventions, and all forms of restric-
tions. It offers practical know-how based on first-hand experience of
company guidelines, dialogue modifications witnessed during studio
Preface ix
recording sessions, as well as consultation and discussion with dubbing

companies, directors, actors, and assistants. The strategies proposed aim
at enhancing the functional and linguistic quality of dubbing scripts, in
accordance with those standards that scholars in the academic field tend
to agree upon, in general. Part II also thoroughly explores script layouts,
formats, textual and paratextual elements, as well as dubbing deliverables:
target language scripts, segmented scripts, glossaries, postproduction
sheets, and so on.
Part III illustrates dubbed dialogue excerpts in an attempt to demon-
strate the application of the previously discussed strategies aimed at script
functionality and the attainment of generally accepted quality standards.
This third section is inspired by the genetic analysis approach proposed
by Mabel Richart Marset and therefore walks the reader through the vari-
ous stages of the rewriting process, from the initial translation all the way
up to the final recorded version. The numerous in-between drafts of a
variety of dialogue scripts are meant to offer insights into adaptation
choices and the reasons that lie behind them. The creative decision-mak-
ing process is explored during this analytical disclosure of the dubbing
script black box contents.
The examples illustrated throughout the monograph are drawn from
first-hand material and include excerpts from TV movies, series, and sit-
coms among which Castle, Make It or Break It, House, M.D., The Big Bang
Theory, Potlach, Banshee, Dracula, The Tomorrow People, Psych, April
Showers, and Rescue Special Ops.
The ultimate objective of this treatise is to provide novice dubbing
translators, dialogue writers and trainees with some of the expertise that
is usually acquired in time, through practical experience in the profes-
sion. There is no single set formula to dialogue writing. This monograph
does not prescribe any rules; it simply tries to propose a set of tools that
may hopefully prove to be an asset for those trainees who eventually come
to terms with the industry. Having an insight into the various possible
scenarios may help to enhance interaction with potential clients. It may
also prove interesting to scholars who, throughout their research and
studies, may not have experienced the insider’s perspective.
MaltaGiselle Spiteri Miggiani
Acknowledgements
My gratitude goes to all those persons who in some way or another sup-
ported this project and who directly or indirectly contributed to its con-
tents and completion.
My thanks go to the anonymous peer reviewers for enabling the pub-
lication of this monograph by returning positive feedback and useful sug-
gestions. Thanks also go to the publishers and to the editors, Judith Allen,
Cathy Scott, and, most of all, senior editorial assistant, Beth Farrow, for
her patience throughout.
I am extremely grateful to abc Studios, the Walt Disney Company, and
the Walt Disney Company Italia, for granting their consent to quote
script excerpts from their productions. In particular, I would like to thank
Roberto Morville, Luigi Condorelli, Andrew Aherne, John Airlie, and Jo
Forey for helping me pursue and obtain the necessary permissions.
I would also like to show my appreciation to Dubbing Brothers, for all
the experience gained throughout our long-standing collaboration and
co-operation along the years, and particularly for providing me with their
bande rythmo software and relative training. In particular, I would like to
thank Monica Falcetti, Micaela Prisco, Simona Silvestri, and Massimo
Carnevali. I am also grateful to Pierre Fonsagrive for introducing me to
the détection tasks.
My thanks go to a number of international localization companies for
dedicating long hours of discussion time and for providing inside
xi
xii Acknowledgements
information on their modus operandi: in particular SDI Media (with

branches all over the world, its headquarters being in Los Angeles,
California, with centralized hubs in Warsaw, Poland, and Manila,
Philippines), The Kitchen (Emmy award-winning company based in
Miami, Los Angeles, Caracas, South Africa, Russia, Morocco, Italy, Spain,
South America, Germany, Turkey, and Moldova), and Screens
International (based in Beirut, Montreal, London, Los Angeles, and
Mumbai). I would like to thank Mario Daher for his enormous patience.
My thanks go to Dr. Vincenza Minutella (Università degli Studi di
Torino) for her precious consultation on references dealing with transla-
tion issues; Ping Deng (University of Petroleum, Beijing) and Professor
Jin Haina (Communication University of China), for material and
insights into the Chinese dubbing industry; translator and dialogue
writer, Jia Xiuyan (August First Film Studio, Beijing), for granting per-
mission to quote her dubbing scripts in Chinese; Professor Anthony
Aquilina (University of Malta), for consultation on French-language
transcription and translation; Dr. Phyllisienne Gauci (University of
Malta), for consultation on SLA; Saeed Ameeri (Ferdowsi University of
Mashhad), for insights into the Iranian industry; Katy Hanna, for con-
sultancy on Arabic-language translation; filmmaker Kenneth Scicluna
(seawardfilms.com), for material and consultation on film language;
Take2 Productions (take2.com.mt), for providing a film still and grant-
ing permission for its use in the monograph; and last but not least,
graphic artist Sara Chersoni (behance.net/sarachersoni), for enriching
this monograph with her excellent sketches.
My gratitude goes to colleagues in the dubbing industry, in particular
Stefanella Marrama, Adelisa Pitti, and Marco Bonetti, for teaching me so
much and for their guidance and continued appreciation of my work. I
am also grateful to Professor Joseph Eynaud (University of Malta) and
Professor Joseph Brincat (University of Malta) for their unceasing aca-
demic support throughout the years. I am grateful to my friends, and my
brother Jean-Claude, for their patience, and also to the students I have
taught so far, whose questions and feedback have helped immensely in
identifying the necessary content for didactic purposes.
My special gratitude goes to Professor Frederic Chaume (Universitat
Jaume I/UCL) for his generosity with material, and for his precious
Acknowledgements xiii
insights and advice. Thank you for being a constant source of encourage-
ment, inspiration, and positivity.
My heartfelt gratitude goes to Henry and Marguerite, for their encour-
agement and invaluable practical assistance in the realization of this proj-
ect. Thank you both for your constant support in my profession as a
dialogue writer and as an academic, but most of all for your loving dedi-
cation throughout.
My immense gratitude goes above all to Paolo for patiently supporting
me and giving this project priority and value. Thank you for your contin-
ued support throughout the years of my career in the dubbing field.
Last but not least, my gratitude goes to three of my mentors who have
contributed enormously to my dialogue writing profession and who
unfortunately have left this world and the Italian dubbing family way too
soon. Thank you for all that you have taught me and for believing in me
from the start. This book is in your memory.
Sergio Patou-Patucchi
Danilo De Girolamo
Carlo Carloni
Contents
Part I The Dialogue Writing Practice 1
1 Dialogue Writing Set in Context 3

1.1 The Dubbing Process and Main Professional Roles 3
1.1.1 Sound Technicians 7
1.1.2 Dubbing Directors 9
1.1.3 Dubbing Assistants 11
1.1.4 Dubbing Actors 11
1.1.5 Translators and Dialogue Writers 12
1.2 Recording Modus Operandi and Software Tools 14
1.2.1 The Bande Rythmo 16
1.2.2 Other Software Applications 22
1.2.3 Collaborative Dubbing 24
1.3 Dialogue Writing: Definition and Terminology 25
1.3.1 Synchronies and Constraints 29
1.4 Quality Standards 33
1.4.1 Dubbese and Its Seemingly Universal Language
Identity 35
References 41
xv
xvi Contents
2 Bridging Disciplines: Analogies and Applicable Devices 49

2.1 Enhanced Creativity and Freedom in a Constrained
Context 49
2.2 Creative Writing Techniques 51
2.3 Classical Poetics and Literary Criticism 54
2.3.1 Studium or Ingenium 56
2.4 Screenwriting 58
2.4.1 From Dialogue Writing to Screenwriting 60
2.4.2 Accepting the Notion of Loss 61
References 62
Part II Strategies and Know-How 67
3 Dialogue Writing Itinerary 69

3.1 Establishing a Method 70
3.2 Impersonating the Dubbing Actors 72
3.3 The Rhythmic Framework 76
3.4 Inserting Dubbing Notations 79
3.5 Isochrony 80
3.6 Kinesics and Lip Synchronization 82
3.7 Working Methodology and Its Impact on the Dialogue 85
3.7.1 Cognitive Considerations 88
3.8 Readjusting the Language: Self-Revision and Fine-
Tuning 92
3.9 Workstation Logistics and Speed Efficiency 94
References 97
4 Dubbing Deliverables101
4.1 Postproduction Material 101
4.2 Target Language Scripts 107
4.2.1 Loop Segmentation 110
4.2.2 Dialogue Segmentation 112
4.3 Dubbing Glossaries or Consistency Sheets and Metadata
Files116
Contents xvii
4.4 Postproduction Recording Sheet 119

References122
5 Script Components125
5.1 Breaking Down the Dubbing Script 125
5.2 Tempo Markers and Time Codes 126
5.3 Dubbing Notations 129
5.3.1 A Dubbing Notations Proposal 137
5.3.2 Use of Notations: Dubbing Versus Screenwriting 139
5.4 Background Noise 143
5.5 On-Screen Text or Graphics 148
5.6 Front Matter: Heading, Character List, Synopsis, Titles 152
5.7 Recaps 155
5.8 Headers, Page Numbers, Translator’s Notes 158
References159
6 Standards and Practices161

6.1 Company Guidelines 161
6.2 Numbers, Measurements, Conversions 162
6.3 Interjections 162
6.4 Spelling and Punctuation 163
6.5 Character Allocation 165
6.6 Foreign Language, Fictitious Language, Accents 166
6.6.1 Identifying a Practical Strategy 169
6.7 Songs and Vocal Ditties 174
6.8 Language Style and Blacklisted Expressions 176
6.9 What Not to Include in the Dubbing Script 180
References181
Part III Black Box Revealed 189
7 Applied Strategies191
7.1 The Dialogue Rewriting Process 191
7.1.1 Text Modification During Recording 194
xviii Contents
7.1.2 A Genetic Analysis Approach 195

7.2 Technical Synchronization 197
7.2.1 Synchronies and Dubbing Notations 197
7.2.2 Synchronies and Dubbese 204
7.3 Intertextual References 214
7.4 Wordplay 220
7.4.1 Wordplay and Visuals 220
7.4.2 Wordplay and Humour 226
7.4.3 Wordplay and Cultural and Intertextual
References228
7.5 Natural-Sounding Dialogue 234
7.6 Censorship 248
7.7 Specialized Jargon 253
References260
Index265
List of Figures
Fig. 1.1 Dialogue extracted and replaced. (Sketch drawing by Sara

Chersoni)5
Fig. 1.2 The dubbing process and main professional roles. (Adapted
from Chaume 2012) 6
Fig. 1.3 Textual itinerary (a) 14
Fig. 1.4 Recording modus operandi (a). (Sketch drawing by Sara
Chersoni)17
Fig. 1.5 Recording modus operandi (b). (Sketch drawing by Sara
Chersoni)18
Fig. 1.6 The bande rythmo19
Fig. 1.7 E-Rytmo factory, in-house software application owned and
used exclusively by Dubbing Brothers 21
Fig. 3.1 Proposed order of tasks (a) 72
Fig. 3.2 Phonetic synch chart 83
Fig. 3.3 Proposed order of tasks (b) 86
Fig. 3.4 Textual itinerary (b) 87
Fig. 3.5 Workstation logistics. (Sketch drawing by Sara Chersoni) 96
Fig. 4.1 Widely used Italian layout. Excerpt drawn from The Big Bang
Theory (Warner Brothers 2007–2019), Season 3, Episode 21 108
Fig. 4.2 Chinese dubbing script. Excerpt drawn from Men in Black 3
(Columbia Pictures 2012) 109
xix
xx List of Figures
Fig. 4.3 Loop segmentation 111

Fig. 4.4 Postproduction recording sheet 120
Fig. 5.1 OTS shot. Film still drawn from Limestone Cowboy (Take2
Entertainment, 2016) 140
List of Tables
Table 4.1 Dubbing consistency sheet 117

Table 4.2 Terminology database 118
Table 5.1 Dubbing notations proposal 138
Table 5.2 Character list template in Arabic 154
Table 7.1 Synchronies and dubbing notations I(a) 198
Table 7.2 Synchronies and dubbing notations I(b) 200
Table 7.3 Synchronies and dubbing notations I(c) 201
Table 7.4 Synchronies and dubbing notations I(d) 202
Table 7.5 Synchronies and dubbing notations I(e) 203
Table 7.6 Synchronies and dubbese I(a) 206
Table 7.7 Synchronies and dubbese I(b) 207
Table 7.8 Synchronies and dubbese I(c) 209
Table 7.9 Synchronies and dubbese I(d) 210
Table 7.10 Synchronies and dubbese I(e) 212
Table 7.11 Intertextual references I(a) 216
Table 7.12 Intertextual references I(b) 217
Table 7.13 Wordplay and visuals I(a) 222
Table 7.14 Wordplay and visuals I(b) 224
Table 7.15 Wordplay and visuals I(c) 225
Table 7.16 Wordplay and humour 227
Table 7.17 Wordplay and cultural and intertextual references I(a) 231
Table 7.18 Wordplay and cultural and intertextual references I(b) 233
Table 7.19 Wordplay and cultural and intertextual references I(c) 234
xxi
xxii List of Tables
Table 7.20 Natural-sounding dialogue I(a) 236

Table 7.21 Natural-sounding dialogue I(b) 237
Table 7.22 Natural-sounding dialogue II(a) 240
Table 7.23 Natural-sounding dialogue II(b) 241
Table 7.24 Natural-sounding dialogue III(a) 244
Table 7.25 Natural-sounding dialogue III(b) 245
Table 7.26 Natural-sounding dialogue III(c) 246
Table 7.27 Censorship I 249
Table 7.28 Censorship II 249
Table 7.29 Censorship III 249
Table 7.30 Censorship IV 250
Table 7.31 Censorship V 250
Table 7.32 Censorship VI 251
Table 7.33 Censorship VII 252
Table 7.34 Censorship VIII 252
Table 7.35 Specialized jargon I(a) 253
Table 7.36 Specialized jargon I(b) 254
Table 7.37 Specialized jargon II(a) 255
Table 7.38 Specialized jargon II(b) 256
Part I
The Dialogue Writing Practice
A Descriptive Approach
1
Dialogue Writing Set in Context
This first part of the monograph is intended to pave the way for the prac-
tical and functional tasks and demands that belong to the dubbing and
dialogue writing process. The insider’s description of the dubbing and
dialogue writing process is accompanied and supported by a scholarly
outlook on the subject matter and is aimed at introducing specific aspects
and issues that will be dealt with later from a practical viewpoint.
1.1 T
he Dubbing Process and Main
Professional Roles
A dubbed production is obtained by replacing the original voice/dialogue
track with a newly recorded one in the target language (TL); this is mixed
technically into the rest of the international soundtrack. The recording
usually takes place in the territory of the TL country, though there are
exceptions, as in the case of multilanguage localization companies that
have their studios based only in one country and do not rely on dubbing
studios in foreign territories. The newly inserted dialogues are synchro-
© The Author(s) 2019 3

G. Spiteri Miggiani, Dialogue Writing for Dubbing,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04966-9_1
4 G. Spiteri Miggiani
nized to the visuals to create the impression that the original actors on
screen are speaking the dubbed TL.
The intention is not to deceive the viewers “that they are watching an
original” but to “encourage the illusion of a homogenous whole”
(Whitman-Linsen 1992, p. 17). The aim, therefore, is an invisible cut-
and-paste activity in order to maintain the suspension of disbelief1 or,
rather, the double suspension of disbelief (Bosseaux 2015, p. 69 drawing
on Sánchez Mompeán 2012, p. 713). Likewise, Martínez Sierra (2008,
p. 48) drawing on Caillé (1960, p. 108) describes the dubbing process as
an illusion of an illusion. This effect is obtained mainly through the syn-
chronization between text and visuals, the quality of which determines
the level of credibility obtained, as also the quality of voice selection,
performance, newly recorded elements and effects, and final sound mix-
ing, not to mention the dialogues. Figure 1.1 visually depicts the idea of
the original dialogues being extracted from a whole and replaced. The
new dialogues must fit perfectly into a complex filmic system made up of
several other codes, which are in interplay with each other.
Whitman-Linsen (1992), Chaves (2000), Paolinelli and Di Fortunato
(2005), Le Nouvel (2007), Jüngst (2010), Chaume (2012), Martínez
Sierra (2012), Chorao (2013), Cornu (2014), Lukic (2015), and
Machado (2016), among other scholars and practitioners, have described,
at length, the dubbing process and the main professional roles involved.
Since this chapter aims at placing dialogue writing within context, it is
necessary to present a quick overview of the dubbing process and to
repropose the key features of the various roles that support and form part
of the dubbing framework. The perspective offered is based on profes-
sional experience and observation in the dubbing industry and backed by
the works of academic researchers and scholars. Additional research con-
ducted for the purposes of this monograph, and intended to establish
dubbing modalities and tendencies across countries and cultures, has also
been taken into consideration.
This work does not engage in a chronological account of how dub-
bing or dialogue writing developed throughout the years and the
impact that technological advancements had on the recording meth-
ods, therefore it is necessary to mention specific scholarly contributions
that tackle the evolution of dubbing. Cornu (2014) and Le Nouvel
Dialogue Writing Set in Context 5
(2007) both lay special interest on the various stages of dubbing in

France and therefore necessarily investigate the bande rythmo method
and the calligraphy system used for the latter. A diachronic discussion
on dubbing methods and dialogue writing would also need to make
reference to Pommier (1988), Whitman-Linsen (1992), Herbst (1996),
Chaves (2000), and Paolinelli and Di Fortunato (2005), among others.
The dialogue writing profession is a solitary one, this notwithstanding,
as Martínez Sierra (2012, p. 80) rightly points out, the dubbing process
is based on teamwork, consequently on the interdependence of all the
so-called dubbing agents. Understanding the manner in which the other
dubbing practitioners will be intervening on the TL scripts, helps transla-
tors and dialogue writers to position their work and determine a specific
approach, without losing sight of the overall picture. Needless to say,
Fig. 1.1 Dialogue extracted and replaced. (Sketch drawing by Sara Chersoni)
visiting the actual dubbing recording studios is the best way for dialogue
writers to acquire awareness of the other operations involved and the
process as a whole.
The postproduction chain hosting the dubbing process can be sum-
marized as follows, and in this specific order: production companies,
intermediary agents and/or international distributors, purchasers (e.g.,
TV networks), dubbing companies, and screening platform (e.g., cin-
ema, TV channel, or VOD). Figure 1.2, on the other hand, illustrates the
key phases in the dubbing process and the professional roles usually
involved at each stage. The diagram does not, in any way, represent an
exhaustive breakdown of the dubbing process, which is also made up of
other tasks and processes. The summoning of actors, the remake phase
(during which certain excerpts are rerecorded and edited), and the tasks
Translator
Dubbing script in target language
Dialogue writer
Dialogue writer/
Loop segmentation Dubbing assistant/
(when applicable)
In-house operator
Dubbing director
Voice casting & actors’ schedule
Dubbing assistant
Dubbing actors
Dubbing director
Recording Dubbing assistant
Sound technician
Sound technician
Sound mixing & editing (together with
director/assistant)
Fig. 1.2 The dubbing process and main professional roles. (Adapted from
Chaume 2012)
and additional professional roles involved in using the bande rythmo

method (Le Nouvel 2007; Cornu 2014) are typical examples.
The dubbing practitioners can be in-house or freelance depending on
company policies and norms that vary from one country to another.
Freelance agreements seem to be a more widespread or popular method,
perhaps with the exception of sound engineers and dubbing assistants
who are often part of the in-house team.
1.1.1 Sound Technicians
Sound or audio technicians are usually responsible solely for the techni-
cal aspects, mainly dialogue/vocal recording, mixing, mastering, and
editing as well as backup and data management of the recording material;
they also ensure that the recorded track is free from any unnecessary
noise, be it the rustling sound of hard copy scripts, any pounding on the
microphone, or unrequired body sounds such as the actors breathing or
sniffing, which can easily elude everyone else’s attention in the studios.
Their trained ears also enable them to identify unclear articulation or
incorrect diction pronounced by the actors, hence providing added sup-
port to dubbing directors and assistants. Sound engineers are also respon-
sible for volume levels, as well as audio effects such as filtered or echoed
dialogue lines or any particular room tones required in specific scenes.
The skill with which the newly recorded voice tracks are mixed into the
original sound track can have a huge impact on the overall credibility of
the dubbed product. It can therefore be considered as a distinct quality
standard (Chaume 2007), which matter will come up for discussion, at a
later stage.
Sound engineers are also responsible for the blending in of newly
recorded background murmur, sometimes enhancing it further in vol-
ume when compared to the original, and on other occasions they may
also need to add digital or foley sounds (manually created sound effects,
Wright and Lallo 2009) drawn from prerecorded samples. This is usu-
ally required in the case of sound effects that have been originally
recorded on the voice track and would therefore be lost once the
original dialogue track is substituted. Music and effects are, more often
than not, recorded on a separate track, but there could also be other
sounds, originally captured on set, along with dialogue, which have been
retained and not replaced in the recording studios. Sound engineers are
also responsible for the final synchronization of the sound to the images.
During the recording phase, actors follow the sound engineers’ direc-
tions where distance to the microphone is concerned. Technicians need
to ensure consistent distance from the microphone throughout, unless a
deliberate effect is desired, such as, an actor’s voice heard at a distance due
to a long shot. In that case, technicians may ask actors to actually take a
step back from the microphone in order to reproduce a physical effect of
distance, instead of opting for digital intervention, at a later stage.
Actors can avoid repeating and rerecording entire dialogue lines or
monologues that contain minimal errors because these can be singled
out, rerecorded, and reintegrated into the recorded track. The success of
such an imperceptible stitching process depends very much on the sound
technicians’ ability and experience. It is not easy to replace and reinsert
one or two words that have been recorded in a different pitch, tone, or
volume and that might not match the rest of the line. Therefore, it is up
to the dubbing directors to decide whether it is best to repeat the whole
dialogue block. The latter option is sometimes considered easier for the
actor, also for performance reasons. In the postsynchronization phase, the
audio technicians (not necessarily the ones who carry out the recording
phase) are able to edit the newly mixed audio track. It is possible to effect
slight adjustments to the onset timing of the dialogue, by advancing or
moving back the recorded voice by half of a second or even less, in order
to obtain perfect mouth synchrony. Certain adjustments also occur dur-
ing the recording phase, but in the final postsynchronization phase the
product is sent to the quality control department of the dubbing com-
pany and is revised, checked, and supervised from an audio-technical
perspective, in its entirety, usually in the presence of dubbing directors
and/or assistants.
In certain countries and companies, the dubbing director and sound
technician are sometimes one and the same person,2 especially where
digital recording workstations are used. Such a director, who would
have to be familiar with the digital tools, can also take over the techni-
cal tasks, at least in the recording phase. The mixing and mastering
can then be entrusted to someone else. It is not surprising, therefore,

that, in such cases, the director will be covering the tasks of the dubbing
assistant, thus adopting a minimal cost-and resource-efficient method.
1.1.2 Dubbing Directors
One of the main tasks of dubbing directors is voice selection, that is,
finding suitable voices to replace the original actors’ voices. This too is
included among the dubbing quality standards, since it has an impact on
the viewer perception of the final dubbed product (Bosseaux 2015,
p. 59). Martínez Sierra (2008, p. 50, drawing on Chaves 2000, p. 142)
comments on the fact that the audience expects actor-voice consistency
throughout long-term dubbed projects, and this contributes towards the
credibility of the product.
Voice selection is often done through familiarity with actors, that is,
the directors often know which dubbing actors are suitable for specific
roles or characters. Alternatively, they can resort to voice castings that
enable them to listen to various voices that could be used for specific
characters (Chaume 2012). This is especially done when the production
house of the original product is directly supervising, or is also involved,
in the localization process of the product, and hence might require
recorded samples of different voices to choose from. In this case the
selection would not be up to the dubbing director (On celebrity voice
casting see Sánchez Mompeán 2015, pp. 278–281).
Voice castings are undertaken regularly irrespective of any specific
dubbing project. Dubbing directors test new voices, listen to their tim-
bre, pitch, and general voice texture and qualities. They also consider
articulation, diction, recitation, and take note of the voice features such
as potential age suitability, gender, and so on, in order to enrich their
reserve of dubbing voice resources. Such auditions, generally, make use of
any dubbing script that is available at the recording studios. These voice
talents could be called upon anytime, if and when the appropriate occa-
sion arises.
Nowadays, companies that offer dubbing services on a global deliv-
ery model basis, be it online (through a file transfer protocol server) or
via a cloud infrastructure, showcase voice talent recording samples

online. Voice samples are proposed as part of the company’s portfolio
of available resources; this way clients can determine whether to
engage its services, and in certain cases be able to express their own
preference with regards to voice selection. This is typical of companies
that offer multiple language media localization services, for instance,
Indian companies that provide dubbing services in around 20 inter
national languages, over and above a number of Indian regional
languages.
Ultimately, the dubbing directors are responsible for the end prod-
uct in its entirety. They have to integrate the efforts of all the other
practitioners to create a homogeneous result. Personal taste has an
impact too, on many levels. The directors, sometimes also referred to as
art directors, have an overview of the full picture, which provides an
external observation point necessary in choosing a way forward. During
the recording phase, they often modify the dubbing script according to
actors’ needs or client requirements (Bosseaux 2015, p. 62). Sometimes
such changes are dictated by personal taste and judgement. At the end
of the day, it is their responsibility to determine the suitability or oth-
erwise of certain dialogue writing strategies. They also have to ascertain
consistency in content, language, and style, when several dialogue
writers are involved in the same dubbed long-term serial project. The
director’s role may be compared to that of a seamstress who has to carry
out dress alterations directly on the model. The dress is the dubbing
script, while the model is the actor. Dubbing directors are very often
dialogue writers too and may therefore undertake both tasks, particu-
larly in the case of feature films (usually with the exclusion of the initial
translation).
Dubbing directors also guide the actors throughout the recording.
The actors, usually, only read the takes or loops that they have to recite
and therefore need to be filled in with plot details and characterization.
In this case, therefore, dubbing directors can be compared to theatre
directors who guide the actors’ performance, suggesting intonation or
emphasis. Most importantly they explain the intention conveyed in each
line, “what the character feels and what message is intended to be
imparted” (Whitman-Linsen 1992, p. 82). Last but not least, the direc-
tors usually supervise the postsynchronization mixing and editing phase
jointly with the sound engineers.
1.1.3 Dubbing Assistants
Dubbing assistants do not always form part of the team. When they do,
their main tasks include segmenting the TL dialogue list into loops,
organizing the recording schedule, summoning the actors, and monitor-
ing technical synchronization throughout the recording sessions. This
implies telling the actors to slow down or speed up, if necessary, and
watching out for lip-synch issues. Assistants are also vigilant on diction,
articulation, and phonaesthetics in general. In the absence of dubbing
assistants, these tasks are carried out by the other professional roles (dub-
bing directors, mainly). Loop segmentation would be entrusted to dia-
logue writers or dubbing directors; the latter would also handle synch
issues during recording, while the language or administrative depart-
ment of the dubbing company would handle all the practical and logisti-
cal issues. Dubbing assistants also decide the order and organization of
loop recording, and during the dubbing sessions their role may include
calling out the next take to be recorded, just like film assistants who use
the clapperboard.
1.1.4 Dubbing Actors
Dubbing actors are actors who have been casted to recite the dialogue
list in the TL and lend their recorded voices to the actors on screen. As
mentioned earlier, the actors only read the takes or lines they are meant
to record. They first perform a brief rehearsal of their lines while the
take is run through on screen and heard in the recording studio.
Subsequently, the original volume is silenced and the recording trial
runs commence until a final version that satisfies the director is obtained
and retained. The director gives instructions and suggestions between
one trial and another. Chaume (2012) describes the process as a
“continuous series of stops and starts, rather than a theatrical perfor-

mance” (p. 37). The voice talents are often recorded individually with-
out their counterparts in a dialogue. Nevertheless, there are directors
who prefer to summon two actors simultaneously, especially in dramatic
scenes. If this is not the case, “unlike everyday conversation, there is no
turn-taking and no answers to their questions, or no questions to their
answer” (ibid., p. 36). The actors are, however, provided with earphones
or headphones, through which they can listen to the counterpart dia-
logues. These dialogues can be heard in the original language or even in
the TL if the counterpart dialogue has already been recorded. They also
have access to the other dialogue lines especially when hard copies of the
scripts are used. When captions are used, counterpart dialogues are
sometimes featured, while on other occasions the software simply
extracts and displays the lines belonging to each specific actor. In any
case, Bosseaux (2015, p. 61) stresses the fact that the common practice
of individual recording necessarily has an impact on the performance,
dramatization, and characterization.
1.1.5 Translators and Dialogue Writers
The dubbing team also involves translators, dialogue writers, and

occasionally script supervisors and proofreaders. They are account-
able for the preparation of the dubbing script, which is the focal point
of this monograph. Following the almost-literal translation of the origi-
nal script, referred to as rough translation (Chaume 2012, p. 33;
Whitman-Linsen 1992, p. 105), dialogue writers set out to adapt the
dialogues to suit linguistic, cultural, ideological, and technical needs,
among others. Dialogue writers are required to match the actors’ facial
expressions, gestures, as well as mouth articulation and lip movements,
particularly at the beginning or end of lines, or when certain types of
shots, such as close-ups, increase visibility and therefore would enhance
any occurring flaws (Chaves 2000, p. 114; Paolinelli and Di Fortunato
2005, p. 3; Chaume 2012, p. 35). Pauses, rhythm, and frequency of
mouth flaps need to be respected.
Lack in general synchrony, and more specifically in lip synchroniza-

tion, draws the spectators’ attention to the functional mechanisms of
dubbing and diverts their attention from the above-mentioned illusion
and suspension of disbelief (Romero-Fresco 2006). Hence, conflicting
auditory and visual stimuli partially deprive them of the immersive and
emotional experience they are supposed to indulge in.
Needless to say, due attention needs to be given to fidelity to meaning
(both evident and underlying), correct morphological and syntactical
language structures, suitable and credible linguistic registers, fluency,
musicality, and, last but not least, natural-sounding spoken qualities of
the dialogue in the TL (Baños Piñero and Chaume 2009; Romero-Fresco
2007, 2009a, b, 2012).
It can be argued that the standard practical work method adopted by
many dialogue writers (be it the order in which tasks are carried out, or
volume levels used, etc.) may be one of the possible causes that account
for lack of naturalness in the dubbed language when compared to spon-
taneous oral discourse. It may, for instance, account (among other rea-
sons) for the presence of lexical calques which bestow that “source-language
sounding impression” on the dubbed text. Establishing an intention,
prioritizing tasks, language awareness when indulging in technical syn-
chronization, and detachment from the auditory stimuli are possible
strategies in the attainment of naturalness, if this is set as an intended
objective in the first place (Spiteri Miggiani 2014). These strategies shall
be proposed and discussed in Sects. 3.7 and 3.8.
Undoubtedly the quality of the end result depends heavily on the stan-
dard of the translated and adapted script, which has to overcome a mul-
titude of constraints. The text is adjusted, manoeuvred, written, and
rewritten, and several drafts are generally required before obtaining a sat-
isfactory final draft that can be submitted to the dubbing company. The
text can then undergo further amendments in the recording studios until
an “as recorded” version is produced, that is, the version that will be
broadcast after going through the mixing and editing phase that deals
with synchronization issues only, thus leaving the text unchanged.
Figure 1.3 illustrates the postproduction textual itinerary that occurs in
dubbing.
Original script
Translation
Adaptation drafts
Submitted final draft
As recorded
Fig. 1.3 Textual itinerary (a)
1.2 R
ecording Modus Operandi and Software
Tools
Before indulging further into the dialogue writing process, it is perhaps
useful to take a leap to the final destination of the written dubbing script
prior to its transfer to the aural channel. The initial task for dialogue writ-
ers is to identify their primary audience. The first target “receivers” of any
dubbing script—prior to the target viewers who access the script aurally—
are the dubbing actors, together with the dubbing directors, assistants,
sound engineers, and language departments in the dubbing companies.
All these professional roles use the script as their main working tool, espe-
cially the actors who have to give voice to the dialogues provided.
Considering the dubbing script as a functional tool helps dialogue
writers to set their main intentions and priorities throughout the creative
decision-making process. Ideally, the dubbing script, apart from being a
faithful translation that meets dubbing requirements and parameters,
must, in the first instance, be functional, on a practical level, in the
recording studio.
The fast pace at which dubbing companies are expected to deliver, very
often compels them to prioritize practical issues over quality, in terms of
linguistic content or synchronization results. Dubbing scripts that func-

tion poorly may have an impact on the general flow of the dubbing pro-
cess, thereby affecting costs and delivery dates. Some dubbing companies
will sooner make allowances for a poorly translated and adapted script
rather than incur extra costs due to paratextual inaccuracies, omissions,
or erroneous character allocation, among other issues.
Endeavouring to achieve an all-round highly finished product will
leave the client satisfied and increase the prospects of being engaged, as a
dialogue writer, on a regular basis. Even dialogue writers are subject to the
pressure of tight delivery deadlines imposed by a fast-paced industry. The
web has increased the free and easy availability of productions enor-
mously. The dubbing process of the localized version must be completed
within the shortest possible span of time after the original broadcast. This
is necessary to anticipate the more eager section of the audience that is on
the look-out for web download availability and that is willing to view a
first production in any form or language. Hence, the resulting pressure
on the whole dubbing process.
One very important aspect to be kept in view at all times in dialogue
writing is that the script needs to be “actor-friendly” and must not disrupt
the general flow of the dubbing process. Section 3.2 describes the way
actors use the scripts during the recording sessions. Dubbing recording
methods may vary from one studio to another or one country to another.
Currently, the main difference lies between those studios that use hard
copy scripts and those that opt for digital captions displayed on the studio
screens or monitors. This usually depends very much on the routines pre-
ferred by each country. For instance, in France, in the US, or in Arabic
countries, the dialogues are generally screened as captions, while in Italy
or Spain the actors read their lines off hard copies placed on a lectern.
Most recording sessions usually envisage one or maximum two actors
at a time, with a few exceptions, that is, group dubbing sessions, mostly
encountered in Eastern European studios. Actors are called in for group
recordings; therefore, six or seven actors may be sitting together in a stu-
dio during a single recording session, each with their own microphone.
The whole script is run through from beginning to end with the record-
ing interventions of the actors present in the session.3 In this case, loop
segmentation (see Sect. 4.2.1) is not required.
The way dialogues are displayed on screen may vary too. When the
on-screen captioning method is adopted, as opposed to hard copies, this
implies the use of software that can extract the dialogue lines of the indi-
vidual actors and display them in synchronized timing with the images.
Some software applications are simply aimed at displaying dialogues in
subtitling fashion, while others are meant to aid the actors in synchroniz-
ing the text to the images (e.g., Tazmeen System, Synchronos and
TranStation). In general, the captions utilized in the recording studios
can be classified as static or scrolling. Specific software applications will
be illustrated in detail further on.
Figures 1.4 and 1.5 provide a visual illustration of recording studio
dynamics and modalities. In Fig. 1.4 the dubbing actors make use of a
hard copy of the TL script, while in Fig. 1.5 the dialogues are captioned
on screen. A number of details can be observed in both figures: a sound-
proof booth, a microphone, a pop filter in front of the microphone
(which reduces popping sounds such as those emitted by the letter /p/),
a screen or monitor, an on-screen time code reader, sitting or standing
modality, single ear phones or normal headset, volume control device
(for the actors to manage the original audio heard in the earphones), a
reading light, and a glass partition between the isolation booth and the
control room in which the dubbing director or sound engineer are
visible.
The assistant sits in the same isolation booth next to the actors, or
otherwise next to the director. The latter is able to communicate with
actors and assistants via an intercom system. Apart from the recording
and mixing equipment or digital audio workstations required by the
sound engineer, the control room for dubbing is equipped with a moni-
tor and headphones for the dubbing director to watch and listen to the
original filmic material.
1.2.1 The Bande Rythmo
In Fig. 1.5, the bottom image illustrates the use of a bande rythmo soft-
ware application, which is used mostly for dubbing into French, in
French and Canadian dubbing studios. The bande rythmo or bande ryth-
Fig. 1.4 Recording modus operandi (a). (Sketch drawing by Sara Chersoni)
mographique, indeed, offers a visual rendering of the voice track rhythm.

It is a system whereby the TL text scrolls horizontally from right to left,
in a dialogue grid just below the images (Pommier 1988; Le Nouvel
2007; Cornu 2014). Dialogues are placed on a clear celluloid band (after
which this method is named), also referred to, in English, as lip-synch
Fig. 1.5 Recording modus operandi (b). (Sketch drawing by Sara Chersoni)
band (sometimes shortened to lip band). Dubbing actors read the dia-
logues directly off the screen and do not listen to the original audio stream
as they recite. Instead, they are aided by the graphic rendering of the way
dialogues are spoken: words and characters are compressed or stretched
according to duration and speed, while stressed and unstressed syllables
are marked accordingly. The text scrolls at a constant tempo, and the
internal tempo variations are highlighted (thanks to the graphic compres-
sion and extension of text), while the length of pauses is deduced from
the measured spacing between words or lines. Words scroll from right to
left and are pronounced by the actors as they lap over a vertical line
known as the barre de précision (see Fig. 1.64).
In this case, dubbing actors are provided with a visual cue indicating
when they have to voice their lines, as well as the general rhythm, and
therefore they do not have to rely on the auditory cue. However, this
method is not so commonly used by dubbing companies outside France
and Canada, and would not be easily implemented in specific countries
and cultures where a more artisanal approach is preferable, in the record-
ing studios.
Having said that, there are exceptions, as in the case of a specific dub-
bing company (Dubbing Brothers) which is currently trying to introduce
the bande rythmo in their Italy-based company branch. This p ostproduction
company has its own in-house bande rythmo software application.5 It is
undoubtedly not an easy endeavour to move towards this new modality
and replace the traditional consolidated method in Italy, especially since
Fig. 1.6 The bande rythmo

it involves a different modus operandi and different mental processes for

the dubbing actors. The motivation behind this pioneering feat is the
conviction that this will lead towards better quality in dubbed produc-
tions, especially as far as accuracy in synchronization is concerned.
However, this is not the only advantage because dialogue writers possibly
save time and effort once they become confident in the use of this
technique.
Among the many features of the bande rythmo method, it is possible to
insert the adapted dialogue directly into the lip-synch band without hav-
ing to worry about layouts and formats. Character names, paralinguistic
signs, and camera shot indications are automatically inserted by the soft-
ware in the TL line. Besides, bilabial, labiodental consonants, rounded
vowels, line duration, frequency and types of mouth flaps, and changes in
speed and emphasis are highlighted in the original language text, which
is typed manually into the band (pose de texte) and made visible to the
dialogue writer (Le Nouvel 2007; Cornu 2014). Hence, dialogue writers
need not analyse the mouth movements and isochrony, identify pauses or
the rhythmic pattern because these are already laid out and visually rep-
resented in the lip-synch band. The manual inclusion of the original text
and meticulous analytical and identification process (referred to as détec-
tion), prior to the translation and adaptation phase, is carried out by
another professional role referred to as the détecteur (Le Nouvel 2007;
Chaume 2012; Cornu 2014). The dialogue writer, too, compresses and
stretches the TL text, in order to highlight intended rhythmic and into-
national patterns. This way these are not left to the interpretation of the
actors.
An interesting aspect that could be worth discussing in relation to the
bande rythmo is that it possibly has an impact on the performance of the
dubbing actors, who, when using this method, tend to move closer to a
more natural-sounding result on a prosodic level, as will be suggested
further on in Sect. 3.2.
Figure 1.76 illustrates the writing mode of the dialogue writing soft-
ware application. The détection has already been carried out and is visible
on the lip-synch band together with the original text. The rounded curve-
shaped signs refer to the number of mouth flaps and type of mouth open-
ings. The down arrows at the beginning or end of an utterance indicate
Fig. 1.7 E-Rytmo factory, in-house software application owned and used exclu-
sively by Dubbing Brothers
an “open mouth” start or finish, while the up arrows at the beginning or

end of the utterance indicate a “closed mouth” start or finish. The “x”
highlights the fricative /v/, while the dash “-” highlights the bilabial /b/.
The utterances “hmm” and “ha” have been automatically carried over to
the TL line. Other signs may also include a continuous line below the
dialogue to indicate an off-screen utterance or a dotted line to indicate an
over-the-shoulder shot. The latter signs, too, are automatically carried
over to the TL line. In Fig. 1.7, the absence of such lines signifies on-
screen utterances. The spacing in between words represents the pauses.
Words are slightly stretched and compressed according to rhythm and
speed, both in the original text and in the TL, because the dialogue writer
would have to reproduce similar graphic markers. It may seem that the
position of some of the détection signs does not coincide precisely with
the original text. In actual fact, just as the number of mouth flaps does
not necessarily coincide with the number of syllables, the visual represen-
tation of the mouth articulatory movements does not necessarily coincide
precisely with the phonemes in the text. For instance, the arrow marking
the beginning of the utterance might be placed slightly before the first
letter of the sentence, since the actor might have an open or closed mouth
articulatory movement prior to the actual utterance and this might need
to be covered in the dub. Hence, during the pose de texte (the original text
manual inclusion in the lip band), priority is given to the visually detected
mouth movements. Although the dialogue writer may work with the
original text and détection signs visible on the bande, the actor only sees
the target line version scrolling during the recording session.
1.2.2 Other Software Applications
Displaying the dialogues on screen can also be done in subtitle fashion

(i.e., static captions) and, therefore, not necessarily adopting the bande
rythmo method. In these cases, time code spotting (i.e., determining time
code in and out) is generally required in the dubbing scripts; conse-
quently, the need for software that can handle the text prepared by the
dialogue writers.
Dubbing software varies, but its functions are purely practical and
technical and generally do not offer any form of aid with translational
or adaptation aspects. Dialogue writers may, on some occasions, need
to familiarize with such software programs. On other occasions, dia-
logue writers are only required to submit their script, in a specially
designed template, and the dubbing company can then take care of the
rest.7 When such software is utilized in dubbing, time codes may even
overlap because the actors’ lines can be extracted and displayed indi-
vidually. This would not be possible in the case of actual subtitling for
viewers.
A specific example of a dubbing software application to be handled
also by dialogue writers is the one that has been designed and developed
by and for a multinational localization company (The Kitchen).8 TM
Systems TranStation performs automatic processing tasks, such as the
extraction of dialogue lines spoken by a specific actor. The lines are pro-
jected onto the recording studio screen in karaoke fashion, with a
marker or vertical line scrolling from left to right across the dialogues
(as opposed to the bande rythmo method, where the words scroll from
right to left over the vertical line). The actors pronounce the words as
the vertical line overlaps them in order to ensure synchronization. This
same software program also allows dialogue writers to verify synchroni-

zation thanks to a simulation processing order. Another useful tool it
offers is a modified media player with various controls that enable mov-
ing forward or backwards by photogram or scrolling to the precise time
code required.
Example 1.1 One type of dubbing script in the case of in-house soft-
ware. Fictitious example
DUB [0 N 01:02:09:11>01:02:11:15] JOHN

I now understand.
DUB [0 N 01:02:14:11>01:02:16:15] EMMA
I am glad to hear that.
This on-screen captioning method may require a different layout and

specifics to suit the needs of the software and allow for better readabil-
ity of the digital projection of the text. Even the dialogue segmenta-
tion method may have to differ (refer to Sect. 4.2.2). In like manner, a
specific Egyptian and Syrian company utilizes software that allows for
multiple dialogue lines to be screened on the recording studio moni-
tors. When using Tazmeen System, at least three to four lines (if not
more) belonging to the same character or different characters are simul-
taneously visible on screen: the lines scroll upwards in a continuous
fashion, occupying the bottom half (or less) of the image space; the top
line disappears as it is dubbed and a new line floats in from the bottom.
Rather than adopting a lip-synch band system to help the actors syn-
chronize their speech utterances, a visual non-numeric countdown
method is used to indicate the onset and duration of each line. Seconds
before a specific dialogue line on screen is to be uttered, a horizontal
yellow bar appears next to the first word. This yellow bar is positioned
on the right-hand side of each dialogue line, the Arabic language being
read from right to left. The width of the bar decreases (from right to
left) until it disappears. When it does, the whole dialogue line is
promptly highlighted in a brighter white colour, marking the onset of
the dialogue to be recited. Another yellow bar appears and initiates the
countdown to the next dialogue line while the actor is still finishing off
the previous line. The dialogue lines of other characters that are not
being dubbed by the actor are still visible in between the lines being
dubbed, but are much smaller in size and are never highlighted, even
though in any case the yellow bar on the right-hand side indicates when
they are being uttered.
Other interesting software applications, which have to do more with
dubbing logistics rather than dubbing scripts, also include mobile appli-
cations designed specifically for dubbing actors. A case in point is Tazmeen
Actor, designed by the same Syrian programming company that devel-
oped the above-mentioned Tazmeen System. This mobile application
allows actors to keep track of their recording schedules and previous
recording sessions data, as well as their financial statements. It acts as a
sort of online database that is updated automatically. The companies are
also able to use the application to manage their own recording schedules,
assigning work shifts to the actors in their available slots and communi-
cating with them directly via a messaging system. The actors can also
activate reminders prior to each recording session.
1.2.3 Collaborative Dubbing
Another interesting dubbing modus operandi is the collaborative dub-

bing system whereby the dubbed version of a single product is pro-
duced in parts in various locations (Chaume 2018). This enables
directors to engage actors who are not necessarily, to say the least,
within reaching distance of the main studio, or who could be based
(permanently or temporarily) in other cities or countries. They may
very well record their lines in another studio (or at a domestic recording
workstation) and then send the audio file to the sound engineer (at the
main studio) so that it can be mixed into the other recorded tracks. This
seems to be popular in Latin American countries, especially among
those companies that have subsidiaries across the borders. Hence, the
desired actors and voices can be engaged irrespective of their residential
base or temporary location; this is possible also thanks to the use, across
Latin American countries, of a standardized language for dubbing
(español neutro).
1.3 D
ialogue Writing: Definition
and Terminology
The dubbing script can be defined as the translated, adapted, and syn-
chronized target language dialogue list that may encompass addi-
tional paratextual features (such as dubbing notations, time codes,
tempo markers, and loop segmentation). This depends on local usage and
company procedure. Specific layouts or templates are usually adopted
(see Chaume 2012 for an explained variety).
Three main phases can be identified in the preparation of a dubbing
script: translation, adaptation, and loop segmentation. The latter is not
always applicable in the dubbing process; this may depend on the use of
software applications, the audiovisual genre, or specific recording modus
operandi. With certain specific software, specifically the bande rythmo
used mostly for French-language dubbing, another phase prior to the
translation is required: the so-called détection, which is not generally car-
ried out by the dialogue writer but by another professional, as mentioned
earlier in this chapter.9
The adaptation or dialogue writing process has been described
by Chaume (2012) as the “creation of a credible, convincing oral target
text” while “meeting the demands of all synchronies” (p. 37). In other
words, dialogue writers are expected to create a “workable, convincing,
prefabricated oral script that meets all lip-sync requirements, but at the
same time gives the impression that it is an original dialogue”, a dialogue
that must “sound credible and true-to-life” (p. 35). This phase implies
remoulding a translated dialogue list into one that is to be recited by dub-
bing actors and that is to act as a working tool in the recording studios. It
may encompass the insertion of paratextual features that aid the actors
and other dubbing practitioners on a practical level.
This professional role can also be extended to the other two tasks: the
initial translation into the TL and, sometimes, loop segmentation.
Whether or not dialogue writers handle these tasks depends on their lan-
guage and translation skills, as well as on local practice and company
policy. Translators and dubbing assistants are otherwise entrusted with
the translation of the text into the TL and the loop segmentation, respec-
tively. When dialogue writers also carry out the initial translation of the
text, it may be tricky to make a clear distinction between the translation
phase and the adaptation phase. This depends mainly on the working
method adopted as will be discussed in further detail in Sect. 3.1.
In European countries where dubbing of foreign productions is pre-
dominant for cinema houses, TV stations, and VOD platforms—
France, Germany, Italy, or Spain as a case in point—the initial
translation of a script is very often carried out by external professional
translators and not by the dialogue writers themselves, who might not
even be familiar with the source language (SL). For this reason, as men-
tioned earlier, the term dialogue writing is used to distinguish between
the rewriting/adaptation process of the dialogues in the TL and the
actual translation from the source text. Unfortunately, when transla-
tors are engaged solely for this linguistic transposition (be it by dub-
bing companies or by dialogue writers themselves, who may delegate it
on their own initiative), their participation in this process is hardly
acknowledged. The subsequent adaptation process seems to steal all the
limelight, this notwithstanding the importance of having a correct
interpretation of the source text which is embedded with so many
nuances. However, the rapidly increasing audiovisual translation (AVT)
academic programmes are now providing the market with translators
who are trained to accomplish the whole translation-adaptation pro-
cess (Cerezo Merchán 2018). There is, therefore, what seems to be the
beginning of a new tendency.
A variety of terms are used, globally, to refer to dialogue writers; this in
a way reveals slightly different perspectives and customs in this practice.
A distinction also needs to be made between the terminology adopted in
the dubbing industry and that adopted in academia. While the term dia-
logue writing is widely accepted in academia,10 in reference to that part of
the process other than translation, the same cannot be said for the entire
dubbing industry. If on the one hand Italian- or French-speaking compa-
nies also adopt the terms dialoghista and dialoguiste, respectively, other
countries simply refer to dialogue writers as dubbing translators or film
translators (Whitman-Linsen 1992), even though they are expected to
undertake adaptation and handle other functional aspects.
Indeed, the terms dialogue writer and adaptor are generally used in
those countries where the traditional tendency is to delegate the transla-
tion and adaptation to two separate professionals, and so the distinction
of tasks generates the need for separate terms. Having said that, even if
one had to undertake extensive research, it would still be difficult to
establish a universal norm in view of the different methods adopted by
companies and countries. Observation based on conversations with a
number of companies seems to suggest that the preferred tendency for
the traditional dubbing companies, particularly in Europe, leans towards
the separation of tasks (translation and adaptation) and roles. On the
other hand, however, as noted earlier on, this trend may be slowly mov-
ing in a new direction in which the same professional (who has received
apposite didactic training) carries out both tasks. Non-European dub-
bing companies, especially in the US, seem to prefer the amalgamation of
roles, although this may also depend on the translators’ skills.
The English term dialogue writing is hardly encountered among US-
and UK-based dubbing companies or multilingual postproduction com-
panies that use English as their main working language. Instead, the more
generic translator is used, or sometimes, linguist, as can be noted even in
job vacancy adverts (where terms such as localizer may feature, too).
Despite borrowing most of the industry’s jargon from English-speaking
dubbing contexts for the purposes of this monograph (rather than adopt-
ing translated terms deriving from other languages), the term dialogue
writing has been adopted throughout.
Other terms used to refer to dialogue writers and encountered in the
non-anglophone dubbing industry (hence literally translated into
English) are adaptors (e.g., Italy: adattatori; France/Canada: adaptateurs;
China: 口型员 (kǒu xíng yuan)—although in China the twofold trans-
lator-adaptor role is more widespread especially in officially supported
Chinese studios), dubbing scriptwriters, adjusters (e.g., Spain/Latin
America: ajustadores), and adaptation linguists. The Arabic term “‫”�إعداد‬
(‘iiedad) is often used to refer to the adaptation phase and it literally
means preparation or elaboration.
The extent to which dialogue writers are expected to adapt or adjust a
translation at various levels may vary according to the country or com-
pany procedures. For instance, there are companies that expect the so-
called dubbing translators to prepare a raw adaptation in the TL (i.e., a

translation that has been more or less adjusted for synch purposes). This
is followed by a subsequent phase in which a language supervisor or
proofreader adjusts the text further, perhaps filtering it in accordance
with censorship criteria. Further lip synchronization, fine-tuning, and
amendments are then carried out by the actors and director during the
recording sessions, as is the case with some studios in the Arabic regions.
Therefore, the degree of finalization of the dubbing script expected from
the dialogue writer is subject to slight variations in specific contexts.
If on the one hand the term adaptation can also be associated with a
translation technique (Vinay and Darbelnet 1995) and with other fields
of translation (see also Hutcheon 2006 and Hutcheon and O’Flynn
2013, for an extensive discussion on adaptation as a formal field of study,
and its relation to literary translation), on the other hand dialogue writing
seems to evoke the field of fiction writers and screenwriting. The term
seems to suggest the right to claim authorship of the target texts, as in
actual fact is the case in many countries. Dialogue writers receive royalties
every time their dubbed text is broadcast, when the dubbing or produc-
tion house does not retain ownership rights. Dialogue writing implies the
creation of something that is distinct, a new product. Since this process,
despite different degrees of manipulation, is drawn and based on an origi-
nal source, perhaps an appropriate term to use, and which this mono-
graph seeks to propose, could be dialogue rewriting—following
Lefevere’s (1992) idea of translation that can be regarded as a form of
rewriting—and implying the rewriting process of an existing dialogue
list, which has originally been created by a screenwriter.
As a general rule dialogue writers work in the comfort of their own
homes, utilizing a personal workstation. But some companies expect dia-
logue writers to work in-house (in the US, for instance). Even in those
countries or companies where in-house dialogue writing is not the norm,
this practice is sometimes adopted for specific productions, such as when
the filmic material cannot leave the company premises to ensure confi-
dentiality. The newer trend is that of providing the material to dialogue
writers in streaming mode; this protects the filmic material and allows
dialogue writers to work anywhere.
1.3.1 Synchronies and Constraints
The numerous film codes that enrich a filmic product put constraints on
the dubbing process due to the fact that they cannot be manipulated.
This will continue until the most recent developments in facial manipula-
tion video technology (Thies et al. 2016) might one day invert the situa-
tion by enabling on-screen images (and lips) to adapt to the text (Chaume
2018). Filmic codes impose a significant amount of restraints upon dub-
bing dialogue writers who are faced with an incredibly complex multi-
tasking operation. Synchronization is one of the crucial issues that poses
limitations throughout the dialogue writing process. Chaume (2004,
pp. 43–45; 2012, p. 15) proposes a classification of three main synchro-
nies that are a concern to dialogue writers:
1. Isochrony, which refers to the duration of a target line matching that

of the original language. (This avoids empty mouth flaps on-screen or
extra audible speech when the on-screen mouths are not moving.)
2. Lip-synch or phonetic synch, which refers to matching mouth and
lip articulatory movements.
3. Kinesic synch, which refers to the target dialogues fitting in with
facial expressions or body language in general.
In earlier AVT studies, Herbst (1996) refers to the same three types of
synchronies using other terms: quantitative lip-synch, qualitative lip-
synch, and nucleus synch, respectively. The main synchronies will be fur-
ther dealt with in Sects. 3.5 and 3.6.
Martínez Sierra (2012, p. 78) proposes a chart which summarizes the
various types of synchronies, encompassing also Whitman’s (1992, p. 54)
classification. He proposes three categories of synchronization:
1. Content synchronization, which refers to the actual semantic con-

tent matching that of the original source.
2. Visual synchronization, which refers to the three synchronies (isoch-
rony, lip-synch, and kinesic synch) intended to match the images on
screen.
3. Acoustic synchronization or characterization, which refers to

voice compatibility to the screen actors’ physical features, charac-
ter, and personality; paralinguistic and prosodic features (the way
actors modulate their voice, varying the intensity or volume
or other); cultural variations expressed via dialects, accents, and
so on.
The two categories which dialogue writers are concerned with are those
dealing with content and visual synchrony.
Chaume (1998, p. 21) divides the textual constraints that present a
challenge to dialogue writers into four categories:
1. Formal constraints, which refer to the three synchronies.

2. Content constraints, which refer to the verbal subtext in relation to
the visual narration.
3. Texture constraints, which refer to the interaction between visual and
verbal subtexts.
4. Semiotic constraints, which refer to meaning derived from micro-
signs and macrosigns contained in all filmic components.
This monograph proposes a further classification of dialogue writing

constraints, one based on the practitioner’s mental processes and working
procedure and that distinguishes simply between non-technical and
technical constraints. This practitioner-oriented classification can be
summarized as follows:
Non-technical Constraints:
• Translation (transfer of semantic content, translation issues).

• Foreignization/domestication (the need, or otherwise, to localize cul-
tural references for target audience purposes).
• Language (grammar, style, natural-sounding dialogue, and
phonaesthetics).
• Blacklisted expressions (due to forms of censorship, or other types of

restrictions, e.g., legal and commercial).
• Dubbing directors’ tastes; coherence and consistency in serial projects;
specific client requests; and production house parameters.
Technical Constraints:
• Synchronization of dialogue lines: matching rhythm, pauses, duration

of utterances, lip and mouth movements, mouth flaps, and actors’
body language.
• Cohesion with generic visuals: images in general, film semiotics, and
written captions.
• Cohesion with music and effects track.
Needless to say, despite the creation of categories and subdivisions,

dialogue writing needs to come to terms with the simultaneous combina-
tion of all these constraints.
Among the non-technical constraints, language issues and black-
listed expressions require some additional comments. The language con-
straints also imply respecting established, familiar, and viewer-accepted
dubbing tendencies. This means conforming to the norms classified by
academic scholars as standardization, naturalization, and explicitation
(Martínez Sierra 2008, p. 80, drawing on Goris 1991, pp. 86–118, 127;
and 1993, pp. 173–185, among others). The type of language generally
sought after demands a certain degree of simplification; it is a one-
language-fits-all operation which strives to reach as wide a target audience
as possible; therefore, clarity and comprehension are major concerns
(Brincat 2015, pp. 197–214). For instance, dialogue writers, in general,
have to comply with TL grammar rules, especially for television, and irre-
spective of any bad grammar usage adopted in the original language dia-
logue list. Another standard norm that dialogue writers generally comply
with is the avoidance of certain lexical terms and expressions that may
sound too domestic and therefore could alienate the viewer from the orig-
inal filmic context. Besides, phonaesthetics needs to be taken into account,
in other words, the way dialogue lines sound and the avoidance of cacoph-
onic word sequences, as shall be discussed in further detail in Sect. 3.8.
Censorship constraints refer to any suppression or prohibition per-

taining to specific local socio-cultural, political, or religious demands.
From an industry’s perspective, censorship constraints may be externally
imposed (e.g., dictated by governing authorities) or internally imposed
(corporate censorship, e.g., restrictions applied by the same production
company to the localized versions). From a dialogue writing perspective,
censorship constraints may also be self-imposed (applied by dialogue
writers themselves in anticipation of subsequent amendments in the stu-
dios). Vulgar language or religious references present typical restraints
(Pavesi and Malinverno 2000; Ranzato 2016).
The notion of ideological manipulation (Diaz Cintas 2012) and the
extent to which this occurs in dubbing scripts has been widely discussed
in academia by a number of scholars, more recently by Ranzato (2009,
2016), Di Giovanni (2016), Yahiaoui (2016), Khoshsaligheh and Ameri
(2014, 2016), Mereu Keating (2016a, b), Gutiérrez Lanza (2011, 2012)
and Rundle (2018) among several others.
Example 1.2 Article heading featuring in an Italian newspaper Corriere

della Sera, 23 November 2006
Parolacce nei cartoni, punita Italia 1.

25 mila euro di multa dall’Agcom per la messa in onda dei Griffin:
“Espressioni volgari e turpiloquio”.11
Example 1.2 is an excerpt drawn from an article that featured on an

Italian newspaper and that deals with the Italian-dubbed version of the
popular American animated sitcom The Family Guy (20th Century Fox
Television, 1998–ongoing), titled I Griffin, in Italy. The article announced
that the Italian TV network, Mediaset, was obliged to pay a fine of
€25,000 for broadcasting this series, because of vulgar and obscene lan-
guage content. Despite it being broadcast at around midnight back
then, the local regularity communications authority (Autorità per le
Garanzie nelle Comunicazioni) had declared that this TV programme
did not respect consumer protection norms. This article dates back a
few years, and the broadcasting tolerance level with regards to this and
similar serial productions may have changed in time. Having said that,
this is only one of several examples proving that dubbing, in a number of
countries, has to abide by ideological constraints too, over and above the
technical, linguistic, and cultural concerns.
Another type of prohibition may derive from legal and commercial
restrictions, for instance, having to omit brand names that are men-
tioned in the original script when indirect product placement is not
allowed in the dubbed product.
Company guidelines and specific examples pertaining to blacklisted
language and expressions, as well as the practical application of such
restrictions, will be explored in detail in Sects. 6.8 and 7.6.
1.4 Quality Standards

A number of elements that have an impact on the quality of the dubbed
product have already been mentioned. Chaume (2007, pp. 73–75; 2012,
pp. 14–20) proposes a set of priorities or dubbing quality standards, some
of which pertain to the dialogue writer’s task. These are: acceptable lip-
synch, credible and realistic dialogues, coherence and cohesion between
images and words, loyal translation or fidelity to the source text, clear
sound quality, and performance and dramatization on behalf of the
actors. Ávila (1997), too, proposes similar quality parameters.
As mentioned earlier, apart from clear sound quality (i.e., good acous-
tic quality free from noise or interference, adequate volume levels of
speech, voice quality, audible and clear speech, reproduction of effects
and room moods, as well as the absence of source text elements) the qual-
ity of the sound mixing, mastering, and editing process has a huge
impact on the final outcome of the dubbed product. Also, voice selec-
tion, that is, the suitability of the chosen voices to the actors on screen—
as stressed by Bosseaux (2015), who draws on Whitman-Linsen’s character
synchrony notion (1992)—enables “correspondence to the expectations
of the audience in terms of what a voice may sound like” (p. 59).
Another, perhaps less important, quality standard that depends on the
dialogue writers’ work has to do with phonaesthetics, in other words, ensur-
ing that the dialogue is pleasant-sounding. The avoidance of cacophonic
sounds (disturbing or annoying sounds) depends on the fine-tuning of the

written text in terms of sound aesthetics, as will be explored in Sect. 3.8.
On the other hand, the main issue in actor performance, which tends
to cross the viewers’ “tolerance threshold” (Chaume 2012, p. 19) and
which sometimes also risks crossing the fine line between credibility and
parody, is more often than not overacting or overdramatic performances.
The degree of diligence allocated to the said parameters may enhance
or disrupt the suspension of disbelief, apart from the possible loss of
semantic content or lack of comprehension. Dialogue writers may not
have much control over some of these parameters, but as Chaume (2012,
p. 20) argues, ensuring a realistic prefabricated oral register can certainly
support an adequate role interpretation.
Producing natural-sounding dialogue is, therefore, another quality
parameter at the discretion of both translators and dialogue writers, as
well as actors, because performance and intonation too have an impact
on the realism and credibility perception of dialogues. Consequently,
drawing on Sánchez Mompeán (2016, pp. 259–276), if dialogue writers
are responsible for “what” is said, actors are then responsible for “how” it
is said. But the written TL script does have a strong impact on the latter
(Romero-Fresco 2006; Chaume 2004, 2012; Baños Piñero and Chaume
2009; Sánchez Mompeán 2016, 2017).
There seems to be no general agreement among scholars on the priori-
tization of quality standards. Many scholars tend to agree that the
attainment of a realistic oral register, which contributes to a credible
ensemble, seems to be even more essential than lip synchrony (Martínez
Sierra 2008, p. 58, drawing on Whitman-Linsen 1992, p. 55; Chaume
2012, pp. 85–86, drawing on Caillé 1960, p. 107).
The “balance” sought among the quality parameters is also subjective;
it may lean towards one end or another, because it ultimately depends on
the dialogue writers’ (and directors’) intentions, and deliberate or unin-
tentional decision-making, as will be observed in Chap. 7. As Whitman-
Linsen (1992) points out:
The question is how ruthless the dialogue writer can be in taking liberties
with the literal sense of the original. In the end he is alone with the deci-
sion, and since the original sound track is wiped out with the dubbing, no
critical, curious or simply hair-splitting audience have the chance to com-

pare, as they do with subtitles. […] It is again the dialogue writer and dub-
bing director who are faced with the dilemma of sacrificing lip synchrony
to other exigencies. (p. 26)
1.4.1 D
ubbese and Its Seemingly Universal Language
Identity
The language of dubbing is a prefabricated (Chaume 2001, 2004; Baños

Piñero and Chaume 2009) or false-spontaneous (Marzà and Chaume
2009) register that seems to strike its own customized balance between
written or planned language and real spontaneous oral discourse; it does
not mimic precisely the colloquial oral register but draws on many of its
features and characteristics in an attempt to obtain verisimilitude
(Chaume 2004, p. 17; 2012, pp. 81–83). However, when compared to
local original productions in the same TL, or when compared to real oral
discourse in the TL and culture, the so-called dubbese (Pavesi 1996) is far
more standardized (Baños Piñero 2006). The factors that may have an
impact on the level of credibility and spontaneity of dubbed dialogues are
the space and time constraints in the dialogue, the impossibility of impro-
visation or freedom on the part of the actors, and the tacit target norms
which govern dubbed audiovisual texts and which recommend the use of
standardized language (Baños Piñero and Chaume 2009, drawing on
Ávila 1997, p. 25). Although, according to Romero-Fresco (2012,
p. 200), dubbing constraints do not always account for certain dubbese
features (e.g., markers of agreement used as transition markers) which
indeed sometimes appear in Spanish-dubbed language even when the
dialogue writer has enough leeway to avoid them.
The realistic and credible scripts that dialogue writers are meant to
produce are regulated by the tacit agreement with the viewers, the bench-
mark for spectators lying within the dubbese language code, without tak-
ing into account real oral discourse. If the acceptance boundary is not
stretched to rupture stage, viewers seem to absorb and accept dubbese as
a natural-sounding language, especially those who have always been
accustomed to dubbed productions.
Romero-Fresco (2012) questions whether the lack of naturalness goes

unnoticed by spectators or if they simply do not mind, a possible expla-
nation being the suspension of linguistic disbelief (ibid., pp. 67–70). The
author concludes that while certain linguistic features found in Spanish-
dubbed language, such as additional intensifiers and discourse markers
that are absent in the source text (ibid., pp. 199–200), may be detrimen-
tal to the degree of naturalness in the target text, they also “make it easier
for viewers to suspend disbelief in relation to the stilted orality of filmic
dialogue” (Pérez Gonzáles 2014, p. 120, drawing on Romero-Fresco
2009a, p. 66).
Similarly, Pavesi (2016) sustains that the presence of translational
routines in dubbed language seems to enhance the viewers’ processing of
screen dialogue as well as their “feelings of shared identity and belonging
to the same lingua-cultural community” (p. 101, drawing on Pavesi
2008, p. 94; Wray 2002; Bardovi-Harlig 2012). Pavesi, too, believes that
imitation of oral spontaneous verbal exchange should be one of the dub-
bing quality parameters. Her corpus-based studies on dubbed Italian seek
to verify the alignment of dubbese to TL norms (which in the end proves
to be highly significant), the influence of the source text, and the degree
to which typical formulaic film dialogue is transferred to the translated
texts (the latter being an idea previously hypothesized across languages in
Chaume 2001; Araújo 2004; Pavesi 2005; Bucaria 2008; Zanotti 2014).
Formulaicity is carried through and amplified in dubbing texts via
translational routines, in other words via “reiterated translation solutions
generating recurrent strings in the target language” (Pavesi 2016, p. 101).
The author, drawing on Toury’s descriptive translation studies (1995,
pp. 97–101), describes this routinization or adoption of stock equivalents
as “automatic responses which regularly occur when translators encoun-
ter a frequent source-language item or sequence. With time the pairings
of SL and TL items are likely to become established in the translator’s
mind”, not to mention other translators who then pick up and reiterate
these same pairs (Pavesi 2016, p. 102). These translation routines consist
of semantic, structural, and pragmatic calques as well as loan creations,
that is, features that derive from the original SL, perhaps triggered by
isochrony and lip-synch constraints (ibid., 2016, p. 102, also drawing on
Gottlieb 2012a, p. 169; 2012b, p. 254).
Source interference in the form of lexical, pragmatic, and syntacti-

cal calques seems to be more limited than one would expect, particularly
on a morphosyntactic level, even though Pavesi (2008, pp. 94–95) speci-
fies that this observation pertains to feature films as opposed to other
genres and medium, such as TV series. Besides, the corpus draws on
filmic material prior to 2001 when there was greater quality control on
translation. The author, drawing on Alfieri et al. (2003), suggests that
dubbed texts for TV may adhere more closely to the SL, while more rou-
tinized behaviours may be observed due to the serial structure of many
programmes and “a weaker approximation to the spontaneous end on the
formal-informal, written-spoken continua” (ibid., 2008, p. 95 drawing
on Brincat 2000, pp. 245–255). A number of studies have been dedi-
cated to specific source interference tendencies in dubbing, for example
Minutella (2015, 2017) and Minutella and Pulcini (2014) on anglicisms
in Italian dubbing, among several others.
The viewers’ tolerance threshold seems to also include the way dia-
logues sound in terms of intonation and more specifically speech mel-
ody. If spectators were to be asked about the degree of natural-sounding
intonation perceived in a dubbed production, while taking spontaneous
speech as a benchmark, the answer would probably consist of puzzled
reactions pointing out to lack of discernment, as far as intonation is con-
cerned. Just as dubbese is unconsciously accepted by the audience, so is
intonation, as long as it falls within credible parameters, beyond which,
one would be left with a parodic effect. It seems, at the end of the day,
that the viewers’ main focus falls on what is said rather than on how it
is said (Brincat 2015, p. 214). This probably applies on a linguistic as
well as an intonational level. Sánchez Mompeán (2017) believes in a
more conscious acceptance on the part of the viewers who “do actually
recognise the lack of naturalness in prosodic patterns and yet turn a deaf
ear to it, even accepting them as the most natural delivery within the
context of dubbing” (p. 115, drawing on Perego and Taylor 2009; Chaves
2000).
Despite the viewers’ acceptance and tolerance, be it deliberate or unin-
tentional, Sánchez Mompeán (2017) calls for awareness towards intona-
tion in a quest for improved quality in dialogue scripts through the
reduction of the unnatural patterns that seem to characterize dubbing.
According to this author, dubbed dialogue features specific speech mel-

ody characteristics that differ from spontaneous discourse and non-
dubbed film dialogue. She refers to this phenomenon as dubbitis, which
is accepted and in some way sounds natural in the dubbing context
(p. 346). Even though, her findings refer specifically to Spanish-dubbed
language, they may, most likely, be applicable (perhaps to lesser or greater
extents) across genres, mediums, and languages.
More natural intonation patterns would need to be catered for on a
translational/adaptation level (hence, in the dialogue scripts) as well as on
a performance level (hence, in the recording studios). If, on the one hand,
adopting changes to the recording process, intended at lending more
attention towards intonation, is difficult to implement in such a fast-
paced industry, on the other hand, Sánchez Mompeán (ibid.) proposes
the possibility of introducing awareness and knowledge of prosodic sys-
tems and SL intonation in a didactic context. The main aim would be the
avoidance of the significant loss on semantic and pragmatic levels encoun-
tered by this author in her corpus-based research which analyses three
types of tonal patterns (tone, tonality, and tonacity) in a dubbed produc-
tion in comparison with its original counterpart. According to this
author, learning the specific use and implications of intonation and iden-
tifying other prosodic features would enable translators to transfer the
attached connotations and implications into the TL (p. 423).
As far as delivery and recitation are concerned, Sánchez Mompeán
(2017, pp. 114–115) proposes the suspension of prosodic disbelief as a
potential reason for the unnatural tonal patterns resulting in dubbing.
The context and recording modality may also have an impact on the
actors’ performance in general (Bosseaux 2015; Chaume 2012; Whitman-
Linsen 1992). The isolation of actors into recording booths, or the impos-
sibility to memorize dialogue lines may be the cause of the use of low
pitch contours that resemble a reading intonation. Synchronization con-
straints, too, lend less recitation freedom to the actors who need to per-
form each line in a time-constrained “strait jacket”, as Whitman-Linsen
(1992, p. 24) would place it. There is also the possibility of intonation
inheritance from previous generations of dubbing actors who belonged to
the theatre or radio broadcasting stream. The end result is the co-existence
of two contrasting performance poles: the use of “over-acted or over-
involved” melody and a “monotonous and flat” one (Sánchez Mompeán

2017, p. 346).
What is proposed in Sánchez Mompeán’s study is an attempt at bridging
the distance between dubbing intonation and spontaneous intonation,
while producing a result that is deemed natural within the context of dub-
bing. She suggests that dubbing actors should pay attention to the tonal
patterns used by the original characters in order to attain a more natural
performance that can reproduce the attitudinal and pragmatic nuances
embedded in the original version. In other words, she invites actors to focus
not only on what is said but also on how it is said. According to her this
intentness may possibly help induce more “spontaneous-like choices” over
“some unnatural uses of intonation and other prosodic features such as
rhythmicality and speech tension in dubbed dialogues” (ibid., p. 424).
Later on, Sect. 3.2 will investigate the assumption that it is actually the
actors’ close contact with, and the involuntary assimilation of, the original
voice track acting as an auditory stimuli that induces a closer adherence to
the original source intonation. As a result, source interference on a prosodic
level results in unnatural tonal patterns. In order to sound natural, that is,
in alignment with spontaneous discourse intonation, a different tonal ren-
dering may be necessary in the new TL dubbed lines. Hence, deliberate
aural detachment from the original source may be of help in attaining a
newly-sought balance between dubbitis and real TL intonation, one shifted
more towards the latter, yet not too far from that which viewers are accus-
tomed to in a dubbing context. One must also bear in mind that the degree
to which a language relies on intonation to express meaning varies. Besides,
Bosseaux (2015, p. 73, drawing on Franzelli 2008, pp. 224–225) points
out that acoustic elements do not have a universal value and that the same
prosody (rhythm, stress, and intonation) can have different significations in
diverse languages and cultures. Consequently, a conclusion that can be
drawn here is that just as the same prosody can have different significations,
rendering the same signification embedded in the original source may
require a different prosody in the TL.
Sánchez Mompeán (2016, pp. 259–276), drawing on Halliday’s
(1967) definition of intonation, analyses three intonation patterns: tone,
tonality and tonicity. Tone refers to the pitch contours, in other words,
speech melody, rising or falling tones, moving between various pitch lev-
els ranging from low to high or extra high in a speech continuum; tonic-
ity refers to the nuclear tone, that is, where emphasis or accent is placed
or appoggiatura, to use music and dubbing studio jargon; tonality refers
to the way the utterance is divided or grouped into units.
On a textual level and from a practitioner’s perspective, a possible
stratagem to avoid semantic loss and other implications embedded in the
intonation calls for the transfer of as many of these implications as pos-
sible onto the linguistic code. In this manner there will be no further
room for interpretation, as far as the reading/reciting intention of the
lines is concerned and, ideally, actors can do away with instructions from
the director, even though this may be inevitable in certain instances.
Perhaps, displaying words in bold could help actors understand where
the emphasis or accent lies, although this is not always appreciated by
dubbing directors and can be considered as an overlap of roles. As far as
tone is concerned, that is, rising or falling tones in speech melody, this
often requires the intervention of the dubbing director. However, the use
of extra punctuation, which otherwise would not be required in the writ-
ten form, could possibly help. The bande rythmo (discussed in Sect. 1.2),
when used as a dubbing method, does offer markers in the digitalized
captions which suggest the intended intonation patterns.
Notes
1. The viewers’ willingness to believe a premise that they would not believe
in real life.
2. This information was kindly provided by SDI Media.
3. This information was kindly provided by SDI Media.
4. The software Synchronos was used to create the rhythmic band dialogue.
Snapshot drawn from a student’s practical assignment which proposed
the dubbing into Maltese of a film sequence extracted from The Count of
Monte Cristo (2002, Touchstone pictures, Spyglass entertainment).
Courtesy of Kenneth Scicluna, filmmaker, www.seawardfilms.com
5. The software application is called E-Rytmo Factory and is owned and
used exclusively by Dubbing Brothers.
6. Software demo and permission to present a snapshot was kindly pro-
vided by Dubbing Brothers. Production: Grey’s Anatomy (abc Studios
2005).
7. This is the case with QuickDub, in-house software utilized by the local-
ization company SDI media.
8. This information was provided by The Kitchen, Emmy Award-winning
localization company based in Miami, Los Angeles, Caracas, South
Africa, Russia, Morocco, Italy, Spain, South America, Germany, Turkey,
and Moldova.
9. According to Chaume (2012), this task can easily fall into the hands of
dialogue writers in the future, thanks to newly advanced software appli-
cations which make it easier to be handled.
10. Already used by Whitman way back in 1992.
11. Translation: Swear words in cartoon production, (the TV channel) Italia
1 is punished. Agcom charges the TV network €25,000 for broadcasting
The Family Guy, due to vulgar expressions and obscenity.
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Filmography
TV Sitcom
Family Guy (1998–ongoing), S. MacFarlane & D. Zuckerman, 20th Century

Fox Television.
TV Series
Grey’s Anatomy (2005–ongoing), S. Rhimes, abc Studios.
Motion Pictures
The Count of Monte Cristo (2002), Reynolds, K., Touchstone Pictures/Spyglass

Entertainment.
2
Bridging Disciplines: Analogies
and Applicable Devices
2.1 E
nhanced Creativity and Freedom
in a Constrained Context
Dialogue writing can certainly be considered as a form of constrained
writing or constrained translation (Mayoral et al. 1988; Titford 1982).
The number of restrictions to be handled in dubbing adaptation need not
discourage dialogue writers, says Chaume; on the contrary these can be
seen as a challenge that stimulates creativity: originality used within cer-
tain limitations and parameters, of course, otherwise it would be difficult
to distinguish between dialogue writing and other forms of creative writ-
ing (Chaume 1998, p. 21). What is being suggested in this chapter is that
the constraints that make dialogue writing such a difficult task can actu-
ally enhance creativity and freedom in writing; rather than being consid-
ered, by dialogue writers, as solely restrictive, they can also be considered
as a creativity trigger.
Despite the distinction existing between dialogue writing and other
fields, such as creative writing, literature, classical poetics, or screen-
writing, this chapter sets out to draw analogies with these disciplines. At
the same time it explores writing devices and strategies that could be

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04966-9_2
applicable to dubbing adaptation, or vice versa, as is proposed in the

case of screenwriting.
Dialogue writers are constantly exploring new rewriting strategies that
can help in overcoming the numerous limitations they have to deal with.
Dubbing adaptation can be compared to a task that demands continuous
problem-solving. However, it is also possible to shift perspective and con-
sider these very restraints as a tool to enhance innovation: constraining
tools as a key to developing creative solutions (Martínez-Sierra 2008; De
Geest and Goris 2010).
The challenge offered by restricted freedom in writing acts as a stimu-
lus for the mental mechanisms that are responsible for the creative pro-
cess. The latter can be seen as being made up of the following stages:
preparation, incubation, insight, evaluation, and elaboration (Wang
2009, p. 2; Wallas 1926).
In Cognitive Informatics, the constrained creative process is defined as
a creation task with limited creation space, where one or more conditions
such as the goals, paths, or alternatives are limited (Wang 2009, p. 3).
Probably no other definition could be more suitable to describe the dia-
logue writing process for dubbing. A free and unlimited process is referred
to as a scientific and art creation, whereas a constrained creation pro-
cess is referred to as an engineering creation. Perhaps a similar analogy
could be drawn between film screenwriting and dialogue writing for
dubbing.
It is not being suggested that film screenwriting is a completely free
and unrestricted operation. Screenwriting too has its own constraints,
mechanisms, structures, and norms that have to be adhered to (Chion
1993; Field 2003, 2005). However, when film screenwriters undertake
their creative writing process, the images and sound still have to be
conceived; on the other hand, dubbing dialogue writers are tied to the
visuals and acoustic components that have been finalized, this being the
main constraint for this professional category.
The mathematical model proposed by brain scientist Wang (2009,
p. 3) for an unlimited creation process (N paths, N alternatives, N goals)
reveals a potential infinite number of solutions. This seems to suggest that
when compared to the limited space creation process, the difficulty of an
unlimited and unrestricted space is extremely high because new creative
Bridging Disciplines: Analogies and Applicable Devices 51
solutions are only a result of chance, and only when directed by extremely
prepared minds. In other words, unlimited freedom may be shackled by
its own kind of restraints.
2.2 Creative Writing Techniques

The notion of creativity, inspiration, and freedom enhanced through lim-
ited creation space is applied in the well-known literary technique of
constrained writing. This technique has demonstrated that specific formal
constraints can actually enhance creative writing (De Geest and Goris
2010; Baetens 2010). These encompass obligations and prohibitions
such as univocalic poetry (which uses only one vowel), or the lipogram
(which prohibits the use of a letter, usually the vowels /e/ or /o/) through-
out a whole literary work. In George Perec’s novel, La Disparition, the
letter /e/ never features, and likewise, will not be found in its translation
into English (A Void, translated by Gilbert Adair). Ernest Vincent Wright’s
novel, Gadsby, too, completely omits the vowel /e/ all throughout, and
the author specifies that the story was written with the “e” key of his
typewriter tied down with a string, making it impossible for the letter to
be printed accidentally. A selected paragraph from Wright’s novel reads as
follows:
Many a man has known that startling instant in which Dan Cupid, that
busy young rascal, took things in hand, and told him that his baby girl was
not a baby girl now, and was about to fly away from him. It is both a happy
and sad thrill that shoots through a man at such an instant. Happy and
joyous at his girl’s arrival at maturity; sad as it brings to mind that awkward
fact that his own youth is now but a myth; and that his scalp is showing
vacant spots. (Wright 2016 [1939], p. 60)
The six-word memoirs technique, on the other hand, calls for a story to be
told in six words. Ernest Hemingway’s six-word story supposedly reads,
“For sale: baby shoes, never worn”.
This constraint-based technique has produced numerous literary works
and is often applied as a training exercise in a literary context, in order to
enhance writers’ creative potential. The constraints are believed to bring

about freedom, inventiveness, and innovation (Baetens 2010).
In discussing radical word experiments for the purposes of creative
writing, Krauth (2016) quotes Perec on his attempt to omit the /e/ from
his novel: “[…] It took my imagination down so many intriguing linguis-
tic highways and byways, I couldn’t stop … a rich, fruitful narration,
honing my writing skills in unthought-of-ways” (p. 72, drawing on Perec
1995 [1969], p. 282).
Krauth (ibid.) describes how Perec “sought to tie language down to
test how it performed under stress, to make it a tighter, edgier instru-
ment, and to test his own skills under pressure” (p. 70). Perec belonged
to a writers’ group based in France called Oulipo: Ouvroir de literature
potentielle, that is, a potential literature laboratory. Its aim is to create
formulae, that is, self-imposed constraints in various combinations, so
that Oulipian writers may create literature. Another example that Krauth
draws from the 2005 Oulipo Compendium is Christian Bök’s novel,
Eunoia, published in 2001, which restricts each chapter to the use of a
single vowel, omitting all the others. Over and above this main impedi-
ment, Bök adopts a 12-line left- and right-justified page layout and aims
at avoiding repetition of substantive vocabulary, so that each word
appears only once, while the letter /y/ is suppressed. On the other hand,
in Padgett Powell’s novel The Interrogative Mood: A Novel?, every single
sentence is a question, as can be observed in the following selected
paragraph:
Can you ride a bicycle very well? Was learning to ride one for you as a child
easy or not? Have you had the pleasure of teaching a child to ride a bicycle?
Are your emotions rich and various and warm, or are they small and
pinched and brittle and cheap and like spit? Do you trust even yourself?
Isn’t it—forgive me this pop locution—hard being you? If you could trade
and be, say, Godzilla, wouldn’t you jump on it, dear? Couldn’t you then
forgo your bad haircuts and dour wardrobe and moping ways and begin to
have some fun, as Godzilla? What might we have to give you to induce you
to become Godzilla and leave us alone? Shall we await your answer? (Powell
2009, p. 4)
Similar formulae can possibly be applied in dialogue writing training so

that novice dialogue writers may practice creative language manipula-
tion under the stress and pressure of constraints, thus exploring one’s
own potential and that of one’s own language. In a way, it implies loos-
ening or widening the dubbing straitjacket, setting language free and
conveying what needs to be said within the set parameters and
restrictions.
The following are examples of restrained writing tasks that can be pro-
posed to dialogue writing trainees, drawn randomly from Kinder (2014,
section 4), and adapted in order to include dubbing-specific needs. They
consist of prompts with an added hitch, thus obliging writers to work
within precise parameters (see the phonetic synch chart in Fig. 3.2).
1. Write as long of a short story as you can with each word being longer
than the next.
2. Without using the words “the” or “and”, discuss the first contact with
an alien species.
3. In precisely 100 words describe the most attractive woman that ever
existed. The paragraph must encompass a bilabial or labiodental at the
beginning and end of each sentence.
4. A time travelling man discovers he accidentally created mankind. He
considers reversing his decision. 20 words precisely, 35 syllables.
5. Write a story about a murder, with 5 bilabial consonants in each sen-
tence. (It must be 26 sentences long.)
6. Write a short story about a great escape without using any bilabials.
7. Craft a short song with a sad theme using only positive words and in
rhyming couplets.
8. There is a fight at a funeral. Who is fighting and why? Write a story of
five sentences; each sentence must have five words each. After, rewrite
the same story rephrasing it completely while respecting the same
parameters.
9. Write a short story of ten sentences. Each sentence must contain 15
syllables.
10. Write a story about a lost dog. No word can be repeated more than
once.
11. Fifty words precisely. The words on a gravestone. It must describe an
entire life. It is must start and end with a lip-rounded vowel. (Adapted
from Kinder 2014)
2.3 Classical Poetics and Literary Criticism

Dialogue writing involves the act of transposing the script into another
language. If the linguistic transfer were put aside for a while, it might be
interesting to consider that, to a certain extent, it also entails the act of
imitating the original script with its embedded mechanisms, while slightly
modifying its form in an attempt to render the same content. This is done
by using various adaptation strategies such as condensation, paraphrasis,
or even amplification, which is sometimes necessary for localization pur-
poses. Amplification is a literary device which falls under the classical
imitatio (imitation) practice: it involves repeating a word or expression
while adding more detail to it in order to emphasize a concept or idea that
might otherwise be ignored (Harris 2013). It entails changing the content
of a model while retaining its form, or changing its form while retaining
the content (Burton 2014).
Indeed, an analogy can be drawn between the rewriting strategies
adopted in dialogue adaptation for dubbing and the classical rhetoric
concept of imitatio, especially if we consider the four principles of modi-
fication or quadripartita ratio offered by Quintilian, in his Institutio
Oratoria (Vol. 9, c 95 CE): adiectio (addition), detractio (omission or
reduction or condensation), immutatio (permutation or change in form),
and transmutatio (transmutation or change in order). The figure of adiec-
tio (addition) encompasses any form of amplification or expansion, as
well as emphasis (perhaps for pathos), often obtained through geminatio
(repetition) and its various types, such as anaphora or epiphora, that is,
adding emphasis by repeating the same word or sequence of words, either
at the beginning or at the end of neighbouring clauses, respectively. This
framework of mechanical procedures of adaptation was taught by classical
rhetoricians and acquired by their students. The techniques mentioned
may sound pretty familiar and relevant in a dubbing adaptation context.
Similarly, the Dionysian concept of imitatio encompasses the classical
poetics practice of emulating, adapting, reworking, and enriching a source
text by an earlier author. In his De Compositione Verborum (1 BCE),
Dionysius of Halicarnassus indulges in the indispensable qualities of style
such as lucidity (clearness of narration), emphasis (obtained by word
order), and euphony (the acoustic effect produced by a combination of

words, be it pleasant sounding or not).
Delabastita (1989), too, draws the same or similar readily available
terms from classical rhetoric and poetics, while adapting them to audio-
visual translation (AVT) and applying them to the verbal and non-verbal
signs in the visual or acoustic channels: Substitutio (in dubbing: replace-
ment of acoustic verbal signs with target language (TL) acoustic signs),
adiectio (in dubbing: added dialogues or sounds, or in subtitling, the
addition of new verbal signs), repetitio (reproducing the original as is, that
is, no linguistic translation or the reproduction of acoustic signs such as
the musical parts of a film’s soundtrack), detractio or deletio (reduction,
omission, or cuts in the visual and/or acoustic, and verbal and/or non-
verbal signs), and transmutatio (various signs reproduced in a different
order or formation).
If, on the one hand, Delabastita uses such terms to describe and categorize
some of the operations carried out in the adaptation process, on the other
hand what is being implied in this chapter is that the knowledge and applica-
tion of strategies and devices belonging to classical rhetoric and poetics (such
as those discussed by Quintilian (2001 [95 CE]), Dionysius of Halicarnassus
(1910 [1BCE]), or Longinus) can help to further enhance dialogue writers’
adaptation skills. Familiarization with these devices can help in the identifica-
tion and recognition of intended, or perhaps even unintended, dialogue
mechanisms in the original script. It would also be profitable to learn to adopt
these tools deliberately, in view of the resulting effect left on the audience.
Apart from the concept of imitatio, dialogue writing may perhaps also
embrace the concept of a certain degree of originality. This would call for
a discussion about the extent to which dialogue writers participate as
contributing authors, rather than mere translators (Nornes 1999). In this
regard, it can be said that dialogue writing for dubbing is generally
acknowledged as creative and original work, and in some countries sup-
ported by royalties and authorship status just like film screenwriting. In
some countries, the dialogue writer withholds ownership rights, while in
other countries they are released to the dubbing companies or clients, or
retained by the production companies.
It is difficult to measure the dialogue writers’ personal style and origi-
nality, two features that tend to characterize the notion of authorship and
that probably mark a distinction between screenwriters and dubbing dia-

logue writers. The latter have to emulate the screenwriters’ style and try
to be as inconspicuous as possible, steering clear of any personal writing
traits in the target text (as opposed to what Nornes 1999, defines as cor-
rupt translation), even though this can never be totally possible because
adaptation (and any kind of translation for that matter) calls for personal
choices (Richart Marset 2012). Indeed, it is no coincidence that, within
certain dubbing circles, dubbing directors are able to recognize the dia-
logue writer of a TL text after reading the first few lines.
2.3.1 Studium or Ingenium
Such considerations lead to a number of thought-provoking questions

inspired from the field of literary criticism and applied to dialogue writ-
ing: To what extent is the dubbing text a translation and to what extent
is it a new creation? On another note, to what extent is the dubbing text
a product of studium and to what extent is it a product of ingenium, to
use Horace’s terms (Ars Poetica, 15 BC). In other words, to what extent is
dialogue writing a craft that can be learnt, acquired, and mastered through
training and practice (studium), and to what extent does it depend on
natural predisposition (ingenium)? In the literary arts, Coleridge marks a
difference between mechanical dexterity and inspired genius. Younger
Pliny talks of devices that can be “tabulated, learnt and used in order to
create conversational effects far superior to what turns up in transcripts of
spontaneous conversation” (Ruthven 1979, p. 52). In his Ars Poetica,
Horace, despite admitting the necessity of ingenium (natural talent),
highlights the importance of mastering strategies through careful study.
Yeats’ 1902 poem Adam’s Curse recites: “A line will take us hours maybe;
Yet if it does not seem a moment’s thought, Our stitching and unstitch-
ing has been naught” (Yeats 1902 in Ruthven 1979, p. 53). This has been
a strongly debated issue throughout the history of Translation Studies
(Hurtado 2001), though there now appears to be the common accep-
tance that translation competence (including dialogue writing in this
case) can be taught and acquired through a systematic training approach
(Hurtado 2017).
But what are the requisites for dialogue writing, apart from acquired
knowledge and practice? The main qualities that are generally considered
indispensable, or at least highly useful, to dubbing dialogue writers are:
high proficiency in the TL, well-developed writing skills, a good rhyth-
mic ear, possibly knowledge of film language, versatility (the ability to
learn, understand, and adopt specialized jargon specific to various fields),
research skills (the ability to search for online sources, references, and
terminology), and, of course, creativity (see Whitman-Linsen 1992;
Chaves 2000; Paolinelli and Di Fortunato 2005; Le Nouvel 2007; and
Chaume 2012, among others). The latter enables dialogue writers to
work around the numerous restrictions, in an attempt to reduce or avoid
loss in the transition between source and target text. Knowledge of the
source language (SL) or translation skills are not always considered indis-
pensable because the translation can be delegated to an external transla-
tor, as is the case in many countries and companies. Other skills or
qualities would be useful in the case of specific genres, such as a certain
degree of wit in the case of humoristic productions, the ability to create
child-oriented jargon, the ability to create pun on words when required,
and so on and so forth.
Dialogue writers can perhaps be considered wordsmiths or verbal
craftsmen, to borrow Ruthven’s (1979) jargon, and they certainly do a
great deal of stitching and unstitching until the final draft is achieved.
Apart from succeeding in working around all the constraints, there is the
need to revise and fine-tune the text in an attempt to reach the quality
standards discussed earlier in Sect. 1.4.
Dialogue writers are meant to act as a bridge between the original
scriptwriter and the target viewer. Their presence should not be felt, and
they are expected, if possible, not to leave traces of their own style because
“the style is not the medium but the man” (Ruthven 1979, p. 100).
Flaubert 1980 [1857] describes the artist as “invisible and all-powerful;
he should be felt everywhere and seen nowhere”. When it comes to dia-
logue writing, despite the decision-making process and the fine line sepa-
rating a new creation from a translation, this description could perhaps
be stretched further into “he should be felt nowhere and seen nowhere”.
Some scholars in Translation Studies tend to disagree with this “translator
invisibility” and instead promote a visible role for translators, especially
when discussing literary texts (Venuti 1995). While on the other hand,
Di Giovanni (2008, p. 309) states that “the current practice of audiovi-
sual translation, in Italy as well as in most other Western countries, is
such that the more invisible the translator the more fluent—and success-
ful—the audiovisual translated text will be”.
2.4 Screenwriting
If on the one hand it is reasonable to think that film screenwriting know-
how and technique can enhance the skills of an audiovisual translator,
understanding how training in AVT can develop one’s film scriptwriting
skills is less obvious.
Undoubtedly, the ability to identify and interpret the various signifying
codes in film (Casetti and Di Chio 1997)—over and above the linguistic
one—may be functional in the actual transposition of the dialogues, and
can enable dubbing translators to do a better job. The ability to grasp and
analyse the film directors’ intentions embedded in the said codes puts the
dialogue writer in a position to weave them back into the transposed ver-
sion, choosing adept solutions, in full respect of the artistic production as a
whole. Besides, being able to deconstruct the various film codes and inter-
act with them stimulates a feeling of active participation in the creative and
writing process of the film in hand (Chaume 2004).
The transfer of the evoked audience perception into the TL version, be
it an emotion, a sensation, a feeling of discomfort, suspicion, tension, or
light-heartedness, requires the first-hand ability to measure levels of
intensity in the original version and to recognize the specific tools that
produce specific audience reactions (Khoshsaligheh et al. 2018). But it
also requires the ability to adopt and adapt the right unit of measure in
the target culture. On many occasions, this requires a different use of
language when compared to the original version. Hence, an engagement
phase followed by a detachment phase is necessary when faced with the
task of identifying a film’s codes and mechanisms for the purpose of weav-
ing in new dialogues. In Palestinian Arabic, the expression “to watch a
film” literally means “to be present within a film”, denoting participation
and involvement. This engagement phase is the translator’s initial impact,
when, as simple spectators, they receive and perceive the production on

various levels; they “experience” the film also on an emotional and psycho-
logical level. This would need to be followed by critical distance reading,
hence the detachment phase, enabling translators to identify the director’s
intention and the deliberate strategies and tools used to attain a particular
effect or impression. This leads towards identifying, choosing, and applying
the translation and adaptation strategies that would possibly reproduce the
same perception, provided that it is the intended result.
The non-verbal signifying film codes are complementary to the dia-
logues, and the extent to which they will be so in the dubbed version also
depends heavily on the local target culture, social values, familiarity with
the source culture, and so on. Images, language, paralinguistic features,
music, special effects, iconography, photography, types of shots, proxe-
mics, kinesics, mouth articulation, graphic signs and captions, editing,
and sound mixing are all codes embedded with meaning. Subsequently, as
these become intertwined with the dubbed dialogues, they will undoubt-
edly have an impact on the translation, as extensively described by Chaume
(2004, 2012). Audiovisual translators necessarily take into account all the
verbal and non-verbal components of film (Martínez-Sierra 2012; Chaume
1997) and this allows them to make certain choices. One instance is when
they take advantage of intersemiotic redundancy to be able to condense
and possibly sacrifice parts of the text for synchronization purposes.
Another typical example is the choice of the specific moment to switch
form of address between two characters (i.e., from formal to informal: e.g.,
the Spanish transition from usted to tú, also typical in other languages
such as French, German, and Italian) because in the original version this
may be indicated by other codes and not through language (Hatim and
Mason 1997), as is the case when English is the SL of an audiovisual text.
The continuous interplay between the visual and auditory components
is such that, besides translating the meaning signified by each code or
narrative structure, the interaction between the two channels (aural and
visual) generates a secondary meaning that must also be conveyed
(Chaume 2004, p. 23, drawing on Chion 1993; Fowler 1986, p. 69).
Therefore, having taken all this into consideration, it seems quite rea-
sonable to assert that indulging in cinematographic studies and going
deeper into understanding film language and grammar, with its complex
system of meaning, would definitely be an added value to the dubbing

translator (Remael 2004; Cattrysse and Gambier 2008).
2.4.1 From Dialogue Writing to Screenwriting
On the contrary, exploring how practice in dubbing translation and

adaptation could be an added value to film screenwriters might seem like
an attempt at crossing a one-way bridge in the wrong direction. How
could such a specific translation niche be applied to film screenwriting?
How could it possibly be of any use or enrichment to film screenwriters?
The following analysis seeks to explore the interchangeable potential of
both fields.
This issue was brought under consideration a few years back when an
Italian television network (name omitted for confidentiality) was scouting
for potential scriptwriters to be engaged for a local fictional series produc-
tion. The television network was searching amongst the local adattatori or
dialoghisti (dubbing dialogue writers) notwithstanding their lack of previous
experience in screenwriting, and notwithstanding the flourishing number of
local talented film scriptwriters at their disposal. The motivation behind
such a peculiar strategy was the belief that day-to-day hands-on practice,
experience, and continuous “contact” with American screenplays, as a main
working tool, could have possibly instilled highly successful American
scriptwriting mechanisms and techniques in the local dialogue writers, in
particular those mechanisms related to the dynamics and rhythm with
which plot and dialogues unfold. The television network was convinced that
this could help raise the audience rating of their local productions.
Rundle (2000) adopts a similar line of thought in proposing subtitling
as a teaching practice for the translation field in general. He believes that
the effort required to retain all the semantic content while respecting the
technical physical limitations of the medium “makes a strong impression
on AVT trainees” and they “learn to which extent the message of a text in
a dialogue can survive even drastic manipulation” (p. 177). He believes
that these trainees set aside their fear of making radical choices; being
subjected to time and space constraints makes it obligatory to take radical
translation decisions. He implemented this training method with his stu-
dents, who, when compelled to select what was really essential in the
source text, discovered how much of it was, in actual fact, superfluous. It
is interesting to note that, ironically, thanks to this type of training in
working under constraints, the students developed freedom in writing.
Rundle describes the following about translation trainees:
When translating “normal” texts they tend to compensate for their per-
ceived weakness in the TL by sticking closely to the source text, both in the
lexical choices they make and in the attempt to maintain an apparently
comparable structure in the translation. When writing subtitles, a strategy
of this sort is out of the question and so they have to find the courage to let
go of the security of a literal approach and learn to stay afloat on the
strength of their own choices. (Rundle 2000, p. 179)
In other words, working in a strict framework induces them to learn to

write their own text in total confidence. Rundle also speaks of psychologi-
cal benefits, such as that of exerting a kind of authority over the source
text, allowing the AVT trainees to look on themselves as authors of the
text.
2.4.2 Accepting the Notion of Loss
One of the psychological benefits that dialogue writers most probably

acquire during the rewriting process and that can turn out to be useful in
film screenwriting is learning to let go, while also accepting the notion of
loss (O’Sullivan and Bell 1998): to let go of an idea, of the perfect word,
lovely-sounding phrase, or great solution which they absolutely want to
insert in the text. The constraints, very often, do not allow for such solu-
tions or ideas to be utilized in the target text. This, perhaps, may be added
to the list of artistic (or perhaps personal) challenges that film screenwrit-
ers are faced with. In adapting a text for dubbing, dialogue writers learn
to manipulate the language until they find another satisfactory way to put
into words what they want to convey. However, they also learn to give it
up for the sake of the above-mentioned hierarchy when the prevailing
conditions, imposed by synchronization and so on, do not permit.
Most certainly, this form of disciplined writing, accompanied by cre-

ative problem-solving, enables dialogue writers to further enhance their
language competence and proficiency. Their ability to manipulate the
language, to chew it, and play around with it so masterfully can easily be
relocated to a film screenwriting context. Here, in generic terms, there are
no such technical restrictions, thus leaving space for freedom in expres-
sion, a release from confinement that will not fall into misuse, because it
draws upon unconsciously acquired strategies and mechanisms that func-
tion in a restricted environment. These mechanisms can lead to a screen-
play with catchy tempo and rhythm, absence of repetition and redundancy
(be it a whole concept or a single word), precision, attention to detail, and
pleasant-sounding dialogue on a phonaesthetic level. Dialogue writers
develop the ability to use language as a tool to express a specific intention,
to provoke a particular audience reaction, to conceal meaning in subtexts,
to use discourse markers intended at producing a wanted effect, and the
ability to construct intriguing question-and-answer conversations.
Acquiring skills in screenwriting strategies through dubbing adapta-
tion training and practice may, very well, be an effective learning method.
The analogy that can be drawn is similar to that of learning a foreign
language off grammar books as opposed to learning it through actual
practice in the country of origin, surrounded by a listening experience
and fully immersed in the local culture (Krashen 1991; Sanz and Leow
2011). In time (in the latter case), automatic mechanisms simply kick in
and one may be caught by surprise as the seemingly not-so-familiar
foreign language suddenly appears in one’s speech, as if it came out of
nowhere.
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Part II
Strategies and Know-How
A Practical Approach
3
Dialogue Writing Itinerary
Following the descriptive approach which is intended to also include a

scholarly outlook, this second part of the monograph aims at shifting
perspective and illustrating the dubbing industry’s standpoint. Adopting
a practical approach, it seeks to focus on the functional aspects and
demands of dubbing companies. The chapters in Part II draw mostly on
real documentation containing company guidelines and dubbing specif-
ics; a variety of scripts and dubbing deliverables; and research, c onsultation,
and training sessions with dubbing companies based in different geo-
graphical regions, as well as on personal professional practice.
Part II tackles the dubbing script in a top-down approach. Hence, this
chapter seeks to describe the dialogue writing process as a whole, propos-
ing generic working methodologies and strategies, in line with other
handbooks that propose parallel methodologies for screenwriting (e.g.,
Field 2003, 2005, among others). It paves the way for the following
chapters that break down the script into its various components and
detailed aspects. It is intended as a transitional chapter that combines
research findings, methodology, and practical issues while slowly shifting
towards an industry and practitioner-oriented perspective.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04966-9_3
3.1 Establishing a Method

It is only after having taken stock of all the technical and non-technical
constraints (see Sect. 1.3.1) that necessarily need to be dealt with through-
out the dialogue writing process, that dialogue writers are ready to handle
any audiovisual text. If they are entrusted with the dual task of translation
and adaptation of the script, there are two options to be taken into con-
sideration: the first is to undertake a draft translation of the whole text
and then follow through with the adaptation and rewriting of the dia-
logues; the second presupposes the simultaneous translation and adapta-
tion of the script. This second option involves translating a line or section
of dialogue and immediately adjusting it for dubbing purposes. A possi-
bly suitable term to refer to the latter could be the simultaneous approach
as opposed to the consecutive approach.
Both methods have their advantages and disadvantages: completing a
draft translation of the whole dialogue list implies early identification of
the translational or technical challenges scattered throughout the text. This
may allow for a better organization and allocation of time for the more
time-consuming dialogue parts. Moreover, translating the whole text (over
and above watching the audiovisual material) provides an overall picture,
possibly revealing which dialogue lines may have an impact on other parts
of the script (Bosseaux 2008; Muñoz Gil 2009). This may help save time,
while translating and adapting simultaneously will necessarily imply hav-
ing to go back to readjust previous dialogues. So, in a way, having a com-
plete draft translation allows for better control of the text in hand. Besides,
this method easily enables saving of multiple drafts, which dialogue writers
may need to refer to or otherwise use for research purposes (see Sect. 7.1).
The simultaneous approach may perhaps appear to be a faster method
on the whole, even though this could also mean having to handle com-
plex translational challenges in the last minute, just before delivery. On
the other hand, if the whole text has already been translated, the
required thought process necessary to handle adaptation challenges
would have started beforehand. Having said that, dialogue writers may
well choose the method that suits them best and that enables them to
produce more time-and-quality-efficient scripts. After all, this is—in
the eyes of dubbing companies—what distinguishes the adaptation-
only dialogue writers (who need to have the translation delegated to
Dialogue Writing Itinerary 71
another professional), from the translation-and-adaptation dialogue

writers, who can usually offer faster deliveries while possibly guarantee-
ing greater faithfulness to the original text. The reason being that the
latter, who will undoubtedly be proficient in the original language
(unlike most adaptation-only dialogue writers, Chaume 2007, p. 216),
are in a position to constantly refer to the original text, while manoeu-
vring the target language (TL) text.
Dubbing companies may leave it up to the dialogue writers to look for
translators for the initial linguistic transposition because time lost in so
doing does not fit into the tight schedules of modern productions.
Although it may not be so difficult to find conventional translators for
the initial rough translation, the same cannot be said for acquiring the
services of a dialogue writer. Hence, it is easy to understand why profes-
sionals who are able to offer both services are given so much consider-
ation. As already mentioned, dialogue writers who are not translators can
engage professional translators to relieve them from the initial task, but
there again, even this method may very well result in being more time
consuming. Besides, since film translation is usually homologous
(intended to achieve a similar effect, Nord 2005, p. 81), there could be
the risk of moving away, in terms of faithfulness, from the original text,
due to the handling of text by many hands.
There are, however, instances, where the separation of these two roles
may become a necessity, particularly for reasons related to rights. This
happens mostly with songs, although it may also occur with dialogue
lists. Such situations would require that the translation be carried out in
the country of original production; as a consequence the target dubbing
territory will only be handling the adaptation of the script. Besides, cer-
tain clients are ever more reluctant to have the original scripts sent out
and passed on as email attachments among several translators across
many countries. This could lead to specific restrictions simply for confi-
dentiality reasons.
The transition between translation and adaptation could be particu-
larly challenging to novice dialogue writers. It is a multi-tasking exercise
that is subject to numerous constraints, hence, it might not be easy to
decide where to start. Figure 3.1 proposes a practicable order of tasks
which dialogue writers may adopt in a training phase. It is absolutely not
Identify pauses and rhythm
Insert dubbing notations
Match line duration
Match body language
Match mouth & lip movements
Fig. 3.1 Proposed order of tasks (a)
based on any hierarchical approach whereby one task may be deemed to

be more important than another, but simply on a practical and natural
way of proceeding. By time and with practice, the tasks become almost
simultaneous; adaptation becomes an automated process (Hurtado
2001), making it difficult to establish a step-by-step progression. Novice
dialogue writers may wish to suit the proposed order of tasks to their own
comfort. These tasks will be explored individually throughout the follow-
ing sections.
3.2 Impersonating the Dubbing Actors

The dialogue writers’ adaptation process emulates the actors’ role in the
dubbing studios. Dubbing actors recite the TL dialogue list while simul-
taneously watching the images and listening to the original audio (except
when the bande rythmo method is used, as shall be explained further on).
The dialogues are either provided as a hard copy placed on a lectern or
read directly off the screen, below the images (see Figs. 1.4 and 1.5 in
Chap. 1). When provided with a hard copy, some actors are prone to
memorizing part of their lines (Chaves 2000; Sánchez Mompéan 2015)
so that they can dedicate more focus to the visuals, and since this is not
always possible, most of the time there is continuous eye travel from
script to screen and vice versa. The dubbing actors observe the kinesics as
well as the mouth and lip articulatory movements of the actors on screen
as they instantaneously recite the newly adapted dialogues, in an attempt
to synchronize their speech to the images. Though the visuals may seem
to be the most important cue for actors, in actual fact in order to synchro-
nize text and images the essential element is the audio.
During the recording takes, dubbing actors listen to the original voice
track while simultaneously reciting the TL script (Whitman-Linsen
1992). This is often done by using a single earphone so that they may
also, conveniently, hear their own voice. Moreover, the music and effects
track is muted to allow the main dialogue track to stand out, thus enabling
the actors to capture details in voice rendering. During the recording
takes, the original voice track is not heard in the studio since the micro-
phone into which the actor speaks needs to capture just the newly
recorded voice; only the actors and directors can hear it separately via
head/earphones. The reason why dubbing actors listen to the original
voice track is not to understand the meaning of the original dialogue. In
actual fact, in most cases they may not even be familiar with the original
language. The original voice track is used as an auditory stimulus or, in
other words, a mere sound cue: a cue-in and cue-out signal to indicate to
the actors when to start vocalizing their lines and when to stop, so as not
to exceed the length of the original dialogue. Unlike voice-over (VO)
scripts, dubbing scripts do not necessarily show the onset time codes. In
general, European dubbing scripts do not include them (except for the
onset time that marks each take or loop); on the other hand the time code
is applied to every dialogue block in most Chinese-dubbed and Arabic-
dubbed scripts (see Fig. 4.2). Most US companies use software programs;
therefore, time codes are included in the scripts.
Grasping and reproducing the same rhythm adopted in the original
dialogue is what allows the actors to attain accurate synchronization, a
task which has been carefully taken care of in the adapted TL text. When
it comes to pauses, speed, and rhythm, it is the audio that acts as a guide,
and the presence or otherwise of the entry time code is not necessarily
influential.
This auditory stimulus provides the actors with further aural informa-
tion and guidance related to paralinguistic features, for instance change
in volume, tone or pitch, and also emphasis or intonation, though the
latter could also lead the actors astray. Listening to the source language
(SL) intonation applied to the original language syntax could possibly
influence the dubbing actors when reciting in the TL, thus producing an
unnatural-sounding intonation, when compared to real spontaneous
intonation in the TL (Sánchez Mompéan 2017).
The supposition being put forward in this monograph is that the
actors’ close contact with, and the involuntary assimilation of, the orig-
inal voice track acting as an auditory stimulus induces a closer adher-
ence to the original source intonation. Therefore the result is
counterproductive, if naturally sounding intonation is sought after. In
other words, the recording modus operandi based on the original lan-
guage auditory stimuli may perhaps partially explain the type of into-
nation produced in dubbed versions, the so-called dubbitis, a dubbing
phenomenon investigated by Sánchez Mompeán, and discussed earlier
in Sect. 1.4.1, and later on in Sect. 3.7.1 when presenting some cogni-
tive considerations.
An example that could possible enhance this hypothesis can be
drawn from the TV series production Marco Polo (Netflix distribution
2016), which involves Italian actors reciting in English on set. The
Italian actor playing Marco Polo’s father, Pierfrancesco Favino, was
summoned to dub himself into Italian, for the Italian release of the
production. Favino adopts an Anglophone accent, pronunciation,
and intonation in his interpretation in English. Interestingly enough,
when dubbing himself into Italian he adopts a natural-sounding into-
nation that differs from the one usually adopted in Italian-dubbed
productions in general. This could very well depend on the fact that
for him the original audio was definitely more than just an auditory
stimulus, because he had actually interpreted the role, in person. And
therefore, he was once again producing his role interpretation, in the
dubbing studio, as though he had been set free from the influence of
his own voice. It seems, as though, listening to the sound of one’s own
voice (uttering a foreign tongue) may have a different influence on the
actor. A clear distinction can be perceived between Favino’s intona-
tion in Italian and that of the other Italian dubbing actors in the same
dubbed production. Favino’s tends to sound more like a naturally
spoken Italian intonation. The other dubbing actors’ intonation leans
more towards typical dubbitis. This could possibly also depend on the
fact that, dubbing (despite his contributions to a number of feature
films) is not Favino’s main profession, as opposed to other dubbing
actors whose standardized dubbing intonation is inherent in their
recitation style. Perhaps a greater focus on performance, too, could be
accountable for more natural-sounding intonation results. The bande
rythmo method seems to enhance this.
Indeed, the recording scenario is different when the bande rythmo
is being used. In this case the actors do not rely on the original audio
to provide themselves with onset timing and rhythmic cues since the
vertical line (barre de précision), over which the dialogue lines overlap,
signals the exact moment when each word must be vocalized. Actors
do not need to memorize part of their lines, or move their eyes from
script to screen, because they are reading off the screen. Instead, they
listen to the original track before actually recording and memorize the
performance features. The various détection markers or graphic signs
added to the captioned dialogue do suggest intended intonation pat-
terns, especially where emphasis is concerned (Le Nouvel 2007;
Cornu 2014). Therefore, once recording commences, the actors are
not dependent on the original audio; they do not listen to it as they
recite; they listen only to their own voice and hence cannot be influ-
enced by the SL recitation or intonation. It is possible, therefore (and
dubbing companies do sustain this), that this method leads to a more
natural-sounding intonation in the TL because it is free from any
auditory source interference. Dubbing companies also argue that the
actors have more freedom to focus on their own interpretation and
performance. On the other hand, dubbing actors who are not accus-
tomed to the bande rythmo argue that there is a kind of void; they are
not able to engage as much in the scene because they do not have all
those features that provide the ambiance and mood and which help
sustain their performance, such as the music, effects, or original voice
performance.
3.3 The Rhythmic Framework

The importance of the auditory cue during the recording process reveals
the need for the identification of rhythm and pauses as one of the ini-
tial adaptation tasks (see Fig. 3.1). Dialogue writers emulate the role of
dubbing actors during the adaptation process. They need to repeat each
and every dialogue line in a loud voice, and do so several times, as they
adjust and rewrite it over and over again, until they are able to ensure
rhythmic, kinesic, and phonetic synchronization between text and
images. Just like the actors, they observe the visuals, listen to the original
audio and simultaneously rehearse, recite, and test the new TL dialogue
lines.
The original-text-rhythm is perhaps the only fixed pattern that both
dialogue writers and dubbing actors have in common. It is a kind of sten-
cil ruler into which both original dialogues and the new TL dialogues
must fit in similarly. This makes it, perhaps, the only device that can
really guarantee synchronization between the newly modified film com-
ponent, that is, the text, and all the other film layers that have remained
unchanged. Synchronization of the written script is not necessarily about
the “mathematical similitude” between original and TL, that is, an equal
syllable count or the same matching number of labial consonants. It is all
about the way in which the dialogue lines are vocalized: tempo, rhythm,
mouth flaps, breathing intakes, as well as silent pauses. These are the
ingredients that allow the matching labial consonants to coincide with
the visuals. Dialogue writers tend to capture and imitate the original
rhythmic pattern and reapply it to the target dialogue. Rehearsing the
rhythmic pattern by repeating and imitating the original dialogue line
loudly is a very practical aid. This may also be done by substituting the
words with mere gibberish, since the only purpose is to capture the
cadence and flow and be able to overwrite it with a new set of words, in
another language.
Trainees in dialogue writing may, perhaps, wish to experiment reciting
their adapted lines using only the visuals, by muting the original voice
track. This is where, the difficult aspect of this task, may become really
apparent. The reintroduction of the original audio will help to better
understand the need for auditory stimuli.
The way in which dialogue writers vocalize their lines, as they adapt,
readapt, and rehearse them, may have an impact on the outcome of the
TL dialogues. For instance, the volume with which lines are recited has
an impact on the line duration or isochrony. Dialogue writers may, per-
haps, be tempted to whisper or softly speak their lines, particularly if they
are not alone. Whispered words will result in longer lines, since they
occupy less “space” than loud-voiced spoken words. Therefore, reproduc-
ing the same voice-volume of the actors on screen may be another key
element contributing towards the achievement of better synchrony, as
this is exactly what the dubbing actors will be doing during the actual
recording process.
This does not only apply to volume but also to recitation style, such as
having to reproduce heavy breathing, hesitation, or sobbing during
speech, likewise speaking in a drunkard fashion or in a loud angry tone.
These factors can change the tempo and/or create an interruptive rhyth-
mic pattern. In the case of stuttering, this is generally maintained if rele-
vant to the character, plot, scene, or situation, though in the case of
natural interruptive speech attributed to the actor’s recitation, it is some-
times partially cut down or totally omitted when space is required to
minimize dialogue condensation. Also, dubbing directors sometimes
eliminate vocal forms of hesitation for personal taste reasons, depending
on how it sounds in the TL.
It is worth noting that even in the case of “normal” vocalized lines with
no particular characteristics the internal tempo may have variations. This
could also simply depend on the acting style of the original-version-actors
who may tend to vary their pace as they speak. Voice enunciation style,
techniques, and acting-performance constraints (Bosseaux 2015) need to
be taken into account by dialogue writers because they have a significant
impact on the outcome of the adapted TL dialogue.
An additional enunciation strategy that may be adopted with profit by
dialogue writers is that of clear pronunciation and articulation, once
again taking example from dubbing actors who give special attention to
correct diction. The voice is the dubbing actors’ only role-interpretative
device; hence, they dedicate particular attention to the way they articu-
late their lines, and, more often than not, this receives even more atten-
tion and focus than that given by the original actors on screen. This kind
of scrutiny is particularly felt when the dubbing actors are also theatre
actors, and consequently accustomed to a different type of delivery.
Bosseaux (2015, p. 65) describes how this could be the reason behind
most unnatural and overacted dubbed performances. It is also true that
the output is generally clear and comprehensible and it is the reason why
dubbed audiovisual content is often preferred over original productions
for foreign-language learning purposes. Nevertheless, the main concern,
at this stage, is to identify that which ties dialogue writers’ vocalized
speech to that of dubbing actors. It must also be taken into consideration
that adopting a clear articulation of each spoken word could increase the
span of time required to pronounce the whole line, slightly slowing down
the dubbing actor’s pace (Spiteri Miggiani 2014, p. 57).
Hence, despite all the effort to obtain a better-voiced output quality,
dialogue writers should always place emphasis on fidelity to the rhythmic
framework. This is the only original text layer that cannot and must not
be modified or manipulated, at least, as far as on-screen dialogues are
concerned. As far as off-screen lines are concerned, although they offer
greater freedom and flexibility, it would be advisable to take advantage of
this only when it is absolutely unavoidable. Maintaining the same tempo
for off-screen passages enables the dubbing actors to stay in perfect rhyth-
mic symbiosis with the text, and consequently makes synchronization
easier. This is especially so in certain shot changes, such as continuous
alternation between on-screen and off-screen shots. A typical example
would be that of a continuous shot-reverse-shot situation between two
characters, whereby parts of conversation are heard while the actor speak-
ing is not visible on screen.
The word rhythm can be defined as “the measured flow of words and
phrases in verse or prose as determined by the relation of long and short
or stressed and unstressed syllables” (Canavan 2016). The previously
cited bande rythmo dubbing method can help in looking more closely at
the rhythmic framework. If we were to closely observe and compare orig-
inal and target dialogue lines—both graphically placed on the lip-synch
band, one on top of the other—we will notice two identical visual ren-
derings of the verbal components. This would highlight the common
rhythmic structure with its main features, consequently, various language
combinations fitting into the same stencil ruler.
Pauses are an important component of the rhythmic structure of the

text. Dialogue writers, in most cases, will be required to insert in the dub-
bing script what will be referred to in this monograph as tempo markers.
Inserting pauses is recommended as one of the initial tasks, provided that
this is required by the dubbing company. These markings allow dialogue
writers to anticipate how a dialogue line will be split or subdivided. A
suggested strategy is one in which the pauses, where possible, interrupt
lines in a natural and credible fashion (e.g., “I saw him … going to the
market”, rather than, “I saw … him going to the market”). Tempo mark-
ers and their use will be discussed in greater detail in Sect. 5.2.
3.4 Inserting Dubbing Notations

After having identified the rhythm and pauses, the next task proposed is
the insertion of dubbing notations, a term being proposed in this mono-
graph, otherwise referred to as dubbing symbols (or props or indicators)
by Chaume (2012), provided that such insertions are requested by the
dubbing company or is a custom of the dubbing country. They are
inserted in the dubbing script and consist of technical notes placed within
parenthesis, also referred to as extensions in screenplay jargon. These
could encompass camera shots such as (OFF) or (ON), or other kinds of
technical remarks such as (VO) (voice-over). In dubbing, they also
include character reactions such as (CRIES) or (LAUGHS), or other
paralinguistic sounds. They are, as Chaume (2012) describes, “clues”
meant “to help the dubbing actors” (p. 59).
The various types of dubbing notations and their use shall be dealt with
in further detail in Sect. 5.3. For the purpose of this monograph, tempo
markers are being considered separately, since they cannot be referred to
as “notations” as such. Besides, there are dubbing countries or companies
which do not insert any dubbing notations; however, they do indicate
pauses or beats. The latter are perhaps more important and more useful
than any type of notation. The term dubbing notations has been chosen
after due consideration on their nature and function, as well as on screen-
writing jargon, but most of all on conversations with Anglophone local-
ization companies. They are rarely actually referred to with a specific term
by the industry, especially by Anglophone companies which hardly adopt

them in dubbing scripts. Therefore, this term mostly serves a scholarly
and didactic purpose. Identifying the necessary dubbing notations and
including them in the TL script, at the beginning of the dubbing adapta-
tion process, is useful because it helps dialogue writers identify those parts
of the text that may require more attention in terms of synchronization.
It is also a means of focusing on the film language for a while (types of
shots, shot size, and other film codes) rather than on the spoken
elements.
3.5 Isochrony
The insertion of notations in the dubbing script can be accompanied by
the resizing of the length of the target dialogue lines in order to match the
original lines in duration. As opposed to voice-over dubbing, lip-synch
dubbing requires an accurate duplication of the SL dialogue duration.
The disregard of isochrony would lead to mouths moving on screen when
no words can be heard (empty mouth flaps), or otherwise speech heard
after the mouths on screen have stopped moving. The suspension of dis-
belief in dubbing is highly dependent on isochrony.
On the whole, capturing and reproducing the same rhythmic pat-
tern—as stressed in the previous sections—is possibly one of the most
efficient strategies to ensure matching duration between original text and
dubbed text. Obviously enough, any rhythm variations within the text
have an impact on the duration of dialogue lines. What interests dialogue
writers and their audience is the auditory length of the dialogues.
Duplicating the quantifiable length (so to speak) based on the written
language would not necessarily lead to the desired results. Nevertheless,
in order to match the duration, dialogue writers need to resize the quan-
tifiable length.
Whether this entails shortening or expanding the translated text will
depend mostly on the language pair in question and, obviously, also on
the specific dialogue lines. (E.g., English dialogues dubbed into Italian
almost always need to be condensed simply because the Italian language
needs greater “length” to express the same concept. This does not exclude
having to expand phrases or sentences.) Off-screen lines can sometimes

be taken advantage of to expand target line content, even though this has
an impact on the rhythmic pattern, which will differ from that of the
original.
Extending dialogue lines in on-screen situations is perhaps more chal-
lenging than condensing them, since this must occur in a natural-
sounding manner. Resorting to discourse markers (such as the TL
equivalent terms of “like”, “you know”, “right”, “so”, “well”, and “look”)
in order to expand the newly adapted text may appear initially as an easy
escamotage, but very often this process is not enough or does not pro-
duce the desired results in the TL; hence, other creative solutions need to
be sought.
Chaume (2012, pp. 72–73) summarizes the translation and adapta-
tion techniques that are required to satisfy isochrony needs as follows:
amplification (expansion of text utilizing repetition, periphrasis, para-
phrase, synonyms, etc.) and reduction (omission of any redundancies or
interjections, phatic markers, performative or modal verbs, names, voca-
tives, etc.). See also Sect. 2.3 for modification principles and devices in
classical rhetoric and poetics.
If one had to choose the minor evil between providing dialogue lines
that are perhaps slightly short or slightly long in terms of isochrony, it
would be the latter. It is far easier for a dubbing director to adjust a line
on the go by shortening it somehow, rather than having to expand it to
match the desired length. Moreover, lines that may often seem too long
to dialogue writing trainees very often are suitable because all mouth flaps
need to be covered by the TL. Acquiring this subtle ability requires time
and practice. Perhaps the greatest difficulty of novice dialogue writers is
gaining confidence and actually knowing whether their dialogue lines are
suitable in terms of isochrony. The best way to know if their script “func-
tions well” is to actually attend a few recording sessions and observe if the
TL dialogues are modified, how, and to what extent. This way dialogue
writers can discover if they have certain tendencies, such as writing lines
that are too short, for instance. This is the key to self-development as a
dialogue writer: practice and experience must be complemented by actual
functional results and feedback. The dubbing process does not usually
envisage the presence of dialogue writers in the recording studios so this
could create a gap between what dialogue writers believe to be functional

scripts and actual dubbing studio necessities and requirements. Feedback
from the dubbing directors enables dialogue writers to assess the studio-
user-friendliness of their own dubbing scripts.
3.6 Kinesics and Lip Synchronization

Once the target line is more or less synchronized in duration, dialogue
writers can begin to identify those parts of the text that require further
adjustment so that kinesic synchronization may also be achieved. Certain
evident body gestures or facial expressions may necessitate a complete
paraphrase of the text. This is needed so that the exact words may coin-
cide with the matching gestures. It is the gesture that must appear to
coincide with the specific word or words and not vice versa.
The next feature to identify is mouth articulation. As Chaume (2012,
p. 73) rightly points out: on a day-to-day basis, practitioners in the indus-
try use the term lip-synching with a broader meaning, including both iso-
chrony and phonetic synchronization. A distinction is sometimes found,
however, for remuneration purposes. The Italian National Collective
Agreement for dubbing,1 for instance, does make a distinction in compen-
sation between postproduction works in sincronismo ritmico labiale (rhyth-
mic and lip synchrony) as opposed to works in sincronismo ritmico non
labiale (rhythmic non-lip synchrony) or works in oversound (VO narration
and commentaries). The two Spanish Collective Agreements2 distinguish
between synchronization of lip movements, duration, and rhythm when
defining dialogue writing, but compensation rates are determined solely
by genre (e.g., documentaries and reality shows vs. cinema and TV adapta-
tion) without specifying any synchronization-type details. The same
applies to the French Collective Agreement.3 The need for such a detailed
distinction in the Italian dubbing industry is probably the result of the ever
increasing use of phrase synch dubbing (referred to in Italy as simil synch).
This entails adherence to the length of utterances, rhythm, and pauses, but
not to the lip movements. And compensation in Italy varies according to
the level of dubbing difficulty, not only to the product category. Having
said that, however, this monograph focuses on lip-synch dubbing.
In the audiovisual translation (AVT) academic circle, phonetic or

lip synchronization refers solely to the mouth articulatory move-
ments. Figure 3.2 summarizes the lip movements already identifiable
in the written text. However, it is the images that ultimately highlight
which of these lip movements necessarily require synchronization
(according to the extent of visibility) and which can be sacrificed to
accommodate a more natural-sounding language instead. In fact,
when the bande rythmo method is used, the détecteur very often
includes the détection signs (that are based on the visible mouth move-
ments) prior to the pose de texte (the manual inclusion of the original
text into the lip band), because these are prioritized over the written
phonemes. What matters are the frequency and the type of mouth
flaps, which do not necessarily coincide with the number of syllables
in a word or with the way the word is expected to be rendered visually.
Mouth flaps could also include speechless lip movements.
Phonetic
Synch
Labial Labialized
consonants consonants and vowels
Bilabials Labiodentals Voiced labialized Lip-rounded

(stops) (fricatives) velar approximants vowels
b,p,m v,f w o,u
Fig. 3.2 Phonetic synch chart

Bilabials visible on screen in the original dialogue should ideally be

matched, especially when positioned at the beginning or at the end of a
line, and particularly in close-up shots. Bilabials can be matched by the
same or other bilabials in the TL, as well as by labiodentals. Therefore,
bilabials and labiodentals are almost interchangeable for synchronization
purposes. In sum, a word containing a /b/, for instance, in the original
text should ideally be matched with a word that contains a /b/, /p/, /m/,
/v/, or /f/. Labialized or lip-rounded consonants and vowels, too, possibly
need to be matched in close-up shots. The matching word does not nec-
essarily have to be the TL semantic equivalent; it could be some other
component of the dialogue line that is positioned in such a way as to
coincide with the SL word in question, during recitation. For example,
the English phrase, She hardly knows him, can be adapted to Lo conosce
appena (She knows him hardly) in Italian, whereby the /m/ in him is
matched by the double /p/ in appena. Appena translates the adverb hardly;
hence, a different word in the TL caters for the SL word which requires
lip-synch. The exact match in position of the bilabial consonant is not
strictly necessary, unless the mouth closure in him is particularly extended
or highlighted in close-up in such a way that stricter labial matching
would be required (see Sect. 7.2 for further examples).
In order to achieve better aesthetic results, dialogue writers may also
wish to avoid placing bilabial consonants in the TL when these are not
present in the original version. This type of dischrony (Fodor 1976) could
also lead to alienation (and possibly miscomprehension, as shall be dis-
cussed in Sect. 3.7.1) on the part of the target audience. Scholars, how-
ever, have not agreed on the extent to which this added precaution is
necessary (Whitman-Linsen 1992). Italian dubbing tends to put this
norm into everyday practice.
Trainees may perhaps consider using the webcam on their computers
in order to test the matching mouth movements “visually” rather than
“phonetically”. They can possibly place their own reflected image in a
strategic corner of their screen, next to the dubbing script and video; in
this manner they will be able to read their target lines and check their
own mouth movements in accordance with the original visuals.4 This is
undoubtedly a time-consuming strategy which can hardly be taken into
consideration for practical integration in a professional method of adap-
tation. However, in the initial stages of preparation for this line of work,
it would allow trainees to get a “visual feel” of mouth articulation.
Dialogue writers need to carefully observe mouth stops and openings,
even certain vowel openings, such as /a/ or /i/ which, in some cases,
require similar mouth movements.
The phonetic synchronization chart in Fig. 3.2 is based on the English-
language pronunciation and the articulatory movements it brings about.
It applies to most languages, although room must be made for exceptions
when the SL is other than English. Such an instance can be drawn from
Mandarin Chinese, which lacks velar stops or labiovelars (e.g., /w/).
Chaume (2012, pp. 74–75) summarizes the translation and adapta-
tion techniques required to obtain phonetic synch as follows: using the
TL equivalent term when this creates a phonetic match; making the SL
word coincide with any other matching component in the sentence and
if necessary modifying the syntactic order to do so; substituting the TL
equivalent term with a synonym, hypernym, and so on; and resorting to
condensation, expansion, omission, and addition in the name of pho-
netic sync. See also Sect. 2.3 for modification principles and devices in
classical rhetoric and poetics.
3.7 W
orking Methodology and Its Impact
on the Dialogue
Figure 3.3 proposes an additional task to the adaptation process illus-
trated in Fig. 3.1. It suggests that the target text language should ideally
undergo revision before and after engaging in the quest for synchronization.
This might sound pretty obvious, but more often than not the synchro-
nization challenge steals away much of the attention of the dialogue writ-
ers, who may not be aware of the impact this may be having on the
language. Also, the very essence and raison d’être of the dialogue may
easily be neglected in the wake of the synchronization process.
It may seem unnecessary to adjust the target text with a focus on lan-
guage before dealing with the numerous adjustments required to obtain
synchronization. It would be less time consuming to take the so-called
Adjust language
Identify pauses and rhythm
Insert dubbing notations
Match line duration
Match body language
Match mouth & lip movements
Readjust language
Fig. 3.3 Proposed order of tasks (b)
rough translation and immediately embark on the technical adaptation

process, that is, the synchronization to the visuals, and adjusting the lan-
guage at a later stage. On the other hand, making technical adjustments
to a text that is already linguistically correct, flowing, and natural sound-
ing in the TL will avoid falling into the tendency of writing dialogues
that “sound like” the original text.
For this specific reason, Fig. 3.4 proposes a further enhancement to
the overall textual itinerary illustrated in Fig. 1.3. This strategy implies
that the synch-adaptation process is preceded by a preadaptation
phase where adjustments are made without the aid of the visuals, and
with an emphasis on correct and natural-sounding language. In other
words, a language-focused preadaptation of the text. This approach
entails putting the video aside (after having watched it in its entirety)
and reading the translated dialogue list almost as though it
Original script
Translation
Language-focused preadaptation
Adaptation drafts
Postadaptation fine-tuning
Submitted final draft
As recorded
Fig. 3.4 Textual itinerary (b)
were written for reading purposes. The rectification of the language at

this stage will significantly reduce the amount of certain types of dub-
bese elements (particularly, lexical and syntactical calques) present in
the final text, provided that this is sought after and chosen as an inten-
tion. This approach simply draws detached awareness onto the lan-
guage. This text-isolation method offers a practical way of applying
awareness, together with the notion of detachment or critical distance,
which potentially helps to come closer to the quality standards dis-
cussed earlier in Sect. 1.4. A similar argument was taken into consid-
eration earlier on, during the analyses of the bande rythmo method,
that is, the actors’ detachment from the audio and the consequent
interference and influence that the SL intonation may have on the
actors’ delivery.
3.7.1 Cognitive Considerations
The structured working methodology being proposed is based on practi-

cal experimentation and on the assumption that, apart from the technical
constraints, the methodology adopted can also have an impact on the
language. Dialogue writers perform a number of simultaneous tasks
when adapting: viewing the video (while observing kinesics and mouth
movements), listening to the original sound track (while capturing detail
in the voice track, such as breathing or background dialogue), reading the
drafted TL script, and reciting the dialogues aloud.
When considering this multi-tasking process, it is perhaps important
to point out that listening to the original voice track at a normal-loud-
comprehensible volume while vocalizing the TL lines may influence the
perception dialogue writers have of their own lines. It is difficult to detach
oneself from the visual and aural stimuli: the more the TL “sounds like”
the original (e.g., equivalent or similar lexemes) and the more the mouth
articulatory movements match, the more the dialogue seems to “sound”
right. As mentioned earlier on, working with the original voice track is
essential in order to capture and reproduce the rhythm. Nevertheless, this
can have an influence on the dialogue writers’ brain response, more spe-
cifically, on the motor response of the auditory cortex, which in turn may
have an impact on the word-processing activity in the brain (Spiteri
Miggiani 2014, pp. 59–60). This assumption is based on the application
of cognitive science theories—in as much as the auditory cortex brain
activity is concerned—to the dubbing adaptation working methodology.
A cognitive phenomenon worth mentioning and that has been widely
studied is the McGurk effect, which reveals that the visual information
we receive modifies our hearing perception, changing the way we hear the
sound. A case in point, which substantiates this fact, is the sound /ba/
dubbed onto the lip movement /ga/, and which is perceived by most
subjects as /da/ or sometimes /ga/ (McGurk and MacDonald 1976).
There are a number of cognitive aspects that can contribute to this phe-
nomenon, unconscious lip-reading being one of them. The act of lip-
reading is an automatic reflex when watching a person speak on video.
Throughout the dubbing adaptation process, dialogue writers uncon-
sciously lip-read the speech of the actors on screen as they observe mouth
articulatory movements. This reflex action in itself is enough to modify the
auditory cortex activity and auditory perception (Sams et al. 2005;
Kauramäki et al. 2010). Dialogue writers also listen to the original voice
track and recite their own TL text simultaneously. In general, the brain
response to self-vocalized speech is weaker than the response towards exter-
nal speech (Martikainen et al. 2005); in other words the visuals, enhanced
by the matching audio have a greater influence on the brain response, and
decreasing the volume does not seem to change the situation (Greenlee
et al. 2011). All these influences can possibly suppress the brain motor
response towards the dialogue writer’s own vocalized speech. Consequently,
dialogue writers are expected to carry out several brain activities simultane-
ously and this may alter their own auditory perception of the dialogue lines
they write and recite. This may, in turn, affect the cerebral word-processing
activity in such a way that dialogue writers may be fooled into believing that
what they are reciting sounds correct (Spiteri Miggiani 2014, pp. 60–61).
The above considerations are intended to support the working meth-
odology proposed in this chapter (see Fig. 3.4), particularly the preadap-
tation phase that focuses on the TL in order to prioritize naturalness: a
phase in which dialogue writers can ensure that the newly transposed
version, when read, makes sense and carries the author’s intentions, and
in which dialogue writers enjoy the comfort of rewriting and paraphras-
ing without any constraints. After that, they can retrace their steps in an
attempt to move closer to the original script, making the necessary adjust-
ments called for by technical requirements. This could help dialogue
writers steer clear of some of the unintentional cognitive process influ-
ences. Rehearsing their lines a few times while muting the voice track is
an additional strategy that breaks the spell of the matching auditory and
visual stimuli. This is no easy task, however, since the rhythm has to be
memorized, in advance. Further investigation (perhaps with the support
of brain imaging techniques) using dialogue writers as subjects, could
perhaps substantiate the above theories or reveal further issues.
Dubbing actors, too, watch the visuals, listen to the original voice track
and self-vocalize the target text, concurrently (except when the bande
rythmo is used). If we had to apply the same discourse, even in this process
the matching visual and auditory stimuli supersede the self-vocalized
speech in terms of influence on the auditory cortex brain response. Perhaps,
further investigation and research into the matter may possibly reveal that
this could have an implication on the unnatural-sounding intonation
existing in the dubbed language (Sánchez Mompéan 2017). Theoretically,

this could be due to the influence of the original language intonation
which “takes over” and prevents the actors from distancing themselves
enough to avoid this automatic response, as suggested earlier in Sect. 3.2.
This cognitive approach can also be extended to the viewer perception
of dubbed productions in general. Viewers are also highly influenced by
the visual stimuli and also unconsciously lip-read the actors’ speech on
screen, hence modifying their auditory perception. The absence of lip
synchronization further enhances modified auditory perception to the
point of possibly causing sporadic misunderstanding or misinterpreta-
tion of the dialogue. Phonetic dischrony, that is, mismatched visual and
auditory stimuli, provokes a strong McGurk effect on viewers, especially
where /i/ vowel contexts are concerned; the /a/ vowel produces a moder-
ate effect and the /u/ no effect at all (Walker et al. 1995). A conflicting
visual consonant at the beginning of a word can lead to perceptual omis-
sion of the first letter, for example the Finnish visual word kuola (drool)
dubbed with the auditory puola (spool, coil) can be perceived as uola
(non-existent word) (Sams and Möttönen 2009).
Some studies demonstrate that the McGurk effect—particularly in
Italian—is also highly significant when a visual apico-dental or velar con-
sonant-vowel (e.g., ta, da, na, ga) is dubbed with an auditory bilabial
consonant-vowel (e.g., ba). On the other hand the effect is diminished
when a visual bilabial consonant-vowel (e.g., ba) is dubbed with an audi-
tory non-labial consonant-vowel (e.g., da) (Bovo et al. 2009). This gives
further credit to the choice of avoiding additional labial consonants when
there are none mouthed on screen, particularly in close-up shots.
However, it must be said that research has shown substantial differences
in the intensity of the McGurk effect in different languages. It seems to
be robust in Italian, German, Spanish and English but much less so in the
Japanese and Chinese languages possibly because languages that are more
complex on a phonological level may require more attention to visual
cues (Bovo et al. 2009). These studies take into account visual (mode of
articulation) versus auditory stimuli (sound perceived) in the same lan-
guage. Therefore, when considering interlingual dubbing, the quality of
the outcome—if determined also by the intensity of the McGurk effect—
may vary according to the language pair in question.
This discourse seems to stress the importance of phonetic synchrony,

the absence of which, apart from interrupting the suspension of disbelief
due to unaesthetic mismatches, may also lead to miscomprehension of
the actual words pronounced. This, in turn, will distract the viewer who
must make an added effort to understand the meaning of the affected
dialogue lines.
Having said that, most scholars seem to agree that among the various
quality standards phonetic synch does not occupy a prominent role when
compared, for instance, to realistic and credible-sounding dialogue. On
the other hand it is also true that, according to Chaume (2012), in close-
up shots “phonetic equivalence overrides semantic or even pragmatic
equivalence: it is much more important to find a word with a bilabial
consonant than to find a synonym or a similar word in the TL” (p. 74).
Recent eye-tracking studies conducted by Romero-Fresco (forthcom-
ing) and Di Giovanni and Romero-Fresco (2018) try to explore the extent
to which phonetic synch is important in order to create and maintain the
dubbing illusion perceived by viewers. Romero-Fresco (forthcoming)
confirms the above-mentioned theories when drawing on Navarra (2003),
who demonstrates that words and sentences can be difficult to process
when there is a mismatch between visuals and audio, since the viewers’
attention is directed towards the lips that are not in synchrony.
According to Romero-Fresco (ibid.), despite the predominance of
vision over sound, despite the strong McGurk effect applicable across
languages and cultures, dubbing seems to work efficiently for viewers in
any case. In order to explain this phenomenon, the author suggests the
possibility of a so-called dubbing effect, which refers to viewers who,
unconsciously, avoid looking at the dubbed mouths on screen, while
diverting their attention towards the characters’ eyes, instead. It seems
that this viewer-eye diversion is encountered only in dubbed produc-
tions, while according to the eye-tracking studies conducted so far, the
viewers’ eyes in original movies register a more balanced vision distribution
between the on-screen actors’ eyes and lips. Hence, the dubbing effect
seems to be a kind of self-defence mechanism that allows viewers to be
engaged in a dubbed production and enjoy the suspension of disbelief.
Romero-Fresco (ibid.) also points out that this automatic reaction seems
to occur only in the case of viewers who are accustomed to dubbing and
have continuous exposure to this AVT method.
3.8 R
eadjusting the Language: Self-Revision
and Fine-Tuning
In the light of the above considerations, the linguistic and cultural adap-
tation process can be taken as distinct from the technical adaptation pro-
cess in order to ensure that both receive focus and individual attention.
When the synch-adaptation process is complete, a final overall language
revision would be required for these two separate processes to merge into
a harmonious whole, where the distinction is not perceivable in any way.
Postadaptation fine-tuning is required to suit the needs of a text that is
ultimately meant to be voiced, interpreted, and heard, and this has an
impact on the effect that each line brings about, and the resulting audi-
ence perception. At this stage, attention can be given to certain aspects
such as phonaesthetics, as well as actor-friendliness, when it comes to
articulation and pronunciation. Seeing to the phonaesthetics of dialogue
lines implies watching out for repetition, unnecessary rhyming words or
phrases, as well as disagreeable sounds (cacophony). These may easily be
the result of double consonants or repeated syllables that tend to produce
an annoying effect, for example the Italian expressions cibi biologici
(organic food) or affatto perfetto (absolutely not perfect), or the recurrent
use of /s/ within a phrase which produces a hissing sound. Similarly,
unpleasant consonant clusters can cause articulation difficulties and con-
sequently an undesirable effect in the way the lines sound. For example,
<pr> in the Italian word proprio (really). Dialogue writers must provide
lines that can be easily articulated and pronounced by the actors and that,
ideally, communicate emphasis or intended intonation, w ithout the need
for external explanations. This will go a long way in helping actors in
their role interpretation and acting performance.
Another phonaesthetic imperfection or flaw that can easily be avoided is
unnecessary rhyme. For example, Devo ammetterlo, mi è piaciuto molto scriv-
erlo (I must admit, I loved writing it); Sapeva che assumeva dei forti antide-
pressivi? (Did you know that he was on antidepressants?); Controllate le
chiamate, e poi andate. (Check the phone calls made, and then go). In order
to identify such flaws, dialogue writers must also be familiar with correct
standard diction in their own language. Such a meticulous language revi-
sion would require vocalization and attentive listening to one’s own lines

with a focus on how they sound.
This postadaptation fine-tuning phase can also be particularly useful to
identify and perhaps avoid certain dubbing-specific translational rou-
tines (Pavesi 2008, 2016; Baños Piñero and Chaume 2009), even though
this may not always be necessary in cases where, they have been deliber-
ately integrated as an acceptable characteristic of the dubbed language.
This could be subjective; it may depend on the dialogue writers’ style or
dubbing directors’ and clients’ tastes, requirements, expectations, or cus-
tomized quality standards. This fine-tuning phase could also reveal one’s
own “linguistic habits”; it is very important to enhance awareness of such
tendencies because this will eventually result in more conscious choices.
For instance, one’s professional corpus of adapted scripts could reveal the
overabundant use of certain words or expressions (e.g., the repeated use
of magari (perhaps) at the beginning of Italian-adapted lines).
It is essential to mention that the fast pace and challenging deadlines
that dialogue writers have to face might not allow enough time for such
scrupulous revision and fine-tuning. Therefore, despite the fact that this
method could potentially lead to a desirable quality outcome, on a practi-
cal level it may not always be feasible to allow for such a time-consuming
effort.
This calls for a more time-efficient strategy. Hence, taking care of these
adjustments in a preadaptation stage will, in the long run, prove helpful
(refer to Fig. 3.4). The notion of translational routines can perhaps be
“inverted” or “reversed” so to speak, and used strategically to the benefit
of dialogue writers. Rather than focusing on postrevision and elimination
of any unwanted recurrences, dialogue writers could use this u nderstanding
to create avoidance mechanisms in the early stages of the adaptation
process. These can be developed and, by time and practice, consistently
and automatically applied at this stage. This would include the substitu-
tion, a priori, of commonly repeated words with synonyms, or the replace-
ment of common SL calques with more natural-sounding terms or
expressions at the initial drafting stage. These self-regulating automa-
tisms are aimed at adopting the correct solution in the early stages, rather
than depending on corrections or adjustments at a later stage, a method
which increases the risk of oversights or neglect of certain undesirable
phrases. There are many reasons that may cause the latter, fatigue being
one of the most predominant. Developing deliberate translational rou-
tines in this context could be a possible defence mechanism against
unwanted recurrences (e.g., unwanted dubbese or self-identified habits).
A good preadaptation process implies that the rewriting task that follows
will be mostly, if not entirely, dedicated to synchronization, as all other
linguistic layers will have already been dealt with thoroughly. This, how-
ever, requires the ability to identify the unwanted recurring habits, in the
first place, as well as a certain degree of critical awareness when writing
one’s script.
3.9 W
orkstation Logistics and Speed
Efficiency
Dialogue writers generally carry out this profession from their own per-
sonal workstations; the way they set them up can have an impact on time
efficiency and general comfort. Translation and adaptation dialogue
writers often find themselves compelled to partition the computer screen
(possibly a small laptop screen) into two or three windows: that is, film,
TL script, and sometimes the original script too (when undertaking
simultaneous translation and adaptation). The reason is that dialogue
writers need to read and recite their scripts while simultaneously harmo-
nizing synchronization to the visuals. The ideal scenario would be that of
having a screen large enough to allow for details in visuals to be seen
comfortably; alternatively, utilizing two screens with the script or scripts
on one and the film on the other enables dialogue writers to have an even
better view and observe mouth movements in detail. Dialogue writers
must also put themselves in the shoes of dubbing actors, who more often
than not will be recording the script in full view of a large studio screen,
or, at the least, a well-sized monitor. The same can be said of TV viewers,
especially nowadays, when screens are growing bigger by the hour. This
implies, therefore, that mouth movements are becoming increasingly
more visible by the viewing audience. Working on a minute-sized video
renders the visual experience of dialogue writers very much differ-
ent from that of the audience, apart from making it easier to miss impor-
tant details.
It is advisable to take into account the eye-travelling movement
required to switch from script to video: that is, choosing between a lateral
or vertical eye-travelling movement. This is subjective and could have an
impact on comfort and speed, considering the simultaneous task of read-
ing and watching the mouth movements. Dubbing actors who read from
a hard copy placed on a lectern carry out a vertical eye-travelling move-
ment. Splitting the same screen in two in a lateral fashion, that is, placing
the film on the left-hand side and script on the right-hand side, allows for
more of the text to be visible vertically. However, if this is done using two
panoramic screens placed next to each other, the eye-travelling distance
may cause discomfort. Screens placed one on top of the other, or splitting
the same screen in a vertical fashion, may prove to be a more comfortable
solution (Fig. 3.5). It is almost practically impossible to commit the lines
to memory, in order to avoid reading, in view of the amount of time and
energy involved.
Another small detail that may well render the life of dialogue writers a
little less complicated, logistically speaking, consists in setting up a sepa-
rate volume control device. This will make it easier to lower the volume,
or shut it down completely. Increasing the volume to capture further
detail is one of the most common actions. Eliminating the use of com-
puter mouse movements to control sound level on the video player soft-
ware being used may help save a lot of time. Needless to say, the quality
of speakers used plays an important role. The better-quality speaker
enhances detail in sound as well as the comprehension of unclear speech.
The software used to play the video can also have an impact on the
speed with which dialogue writers’ work. A player catering for the easy
rewinding of the filmic material photogram by photogram can help
replay just the line being adapted and avoid having to repeatedly visualize
whole sequences unnecessarily. There are a number of existing external
devices with jog wheels, dials, and shortcuts that offer multiple audio and
video control features, which are not indispensable but may turn out to
be useful.
Dialogue writers may, of course, choose to create loops in order to
replay the specific line over and over again, but the effort involved in
Fig. 3.5 Workstation logistics. (Sketch drawing by Sara Chersoni)
creating a loop for every line or two is also time consuming. During the
recording sessions, engineers replay text segments in a loop fashion. These
are prepared and labelled with an onset time code by dubbing assistants
or dialogue writers (depending on who is responsible for such a task).
Loop segments may even consist of several dialogue lines spoken by vari-
ous characters. It therefore becomes obvious that it is not feasible for
dialogue writers to use such long loops during adaptation. They have to
be able to voice all the characters’ lines, so it is best to proceed one dia-
logue line or block at a time or, at the most, one character at a time when
reciting the lines. Voicing several consecutive lines belonging to different
characters without interruption increases the risk of false starts, loss of the
breathing tempo, and inability to switch to the other character’s rhythm.
This, apart from the difficulties presented by overlapping lines, leads to
less precision in synchronization.
Notes
1. Contratto collettivo nazionale di lavoro del settore doppiaggio, Roma
2008 & Accordo Ponte relativo al rinnovo contrattuale del Contratto
Collettivo Nazionale del Lavoro del settore doppiaggio, 2017. http://www.
saislc.cgil.it/images/pdf/ccnl%20doppiaggio%20%2030-01-2008.pdf
and http://www.aidac.it/images/pdf/ACCORDO_PONTE_CCNL_
DOPPIAGGIO.pdf
2. II Convenio colectivo de profesionales de doblaje y sonorización de la
comunidad de Madrid (rama artística), 2018 & Conveni collectiu de pro-
fessionals del doblatge de Catalunya. (branca artística). http://adoma.es/
wpcontent/uploads/2014/11/II-CONVENIO-MADRID.pdf
3. Snac, Syndicat national des auteurs et des compositeurs France, doublage
et sous-titrage, 2013.
4. This training strategy was drawn from an M.A. Film studies assignment
on dubbing prepared by Kenneth Scicluna and inspired by a technique
used in animation whereby the animator would speak in front of a mirror
before depicting the cartoon characters’ faces and mouths.
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4
Dubbing Deliverables
4.1 Postproduction Material

This chapter tackles the various documents or materials that are produced
and used throughout the dubbing process, and which will be referred to
as dubbing deliverables in this monograph. These are handled by the
various professional roles in the dubbing chain. Their purpose, function,
and impact on the dubbing process shall be examined. However, before
discussing the dubbing deliverables, it is perhaps useful to take a closer
look at the dialogue writers’ starting point.
Dialogue writers are generally provided with the audiovisual file (which
displays a time code) and the original script. Postproduction scripts may
vary: continuity scripts include a wide variety of detail such as the action
description, scene changes, shot changes, camera motion, captions,
audiovisual punctuation marks (fade-outs, iris, wipes, etc.), sound effects,
characters’ accents, emotions, and so on. The term “continuity” refers to
film production being organized and edited in such a way that the action
seems to happen without pauses or interruptions (see Bowen and
Thompson 2013, on continuity of action, performance, and screen
direction).

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04966-9_4
Combined continuity and spotting scripts feature the addition of

onset and offset time codes of each sound and spoken line; however, the
time codes in the original script do not necessarily coincide with the ones
visible on the filmic material handed over to the dialogue writers. Since
the dialogues are the only parts that need to feature in the dubbing scripts,
these would need to be singled out from detailed original screenplays.
Sometimes dialogue transcripts or dialogue lists are made available to
the dialogue writers; hence, the contents are already filtered. In the absence
of postproduction material, clients may have to resort to shooting scripts
or some other kind of preliminary version (or translators might have to
transcribe, in the worst-case scenario). When the script in hand differs
from the audiovisual material (in its final cut), dialogue writers must con-
sider the latter as the reliable source, and must adhere to it faithfully. This
may imply transcribing segments of dialogue directly from the video file
(if they do not appear in the written script), or ignoring parts of the origi-
nal script in accordance with the final edited version on screen.
At times, for confidentiality measures, dialogue writers are only pro-
vided with preliminary scripts, especially when the material has not yet
been broadcast in the original language. The video file might also be pro-
vided later; alternatively, there could be a preliminary or temporary ver-
sion available: sometimes, in black and white, having very poor resolution
or featuring some kind of watermark across the screen—certainly not the
ideal working conditions for a professional. In general, dialogue writers
are expected to respect confidentiality, especially when the filmic material
has not yet been screened in the country of origin. Production houses and
distributors are particularly concerned about scripts being sent around to
several professionals all over the world as email attachments. Nowadays
(Barra 2009), especially in the case of popular TV series productions, the
time lapse between the original broadcast date and that of the foreign
language dubbed versions is kept to a minimum, in an attempt to avoid
foreign target viewers accessing the original version on the web (perhaps
with fansubs) in the intervening period. This automatically implies fur-
ther pressure on dialogue writers (and on the rest of the chain of profes-
sionals involved), who are often expected to submit their scripts within
the shortest span of time possible. In this case, the industry’s commercial
requirements take precedence over quality standards (Chaume 2012) and
Dubbing Deliverables 103
ideal recommended working conditions. Dialogue writers’ skills must

include the willingness and versatility to adapt to such demands. There is
no doubt that clients in the dubbing industry consider speed an essential
factor.
Examples 4.1, 4.2, and 4.3 illustrate some of the main types of original
scripts mentioned earlier.
Example 4.1 Combined continuity and spotting script. Excerpt drawn

from the TV series Banshee (HBO 2013), Season 1, Episode 1, pilot epi-
sode. Action and shot changes feature on the left-hand side, the dialogue
is placed in the centre, and the onset and offset time codes of any sound,
noise, or dialogue feature on the right-hand side.
03:31.07 JOB 03:31.12 03:33.15

MCU JOB You got the whole world in
front of you,
03:34.11 JOB 03:34.21 03:38.00

MS JOB AND … and you’re going to
LUCAS the one
FACING EACH place you absolutely
OTHER. should not go to.
AFTER A FEW
MOMENTS,
LUCAS WALKS
OUT OF
FRAME ON L.
03:53.23 [STREET WALLA IN] 03:54.03

EXT. STREETS –DAY.
PAN L TO FOLLOW OTS
LUCAS AS HE ENTERS
FRAME
PUSH IN TO FOLLOW.
ROTATE L.
Example 4.2 Continuity script. Excerpt drawn from The Big Bang Theory
(Warner Bros 2007–2019), Season 3, Episode 21, “The Plimpton
Stimulation”.
FADE IN
SCENE: INT. PHYSICS DEPARTMENT CAFETERIA – DAY
SHELDON, LEONARD AND WOLOWITZ ARE EATING
LUNCH. KOOTHRAPPALI CROSSES TO THE TABLE WITH
HIS TRAY. KOOTHRAPPALI SNEEZES.
SHELDON Hold.
KOOTHRAPPALI What?
Example 4.3 Dialogue transcript. Excerpt drawn from House, M.D.

(NBC, Universal Studios 2008), Season 5, Episode 8, “Emancipation”.
INT. HOSPITAL – ELEVATOR BANK – DAY

[…]
House: Nothing to say?
Wilson: No.
House: No you don’t? Or no you don’t, don’t?
Wilson: Whichever one means no.
Original scripts may also encompass the following: synopsis (of the
entire series and specific episode in the case of TV series), list of charac-
ters featuring in the film or specific TV series episode, original cast and
guest actors, a list including all narrative titles or on-screen text, and
opening and closing credits.
Dialogue transcripts provided specifically for the preparation of for-
eign language versions may sometimes contain additional localization
guidelines intended at pointing the dubbing professionals in the direc-
tion of the ultimate outcome, as envisaged by the production company.
These guidelines help bridge the gap between the film production team
and the dubbing teams involved, and are particularly helpful to dialogue
writers, who are compelled to rely heavily on the SL script, as their pri-
mary working tool. These are normally provided by those production
companies that have a keen interest, in the supervision and follow up of
the quality of their product, during and after the transposition into other
languages, in other countries.1
The additional information included in original language scripts may
encompass explanatory notes accompanying the dialogue, perhaps relat-
ing to slang expressions or culture-specific references, in order to ensure
correct interpretation of meaning (Pym 2014, p. 122). Dialogue writers
may also be provided with specific instructions related to the presence of
foreign language, written captions, or the translation of songs in the text.
Likewise, dubbing directors may be told how to handle vocal ditties in
general, or whether certain effects are included in the music and effects
track, and therefore do not require recording. Directors may also be pro-
vided with reminders to record certain reactions for coverage (chewing,
drinking, etc.), as well as guidelines on voice casting.
Example 4.4a Explanatory notes within a dialogue transcript. Excerpt

drawn from the “as broadcast” script of Castle (Disney/abc Studios 2009),
Season 2, Episode 9, “Love me dead”.2
01:19:17:01 SCARLETT But somehow I survived. Spent a year

barely eating, living in a closet.
(living… closet = exaggeration, living in
a tiny space)
Example 4.4b Explanatory notes within a dialogue transcript Excerpt

drawn from the “as broadcast” script of Castle (Disney/abc Studios 2009),
Season 2, Episode 18, “Boom”.3
01:13:46:20 JORDAN But it’s not enough to be smart, he also

SHAW has a pathological need to validate it,
which tells me that he probably
belongs to an organization like Mensa
or Prometheus.
(Mensa = a famous high-IQ society in the
world)
(Prometheus = another famous high-IQ
society like Mensa)
Example 4.5 Voice casting guidelines. Excerpt drawn from the “as

broadcast” script of Castle (Disney/abc Studios 2009), Season 1, Episode
2, “Hell hath no fury”.4
Richard Castle (Nathan Fillion):
Voice Quality: Mid- to low-range male voice with a smooth yet playful
delivery. Slightly melodic yet always controlled, with warmth and
some resonance. Often breathy, particularly when assuring, charm-
ing, or flirting with another. His voice becomes higher-pitched and
more animated when talking with his powerful friends, particularly
when he knows others are listening.
Kate Beckett (Stana Katic):
Voice Quality: Mid-range female voice with a fast, straightforward deliv-

ery and an air of condescension. She often uses a lower register when
interrogating suspects or asserting control over others. While generally
quite restrained, her pitch and volume rises when she is excited or angry.
She also speaks haltingly and with higher pitch when she is caught off-
guard or embarrassed, which is usually because of Castle’s comments.
Example 4.6a Dubbing notes. Excerpt drawn from the “as broadcast”
script of Castle (Disney/abc Studios 2009), Season 2, Episode 6, “Vampire
weekend”.5
• At TC 01:23:41:02, Castle silently mouths the word “What?” to

Beckett. This has been included in the script.
• At TC 01:42:21:01, Lanie’s laugh requires reverb. Please apply FX to
the dialogue.
Example 4.6b Dubbing notes. Excerpt drawn from the “as broadcast”

script of Castle (Disney/abc Studios 2009), Season 5, Episode 15, “Target”.6
• This is part one of a two-part story arc, preceding episode F097.

• There are several notable newly recurring guest stars in this episode.
–– Dylan Walsh as “Agent Harris”. He recurs in F097.

–– Karen David as “Sara El-Masri”. She recurs in F097. This character
speaks with an Egyptian accent.
–– Bernard White as “Anwar El-Masri”. He recurs in F097. This char-
acter speaks with an Egyptian accent.
–– Katherine Kamhi as “Lina El-Masri”. She recurs in F097. This char-
acter speaks with an Egyptian accent.
• At TC 01:10:04:06, Anwar speaks a word of Arabic. See Foreign Language.

• At TC 01:18:57:12, there is video/audio playback from an onset com-
puter monitor.
–– Alexis’ video blog, Confessions of a Columbia Freshman, was cre-
ated for the show. Full dubbing/subtitling/translation rights.
• At TC 01:33:13:22, Man on Radio speaks Arabic. See Foreign Language.
• At TC 01:41:08:13, Man #2 speaks Arabic. See Foreign Language.
• Please note ALL songs present in this episode are considered back-
ground/soundtrack and must remain as is.
4.2 Target Language Scripts

Target language (TL) scripts vary in layout and format depending on the
dubbing countries and/or companies involved. For example, Fig. 4.1 illus-
trates a standard layout used by most Italian dubbing companies. It fea-
tures a final adapted script, as submitted by the dialogue writer, with the
following specifics: 18–20 lines per page, roughly 50 characters per line
(spaces and abbreviations included), font: Times New Roman, size 16,
right justification, character names in capital letters, paragraph indenta-
tion: 5.08 cm, double-line spacing, tabulation: 1.25 cm, dubbing abbre-
viations, and tempo markers.
However, this is just one of the many types of dubbing script layouts
and formats used worldwide; dialogue writers should ask their clients to
provide them with a sample of the layout that they usually adopt. At
times dialogue writers are asked to insert the dialogues into templates
provided to them, especially if the dubbing company uses software that
runs a line count, extracts all the lines of a specific character, and performs
other varied operations. An alternative option, which could be proposed
LEONARD Ok, grazie, ma lei dove dormirà?
SHELDON In camera mia, è ovvio.
KOOTHRAPPALI (in.FC) Porca miseria! / (COP) (filt) Porca
miseria!
WOLOWITZ Eh, (VERSO).. avrei due domande da farti.
SHELDON Sentiamo.
WOLOWITZ (in.DS) Uno: stai scherzando, vero? E.. due: sul
serio, stai scherzando, vero?
Fig. 4.1 Widely used Italian layout. Excerpt drawn from The Big Bang Theory
(Warner Brothers 2007–2019), Season 3, Episode 21
by the client, would be that the dialogue lines be inserted directly into the
original scripts, each translated line being placed underneath the respec-
tive original line, thus doing away with the need to specify character
names since they are already provided in the original script. This applies
mostly in the case of original scripts which adopt a table layout format.
Figure 4.2 provides an excerpt from a dubbing script in Mandarin
Chinese,7 which adopts a table layout and includes the onset time code at
the beginning of almost every dialogue block.
Layouts and formats are not chosen haphazardly. Part of the dubbing
costs and number of recording sessions required are calculated according
to the TL scripts. Figure 4.1 features a layout which is used in a context
where actors are remunerated for every dubbed line; this explains the
need for a consistent number of characters per line and a consistent num-
ber of lines per page, which allows for general cost calculations. Dubbing
assistants use the script to plan the recording schedule and to calculate
the total number of lines that each actor must dub. The maximum num-
ber of lines to be recorded during every session has to be taken into con-
sideration, as this will also determine the number of sessions to be
Fig. 4.2 Chinese dubbing script. Excerpt drawn from Men in Black 3 (Columbia
Pictures 2012)
assigned to every actor. The regulations defining the working conditions

of this professional category must be factored into such calculations. In
Italy, for instance, every dubbing actor currently dubs a maximum of 140
lines per recording session of three hours in the case of feature films, 175
lines in the case of TV movies, and 195 lines in the case of TV series.
A recording session may include several dubbing actors, especially in
the case of minor roles. Dubbing the protagonist roles in any production
usually requires several recording sessions and the most commonly used
method is to have the actors dub their lines individually without the pres-
ence of their counterparts in the scene (Wright and Lallo 2009; Chaume
2012), with some exceptions, of course, for both dramatic and pragmatic
reasons. Some dubbing directors may perhaps opt for two actors dubbing
simultaneously when this may help role interpretation, in the case of
emotional or particularly tricky dialogue exchanges. However, individual
recording is usually preferable on a technical level because sound engi-
neers are able to record the actors on separate voice tracks and then are
free to mix them and edit them as required. This method is particularly
beneficial in the case of overlapping dialogue lines.
Having said that, there is no modus operandi that is standard to all

companies, but only common trends, as widely discussed in Sect. 1.2. As
already mentioned, group dubbing sessions are the preferred method in
some places, especially in Eastern Europe. As to variations in payment
methods, actors may be remunerated for a specified number of recording
sessions, for the number of takes or the number of lines, or perhaps a
combination of all three. For instance, dubbing actors in Italy receive a
lump sum for attendance, in addition to a fee for every line; dubbing
actors in Spain receive a lump sum, too, in addition to a fee for every loop
recorded. On the other hand, in Japan, dubbing actors’ remuneration is
relative to the full running time of the film, even if perhaps, they have
only recited one or two lines.8
4.2.1 Loop Segmentation
Figure 4.1 features a dubbing script as submitted by the dialogue writer.

In actual fact, this is not the final layout of the script as used in the dub-
bing studios. Following the completion of the TL dialogue list with all
due notations and tempo markers, when required, the script is then often
segmented into takes or loops for recording purposes (see Chaume 2007,
2012). This can be referred to as loop or take segmentation (as opposed
to dialogue segmentation; see Sect. 4.2.2). This implies the subdivision of
the whole text into groups of dialogue lines, numbering each group and
allocating a time code of entry to each take. The number of lines featuring
in each take, once again, varies according to the practices of the country
or the customized method adopted by the dubbing company. Chaume
(2012, pp. 49–57) illustrates how loop segmentation may vary from eight
to ten dialogue lines in Spain, to the one-liner loop system adopted in
some US companies, a system which is sometimes also adopted in
Germany and China. The Italian loop segmentation style is not restricted
to a consistent number of lines for every loop, but tends to adapt to the
narrative; this is possible, in practice, because the actors’ remuneration
does not depend on the number of loops.
The recording session moves forward with the dubbing of one loop at
a time (sometimes two at a time, if the lack of interruption enhances role
interpretation and performance); the same group of lines is played and

seen several times, precisely in “loop” fashion. Loops do not necessarily
coincide with the length of an entire scene (one scene may require several
loops), although a change of scene often implies a new loop, thereby tak-
ing into account the narrative language. Figure 4.39 offers an example of
--------------------------------------------------------------------------00:31
202
JORDAN SHAW (in.FC) Il killer è ossessionato da Nikki Heat,
perciò anche noi lo saremo. // Da quanto tempo
andate a letto insieme?
BECKETT Come ha detto?
CASTLE (in.FC) Non intendo.. lasciarti (in casa) da sola!
JORDAN SHAW (in.FC) Consegnate pure il cadavere all’obitorio,..
non appena vi sarete vestiti, ovviamente.
LANIE (FC) “B”, “R” “U”…
BECKETT “…Brucerà”! / Nikki brucerà!” (opp: brucerai)
-----------------------------------------------------------------------00:48
203
DUNN (CL) (EFF) C’è sempre qualcuno che deve
morire, Nikki. (fin.FC)
Fig. 4.3 Loop segmentation

loop segmentation, where 202 and 203 represent loop numbers, while
00:31 and 00:48 indicate the onset time codes. This layout is widely used
in dubbing companies based in Italy.
It is at the dubbing companies’ discretion whether to assign this task
to the dialogue writers; trends vary from one target country to another.
Italian dubbing companies generally delegate this task to the dubbing
assistants who segment the script after submission by the dialogue writ-
ers. There are however, a few Italian companies who have recently
adopted the procedure of delegating this task to dialogue writers, emu-
lating the tendency of other countries such as Spain or the US. As men-
tioned above, some dubbing companies adopt their own customized
system and occasionally even resort to in-house software. This is gener-
ally the case when digital captions are used so that the actors may read
the dialogues directly off the screen, rather than from printed script,
placed on a lectern. Take or loop segmentation is usually not necessary
when software tools are used, because the text and lines are segmented
and extracted using different criteria. Certainly, non-automated loop
segmentation carried out by assistants or dialogue writers will become
less common, while the trend of displaying dialogues digitally on the
studio screens will eventually become the norm, in most countries,
before long.
4.2.2 Dialogue Segmentation
Dubbing scripts call for a practical way of grouping dialogue together.

In the original scripts, subsequent portions of speech spoken by the
same character are very often segmented into separate dialogue blocks,
due to gaps in the text created by pauses, action or shot changes,
scene changes, and so on. In most (but not all) dubbing layouts, these
subdivided segments of speech are transcribed into one block of
dialogue.
Example 4.7a Possible dialogue segmentation in original script. Excerpt

taken from the TV movie April Showers (2009).
Vicki: Sean, it’s over. They got him.

Sean: They got him? Who got him? What are you talking
about?
Vicki: The shooter. It’s…
INT. AUDITORIUM-CU-SEAN-PHONE
Vicki: It’s Ben Harris.
Sounds of people crying in the background.
Vicki: Sean? Hello? Sean? Are you there?
OVER BLACK
Vicki: Hello. Hello.
Example 4.7b Dialogue segmentation generally required for dubbing

purposes. Excerpt taken from the TV movie April Showers (2009).
Reproduced in English for illustration purposes.
VICKI: Sean, it’s over. They got him.

SEAN: They got him? Who got him? What are you talking about?
VICKI: The shooter. It’s… / It’s Ben Harris.
GIRL 1: (OFF) (CRIES)
GIRL 2: (OVER) (OFF) (CRIES)
VICKI: Sean? Hello? Sean? Are you there? / Hello. Hello.
(OFF: off-screen, OVER: overlapping)
The original screenplay is intended for different users; hence, it has

different requirements. The structure of the dubbing script necessarily
differs for practical reasons. In Example 4.7a, Vicki’s speech is subdivided
into five lines in the original script, while it is grouped into three dialogue
lines in the dubbing script (see Example 4.7b). Similarly, if only one
character had to speak over a change of scene, the lines could be grouped
into one block of dialogue. The same would apply, in a similar instance,
where the character’s voice switches from on-screen or off-screen to a
voice-over (narration).
Example 4.8a Same-character dialogue switching from on-screen to

voice-over. Excerpt drawn from preliminary shooting script of Wolf of
Wall Street (Scorsese 2013).
INT. INVESTOR’S CENTER – (ANOTHER) DAY 29 (FEB ‘88)

Jordan sits at his desk in mid-pitch, totally focused.
Jordan: It’s a rock-solid company, sir, it’s the next
Microsoft… Six thousand. Terrific.
As Jordan continues talking, wrapping up the sale…
Jordan (V.O.) (CONT’D): Though I knew I was selling garbage, within
twelve weeks I was making a fortune.
And as he starts scrawling out a buy ticket…
Jordan (V.O.): And as a wise man once told me, my only
responsibility was to put meat on the table.
(N.B. Voice-over (V.O.), in this case, is intended in its filmic jargon use,
that is, an extradiegetic offstage character narration technique, unlike the
use of a TL voice track overlapping the original one, as usually understood
in AVT).
Example 4.8b Same-character dialogue switching from on-screen to

voice-over, segmented for dubbing purposes. Excerpt drawn from pre-
liminary shooting script of Wolf of Wall Street (Scorsese 2013). Reproduced
in English for illustration purposes.
Jordan: It’s a rock-solid company, sir, it’s the next Microsoft… Six
thousand. Terrific. / (VO) Though I knew I was selling
garbage, within twelve weeks I was making a fortune. /
And as a wise man once told me, my only responsibility
was to put meat on the table.
(VO: voice-over) (N.B. In dubbing scripts, (OFF) is also sometimes used
to indicate (VO) because there is no real distinction for dubbing actors,
who simply need to know that the actors’ mouth is not visible on screen.
See Sects. 5.3 and 5.3.1)
Example 4.9a Overlapping speech in original script. Excerpt drawn

from April Showers (2009).
Bus Driver: […] Back up against the wall and stand one by one.
Please, get against the (overlapping) wall…
Sean: (overlapping) April
Bus Driver: We’ll get your name, the information (overlapping) we
need.
Sean: (overlapping) April
Bus Driver: (overlapping) You can meet your families after we’re
done with you. We’ll get your information and then
we’ll let you go. Okay. Hey. Hey. I need you to stay on
the other side man.
Sean: (overlapping) No this is, I need to know the bus number.
Bus Driver: No. No. That’s it.
Example 4.9b Overlapping speech, dialogue segmentation for dubbing

purposes. Excerpt drawn from April Showers (2009). Reproduced in
English for illustration purposes.
BUS DRIVER: (OFF) […] Back up against the wall and stand one
by one. Please get against the wall.. We’ll get your
name. The information we need. You can meet
your families after we’re done with you. We’ll get
your information and then we’ll let you go. Okay.
Hey. Hey. I need you to stay on the other side man.
SEAN: (OVER) (40:08) April / April / (40:21) No this is, I
need to know the bus number.
BUS DRIVER: No. No. That’s it.
(OFF: Off-screen, OVER: overlapping)
Examples 4.9a and 4.9b illustrate how overlapping speech could be

handled in a dubbing script. The dialogue is grouped in a practical way for
the sake of voice recording. Time codes can also be added sporadically to
aid the actors, especially when there are longer pauses, or when the actor’s
onset utterance timing might not be very clear or audible due to overlap-
ping speech, or other background noise (even though the latter can be
muted during the recording session). Dialogue segmentation, indeed,

marks one of the main differences between screenwriting and scriptwrit-
ing for dubbing purposes, a topic that shall be tackled in Sect. 5.3.2.
Dialogue segmentation requirements may differ in the case of specific
layouts utilizing templates and time codes allocated for every dialogue
block, though this seems to be a less commonly used method, especially
in Europe. The same applies in the case of in-house software used to dis-
play dubbing dialogue lists onto the studio screen in subtitle fashion. As
a result, a maximum number of lines may be allocated to each character
speaking, even if this, perhaps, may involve the division of a continuous
monologue into separate blocks, and the repetition of the same character
name for each dialogue block.
4.3 D
ubbing Glossaries or Consistency
Sheets and Metadata Files
The dubbing glossary, or consistency sheet, sometimes also referred to
as the dubbing bible (especially in translation and not in English,
Koppejian 2012; Chaume 2012), is a document that contains informa-
tion that comes in handy to dubbing directors, assistants, and at times
dialogue writers, as well. This is used for single features as well as for long-
term projects such as serial productions. It is particularly useful in the
latter case because information is gathered and added along the way. Not
all companies, however, utilize this type of documentation.
Dubbing glossaries may encompass a variety of contents, the most
common being a brief profile of each character (the physical description
and role in relation to plot and other characters), and a list of newly
added characters, from time to time, in the case of serial productions.
Other contents could include plot synopsis, as well as instructions related
to the version to be dubbed. These could include voice casting sugges-
tions (Wright and Lallo 2009), specific terminology (e.g., the translation
established for fictitious terms coined for science fiction productions),
nicknames, a pronunciation list of character names or places, and some-
times notes on forms of address between characters (particularly in those
languages where a linguistic choice has to be made between a polite or

casual form of address, for example, the use of “tú” or “usted” in Spanish).
In certain companies the pronunciation list is sometimes treated as a
separate document.
The dubbing glossary, or consistency sheet, becomes particularly use-
ful to dialogue writers when they “step into” a serial production at a later
stage or season and need to become familiar with the dubbing specifics
of a serial production in a short span of time. It is useful to ensure con-
tinuity and consistency in terms of language usage, style, or any diapha-
sic or diastratic variations (degrees of formality or language differences
across social groups) intentionally attributed to specific characters, apart
from specific terminology and names, as mentioned above. The foreign
edition/translation department within the dubbing companies or the
dubbing assistants usually compile this document, unless the contents
are provided in advance by the production companies. However, on
many occasions dialogue writers are expected to compile, update, and/or
integrate such contents. For instance, dialogue writers generally provide
the pronunciation list of proper nouns in the TL (over and above the TL
pronunciation usually provided in brackets next to each proper name, or
at least in footnote, within the TL dialogue list). Table 4.1 is an excerpt
from a dubbing consistency sheet which gathers a number of terms cus-
tomized for a TV series. The choices regarding terminology and charac-
ter names are usually made and then added to such sheets the first time
they appear in the original scripts, be it in the pilot episode or the fol-
lowing episodes.
Table 4.1 Dubbing consistency sheet

Original version Explanatory note Italian version Recurrence
Tomorrow people Refers to the I Tomorrow Episode 3
protagonists people
Ultra An organization L’Ultra Ep. 3
breakout When their powers mutante Ep. 3
are revealed
Note: Excerpt from the dubbing consistency sheet of The Tomorrow People
(Warner Bros 2013), compiled by dialogue writer during the initial episodes of
the TV series
Compiling a database with any specialized or technical terminology

and its TL equivalent turns out to be a very useful tool for translators and
dialogue writers, in avoiding repetition of the research process every time
the same term crops up. It also ensures consistency with previous recur-
rences. Dialogue writers can insert additional terms as they go along. It is
practically an impossible feat to rely on memory and recall the previous
scripts in which the same terms have been used, particularly in long-term
serial productions. Examples of productions that require such a database
are House, M.D. (NBC 2004) for its medical terms, Make It or Break It
(Disney/abc Studios 2009) with specific terminology pertaining to gym-
nastics, and Rescue Special Ops (Southern Star Entertainment 2009),
where reference is made to equipment utilized in life-saving and rescue
operations. Images or links to online video clips can also be attached as
further supporting resources. This same database also applies in the case
of recurrent slang language or specific dialects and language varieties
which need to be catered for in the target text. The difference between
dubbing glossaries and terminology databases is that the former is a tool
which is shared among the dubbing team professionals, while the latter is
generally a personal time-saving stratagem for the dialogue writer. Having
said that, the ideal scenario is that of a shared (and continuously updated)
database used by the dialogue writers working on the same serial produc-
tion in order to maximize resources and avoid inconsistency (Table 4.2).
Table 4.2 Terminology database

Original version Italian equivalent
ozpod treppiedi di sicurezza
space blanket telo isotermico
headquarters base operativa
air chisel trapano pneumatico
4-to-1 carrucola multipla
heartmonitor cardiomonitor
firing mechanisms manichette dell’acqua
Cutters cesoie
spreader divaricatore
spineboard barella
Note: Excerpt from a dialogue writer’s terminology database compiled for
Rescue: Special Ops (Southern Star Entertainment 2009)
The use of a metadata file depends very much on the dubbing com-
panies. As the name implies, this type of documentation comprises a set
of data which gives information about certain film contents. Here again,
plot synopses, names of character roles and voice talents engaged, names
of dialogue writers, dubbing assistants, dubbing directors, as well as a list
of on-screen inserts may feature in the data. It may also include whether
subtitling or a voice-off is required for the on-screen inserts, or whether
these have already been covered in the dubbing script and/or perhaps do
not need any translation at all. Dialogue writers are normally expected
to update this metadata file with the above information. This type of
documentation is mainly useful to the administrative and technical
departments of the dubbing companies, and, in general, is also required
by those production companies that follow and supervise the foreign
language versions.
4.4 Postproduction Recording Sheet

As has been highlighted in Sect. 1.2, the dubbing script is a functional
tool at the service of dubbing companies and all professionals involved in
the process. In order to further emphasize this fact, it is crucial to men-
tion the actual recording scheduling system. Planning a recording session
implies allocating the dialogue lines to the dubbing actors and measuring
out the takes or loops in the most efficient manner to save on time and
costs. Generally speaking, dubbing assistants (provided they are part of
the team) or other in-house operators at dubbing companies (i.e., post-
production assistants) are responsible for such a task. The dubbing script
is an essential tool in the planning of recording shifts. Original scripts, in
themselves, provide a large amount of information such as the characters’
list, though this may not be exhaustive in the case of the dubbed prod-
uct. For instance, what could be simply referred to as “Walla” in the
original script may then become “Woman 1, Woman 2, Man 1, Man 2”,
and so on, in the dubbing script. This means that the exact number of
dubbing actors required cannot be determined from the original script,
and it is definitely not sufficient to indicate the number of lines per char-
acter because this varies according to TL and layouts being used. After
determining the number and gender of voice talents required and num-
ber of lines to be recorded, the dubbing assistant and/or other depart-
ments involved in the dubbing process will be in a position to select the
voice talents, contact them, establish the number of recording sessions
required, and book the studios for the recording sessions. Figure 4.4 is
just one of the many templates that could be utilized to plan a single
recording session, and is solely intended to highlight one of the practical
functions of a dubbing script. In this case, a spreadsheet-type document
(with a new sheet for each recording session) is adopted, but, undoubt-
edly, every company has its own customized method.
Figure 4.4 is a dubbing sheet illustrating a typical single three-hour
recording session, as normally adopted in Italy; three actors are sum-
moned to record their character lines drawn from two different episodes
belonging to the same TV series. Serial productions are divided into
groups of three episodes, and the recording for each group is scheduled
separately. The first row of numbers refers to the number of loops to be
recorded, and the second row of numbers refers to actual loop numbers.
Consequently, the 13th recording take, for example, is meant to record
the dialogues of loop number 81 as marked on script. In this loop, two of
the dubbing actors summoned have to record ten lines and one line of
dialogue respectively, either both actors recording simultaneously at the
lectern, or consecutively. The total number of lines recorded in a session
is of great importance, if one considers dubbing in Italy as an example,
because there is an agreed limit that must not be exceeded. Alternatively,
where time and cost calculations are based on the number of loops, there
would be a maximum number of loops per recording session.
FILM DIRECTOR name Total no. of lines

TV series title (group no.) S. No.
ASSISTANT name
Name of dubbing
company
199
CLIENT Date dd/mm/yy Time
ep 1 ep 2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Character Actor 52 54 55 56 57 61 62 64 68 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 93 99 100 104 107 109 110 114 115 116 117 118 126 131 133 134 181 182 186
name 1 name 69 7 1 1 2 1 5 3 6 1 1 1 3 7 1 5 1 1 1 7 1 2 4 2 5
name 2 name 81 1 10 3 6 1 8 2 7 7 4 1 4 2 1 4 2 7 1 3 1 1 1 3 1
name 3 name 49 1 7 8 1 1 1 1 1 5 5 1 1 2 2 3 6 2 1
Fig. 4.4 Postproduction recording sheet

Indeed, dubbing sheets can vary in content, and this is illustrated by

Chaume (2012, pp. 51–52), who proposes an example of a dubbing
sheet, used in France, which includes additional detail: gender and dis-
tinctive physical traits of characters, number of words spoken by each
character, and total duration of speech recorded by each actor. Specifying
gender is definitely a must, especially when the role does not have a
proper name, or when this is not clear in the designation used: for exam-
ple, TEACHER 1, as opposed to WAITRESS. This is essential when
planning the recording sessions, so that the number of male and female
actors can be known. In certain cases, additional annotations might be
necessary, for example, in the case of young male children being dubbed
by female adults.
Not only is the dubbing sheet useful throughout the planning and the
work shift distribution stage, but it is also an essential tool during the
recording session itself. It is used as a point of reference by directors and/
or assistants during the recording process of each loop, to ensure that no
dialogue lines are missed. It is also of great help to sound engineers who
have to prepare the loops for recording purposes.
The examples discussed obviously pertain to full lip-synch dubbing (as
opposed to partial dubbing), which implies that each character is inter-
preted by a different dubbing actor, varying according to gender, age,
voice suitability, and a number of criteria on which individual voice cast-
ing is based.
Notes
1. A case in point is The Walt Disney Company and abc Studios, which
closely follow and supervise all foreign language versions in an attempt to
safeguard and ensure high-quality standards on all levels.
2. Excerpt used with the courtesy and permission of abc Studios and The
Walt Disney Company.
7. This script was provided by Ping Deng (University of Petroleum, Beijing).
Translator and dialogue writer: Jia Xiuyan. Dubbing company: August
First Film Studio, Beijing.
8. The different methods adopted have been discussed with SDI media.
9. Reproduced with the courtesy and permission of The Walt Disney
Company Italia.
References
Barra, L. (2009). The mediation is the message. Italian regionalization of US TV
series as co-creational work. International Journal of Cultural Studies. https://
doi.org/10.1177/1367877909337859.
Bowen, C. J., & Thompson, R. (2013). Grammar of the shot. New York/London:
Focal Press.
Chaume, F. (2007). Dubbing practices in Europe: Localisation beats globalisa-
tion. Linguistica Antverpiensia, 6, 201–217.
Publishing.
Koppejian, E. (2012). Art or Industry? Working conditions and quality in dubbing.
Unpublished MA thesis, Universiteit Utrecht.
Pym, A. (2014). Exploring translation theories. London/New York: Routledge.
Wright, J., & Lallo, M. J. (2009). Voice-over for animation. New York/London:
Focal Press.
Filmography
Television Series
Banshee. (2013–2016). D. Schikler & J. Tropper, HBO.

Castle. (2009–2015). A.W. Marlowe, Disney/abc studios.
House, M.D. (2004–2012). D. Shore, NBC/Universal Studios.
Rescue: Special Ops. (2009–2011). J. MCGauran, S. Smith & S. Warner,
Southern Star Entertainment.
The Big Bang Theory. (2007–2019). C. Lorre & B. Prady, Warner Bros.
The Tomorrow People. (2013–2014). G. Berlanti, J. Plec & R. Price, Warner
Bros.
Motion Pictures
April Showers. (2009). A. Robinson, April Showers Production.

Men in Black 3. (2012). B. Sonnenfeld, Columbia Pictures.
Wolf of Wall Street. (2013). M. Scorsese, M. Red Granite pictures.
5
Script Components
5.1 Breaking Down the Dubbing Script

In Chaps. 3 and 4, reference has already been made to a number of script
components, the most important of which are the dialogues. All other
additional components contribute to the functionality of the script as a
working tool. As can be noted, emphasis is being placed on the practical
and technical aspects, without intending to undermine the importance of
the actual content, that is, the quality of the translation and adaptation
from a language perspective. However, apart from the fact that these are
useful for functional and cost-efficiency purposes, where the clients’ point
of view is concerned, certain practical issues contribute to the quality
standards of the dubbed product and most certainly to the general flow
of the dubbing process.
The dubbing script can be broken down into textual and paratextual
elements (Cerezo Merchán 2016). The textual elements are those that are
revoiced or captioned for the target audience. The paratextual elements,
on the other hand, are those devices and conventions both within and
outside the dialogue list that mediate between the actual text and the
professionals involved in the dubbing process. This definition of dubbing

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04966-9_5
paratext is inspired and adapted from Genette (1997), who describes

paratext in literature as a zone of transition and transaction (p. 2).
The dubbing textual and paratextual elements are listed hereunder:
• Dialogues
• Tempo markers
• Time codes
• Dubbing notations
• Loop segmentation markings
• Background noise
• Character list
• Title/titles
• On Screen text or graphics
• Synopsis
• Recaps
• Translator’s notes
• Headers, footers, page numbers
5.2 Tempo Markers and Time Codes

The tempo markers (previously mentioned in Sect. 3.3) form part of the
dubbing paratext and are used to indicate the pauses or beats to be
respected by the dubbing actors. They are also useful for dialogue seg-
mentation purposes (see Sect. 4.2.2). When adopted, these are consid-
ered an extremely useful tool to aid the actor in synchronization and role
interpretation. Some of the typical tempo markers used provide a rough
indication of the length of pauses. Original screenplays adopt the suspen-
sion dots to indicate a pause or, alternatively, insert the parenthetical
“(beat)”; most times pauses are not indicated at all or only when really
necessary. On the other hand, in dubbing scripts, the most widespread
pause indicators are as follows:
.. or … Very short pause or beat within dialogue (e.g., Spanish
companies use (…), while Italian companies use (..) to
occupy less space)
Script Components 127
… Ellipsis is sometimes used to indicate any pause that is

longer than a comma. In this case, it does not give an
indication of the length of the pause, but simply indicates
that there is a voice interval in the middle of a sentence.
This method is often used by US companies, especially if
the original scripts make use of ellipsis to mark pauses. The
simple reproduction of the original script markers is
sometimes sufficient for certain companies. When ellipsis is
the only marker used to indicate pauses, three slashes (///)
can be used to mark long pauses that happen in between
sentences. Alternatively it might require opening a new
dialogue (perhaps with a newly marked time code) for the
same character.
/ Long pause within a sentence or between sentences
// Very long pause (generally not used within the same
sentence)
/// This is used in more than one way. It can signify a change of
scene, as is generally the case with Italian dubbing
companies. It is not necessary to highlight every change of
scene unless expressly requested by the client. This could be
useful when a character is speaking at the end of a scene
and is the first to speak in the following scene. The “///”
highlights the change of scene to the actor and other
professional roles in the studios, especially when the
same-character dialogue is not split into separate dialogue
blocks. The “///” is sometimes also used to indicate a very
long pause between sentences. It can be used, also, to
separate reactions voiced by the same character.
Another tempo marker, less commonly used, is the apostrophe (’),

which highlights a very short pause or intake of breadth. Likewise, the
circumflex (^) would be equivalent to a comma (,) in terms of length of
pause (Chaume 2012, p. 62). When the bande rythmo (widely discussed
in Sect. 1.2) is utilized, the size of the spacing between the words scrolling
on screen is an indication of the length of the pauses.
Example 5.1 Fictitious dialogue encompassing tempo markers.
EMMA Well, the last time he spoke to me was.. last June. / And
now.. he just turns up.. like that!
JOHN Anyway,.. we’ll talk about it later.. I must get going now.
EMMA See you later. // Hello? Yes, I’m on my way. /// Hi, sorry if
I kept you waiting.
As can be noted, pause markers are generally followed by a space;

slashes are most often preceded and followed by a space.
Now, if on the one hand their timing and position is determined by
the original visuals and voice track, choosing how and where to break the
target language (TL) lines in a natural way is an important matter that
requires attention; the “interruption spot” does not necessarily coincide
with that of the original version.
Dialogue writers normally receive a working copy of the filmic material
which features a time code reader, most often on the top or bottom part of
the images. Most dubbing scripts do not require an onset time code for each
dialogue line. Despite this, in certain countries there are some script layouts
and templates that do include the onset time code of every utterance, in
Chinese or US scripts, for instance (see Fig. 4.2). Time codes are certainly
necessary when a dubbing software is adopted to single out dialogue lines and
display them onto the recording studio screens. In any case, even in those
layouts that do not require onset time codes before dialogue blocks, they may
be inserted in the dialogue list every now and then in order to help the dub-
bing actors, in specific circumstances. Examples could include: crowded and
rowdy scenes, if it is difficult to determine when a specific character starts to
speak; when additional dialogue is recorded onto a speech-free gap and
included in the dubbed version; or else, when there is a very long pause inter-
rupting a character’s dialogue lines, because it would help the actor and other
professional roles in the studio to know when the next utterance is due.
When a dubbing script is segmented into loops, as seen in Sect. 4.2.1,
the onset time codes are inserted in the script at the beginning of each
loop (or at the end of the loop, in some countries and regions). As men-
tioned before, loops are not recorded in sequential order. Hence, the
onset time codes allow sound engineers to go directly to a specific text
segment and create and use the loop for recording purposes.
5.3 Dubbing Notations

Chaume (2012) offers a variety of dubbing symbols in diverse languages,
which he draws from European dubbing countries, mainly Italy, Spain,
France, Germany, and Poland. They are inserted within the dubbing text,
and their purpose is to point out certain speech characteristics, paralin-
guistic features and film language elements (e.g., whether the actor’s
mouth is visible on screen) that are meant to support the actor in syn-
chronizing the dialogues to the images. As mentioned earlier in Sect. 3.4,
for the purposes of this monograph, these so-called dubbing symbols are
referred to as dubbing notations, a term that is sometimes utilized in the
Anglophone-speaking dubbing industry and refers to any paratextual
abbreviations or technical entries, notes or annotations inserted in the TL
dialogue list, usually within parenthesis.
The following is a non-country specific collection of currently existing
dubbing notations used in a variety of countries and in diverse languages.
For this reason, these are being represented by an English equivalent
based on existing screenwriting language, or otherwise coined for the
purpose, simply to present them in a universal manner. Hence, in dub-
bing practice, most of the notations listed below are generally used in
other languages and not in English. Non-Anglophone countries adopt a
wider variety of notations, compared to the ones used in English-language
dubbing, which, most often, only encompass those notations already
included in the original script.
Existing dubbing notations used globally:

(English equivalent adopted only for explanatory purposes)
(ON) On-screen utterance in which the actor’s mouth

is visible. This is taken by default; it is not
necessary to insert at the beginning of every
dialogue line if it is on-screen.
(OFF) Off-screen utterance in which the actor’s mouth
is not visible.
(OTS) Over-the-shoulder shot
(ECU) or (XCU) Extreme close-up

(VO) Voice-over. Offstage character narration or
character’s inner thoughts. This reminds the
sound technician to add the necessary effect.
(VO-END) At times it is required to specify where the VO
finishes, especially when the dialogue belonging
to the same character shifts from the extradiegetic
VO to diegetic speech.
(INNER VOICE) Refers specifically to inner thoughts being
dubbed in VO. This generally implies a slight
reverberation effect added to the voice. Some
countries use this or some other notation, while
others simply adopt VO.
(IV-END) End of inner voice. Marks the end of the inner
voice. Used when the dialogue belonging to the
same character shifts from an inner voice to
uttered speech.
(OVER) Overlapping speech. This implies that two or
more characters speak simultaneously for a while.
If the speech of two characters overlaps, a
notation is generally placed at the beginning of
the second character’s line.
(INTER) Interrupting. This implies that a character
interrupts another character who is speaking; the
latter stops abruptly without finishing the
dialogue line.
(LS) Long shot. Implies that a character speaks at a
distance and the actor is far from the camera. This
tells the dubbing actors that less attention can be
given to mouth synchrony. It is also useful to the
sound engineers who might want the dubbing
actors to move further away from the
microphone, to create the distance effect
physically and not only digitally.
(ANT) Anticipate. To start reciting the line shortly

before the original voice. Used in lines starting
off-screen in order to avoid condensation.
(COVERED) Mouth covered (e.g., an on-screen character’s
face covered by the phone receiver).
(FX) Effect (e.g., speech coming from a TV set or
phone). In some countries (e.g. Spain) the actual
source is specified. This is useful to the sound
engineers who have to add the desired effect.
(FILTERED) Speech heard through some form of barrier (e.g.,
from behind a glass door). Useful to the sound
engineers who need to add the desired effect.
(ON MUTE) Recording additional dialogue on a speech-free
gap in the original track. This is often used when
the character is off-screen and is not speaking, for
example, to include additional information or to
cover written graphics in the dub. When the
camera zooms in onto any written text visible on
screen, the character reading silently is off-screen;
hence, it is possible to have the dubbing actor read
the text aloud in the TL.
(M/E) Music and effects. This is used to refer to the
original sound track and is usually an indication
that there is no need to add any dubbed voices or
effects. Sometimes (ORIG) or (ORIGINAL) is
used too, in this case. Obviously, this is possible
when the required effects are not recorded on the
dialogue track in the original version otherwise
these would be erased automatically when the
voice track is deleted.
(BG) Refers to speech heard in the background.
Does not refer to a background shot (b.g.).
Background speech may be one person talking in
the background as opposed to the general buzz or
walla.
WALLA Generic buzz of people indoors or outdoors (e.g.,

street, office, party). The speech could be
indistinct or partially identifiable, also depending
on the closeness to camera. The term “WALLA”
is usually placed on the left-hand side of the
script layout, just like any character name. For
this reason it does not take brackets. Dialogue
writers often have to include newly invented
dialogues (see Sect. 5.4).
AMBIANCE Same as WALLA.
(AD LIB) Ad Libitum. Sometimes precedes dialogue lines
belonging to the WALLA or AMBIANCE. It
highlights the fact that the TL lines to follow
have been invented by the dialogue writer (see
Sect. 5.4).
CROWD A group of people shouting the same line in
unison (e.g., a protest slogan). Some dubbing
companies would add the notation (IN
UNISON). The term “CROWD” is placed on
the left-hand side of the script layout, just like
any character name. For this reason it does not
take brackets.
(INDISTINCT) Generally used to describe background walla that
would not have to be redubbed.
(CONTINUOUS) Without pausing. No interruption. When
the dubbing actor is asked to ignore any pauses or
beats present in the original track. This is
generally used in off-screen lines when taking
advantage of pauses to be able to squeeze in more
words. Generally used as a last resort, when the
need for more information takes priority over
rhythm and interpretation.
(SOTTO) Sotto voce. Spoken in a whisper, the audience

can hear the dialogue but the other characters in
the scene cannot. This term is commonly used in
English-language screenplays.
(REACTION) Refers to vocal and mouth-produced sounds
such as (CRIES), (LAUGHS), (DRINKS),
(GASPS), (SIGHS), (BREATHES),
(CHUCKLES), (WHISPERS), and so on. The
third-person singular is generally used. In many
dubbing countries they are specified, whereas in
other countries, or otherwise when the reaction
cannot be described, the generic (REACTION) is
used. The Italian and Spanish equivalents are
(VERSO) and (G) respectively. Natural breathing
while speaking is not considered a reaction.
(BREATH) Sometimes an evident breath intake before
pronouncing a line or word is specified, especially
if it affects the rhythm.
(Pst, tss, brr) Transcription of vocal utterances is also
sometimes opted for instead of the generic
(REACTION).
Example 5.2 Fictitious dialogue list encompassing detailed dubbing

notations.
EMMA (OFF-ON) Well, the last time he spoke to me was.. last

June. / And now.. he just turns up.. (REACTION) like
that! Unbelievable, really.
JOHN (OVER) (CHUCKLES) / Anyway, we’ll talk about it later.
(OTS) I must get going now.
EMMA See you later. // (OFF) Hello?
JUSTIN (OFF) (FX) Hi, may I speak to Ms. Martin, (ON) please?
EMMA Yes, speaking. (COVERED) Who is it?
A practical time-saving feature that may be adopted by all dialogue

writers irrespective of language, country, or client is the autocorrect proof-
ing tools provided by any writing software. This enables dialogue writers
to save all notations under a shortened customized version, for example
typing “reac” and automatically obtaining “(REACTION)”: full word, in
upper case, within brackets and furthermore in the desired font size. A
very handy tool indeed, for dialogue writers. This feature also comes in
handy for character allocation.
Dubbing notations come in different languages, varieties, and styles
and the way they are used depends on the customs of the dubbing coun-
try, dubbing company, dialogue writer, and director. Dialogue writers
may be expected to insert as many dubbing notations as possible or they
might not have to include any at all, except perhaps for the so-called reac-
tions (such as cries and laughs). The latter is the case with most US-based
companies, where no notations related to camera shots are generally
required, unless dialogue writers are instructed to carry over anything
that is included in the original script.
In like manner, Chinese dubbing scripts rarely feature any notations,
or tempo markers. In the past, dialogue writers were required to include
them, but, in time, directors and actors decided that the cues provided by
the visuals themselves are sufficient to guide them through the recording.
Chinese scripts do, on the other hand, include an onset time code for
each dialogue block and at the most a few character reactions when
deemed necessary1 (see Fig. 4.2). The same goes for most Arabic-language
scripts, though this may vary according to the companies. In Lebanon,
for instance, there are specific companies that cater for this at a later stage.
The actors themselves add their own notations and comments when
going through the script with the dubbing director. Thus, the adapted
script contains only the synchronized dialogue, excluding also any reac-
tions.2 Likewise, Persian scripts dubbed in Iran do not include any
notations.3
European dubbing countries tend to make use of more notations, the
common denominators being (ON), (OFF), pauses, reactions, and ambi-
ance or walla. Italian and Spanish dubbing companies use an extensive
array of notations, though they are placed in such a way as to avoid, as
much as possible, interruption of the dialogue flow. In this manner, the

actor is not distracted by too many indications and can focus on role
interpretation. Many notations are placed at the beginning or end of
dialogue lines and, also, before or after pauses. This implies use of dub-
bing notations that other countries may not adopt. For example, in Italy
the following notations are used: (in.FC), short for “inizia fuori campo”
(begins off-screen) or, similarly (da FC), short for “da fuori campo” (from
off-screen); (fin.FC), short for “finisce fuori campo” (ends off-screen); or
(fin.IC), short for “finisce in campo” (ends on-screen). Other countries
simply place (OFF-ON) or (ON-OFF) at the beginning of a line, Spain
being a case in point.
The notations (in.FC), (da FC), or (OFF-ON), placed at the begin-
ning of a dialogue line, indicate that the dubbing actor should start recit-
ing the dialogue line in question when the character is off-screen, and
subsequently the shot will change to on-screen. The dubbing actors do
not know the precise moment in which the lips will appear on screen,
but, at the same time, they do not have any paratextual interruptions
along the line, allowing greater focus on role interpretation. In such cases,
a TL rhythmic pattern that is faithful to the original is fundamental for
phonetic synchronization because dubbing actors are not being told
which exact TL word needs to fall on screen in order to be lip-synched to
the original. Notwithstanding this, and the wide range of notations avail-
able, actors prefer not to be spoon-fed.
Having said that, in the case of dubbing companies that utilize the
bande rythmo (i.e., the script displayed on screen scrolling beneath the
visuals), it is not uncommon to find additional symbols or indications
to emphasize close-up bilabials (e.g., underlining, dotted lines, and an
“x”) or further instructions on enunciation style. Sometimes shot
changes or new takes are marked too (Chaume 2012, p. 60, see also
Sect. 1.2).
Example 5.3 Dialogue list encompassing the Italy-specific dubbing

notations style and usage. (Reference can also be made to the Contratto
Collettivo Nazionale del lavoro (2008), which lists some of these dub-
bing notations.) Excerpts drawn from the original “as broadcast” script of
Castle (Disney/abc Studios 2012), Season 5, Episode 5, “Colpevole o

innocente?”.4
JERRY TYSON (in.FC) Si dice che i cani fiutino la paura. / (FC)

Sapevi che ci sono uomini in grado di farlo? / (in.
DS) (Tu) puzzi di paura.
[…]
JERRY TYSON No, non era il mio tipo.. (p.FIATO) Prediligo le
bionde,.. l’hai dimenticato? / (in.DS) Ecco una
versione molto più credibile: tu.. hai ucciso Tessa..
(in.DS) Ci sono le prove, e dopotutto, nella tua
mente commetti degli omicidi in continuazione
quando scrivi.. (IC) È facile pensare che tu possa
essere andato / oltre la finzione. (fin.FC)
Notations legend: (in.FC) inizia fuori campo (starts off-screen); (FC)
fuori campo (off-screen); (in.DS) inizia di spalle (starts over the
shoulder); (p.FIATO) presa di fiato, breath intake; (IC) in campo
(on-screen); (fin.FC) finisce fuori campo (ends off-screen). Tempo
markers legend: (..) very short comma-like pause, (/) slightly longer
pause
In most cases, novice dialogue writers have the tendency to provide an

abundance of notations with the intention of being meticulous and offer-
ing great detail. This, however, could be counterproductive. It should be
kept in mind that too many notations not only interrupt the flow of
dialogue, but also occupy space and lengthen the target lines; this could
also have an impact on the costs, in those countries where actors are paid
according to line count. Hence, it is generally best to stick to a space-
efficient method, keeping in mind that sometimes less is more.
In fact, if we had to compare dubbing notations to screenwriting
abbreviations, we will immediately notice the absence of full stops, which
would occupy further space. Examples of screenwriting abbreviations
include: f.g. (foreground), b.g. (background), V.O. (voice-over), O.S.
(off-screen), and so on.
Dubbing notations are generally placed within brackets and indi-

cated in upper case. Dialogue writers may also opt for a slightly smaller
font applied to the notations to create a distinction from the rest of the
dialogue. Also, two abbreviations can be joined within the same brack-
ets, for example (OFF FX), (sometimes separated by a slash or hyphen),
in order to occupy less space. These are just small details which contrib-
ute towards the functional aesthetics of the script. Dubbing companies
consider homogeneity and consistency in method and style as an impor-
tant requisite, one of the main reasons being that the script could be
used to calculate estimated costs, and second, a standardized style
increases the actors’ comfort because they would not need to switch
from one style to another. The best way for a dialogue writer to become
familiar with the script specifics of a dubbing company is to request a
sample of a dubbing script.
5.3.1 A Dubbing Notations Proposal
Table 5.1 offers an applicable dubbing notations proposal that could be

taken into consideration for the purposes of standardization, for instance,
in the case of companies with several branches spread across regions or
countries. The difference between this list and the one previously pro-
vided in Sect. 5.3 is that the latter groups together a variety of notations
that are already in use in different countries and languages, while this list
proposes a possible standardized option.
The proposal takes into account the customs and current usage, or
non-usage, of dubbing notations and tempo markers in various dubbing
countries, as well as consultation with a number of dubbing companies.
The narrow selection is based on (a) common threads (i.e., the most
widespread notations); (b) usefulness from a dubbing professional’s
standpoint, actors especially; and (c) minimal use (taking into account
space efficiency and the least possible interruption in the dialogue flow).
The chosen notations and combinations are mostly inspired by the meth-
ods used in Italy, France, Spain, and the US. The most common tempo
markers are also included, in addition to the notations.
Table 5.1 Dubbing notations proposal

.. or … Very short comma-like pause or beat
/ Any pause which is longer than a simple beat or comma-like pause.
Used within or between sentences
// Very long pause, that is, a long silent gap between sentences
belonging to the same character. Likewise, in a change of scene,
when the lines opening the new scene belong to the same
dialogue block and are spoken by the same character
(OFF) Off-screen utterance. To be used mostly at the beginning of
dialogue lines or after tempo markers / and // so that the flow of
dialogue is not interrupted
N.B. Used also in the case of VO (voice-over). What really matters to
the actor is knowing whether the mouth is visible on screen. (VO)
may be used in those companies where the dubbing script also needs
to contain indications for the sound technician, who would need to
add an effect to the voice. This implies also adding (FX) for “effect”
to this list of notations (e.g., for TV or radio speech or phone calls)
(ON) On-screen utterance. Any line is taken as ON by default unless
otherwise indicated. Therefore, to be used mostly after tempo
markers (/), (//), and (..) or (…)
(OFF-ON) Shift from off-screen to on-screen. Initially the mouth is not visible,
but subsequently comes into view. The precise shot change
instant is not indicated, but this avoids interruption throughout
the dialogue line. To be used only at the beginning of dialogue
lines or after tempo markers / and //
(ON-OFF) Shift from on-screen to off-screen. Initially the mouth is visible, but
subsequently goes out of view. The precise shot change instant is
not indicated, but this avoids interruption throughout the
dialogue line. To be used only at the beginning of dialogue lines
or after tempo markers / and //
(OVER) Abbreviation for “overlapping”. This implies that two or more
characters speak simultaneously for a while. If the speech of two
characters overlaps, a notation is generally placed at the
beginning of the second character’s line. This could be useful in
order to segment the dialogue into practical blocks, that is,
grouping together the dialogue segments of each character
rather than having a number of separate alternating dialogues
bites. It can also come in handy in the case of background
dialogue lines overlapping the main dialogues
(R) Abbreviation for “reaction”, referring to any paralinguistic sounds
such as laughs, cries, breathes, and gasps. These can be inserted at
any point in the dialogue lines according to when they occur in
the original dialogue
(continued)
Table 5.1 (continued)
(MUTE) To be used when additional dialogue (that is not present in the

or original) is inserted in the dubbed version. This refers to target
(OFF- language dialogue lines recorded onto speech-free gaps in the
MUTE) original track, for example, when a character is silently reading a
mobile text message that is seen in close-up shot. This means that
the character’s mouth is off-screen. The text message can be
translated, recorded, and inserted in the dubbed version, in those
instances where the actor’s mouth is not visible. For example:
CHARACTER (MUTE) (01:33) “Text message contents in target
language”
The inverted commas indicate that a reading intonation is required;
perhaps the text would need to be whispered quickly. The
notation (MUTE) tells the dubbing actors that they have to do
without the original auditory stimuli to know when to utter the
line. The onset time code could turn out to be useful in this
instance. The possible audience perception created could be
either that of something read in a loud voice by the character or
that of an inner thought. A slight reverberation effect is generally
added in the latter case
Indeed, (MUTE) alone, without the additional notation (OFF)
should suffice, since the latter can be taken by default whenever
dialogue is recorded onto speech-free gaps
5.3.2 U
se of Notations: Dubbing Versus
Screenwriting
Most dialogue writing notations consist of abbreviations that are bor-

rowed from screenwriting; in fact, these refer to the images (e.g., camera
shots). In dubbing, the same abbreviations are used with reference to
sound, that is, the source or position of the voice or spoken utterance.
For instance, (OTS)—which refers to an over-the-shoulder shot—
would be relevant to dubbing actors only if there are shoulder or profile-
face movements that are visible and that may suggest the rhythm or
require synchronization. Otherwise, even the (OFF) abbreviation may
be appropriate, if the camera shot is not particularly relevant. Figure 5.15
depicts a mirror OTS shot. This would be considered as an OTS shot in
the film’s shot list. In a dubbing script this shot is relevant only if the
character speaks, and if the mouth is visible in the mirror; this
Fig. 5.1 OTS shot. Film still drawn from Limestone Cowboy (Take2 Entertainment,
2016)
would be considered (and indicated, if necessary) as an on-screen utter-

ance, in dubbing jargon.
Dialogue writers need to bear in mind that dubbing notations are tools
that enable them to communicate with the actors. Therefore, in choosing
which notation to include and where to place it (provided that there is
actual need for it) the most significant questions to consider are: What do
I need to tell the actor? How is the actor going to interpret this notation? Am
I giving a clear instruction? These questions help avoid redundant nota-
tions and, at the same time, dialogue writers save time trying to figure out
which is the “correct” abbreviation to use in a specific situation. Many
times, this is of little consequence as long as the desired result is achieved,
as in the above-mentioned example (interchangeable use of the abbrevia-
tions OTS and OFF in specific circumstances, or likewise VO and OFF).
The abbreviations in dubbing are addressed to the actors, whereas in
screenwriting they are addressed to the director or camera operators, so
much so that very often they will not appear in the screenplay but in a
separate shot list.
Dubbing notations also take into account the fact that actors, on many
occasions, record their lines individually and in any case they only read
their lines; very rarely do they get to read the dialogue lines of the other
dubbing actors (see Sect. 1.2). A conversation between two characters can
be recorded in two separate dubbing sessions, and, as a result, it often
happens that the dubbing actors interpreting the characters never actu-
ally meet.
The dubbing actors listen to the other characters’ lines via earphones,
in the original language or in the TL (if they have already been dubbed).
In most cases, the actors’ role interpretation does not include interaction
with the other interpreted roles, and often they do not receive the verbal
response to the lines they are reciting (see also Chaume 2012, p. 36). This
also applies to overlapping speech, interruptions, and so on. Each charac-
ter’s audio is catered for individually, and it is then up to the sound engi-
neers to mix the tracks appropriately to reproduce the effect existing in
the original.
For this reason, script notations for dubbing are used and displayed in
different ways, when compared to screenwriting.
Example 5.4 Speech interruption in original screenplay.
EMMA I have been trying to call you all----

JOHN Something terrible has happened!
The dashes placed at the end of a dialogue line refer to interrupted

speech in a screenplay. This, however, would not highlight the interrup-
tion to the dubbing actor interpreting John (the one actually interrupt-
ing the speech), who is concerned with his own lines when reading the
TL text. The dubbing actress interpreting Emma knows from the origi-
nal voice track that her voice is interrupted, so suspension dots in a
dubbing script would be enough to highlight the incomplete line. On
the other hand, an abbreviation at the beginning of John’s line would
allow the dubbing actor to prepare for his “invasive entry”, possibly
helping with role interpretation. It also prepares the actor to listen to
two voices contemporarily in the earphone rather than just the one he
is dubbing.
Example 5.5 Interruption in dubbing script.
EMMA I have been trying to call you all…

JOHN (INTER) Something terrible has happened!
Likewise, in a dubbing script, overlapping speech is highlighted at the

beginning of the dialogue line that overlaps the previous one. In conven-
tional scriptwriting, simultaneous speech or dual dialogue is often dis-
played side by side, or otherwise explained by captions such as
“overlapping” or “Emma and John talk over each other”, and so on.
Example 5.6 Overlapping speech in original screenplay.
EMMA JOHN
I have been trying to call you all Something terrible has happened!
morning, where the hell have You’re going to find it hard to
you been?! believe.
Example 5.7 Overlapping speech in dubbing script.
EMMA I have been trying to call you all morning, where the hell
have you been?!
JOHN (OVER) Something terrible has happened! You’re going to
find it hard to believe.
Another important distinction between original screenplays and dub-

bing scripts is that dialogue writers need not specify any editing com-
mands, such as dissolve, fade out, fade in, and cut to, even if they are
mentioned in the original screenplay. This also applies to flashbacks or
any types of shots that are only image related and not relevant to voice,
sound, or dialogue, such as medium shot (MS) or point of view (POV).
The editing commands in the original script may, however, help dialogue
writers determine take segmentation, when they are entrusted with this
task (e.g., in Spain).
Camera shots that are sometimes indicated in dubbing scripts are long
shot (LS) and extreme close-up (ECU or XCU). In actual fact, the LS
abbreviation is addressed mostly to sound technicians, who can choose to
enhance the long-distance effect “physically”, by positioning the dubbing

actor further away from the microphone, or else by creating the said dis-
tance effect, digitally. ECU or XCU highlights the importance of lip syn-
chronization in view of the greater visibility of the mouth on screen.
However, many dubbing directors find it redundant and consider it to be
a futile interruption in the flow of dialogue. In any case, in dubbing
scripts this abbreviation is only used in ECUs of the mouth, as opposed
to close-ups of the eyes or any other facial detail.
Another distinction between screenwriting and dubbing abbreviations
(as mentioned earlier) is the absence of full stops or slashes in the latter,
in order to occupy less space. Screenwriting examples include: f.g., b.g.,
V.O., O.S., O/S, and so on, which become (FG), (BG), (VO), (OFF)
and (ON), respectively, in dubbing scripts.
5.4 Background Noise

Background noise or ambient sound is an important element of a film’s
soundtrack since its function is to add depth and realism to the audio
quality, thus contributing to the authenticity and consequential credibil-
ity of a production, at least as far as audio is concerned. This consists of
any sounds, noises, or effects that can be captured during shooting and
then used; alternatively they can be replaced with prerecorded samples or
otherwise reproduced as foley (manually produced sound effects). This
background noise also comprises what is referred to as walla or generic
buzz: in other words human mouth-uttered noise or sounds, which can
include indistinct as well as identifiable speech or sound bites heard in
the background. This generic murmur needs to be catered for in the TL
dubbed version, even though lip synchronization is not necessary. This
walla may also occur while other characters are speaking in the fore-
ground, and therefore overlapping the main dialogues. The terms “back-
ground” and “foreground”, in this case, do not necessarily refer to the
shot or proximity of characters to the screen, but to importance in terms
of volume or content. Having said that, the chatter attributed to those
characters or extras closer to the screen (or camera) is generally prioritized
when choosing which to cover or allocate in the dubbing dialogue script
(Chaume 2004).
Strictly speaking, this background murmur cannot really be consid-

ered as a separate script component because it is fully integrated within
the dialogue list, and consists of speech that has to be included in the
recording, just like the rest of the dialogues. However, these segments of
dialogue need to be handled differently. Very often dialogue writers are
called upon to improvise speech, because background dialogue lines
hardly ever feature in the original script.
Crowds, people in the street, chatter in an office or at a party, children
in a playground, prisoners in a prison yard, guests in a hotel lobby, and so
on are all typical examples of walla. It may also incorporate other types of
background noise, such as sound from a TV or radio set. In the original
script, the general buzz may be mentioned, and the notation “indistinct”
or “original” can be included in the dubbing script as follows:
WALLA (INDISTINCT)
WALLA (ORIGINAL)
This is the case when the original walla is retained and suffices, and pro-
viding target language dialogue lines may not even be necessary.
Parts of the generic buzz are sometimes provided in the script. On
other occasions, however, there is no mention at all, especially in the case
of bare dialogue transcripts or dialogue lists. More often than not, the
background noise is not found on the voice/dialogue track, but on a
separate music and effects track (M/E) in the original language version.
This means that when deleting the SL voice track for dubbing purposes,
most, if not all, of the background noise provided in the original, will
still be available. However, dialogue writers cannot always tell if the
background noise they hear is on the voice track or on the M/E track;
consequently, it is recommended to provide it in the dubbing script
(Chaume 2004). Besides, dubbing companies sometimes record addi-
tional ambiance, even when totally indistinct, in order to enhance the
original one. When in doubt whether to provide generic ambiance or
not, it is preferable to include an extra element rather than having the
director invent dialogues on the spot, during the recording sessions. In
this case simply writing “CROWD” or “ALL” or “WALLA” followed by
“(INDISTINCT)” or “(ORIGINAL)” is not helpful to the dubbing stu-

dios, unless the original indistinct ambiance will suffice. The character
allocation “WALLA” needs to be followed by dialogue lines. In Spanish
language dubbing scripts, the background dialogue assigned to such
characters is preceded by “(AD LIB)” so that the studio personnel are
aware that the specified lines are not part of the original but have been
added by the dialogue writer. This gives the directors the freedom to
change them as they deem fit.
When dialogues can be singled out, or when they are spoken by extras
who are close to the camera or somehow identifiable despite being in a crowd,
it is best to assign the lines to specific characters. For instance, WOMAN,
SPEAKER TV (male), MAN 1, MAN 2, POLICE 1 (female), POLICE 2
(male), and so on and so forth. Gender would need to be stated when it is
not revealed by the chosen appellation. Even in such cases, dialogue writers
often have to invent the dialogue in the TL. An appreciable and practical
strategy is to create concise, rather than long and intricate, dialogue lines.
Example 5.8 illustrates a generic murmur reproduced in a dubbing
script, and intensified by other dialogue lines that are assigned to charac-
ters who are either closer to the camera or whose lines can be partially or
fully understood. In general, lip synchronization is not required in such
cases (Herbst 1994). If the priority and volume of the line is such that it
requires lip synchronization, then, perhaps, it cannot be considered as
background noise.
Example 5.8 Fictitious dubbing script walla at a film premiere.
WALLA (crowd-various) There he is! / Can I have an

autograph?! / Stop pushing. / I love his
smile! / Look this way! / He is so
charismatic. / I want to get closer. / He is
so tall. / I’ll take a selfie with him!
REPORTER 1 (male) When are you shooting your next film?
REPORTER 2 (female) Is the current gossip true?
REPORTER 3 (male) Is it true that you are dating a very young
Venezuelan actress?
Example 5.9 Walla featuring in a dubbing script. Excerpt drawn from

the Italian adaptation of the TV series Dracula (NBC 2013), Season 1,
Episode, 1, “Il sangue è vita”.
BRUSIO (sala da ballo) Oh! / Finalmente. / Eccolo. / È lui. / È

molto giovane. / Ero curiosa. / Era ora. / Sì, lo vedo. /
Che uomo attraente. / Sentiamo cos’ha da dire.
Back translation: Oh! / Finally! / There he is. / Yeah, it’s him. / He
is very young. / I was curious. / About time. / Yes, I’m seeing him.
/ What an attractive man. / Let’s hear what he is about to tell us.
Example 5.10 Fictitious example of a crowd and known characters

uttering the same words simultaneously.
CROWD Five.. four.. three.. two.. one.. Happy new year!

SEAN (OVER) Five.. four.. three.. two.. one.. Happy new year!
EMMA (OVER) Five.. four.. three.. two.. one.. Happy new year!
(OVER: overlapping)
Example 5.11 Fictitious dubbing script walla in a café.
WALLA (Café) Let’s grab a table. / Take a seat. / I’ll have a flat
white. / Do they serve scones? / An Americano. / He’s
my husband. / Where’s your phone? / It’s been a
while. / I like all the dream catchers. / My friends are
joining. / Have you spoken to Noor? / It’s my
favourite place. / I love never-ending breakfasts.
WAITRESS What can I get you?
GIRL 1 This place is too crowded.
GIRL 2 Let’s get out of here.
Example 5.12 Walla featuring in an original script. Excerpt drawn from

the original script of the TV series Psych (NBC 2006), Season 3, Episode
16, “An evening with Mr. Yang”.
MOVIE ACTORS (walla)

Example 5.12 refers to a film-within-a-film situation. The main char-

acters arrive at a drive-in cinema. The film being projected onto the big
screen can be seen and heard, though most of the time “beneath” the
dialogues of the main characters. The original script does not provide
anything in this regard as can be seen in Example 5.12. For this reason,
considering that the drive-in film is recognizable and that some sound
bites can actually be singled out, an effort to identify the name of the film
being cited and retrieve the dialogue transcript of the scene in question,
may be a possible option. Alternatively, the intelligible bites can be tran-
scribed. This puts the dialogue writer in a position to translate and adapt
credible background dialogue in the TL. In this particular case, however,
what needs to be considered is that perhaps the film in question has
already been dubbed in the TL. In such circumstances, however, the
prospect of utilizing material from a pre-existing dubbed version is very
limited, unless it is easily retrievable and it is easy to sort out copyright
restraints. This depends on the type of production, importance of scene,
relevance to plot, budget allocated to the dubbed version, year of film
production, and other factors. Retrieving a dubbed version and repro-
ducing parts of the same dialogue (within copyright limits), or reproduc-
ing a close adaptation, will make the dialogue more acceptable to a target
audience that may be familiar with the dubbed version of the film.
This particular example illustrates background noise that is heard
uninterruptedly throughout the scene. The dubbing director might
choose not to record all the material provided in the dubbing script and
may draw on some parts only. It is then up to the sound engineers to
make sure that the intelligible sound bites are covered. In any case, it is
better to provide extra dialogue rather than oblige the other professional
roles in the studios to improvise dialogue lines.
When the general murmur runs throughout a whole scene, it is advis-
able not to interrupt the main characters’ dialogues in the dubbing script,
but to group all the necessary walla and have it precede the other dia-
logues. This does not apply to those lines that can be singled out in specific
moments and assigned to background characters. These “extra” characters
are to be included in the character list provided by the dialogue writer. In
this manner, the dubbing assistants or language department within
the dubbing company can schedule a recording session dedicated to the
walla of the whole film or group of serial episodes. For this reason, it is far
more practical for dubbing assistants or in-house operators to have generic
background murmur consistently allocated as “walla” or “generic buzz”
every time it features, even when the original script uses a variety of alloca-
tions, for example “movie actors” and “guests”. This makes all background
dialogue throughout the dubbing script easily retrievable. This walla is
sometimes grouped into a single loop, which time code may overlap with
the preceding or following loop or loops.
5.5 On-Screen Text or Graphics

Any written text that is visible on screen, in the original version, and is
somehow relevant to the plot or characters, needs to be taken into
account during the adaptation process. This may include subtitles or
written text featuring on mobile, computer, or tablet screens. Similarly,
it may consist of letters, books, newspapers, as well as any other written
graphics that a character reads, or which, in any case, may need to be
read and understood by the audience. Indeed, dialogue writers need to
discern which of these require translation, and hence include them in
the dubbing script. In certain cases, graphics in the original language
may also be substituted by graphics in the TL, but this is not always
possible. Dialogue writers cannot anticipate the final studio-chosen
solution, and would usually need to provide a translation that could
possibly be inserted as a subtitle. The insertion of the onset time code
for such captions may prove to be very useful to the dubbing company,
even when using a layout method that does not require the onset time
code of each dialogue line. Written text, in general, features in upper
case letters in dubbing scripts. This may be rendered as subtitles in the
TL dubbed version.
Example 5.13 Fictitious caption featuring in a dubbing script; caption

to be reproduced in the TL dubbed version.
CAPTION (20:43) FIVE YEARS LATER

Another (rare) option is to have a narrator (who will not be included

in the character list) read the captions in VO, although, nowadays, this
choice is mostly taken into consideration for children’s programmes, the
reason being that it could easily break the suspension of disbelief in adult
viewer productions, unless this type of narrator-technique is already pres-
ent in the original version.
Indeed, according to its dubbing specifications and guidelines, Netflix
strongly recommends not to have written text voiced over in the dubbed
audio. Instead, they require a separate text file for the insertion of cap-
tions in accordance with the text style guide that is usually applied in
their subtitled products. However, exceptions are made at their discre-
tion, when the scene allows for a character to read on-screen text such as
letters or text messages. Indeed, this is a widely used strategy across coun-
tries and companies but is not always the case, for instance, in certain
Netflix dubbed productions. In the popular “alphabet wall” scene, featur-
ing in the first season of the TV series Stranger Things (Netflix 2016–
ongoing), the imperative “RUN”, spelled out on the wall, is translated by
means of a caption in most of the dubbed versions. The main character is
off-screen and therefore it could have easily been voiced over to give the
impression that she is reading aloud but it was not the strategy opted for
in most TL dubbed versions.
When it is possible to have the written text voice-recorded in the TL,
it needs to be allocated to a specific character. This is generally the case of
text read silently by a character and being shown on screen without any
uttered speech (e.g., chat messages on a smartphone). Dialogue writers
will need to decide when to adopt this solution. The dubbing company
may be the one to specify that the insertion of subtitles should preferably
be avoided; in such cases, all or at least most of the content of the written
text must be covered in the dubbed version. When this type of character-
text allocation is not possible, it can also be done by adding the relevant
information within the dubbed dialogues.
Examples 5.14a and 5.14b refer to one of the initial sequences of the
film Seven Pounds, directed by Gabriele Muccino. The main character,
Ben, is staring at a written message that is relevant to the plot; thus, it
necessarily needs to be covered in the dubbed version. In such cases, sub-
titles are rarely considered an option because they would interrupt the
dramatic intensity of the scene.
Example 5.14a On-screen text featuring in Seven Pounds (Columbia

Pictures 2008), original version:
BEN THESE ARE ALL THE CANDIDATES THAT MEET

YOUR CRITERIA HERE IN REGION 5. REMEMBER YOU
DON’T KNOW ME.
The close-up shot on the written text signifies that Ben’s mouth is off-
screen; therefore, additional dialogue can be recorded on the speech-free
gap in the voice track. The dialogue writer needs to allocate the adapta-
tion of the written text to Ben. Despite the text being in a foreign lan-
guage for the target audience, adhering closely to the original is preferable
because it is visible on screen; hence, there is not much room for conden-
sation. At the same time, dialogue writers must be aware of the fact that
additional dialogue is invading another filmic code which is significant in
this scene: the music. Consequently, although lack of speech might give
the impression that there is ample “empty” space for additional dialogue,
it is preferable to restrain the duration of the newly recorded additional
dialogue as much as possible to respect the film language as a whole.
It would be best to provide the dubbing actor with an indication as to
when to recite the text out loud, that is, using a time-code to prompt the
moment when the mouth is off-screen and the camera is zoomed onto the
text. This time the dubbing actor has no auditory cue because the actor in
the original version does not speak and the line is being recorded onto a
speech-free gap. Therefore, inserting the onset time code would be useful.
In this example, the intended effect of the dubbed version would be
that of the character rereading to himself, as opposed to reading aloud.
The main character, Ben, had been staring at the message for quite a
while, so it is evident that he is not reading it for the first time; this sug-
gests that an inner voice effect would be more credible: as though he is
going through that message in his mind. However, the choice of the
resulting auditory effect (which could require a slight reverberation effect
or a specific volume) is up to the dubbing director and sound engineer.
The dialogue writer’s remit is the adaptation, character allocation, and
clear dubbing notations, for the benefit of the actor and the dubbing
team. It needs to be easily understood that this is not part of the original
voice track and must be added to the recording. Example 5.14b illustrates a
possible rendering in the dubbing script. Inverted commas forewarn the

actor that the line requires a reading intonation.
Example 5.14b On-screen text featuring in Seven Pounds (Gabriele

Muccino, Columbia Pictures 2008), Spanish-dubbed version:
BEN (00:14) (OFF-MUTE) “Ben, estos son los candidatos que

cumplen tus requisitos en la región cinco. Recuerda, no me
conoces.”
All the adapted on-screen titles inserted in the dubbing script can also
be gathered into a separate list and included in the front matter (the ini-
tial pages) of the script itself, together with their respective onset time
codes. This comes in handy for the technical and language departments
of dubbing companies. There are occasions when dialogue writers are
requested to send the on-screen titles as a separate subtitling file, there-
fore translated and adapted with the aid of subtitling software.
Example 5.15 Excerpt from Italian dubbing script of the TV series

Dracula (NBC 2013), Season 1, Episode 1, “Il sangue è vita”
CARTELLI:
(00:26) ROMANIA, 1881
(03:16) LONDRA 1896
(07:42) TITOLO SERIE
(25:07) GRAYSON STUPISCE CON L’ENERGIA SENZA FILI
(Back translation: Captions: Romania, 1881; London 1896, Title of TV
series, Grayson surprises everyone with his wireless energy technology.)
Example 5.16 illustrates production company dubbing instructions

pertinent to on-screen text featuring in the original episode of a TV series.
Example 5.16 Excerpt from the dubbing notes in the “as broadcast”
script of Castle (Disney/abc Studios), Season 2, Episode 18.
A clear glass, touch sensitive, interactive SMART Board (in the style of
those used in the feature film “Minority Report”) is utilized through-
out the episode and displays relevant story-point English text and pic-
tures. Although, it is occasionally seen full-screen, it is considered a set
element—no text needs to be provided [in the dubbed version]. Most
story-point text is also read aloud by characters for clarity.
5.6 F ront Matter: Heading, Character List,

Synopsis, Titles
An important front matter component consists of the heading, that is, the
original title of the film or serial production, and original episode title (in
the case of a serial production, together with the season and episode num-
ber), followed by one or more proposed titles in the TL. The final selec-
tion is not in the hands of dialogue writers, who may discover on many
occasions that the choice has fallen on a totally different alternative. The
TV networks, distributors, or production companies are generally involved
in such choices, which are normally made in accordance with local market
demands and considerations. This notwithstanding, dialogue writers usu-
ally suggest a possible TL title or a selection of titles. Usually three in num-
ber, for instance, in Italy or Spain-based dubbing: a literal translation of the
original title and two creative titles. There could be instances when the film
or TV series in question already has a TL title assigned, for instance, for the
purpose of cinema premières, where the production would be screened
with subtitles and with a TL title. At times, certain productions require
retranslation and redubbing for copyright or availability issues, in order to
enable its use on a different medium (e.g., TV and DVD). In such cases the
same title ideally should be retrieved through online resources, and repro-
posed for marketing purposes (Chaume 2012, p. 129).
Dialogue writers are very often also required to provide a character list
in the initial pages of the dubbing script or in a separate document. This
comprises only those characters who have spoken dialogue, including
minor roles and extras (such as MAN 1, MAN 2, WOMAN 1, and
WAITRESS), basically all those who have at least one dialogue line or
sound bite allocated to them. Such generic character allocations would
feature in the TL equivalent (e.g., UOMO 1, Italian equivalent for
MAN). The same applies to any proper names that have been translated
into the TL, although it would be best to add an explanatory note. As a

general rule, the decision to translate names is taken in consultation with
the dubbing director and the client. This is typically frequent in produc-
tions for children, but can also be the case with famous names: historical,
mythical, or other (e.g., Father Christmas, Santa Claus, and Nikolaus).
For this reason, the character list found in an original script does not
necessarily match the one provided in the dubbing script.
Example 5.17 Fictitious character list.
CHARACTER LIST
JOHN
EMMA
SEAN
Mrs. SHAY
Mr. SHAY
JOURNALIST 1 (female)
JOURNALIST 2 (male)
TEACHER (male)
PARAMEDIC (female)
Names, generally, need to be provided in full, even when nicknames or

abbreviations are used. Many clients tend to prefer consistency in the way
the name is used all throughout the dubbed version.
This list proves useful to dubbing assistants and/or other departments
within the dubbing company during the selection of voice talents and the
preparation of recording schedules. The time code indicating the charac-
ter’s first intervention is not usually required, as opposed to the character
lists in postproduction VO, such as, in the case of documentaries. The
character list may occasionally also incorporate the pronunciation of
character names which, proves to be useful, mainly, to actors. Alternatively,
depending on the TL and alphabet, the dialogue writer might also be
expected to provide the local transliteration or, otherwise, local equiva-
lent of the original character names, as in the case of Arabic TL dubbed
productions.
Table 5.2 Character list template in Arabic

‫مالحظات‬ ‫اجلنس‬ ‫الصفة ابلعريب‬ ‫الامس الاجنيب‬ ‫ألمس العريب‬ ‫م‬
M 1.
F 2.
Note: Adopted by Screens International
Table 5.26 reads (from right to left) as follows: number, character

name in Arabic, character name in the original language, Arabic equiv-
alent or nickname/characteristic, gender, and notes. Character names
are either simply transliterated into Arabic from the original language,
otherwise, the closest Arabic equivalent is used, especially in produc-
tions where certain characters need to sound more familiar, friendly, or
in some way closer to the target audience. Another option adopted
quite often is the allocation of a kind of nickname or pet name that
relates to some noticeable or distinguishable characteristic. The latter
applies mostly to cartoons and children’s programmes in general. If, in
the original production, a cat is called “Tom”, the name adopted in the
Arabic-dubbed version could be, just to give an example, “harhoor” (a
term similar to “kitty” or “fluffy cat”). This is a widely spread norm in
Arabic dubbing. When a localized Arabic equivalent or nickname is
chosen instead of the original name, this would be the version featuring
in the dialogues within the dubbing script. The company which adopts
the template in Table 5.2 also integrates a widespread Arabic subtitling
norm in its dubbing scripts: character names and proper nouns, in gen-
eral, feature within round brackets in the dialogue lines, one of the
reasons being to distinguish foreign proper nouns from homonymous
common nouns in the Arabic language (e.g., “Maher” which could be
a proper name, as well as a common noun meaning “skilful” in Arabic.)
The brackets used with proper nouns avoid confusion when actors read
and interpret the lines.7
The first numbered column in Table 5.2 can also contain the names of
the dubbing actors. This template is completed and provided by dialogue
writers as a separate document at the beginning of each production or
series, and is also included in the front matter provided in each episode
script, when there are newly added characters. When this list is not related
to one specific episode or script, and is provided at the beginning of a
serial production or annexed to the generic material, it can also be con-

sidered as part of the glossary or consistency sheet, otherwise referred to
as dubbing bible (see Sect. 4.3).
Dialogue writers are sometimes required to provide a plot synopsis in
the initial pages of the dubbing script. The names of the characters men-
tioned throughout the synopsis can be written in upper case letters so
that the actors may immediately single out their own characters; they
tend to use this summary as a quick reference to their role and relation to
other characters. The use of upper case comes in handy in spotting their
character names, especially in longer and more intricate plot summaries,
unlike Example 5.18, which features a very simple and concise
description.
Example 5.18 Italian synopsis drawn from the Italian dubbing script of
The Big Bang Theory (Warner Bros 2007–2019), Season 3, Episode 10,
“Progetto Gorilla”.
SINOSSI: BERNADETTE mostra interesse nelle ricerche di

LEONARD e HOWARD s’ingelosisce. PENNY chiede
a SHELDON di insegnarle un po’ di fisica perché vuole
stupire LEONARD.
(Back translation: Howard is jealous as Bernadette shows an interest in
Leonard’s research. Penny asks Sheldon to teach her some physics with
the intention of surprising Leonard)
5.7 Recaps
In the case of serial productions, dialogue writers will often come across
audiovisual recaps (Bost et al. 2016) at the beginning of specific episodes.
This means that at the beginning of an episode there is a general brief
introduction to the whole series (perhaps narrated in VO by one of the
characters), or, otherwise, a summary of the preceding episode or epi-
sodes, or both. In the case of one generic plot recapitulation common to
all episodes, this is recorded only once during the initial dubbing sessions.
It is then televised and subsequently used in every following episode. For

this reason the translation and adaptation of this general recapitulation
must be provided with the dubbing script only the first time it features. If
dialogue writers are engaged in the initial episodes, it would be best to ask
the dubbing company whether the recap has already been catered for.
On the other hand, recaps that vary from one episode to another
must be made available by the dialogue writer with each episode. These
may consist of a montage of excerpts from previous episodes that may
have already been recorded and televised, or others that are still lined
up for recording. Even when the dialogue excerpts belong to episodes
that have already been dubbed, most of them are usually recited and
recorded once again because it is much more time consuming for the
dubbing sound technician to search, cut, and paste previously recorded
dialogue excerpts. This is feasible especially when the dubbing studios
already have all the episodes of a serial production in hand, because the
recap excerpts can be included in the actors’ schedules from the start. If,
on the other hand, the studio has continuous incoming episodes, a new
recording of the recap excerpts spoken by one-off characters might not
be possible, because the actors in question might not be scheduled for
other sessions. In this case, it would be less costly and time-consuming
to extract the dialogues from the previous recording. Re-recording is
feasible for the recurrent characters in a series, whose dubbing voice
talents would be scheduled regularly and would not need to be sum-
moned purposely for the recaps.
Example 5.19 Recap featuring at the beginning of most episodes in the

initial seasons of the TV series Castle (Disney/abc Studios 2009–2015).
CASTLE (VO) There are two kinds of folks who sit around
thinking about how to kill people: psychopaths and
mystery writers. I’m the one that pays better. Who am
I? / (ON) I’m Rick Castle. / Castle. / Castle. / I really
am ruggedly handsome, aren’t I? / (VO) Every writer
needs inspiration and I found mine.
BECKETT Detective Kate Beckett. / Beckett. / Beckett. / “Nikki
Heat?”
MARTHA The character he’s basing on you.
CASTLE (VO) And thanks to my friendship with the mayor, I

get to be on her case. / (ON) I’d be happy to let you
spank me. / (VO) And together we catch killers. /
(ON) We make a pretty good team, you know. Like
Starsky and Hutch, Turner and Hooch.
BECKETT You do remind me a little of Hooch.
Example 5.20 Recap featuring in The Tomorrow People (Warner Bros

2013/2014), Season 1, Episode 2.
CARA (vo) Previously, on The Tomorrow People…

VAUGHAN Reading someone’s thoughts is just the beginning.
You’ll be able to access their feelings, even their
memories.
CARA Stephen, you have no idea what you’re getting yourself
into.
MARLA We have a visitor. / (o.s.) This is your uncle.
JEDIKIAH Work for me, Stephen. / We track anything that can
indicate a new breakout. And then, we have our
agents, who help us track rogue paranormals. /
(sotto) And when the time comes, Stephen will lead
us to the Tomorrow People. And we’ll kill them. /
(o.s.) Stephen… (on) Got someone I’d like you to
meet: (o.s.) Your new partner.
The type of recap in Example 5.19 must be translated and adapted in the
dubbing script only the first time it features in the series. The type of recap
in 5.20 varies in each episode. It would be ideal if the target language recap
reproduces exactly the same dialogues broadcast in the dubbed episodes
from where they are drawn. However, this is easier said than done. The
previous scripts may have been adapted by different dialogue writers, and
therefore getting hold of them may not always be easy. Besides, identifying
the episodes from which an excerpt has been taken can prove to be a very
difficult task, unless this information is specified in the original script in
hand. Searching for the specific excerpts can also be very time consuming.
On the other hand, if dialogue writers are able to identify the specific
excerpts, which perhaps happen to be saved among their own previous

adapted scripts, then providing the same TL version in the recap would
help save time in the dubbing studios. Dubbing studios do not always
dedicate much attention to such detail, and many a time they just record
the recap excerpts as presented in the scripts. At other times they are re-
edited to bring them in line with the previous broadcasts. Dubbing scripts
that provide faithful recaps are highly appreciated by dubbing companies
as this means time saved on their part. It is preferable to retain consistency
with previous televised material; ideally the same translation should be
used. This does not always occur and it is also true that very often even the
original language recaps contain variations in editing, and so, dialogues
might not be precisely identical. If the TL adaptation of such excerpts is
available, they could be edited slightly to suit the recap. In this manner, the
newly edited recap would still be very similar to the previously broadcast
excerpts, and the viewers would not tell the difference in dialogues.
5.8 H
eaders, Page Numbers, Translator’s
Notes
As mentioned in Sect. 5.6, the front matter includes the name of the trans-
lator as well as the name of the production and episode title and number,
in both source and TL. This information can also be inserted into a header,
which may display the episode title and number on every page. This, as well
as the insertion of page numbers, may seem to be insignificant details, but
they are important for the dubbing companies, and are sometimes men-
tioned in the dubbing translation specifications handed over to dialogue
writers. Such details are particularly useful in recording studios where
unbound hard copies of the scripts are used on a reading stand. Dialogue
writers may wish to keep in mind that usually the pages of a script are not
read in sequential order; dubbing actors walk in, find the script on a lec-
tern, and are expected to find their specific take numbers which could be
scattered across the script. Group dubbings and the use of digital captions
on screen, mentioned in previous chapters, mark an exception, of course.
Other details belonging to the dubbing script may include any notes
provided by dialogue writers that are meant to draw the director’s attention
to some specific choice. Likewise, footnotes are sometimes adopted in
order to provide an alternative to the dialogue line provided within the text
or perhaps a brief explanation (e.g., mentioning that a character uses a
particular accent in the original version). This provides an extra option to
the dubbing director. Such strategies are to be used with parsimony; other-
wise, if used in excess, they could become a redundant and time-consum-
ing nuisance to the other professional roles involved.
Sometimes, additional brief notes are inserted within the dialogue list
itself, for instance, the pronunciation placed within brackets next to the
term or proper noun concerned.
Notes
1. Chinese dubbing scripts have been kindly provided by Ping Deng
(University of Petroleum, Beijing), Prof. Jin Haina (Communication
University of China).
2. Information on Arabic dubbing scripts has been provided by Screens
International, an international localization company with branches in
Beirut, Montreal, London, Los Angeles, and Mumbai.
3. Information on dubbing scripts in Iran has been kindly provided by Saeed
Ameri (Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Iran).
5. The film still and permission to use it was kindly provided by Maltese film
director Abigail Mallia and Take2 Entertainment. The Maltese actor fea-
turing in the film still is Paul Portelli.
6. This table was kindly provided by Screens International.
7. This information on dubbing specifics in Arabic-dubbed productions has
been provided by Screens International.
References
Bost, X., Labatut, V., Gueye, S., & Linarès, G. (2016). Narrative smoothing: Dynamic
conversational network for the analysis of TV series plots. ASONAM (2016),
Proceedings of the 2016 IEEE/ACM international conference on advances in
social networks analysis and mining. https://arxiv.org/abs/1602.07811
Cerezo Merchán, B. (2016). Elementos paratextuales en la traducción para el

doblaje. In B. Cerezo Merchán et al. (Eds.), La traducción para el doblaje en
España: mapa de convenciones (pp. 115–122). Castelló de la Plana: Universitat
Jaume I.
Chaume, F. (2004). Film studies and translation studies: Two disciplines at stake
in audiovisual translation. Meta, 49(1), 12–24.
Publishing.
Genette, G. (1997). Paratexts: Thresholds of interpretation. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Herbst, T. (1994). Linguistische Aspekte der Synchronisation von Fernsehserien.
Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag.
Other Material
Contratto Collettivo Nazionale del lavoro, settore Doppiaggio. (2008). Retrieved
from http://www.saislc.cgil.it/images/pdf/ccnl%20doppiaggio%20%20
30-01-2008.pdf
Filmography
TV Series
Castle. (2009–2015). A. W. Marlowe, Disney/abc studios.

Dracula. (2013–2014). C. Haddon, NBC.
Psych. (2006–2014). S. Franks, NBC.
Stranger Things. (2016–ongoing). M. Duffer & R. Duffer, Netflix.
The Tomorrow People. (2013–2014). G. Berlanti, P. Klemmer & J. Plec, Warner
Bros.
Motion Pictures
Muccino, G. (2008). Seven Pounds. USA: Columbia Pictures.

6
Standards and Practices
6.1 Company Guidelines

There are no established universal guidelines where dialogue writing is
concerned. Some companies provide dialogue writers with a set of generic
guidelines and specifics pertaining to the adaptation of scripts (Boldon
and Carter 2013), others simply do not. Although these guidelines may
vary from one company to another and also one country to another, there
are a number of adaptation conventions that, to a certain extent, seem to
have become commonly accepted standards (Dries 1995). It is important
to note that adaptation norms are determined by the country and culture
where the dubbing takes place and not by the target language (TL) in
itself. So, for instance, dubbing specifics and conventions for dubbing
into Italian in a US-based company will vary when compared to those
applied in dubbing studios based in Italy. More often than not, branches
of the same company located in different countries customize their dub-
bing methods accordingly, though there are exceptions. Some production
and distribution companies with a global scope, such as Netflix,1 seem to
lean towards a standardization of dubbing specifics applicable across dif-
ferent countries.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04966-9_6
6.2 Numbers, Measurements, Conversions

Unless there is a specific client request, numbers 0 to 10 are generally
spelled out in wording, while number 11 and upwards can be written in
figures (e.g., one, four, 16, 26). Ordinal numbers are spelled out in word-
ing too (first, second, third, etc.), while large numbers should ideally be
displayed in a readable fashion (e.g., one million 600 thousand).
As far as units of measure are concerned, these are normally converted
to those adopted in the target culture (Ranzato 2016), for example: miles,
feet, and inches are converted to kilometres, metres, and centimetres.
Likewise, Fahrenheit is converted to Celsius, gallons to litres, and so on.
The only exceptions may include specific fields in which a certain unit of
measure is adopted globally (such as the use of miles or knots in nautical
jargon). The result of a mathematical conversion can be rounded up or
down, since in most cases accurate figures are not necessary for plot pur-
poses, and adding decimal points means lengthening the dialogue line
(e.g., 5 inches would be adapted to 12 centimetres rather than 12.7 cm,
15 stones would be adapted to 95 kg rather than 95.25 kg; Ranzato
2016). Most dubbing companies prefer the units of measure written in
full rather than abbreviated, the reason being easier readability on behalf
of the actors (e.g., kilos or kilogrammes rather than kg, kilometres rather
than km).
Currency, on the other hand, is never converted and is spelled out in
full rather than adopting the symbol (Cerezo Merchán et al. 2016). Time
is adapted according to the local customs depending on whether the
12-hour format or 24-hour format is used. Size of clothes and shoes, too,
require conversion.
6.3 Interjections
Written sounds or interjections are generally localized in the TL and cul-
ture because the viewers identify a specific meaning for each one. English-
language scripts may include vocal sounds such as pff, ggrr, shush, hey,
ooh, ouch. These might require a localized equivalent, a notation, or a
Standards and Practices 163
different spelling (e.g., the Italian equivalent uh replaces ooh, sshh replaces
shush, ahi replaces ouch, puah replaces ew or bleurgh or yuck, sbuffa replaces
pff, starnutisce replaces ah-choo, mah replaces bah, russa replaces zzz, sì sì
replaces uh huh, pam pam replaces bang bang, ehi replaces hey, and so on
and so forth).
6.4 Spelling and Punctuation

Although it may seem obvious, company guidelines addressed to dia-
logue writers often specify the importance of avoiding spelling or typo-
graphical errors because these can disrupt the flow of the recording
process. They can also be the cause of serious forms of disruption in the
dubbing process if they occur, for instance, in the names of characters
positioned next to the dialogue, especially where computer software is
used to single out the actors’ dialogue lines from the script. The conse-
quences can be similar to those caused by incorrect character allocation,
and which shall be discussed later, in Sect. 6.5.
Specific TLs may require additional spelling recommendations, such
as the inclusion of any glyphs, diacritical marks, or letters that help clarify
pronunciation, articulation, or sound, such as the Arabic letter hamza,
which when added to a given word indicates a glottal stop. Company
guidelines provided for the Arabic language generally specify such
recommendations.
Needless to say, apart from spelling, punctuation is a principal tool
that can help dubbing actors understand the intonation and intention of
the dialogue, possibly at a first reading, without the need for further
instructions or explanations. One of the dubbing director’s responsibili-
ties is to guide actors in role interpretation, pointing out those words that
may need stress or emphasis, which intonation to use, and which emo-
tional response the dialogue is meant to obtain. Actors also receive instruc-
tions pertaining to diction, pronunciation, articulation, and volume.
Dubbing assistants and sound engineers usually have their say, as well.
Consequently, the use of appropriate punctuation, where necessary, will
reduce the number of times that each dialogue line needs to be rehearsed
before recording, and therefore the time and effort necessary to achieve the
desired result. In addition, pertinent punctuation will sustain a higher

degree of fidelity to the desired effect in the original version. Ultimately,
dialogue writers bridge the span that divides the author of the original ver-
sion and the dubbing team involved in the localization process. The dub-
bing team in the studio may not be proficient enough in the original
language to capture certain nuances and intended meaning, so it is up to
the dialogue writers to ensure that these do come across, primarily to the
directors and actors who must then play their part in relaying them across
to the target audience.
The punctuation used in dubbing scripts may not necessarily adhere
strictly to language grammatical rules. It needs to be functional to the
dubbing script which is not meant to be read by the audience, but per-
ceived aurally through the actors’ spoken words; it is the actor who is
using this punctuation as a working tool. As a consequence, adapting
punctuation accordingly may be helpful. For instance, adding commas,
that normally would not be required in a written text meant for reading,
may be of help in pointing out emphasis and reading intonation, or oth-
erwise a very slight pause in speech. Likewise, adding accents to indicate
correct emphasis, for example in the case of words that have homonyms,
could be a useful tool to actors (see Sect. 7.4).The Spanish inverted inter-
rogative (¿) and exclamation mark (¡), positioned at the beginning of the
dialogue, would possibly be a useful functional strategy if dubbing com-
panies had to adopt it globally, since this lays out the intended tone and
intonation of the lines before the actors start reading; aside from the fact
that it may be a further aid in role interpretation.
Time-efficiency considerations have to be given priority at all times
because the primary consideration is the fast pace set to the whole dub-
bing process. As mentioned in Chap. 1, more often than not, dubbing
actors just walk into the studio, completely unaware of the dramatic con-
text or character relations of the plot, and must record a number of lines
in a set time. The whole process may very well be compared to a machine
that must run at a constant speed, with the least possible delays, due to
the costs and extremely tight deadlines imposed by market needs. All
roles are interdependent and have an impact on one another. Hence, any
possible strategy that helps minimize errors or reduces the need for repeated
dialogue line rehearsing contributes towards this momentum. The faster
the actors manage to record their lines, the better for the dubbing pro-
duction. Dialogue writers, whose work contributes towards this sustained
tempo and smooth flow, are very much sought after and consequently
always in higher demand.
6.5 Character Allocation

It is extremely important to assign each dialogue to the correct character.
This may sound superfluous, but it is one of the most common slip-ups;
such mistakes can have repercussions on the whole dubbing process.
Dubbing companies consider this to be a far more serious flaw than any
type of language and translation error. The kind of practical consequences
involved can be illustrated through a fictitious example: male actor A
records all the lines of his character in one day, so all loops belonging to
the specific character name that features on the left-hand side of the script
layout are run through and recorded. During the following days, while
male actor B is recording his lines the dubbing team in the studio realizes
that one of the lines assigned to actor B’s character in the dubbing script,
in actual fact, belongs to the character interpreted by actor A. This means
that actor A has to return to the studio (if his personal schedule permits
or if he is not, say, momentarily abroad) to rerecord the line that has been
omitted from his takes. It will be evident enough that actor A will have to
be remunerated for his extra service. Such a simple mistake has an impact
on the smooth flow of the dubbing production, extending time require-
ments and budgeted costs.
Character names used for the purpose of assigning dialogue lines (i.e.,
those written in the left-hand side column of the script and not those
encompassed within the dialogue lines) are written in upper case and
must be spelled correctly every time they appear. This is very important,
especially in the case of software applications that otherwise would not
recognize the character names. When software is used, dubbing compa-
nies often prefer to avoid any accents or special characters included in the
character allocation (e.g., ç or à or ñ).
Spacing, hyphens, and full or abbreviated names need to be used con-
sistently throughout (e.g., avoid alternating between Jean Claude, Jean-
Claude, JeanClaude, JC, Jean). Contrary to past trends, names are

generally not translated, except in the case of children’s programmes,
though there are languages that resort to name adaptation, such as the
Arabic language as discussed in Sect. 5.6 (for strategies on the translation
of proper names, see Leppihalme 1997).
As mentioned in Sect. 5.4, any background sound and speech coming
from an identified source, such as TV or radio, as well as dialogue lines or
close-up faces amidst crowds that can be identified, needs to be covered
and assigned to characters or extras, too.
There is no need to include animal sounds (e.g., a cat purring) in the
dubbing script since similar sounds are contained in the music and effects
track. However, if the voices used in the original version belong to human
characters that have been possessed by animals, spirits or any other crea-
tures, their names must appear on the left-hand side of the script layout.
The audible voices must always be the dialogue writers’ point of reference
in character allocation. For this purpose, no heed is taken of the physical
appearance on screen.
6.6 F oreign Language, Fictitious Language,

Accents
Dialogue writers may encounter foreign language speech in the original
scripts, over and above the main source language. Multilingualism and
code-switching on screen and its role and relationship to translation have
been widely investigated by scholars, namely O’Sullivan (2011), with her
seminal research work Translating popular film, and Baldo (2010),
Zabalbeascoa and Corrius (2012), Corrius and Zabalbeascoa (2011), De
Bonis (2014), De Higes-Andino (2014a, b), Zabalbeascoa and Voellmer
(2014), Sanz Ortega (2015), and Brincat (2017), among others.
If the foreign language is meant to be understood, it would require
translation, either dubbed into the TL or included in a subtitled stream
(Chaume 2012, pp. 131–133); the latter implies that the original voice
track excerpt would still be audible and mixed into the dubbed track.
This also applies to fictitious languages constructed specifically for a pro-
duction; the original production itself would usually feature subtitles in

the main source language, when the content is meant to be understood.
These constructed languages are usually complex tongues having their
own structure, grammar, phonology and vocabulary. Examples include
the Na’vi language in Avatar (feature film, 20th Century Fox 2009),
Dothraki in Game of Thrones (TV series, HBO 2011–ongoing) or
Trigedasleng in The 100 (Bonanza Productions 2014–ongoing).
In the dubbed versions, the fictitious language is often left in its origi-
nal state and accompanied by captions in the TL, hence emulating the
method used in the original production. This is the method recom-
mended and used by Netflix for both foreign and fictitious languages,
that is, not to dub over them but use a subtitle stream instead. This means
that the original audio/voice track of these fictitious languages is retained
in the dubbed versions, except, perhaps, for a few, very short sound bites
that might viably be pronounced and recorded by the dubbing actor in
the fictitious tongue.
Undoubtedly, the situation is not that clear-cut when, in the original
version, the same character speaks more than one language, perhaps con-
stantly switching from one to the other. Consequently, if the original
audio track, for the fictitious or foreign languages is maintained in the
dubbed version, the original actor’s voice is heard when the foreign/ficti-
tious language is spoken, while the dubbing actor’s voice (for the same
character) is heard when the TL takes over. In other words, the same actor
seen on screen has two voices, that is, the original for the foreign lan-
guage, and the dubbed voice for the TL, and shifts from one to the other.
This can be rather annoying and distracting for the viewer; there is the
risk of affecting the suspension of linguistic disbelief (Romero-Fresco
2012), apart from the evident difference in sound quality and acoustics,
due to change in the audio track. Despite this, it is a commonly used
method, especially in the case of fictitious languages; when the number
of foreign language lines are few in number; in the case of minor charac-
ters; or simply when the production house requires that foreign or ficti-
tious languages are not to be dubbed over (as seems to be the case in most
Netflix productions, therefore in line with their guidelines and specifics).
The only strategy that could perhaps reduce this “disruptive effect” lies in
choosing a dubbing voice similar to the one belonging to the original
actor, so that the difference between the two voices may become less
noticeable.
A case in point is the Italian-dubbed version of Game of Thrones (HBO
2011–ongoing) where one of the main characters, Daenerys Targaryen,
speaks both English and Dothraki (a fictitious language) in the original
version. The Italian-dubbed version features two voices for Daenerys,
that of the original actor every time she speaks Dothraki, and that of the
dubbing actress for all the rest of the English speech transposed into
Italian. On the contrary, the Spanish-dubbed version features only the
dubbing actress’ voice. This means that the Spanish actress had to learn
how to pronounce the lines in Dothraki, with the aid of the original
audio. Undoubtedly this strategy achieves more credibility, but is more
time consuming and requires more effort on the part of the dubbing
actors. For this reason, it is not always feasible.
In this specific TV series, the localization company, which has various
branches all over the world, did not adopt a standard decision for all
dubbed TLs, but allowed each dubbing studio to adjust to its own needs.
It also signifies that the original production house did not intervene by
demanding one standard solution for all dubbed languages. Having said
that, the strategies chosen to cover foreign or fictitious language featuring
throughout a film or serial production may vary even within the same
dubbing culture.
In Star Trek: Discovery (CBS 2017), the Klingon race speaks the
Klingon language, which, despite being a fictitious language, is accessible
to fans, so much so that viewers who know Klingon (or Klingonese) do
not need to read the English subtitles provided in order to understand. In
the dubbed versions, the Klingon audio track with the original voice is
maintained throughout, except perhaps, for those dialogue lines in which
a Klingon would switch to English. Once again, strategies adopted vary.
The Italian- and Spanish-dubbed versions use a dubbing actor (clearly
with another voice) to cover only the English lines of a Klingon, who, in
the original version, speaks both Klingonese and English. The use of
effects on the voices of the Klingons contributes to making this voice
shift less noticeable. The French-dubbed version, on the other hand,
retains the dialogue lines in English lines too. Therefore the English lines
spoken by the same Klingon are still heard in English, and subtitled in
French, just like the rest of the dialogue lines in Klingon.
6.6.1 Identifying a Practical Strategy
The situations provided above are intended to offer some context for this
section, in order to identify and understand the practical approach to be
adopted by dialogue writers. In the case of subtitles catering for the for-
eign or fictitious language parts in the original version, the role of dia-
logue writers would be that of providing translated lines that can be used
for subtitling in the dubbed version, with the possible inclusion of onset
time codes. In the case of fictitious languages, dialogues would usually be
provided in the main source language in the original scripts, and this
would therefore act as a relay language. The TL-translated lines are to be
included within the dubbing script together with the other dialogues,
and possibly also in a separate list comprising all written captions in gen-
eral. Therefore, very often, the dialogue writers’ task is simply to provide
the required translation. Nonetheless, there are cases where dialogue writ-
ers may be expected to provide a separate file with synchronized subtitles,
which involves further adaptation and time-cueing by using an ad hoc
software.
The answer, as to whether dialogue writers have to cater for synchro-
nized dubbing or subtitling, for the foreign language excerpts, depends
on many factors (Baldo 2010; De Bonis 2014; De Higes-Andino 2014a,
b; Sanz Ortega 2015, among several others): the author’s intention and
motivation behind the introduction of foreign language in the source
text; its relevance and interplay with plot, context, and characters; the
quantity of text; the character voicing it; specific practical issues; the pri-
ority to retain the suspension of disbelief; type of production; and last but
not least, the client’s preferences (see Netflix’s dubbed audio style guide-
lines and specifications online). There are production houses that prefer
to avoid dubbing over a foreign language and advise the dubbing compa-
nies accordingly. The decision is not up to dialogue writers, but in the
absence of specific instructions, it would be useful to become familiar
with general trends and solutions so as to be able to deal with foreign or

fictitious languages in dubbing scripts.
If the foreign language is not meant to be understood, it can be left
unchanged, and no translation needs to be provided. Dialogue writers
may choose to assign the dialogue to the character anyway, in order to
draw the dubbing team’s attention. The character’s name on the left-hand
side of the script layout followed simply by a notation such as (ORIG.)
or (ORIGINAL) would suffice. If the situation is unclear, dialogue writ-
ers should seek advice from their clients. The use of subtitles to translate
foreign or fictitious language within a TL dubbed production highlights
the notion of “otherness” (Bassnett 2005) in the plot, for instance, when
a distinction is made between the language used by the main characters
and any other language used by characters who belong to a different lin-
guistic background. And as mentioned above, dialogue writers should
provide a translation that can be used in the generation of captions.
However, in the case of foreign languages (as opposed to fictitious
languages), where the same character adopts more than one language,
subtitling is not always a popular option in dubbed versions, unless it is
used only sporadically. In such cases, dialogue writers are often required
to provide a synchronized adaptation so that the foreign language lines in
question can be dubbed into the TL.
Therefore, on the one hand, maintaining the original audio seems to
be a widespread strategy for fictitious languages, this being a distinctive
trait of the plot and production, and particularly in view of the demand-
ing, time consuming, and costly effort required to have the actors redub
such a language. On the other hand, when it comes to real foreign lan-
guages, dubbing over them in the TL is a popular strategy (De Higes-
Andino 2014a). Indeed, multilingual films, where the same characters
speak more than one language, are often dubbed almost entirely into the
TL. In order to confirm this trend, a descriptive research study gathering
empirical data on the way this issue is tackled in each dubbing country
would be necessary.
In Slumdog Millionaire (Warner Bros et al. 2009), the use of both
Hindi and English spoken by the main characters can act as an example.
In this case, in the Castilian Spanish-dubbed version, both foreign lan-
guages have been translated into Spanish and the foreign dialogues exist-
ing in the original version have been completely disregarded. The same
has to be said for The Lunchbox (Dar Motion Pictures 2013), where both
Hindi and English have been rendered as one TL in the dubbed versions.
This choice can, obviously, also depend on the bilingual linguistic reality
characterizing the film, where the Hindi language does not carry that
sense of “otherness” within the plot and geographical context. Despite
this, code- switching does have its cultural and social implications,
nuances, and flavour, so, in any case it can be perceived as a form of “loss”
in the dubbed versions, which flattens linguistic variety; the distinction
between different languages and the way they are used ceases to exist.
However, it is not always up to dialogue writers to determine such strate-
gies; when company guidelines are provided, their focus should be on the
functionality and workflow of the dubbing process. When no guidelines
are provided, dialogue writers can determine the strategies but, in any
case, would need to consider and comply with the dubbing director’s
preferences, as well as industry trends, established norms, and familiar
solutions.
Dubbing the foreign language into the TL is not necessarily a strategy
applied to one-off lines spoken by minor characters; it depends on the
intent and importance of highlighting the foreign language in a specific
moment or geographical context. There are contexts where retaining the
foreign language spoken by the original voice is necessary, in particular
when code-switching to the foreign language is relevant to the plot or the
character (in the so-called plurilingual samples; De Higes-Andino
2014b). As mentioned earlier, the audience would necessarily also hear
the original voice for a few seconds or more, and dialogue writers would
need to provide a translation for the subtitle stream. If the dialogue writer
feels that the foreign dialogue can be comfortably handled by the dub-
bing actor (perhaps in the case of one-off lines), then the foreign language
excerpts may be provided in the dubbing script. In most cases dialogue
writers do not know the dubbing actors or their linguistic skills, for that
matter such a solution is not recommended, unless it is opted for in con-
sultation with the dubbing director or the company itself.
In the final scene of the TV series Castle (abc Studios/Disney
2009–2015), Season 4, Episode 16, one of the characters who speaks
English all throughout the episode, and poses as a CIA agent, unexpect-
edly utters two lines in Russian in order to reveal her real identity as a spy,
as well as her treacherous conduct. The need to retain the original audio
is obvious, unless the dubbing actor is so fluent in Russian that the text
can be redubbed in the foreign language while sounding credible as a
native speaker of Russian. But generally speaking, these two lines would
call for a subtitled translation.
Another context in which maintaining the original audio for foreign
languages is widely used and accepted by viewers is that of diegetic
songs performed by the characters in the plot, as mentioned later on, in
Sect. 6.7.
As far as accents are concerned, it is up to the dubbing director or the
production company to determine any creative choice, such as “colour-
ing” the target dialogue with a specific cadence, pronunciation, or into-
nation. Companies such as Netflix that follow and supervise the various
dubbed language versions prefer to have such creative choices determined
by production or, at the most, demand that the dubbing team includes
them in the consistency sheets for reference and visibility during the
quality control process. Dialogue writers are therefore usually advised to
point out any original language accents in the script, as well as in the
dubbing consistency sheet (e.g., characters x and y speak with Hispanic
accents). Another context in which colouring the dubbed language may
be taken into consideration is when the foreign language in the original
production coincides with the dubbing TL. The most commonly used
solution is to ask the dubbing actor to use a slightly different accent or
cadence (Chaume 2012, p. 133).
A typical example to illustrate this could be the Italian-dubbed version
of an English-language script, where one of its characters, perhaps an
Italian immigrant in the US, speaks Italian. In the dubbed version, the
characters all speak Italian, and therefore a different cadence, perhaps
slightly leaning towards the dialectic imprint of the geographical origin
of the character (e.g., Neapolitan), could do the job. Examples pertaining
to Italian characters or Italo-American characters in US movies may be
found in Rossi (2006), Parini (2009, 2013), and Mereu Keating (2016a),
while further reads on language and accent variation transferred in Italian
dubbing include Brincat (2015), Ranzato (2010), and Minutella (2016,
2018), among others.
The possibility of using a fourth language that is not present in the

original can also be taken into consideration (Chaume 2012, p. 133), but
only if the linguistic differences are highly relevant to the plot, particu-
larly in feature films, and in contexts where there is no reference to
nationality or culture. Besides, this would also depend on the dubbing
actors’ polyglot skills and their ability to give a credible performance in
the foreign language to be adopted.
Chaume (2012, pp. 131–133) discusses possible ways of handling for-
eign languages and draws on Martínez-Sierra et al. (2010) and De Higes-
Andino et al. (2013) in an effort to apply their proposed taxonomy of
translation techniques to dubbing. The most commonly used translation
solutions available in the case of foreign language content, as listed by
Chaume, can be further summarized and adapted (for the purposes of
this monograph) into the following outline:
L3 ➔ L2 [subtitles]
L3 ➔ L2 [dubbed over]
L3 ➔ L3 [dubbed over]
L3 ➔ nil [no translation provided]
L1 refers to the main source/original language; L2 refers to the TL in the

dubbed version; and L3 refers to a third or foreign language or languages
in the audiovisual production.
In brief, a foreign language can be subtitled in the TL, dubbed in the
TL, or dubbed intralingually with the new voice (i.e., in same foreign
language). The latter is used especially if the character involved is heard
speaking both main source language and foreign language. The last
option provided in the outline above is that of retaining the original for-
eign language, without providing any translation whatsoever.
When subtitles have been utilized in the original version, most often
this entails TL subtitles in the dubbed version too. When L3 coincides
with L2, a distinction can be made with the help of a slight variation in
accent or cadence.
For further academic research on foreign languages in film with a focus on
dubbing, see also Heiss (2004), De Higes-Andino (2009), Minutella (2012,
2015), De Bonis (2014), Monti (2014), and Iaia (2018), among others.
6.7 Songs and Vocal Ditties

Songs cannot be dubbed unless the content owner has given clearance,
and therefore the best way to go about this is to retain the song in the
original language and at the most provide a translation for subtitling, if
relevant to the plot. This does not pertain to children viewer programmes
or animated movies, which almost always require song translation and
adaptation. For instance, the Italian TV network broadcasting the dubbed
version of House, M.D. (NBC/Universal studios 2004–2012) chose to
feature subtitles with the translation of the songs featuring at the end of
each episode, because they often reflect the mood and frame of mind of
the main protagonist.
In the case where one of the characters sings part of a song, the dub-
bing director and sound engineer will have to decide whether to retain
the original voice track or have the dubbing actor record the song in his
or her own voice, in the source language. This means that, ideally, the
dialogue writer should include the song excerpt with the original lyrics.
The choice depends on a number of factors: length of part sung; relevance
of the song within the plot; relevance of voice and musical quality of the
character singing; if accompanied by music or sung a cappella; and the
level of similarity or difference between the original singing voice and the
dubbing actor’s voice, in the case where the original audio is retained (see
Di Giovanni 2000, 2008; Bosseaux 2008, 2015; Brugué 2013; Franzon
2008 and Chaume 2012, among others).
In productions such as Glee (20th Century Fox 2009–2015) in which
music is the main component and the original actors are professional
singers, the original voice track is retained; the same applies to all musi-
cals. However, if a character is just humming a well-known song while
cooking or showering and there is no audible musical score, this is gener-
ally covered by the dubbed actor. If on the other hand it is some non-
existent vocal ditty, made up specifically for the production, and perhaps
carrying relevance to the plot, it is likely that dialogue writers would have
to create something similar in the TL, if permission to do this has been
cleared by the client. Dialogue writers need to carefully analyse and iden-
tify the needs of each context and act accordingly, adopting feasible
strategies.
Having said that, dialogue writers are normally involved solely in the
transcription of the original lyrics of the song in the dubbing script and
the assignment to a specific character. The dubbing actor is then in a posi-
tion to sing the transcribed lyrics, unless the original voice track is
retained. In the latter case, providing the lyrics would be redundant.
However, this proves much safer than compelling dubbing directors to
try to retrieve the lyrics elsewhere, during the recording session, should
they decide to dub the song intralingually. The original lyrics in the dub-
bing script are usually preceded by the notation (SINGS). If the dubbing
company has already decided that the original voice track of the song will
be retained, and has informed the dialogue writers accordingly, then the
lyrics can be excluded from the dubbing script.
Example 6.1 Song-related dubbing note provided in as broadcast script

of Castle (Disney/abc Studios 2009), Season 2, Episode 20, “The last
shaft”.2
At TC 01:17:00:12, the song How Much I Feel by Ambrosia is uti-

lized as Castle’s ring-tone.
This is considered background usage and must remain as is.
Original artist vocals will remain on the M&E.
The song lyrics for this usage will not be subtitled.
On the other hand songs in cartoons, children’s programmes, and ani-

mated movies are generally translated and dubbed, and this very often
requires further professional services to cater for songs in the TL. Dialogue
writers, who are usually notified in advance, at times are also asked to
provide a faithful translation of the text. If professional song writers are
not engaged in the dubbing process, dialogue writers would have to carry
out the song adaptation too, respecting the style, prosody, metre, and
meaning of the original contents.
Translating the opening and closing songs is not required in dubbing
scripts, unless requested by the client in the pilot script of a production
for children.
For further references on song translation see Low (2010, 2013),

Mateo (2012), Şebnem (ed.) (2008), and Khoshsaligheh and Ameri
(2016), as well as “Translating music”3 (the international network project
directed by Lucile Desblache)
6.8 L anguage Style and Blacklisted

Expressions
As a general rule, a rather colloquial style and register is required, espe-
cially in the case of TV series, unless the character or context calls for a
more formal or refined tone. Many companies often recommend
standardization of slang in the TL, not only because of the challenge of
identifying TL equivalent expressions but also so that future anachronis-
tic features may be avoided, thus ensuring the timeless quality of the
script. Regional expressions are usually substituted, unless they give a
clear distinction to the product, or play an important role in highlighting
the character’s background (Giorgio Marrano et al. 2009).
The translation and adaptation of vulgar or offensive language will
depend on the instructions provided by the dubbing company. Certain
production houses (particularly those that cater for, or supervise, the
foreign language versions) may provide recommendations to the dub-
bing companies. Retaining vulgar language in the TL dubbing script also
depends on a variety of factors, such as local broadcasting authorities
and government rules, time of broadcast, target age, medium (cinema,
TV, DVD, VOD platforms), and so on. Dialogue writers may be
requested to omit, substitute, or tone down any vulgar language present
in the original version, in order to adapt to the new target audience,
culture, and perception (as is usually the case in Disney-abc Studios
adult viewer productions). However, dialogue writers may also be
requested to adhere faithfully to the language use in the original version
without censoring content or mode of expression. This is the case with
Netflix, for example, that expects the dubbed language versions to match
the original in tone and register and recommends avoiding any form of
language censorship.
Having said that, dialogue writers often find themselves having to abide
by a number of restrictions (not only related to vulgar expressions) imposed
by specific production companies or otherwise dubbing companies and
TV networks, which, in turn, need to conform to local customs and
requirements coming from local governing bodies or authorities. Legal and
commercial issues can also be a source of prohibition. On the other hand,
corporate restrictions are those chosen internally by broadcasters or pro-
duction companies. These usually take into account a number of selected
criteria such as the following: target culture, viewer perception, target age
and type of audience, specific market necessities or characteristics, brand
image, quality in terms of elegance, taste and decency, political correctness,
the intent to fulfil didactic purposes, and last but most important, viewer
expectation or complaints (see also Scandura 2004; Ranzato 2016).
Such criteria, together with other types of restrictions and censorship
issues, may lead to a number of blacklisted expressions, and these are
not necessarily applied solely to children’s programmes. Children’s pro-
ductions require more rigour and caution, but such blacklists are also
applied to TV productions aimed at adults. Cinema, in general, offers
greater freedom in this sense, although the extent of this depends also on
the target country.
The blacklist that dialogue writers may be asked to respect varies.
There are some production companies, such as Disney-abc Studios,
among others, that are extremely keen on maintaining certain quality
standards, which to them implies special rigour and attention dedicated
to the use of language. This section is an attempt to illustrate a wide range
of possible scenarios. Despite the fact that certain content features in the
original version, some parts may have to be omitted, replaced, or toned
down in order to satisfy the demands of the target version.
There seems to be similar language-use constraints across a number of
countries, TV networks, and production companies. Primarily, as already
said, dialogue writers, most often, are instructed to avoid vulgar expres-
sions, as well as insults and offensive words, when adults or representa-
tives of institutions and authorities are being addressed, for example TL
equivalent terms for idiot, bloody, horny, piss off, moron, retard, faggot,
bum, asshole, bitch, bastard, son-of-a-bitch, wanker, slut, dickhead, mother-
fucker, whore, ass, asshole, arsehole, and so on. Another category encom-
passes words that refer to sex or drugs, such as TL equivalent terms for
erotic, sexy, fuck, fuck off, cum, screw, jerk off, shag, orgasm, and masturba-
tion. Similarly, words referring to genitalia may be included in this same
category, for example cock, pussy, and dick. It is also recommended that
violent or harsh scenes should not be enhanced with additional flowery
language.
Political or religious content may also be subject to restrictions, espe-
cially when these are treated in a parodic or grotesque manner. Expressions
such as Oh my God may be blacklisted at times, together with blasphe-
mous expressions such as God damn, Jesus Christ, for Christ’s sake, and so
on. The reasons for this may vary. For instance, blasphemy, in Italy, is
prohibited in dubbed productions broadcast on TV channels because
special consideration is given to the presence of the Vatican on Italian
territory. The Communications authorities in Italy sometimes fine TV
networks for broadcasting language that is considered inappropriate and
offensive towards family audiences, especially when religious references
are concerned (see Example 1.2 in Sect. 1.3.1).
Certain terminology may be blacklisted for reasons that have to do
with political correctness or appropriateness in certain contexts. For
instance, the use of the term stupid, when reference is made to a person,
may have to be removed, unless it is a conversation among children. The
same applies for any similar term that carries a direct or indirect reference
to mental health issues, genetic diseases, physical or intellectual dis-
abilities, and weight issues, when used in a mocking or offensive way.
For example, TL equivalent terms for handicapped, brain-damaged,
retarded, insane, demented, chubby, and obese.
Religion-related derogatory terms such as Muslime or Mudslum are
often prohibited. On some occasions, even reference to the devil or exor-
cism would be barred. Racist terms are often to be avoided unless they
serve a specific purpose in the plot, for instance TL equivalent terms for
nigger, wog, Paki, or Jew used in a contemptuous manner. Same applies to
homophobic terms or LGBT-related derogatory expressions (De Marco
2012).
Legal and commercial restrictions may come into force in the local-
ized versions of films or TV shows due to a number of circumstances, for
instance copyright issues (e.g., songs or a film within a film and the
impossibility to use its existing dubbed version) and otherwise brand

names that are mentioned in the original version. The latter may be con-
sidered as free product placement in the target version, and therefore very
often clients request that they be substituted by a generic term. For exam-
ple, Nike, Coke, and Mercedes, which are easily found in the US versions,
might have to be adapted to sneakers, soda, and sports car, respectively.
Other restrictions could encompass events that are registered trademarks,
such as 2018 FIFA World Cup Russia or, likewise, London 2012 Olympics.
When such trademarks are mentioned in an audiovisual production prior
to the real event, it could raise an issue for the localized versions, and the
text would have to be modified. A case in point is that of the London
Olympics, where a set of restrictions were imposed for European territory,
particularly for the UK. The mention of this event, in a specific
US-produced TV serial production had to be modified, in the European
TL scripts (title and name of production house omitted for confidential-
ity). The London Olympic Games Act came into force in order to protect
sponsors; this meant restricting the use of any representation that could
suggest an association with the London Olympics. The said legislation
proposed two lists of expressions or words and restricted the use of any one
or two expressions from the first list (A) combined with one or more words
from the second list (B) in a context that could suggest an association with
the London Olympics. List A included the words games, 2012, two thou-
sand and twelve, and twenty twelve; List B included the words gold, medals,
silver, sponsor, bronze, summer, and London. Other expressions that could
create the same sort of representation were prohibited too; phrases such as
London Games, Golden Games, Golden Summer 2012, and London 2012 in
a sporting or commercial context. Breaching the act could have resulted in
a criminal conviction and a fine up to 20,000 pounds sterling for lesser
breaches, or unlimited fines for more serious infringements. The said
restrictions ceased to have effect in December 2012.
Target-age-induced restrictions occur in productions aimed at teen-
agers, where even food can become an issue. The client may object to the
description of certain food groups by using disparaging adjectives or neg-
ative expressions, for example disgusting and it makes me throw up in refer-
ence to specific healthy foods. The reason behind this is associated with
eating disorders among teenagers.
Further precaution is indicated in productions aimed at children, for

instance avoidance of flowery expressions such as damn, crap, crappy, my
arse, hell, and to screw with. Extra care must be taken to avoid certain
expressions that may induce fear, for example any references to death:
death, tomb, darkness, and doomed. Original productions that target a
wider audience may perhaps be bought and consumed by a child-specific
audience in the target country and language, and hence text manipula-
tion would be necessary to adapt to the new target age. Section 7.6 illus-
trates a number of applied adaptation strategies for this purpose.
For academic research on the topic, see Pavesi and Malinverno (2000),
Diaz Cintas (2012), Gutiérrez Lanza (2011, 2012), Ranzato (2009,
2016), Khoshsaligheh and Ameri (2014, 2016), Di Giovanni (2016),
Mereu Keating (2016b, c), and Yahiaoui (2016), among others.
6.9 W
hat Not to Include in the Dubbing
Script
What should not be included in the dialogue list has already been men-
tioned in a scattered fashion throughout the previous chapters. Therefore,
this is a brief summary of what to exclude from the dubbing script. As
mentioned earlier, animal sounds (e.g., a dog barking) do not need to be
included in the target dialogue list despite the fact that they may be
included in the original script. Sounds and noises that are not vocal or
mouth-produced by characters (e.g., knocking and clapping hands) are
never included in the dubbing script. These are not dubbed in a postpro-
duction phase because nowadays they are no longer found on the
voice/dialogue track, which is the one to be deleted for TL dubbing pur-
poses. There are, of course, occasions where a sound effect happens to be
on the same track as the dialogues (e.g., sounds captured during live shoot-
ing that have not been recorded separately, or that have not been captured
with separate microphones and then placed on another track). In any case,
it is not up to dialogue writers to identify or include them; it is up to the
sound technicians to take notice and replace or transfer these sounds.
Therefore, all those sounds that can be classified as foley (manually
produced sound effects) or digitally recorded effects are to be excluded
from the dubbing script. Only paralinguistic elements need to be

included (e.g., sipping, munching, sneezing, spitting, clicking of the
tongue, clearing throat, grunting, panting, smacking lips, and so on and
so forth).
In the case of certain software applications such as the bande rythmo,
these paralinguistic sounds are automatically carried onto the target line
by the software. In such circumstances dialogue writers will have to, at
the most, modify, translate, or customize the notation into their own
language or culture, unless the application has been customized accord-
ingly and automatically adopts the localized versions.
When indistinct background noise is identified as being part of the
music and effects track, this also can often be omitted, as discussed earlier
(see Sect. 5.4).
Besides, certain camera shots, reference to flashbacks, and editing
commands in general, which are pertinent to the images rather than to
the sound or dialogue source, are not useful in the dubbing script and
thus should be omitted (e.g., fade out, cut to, and WS (wide shot); see
Sect. 5.3.2).
Notes
1. See Netflix’s “Dubbed audio style guide – Lip Synch Dubbing”. Can be
retrieved from https://partnerhelp.netflixstudios.com/hc/en-us/articles/
214807888-Dubbed-Audio-Style-Guide-Lip-Sync-Dubbing
3. Translating music, project directed by Lucille Desblache. http://www.
translatingmusic.com/index.html
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Part III
Black Box Revealed
An Analytical Approach
7
Applied Strategies
Following the descriptive and practical approaches in Parts I and II,

which respectively endeavour to portray a scholarly and industry out-
look, the third part of this monograph is meant to further shift perspec-
tive, or rather to zoom in onto the dialogue writing process, this time
looking through the eyes of the dialogue writer. For this reason this last
chapter is based on a selection of real examples drawn from professional
practice.
7.1 The Dialogue Rewriting Process

This chapter is intended to provide further practical illustration of the
guidelines, specifics, and industry requirements discussed previously, by
applying them to a number of script excerpts. Each of the following sec-
tions focuses on specific translation, adaptation, or technical issues. The
progressive, step-by-step text manoeuvring and moulding process is
revealed from the dialogue writers’ perspective. The thought process lead-
ing to certain choices, as well as possible further text modifications in the
studios, is described in detail, in an attempt to illustrate the reasoning

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04966-9_7
that defines the final recording. This does not suggest, in any way, that the
strategies illustrated are the only solutions, or the best, for that matter,
also because it all depends on the specific translation commission or tar-
get culture norms, which may vary according to the country, company,
period of time, and so on. The ultimate aim is to take the reader through
the dubbing adaptation process from the practitioner’s viewpoint, as
opposed to providing an a posteriori comparative analysis of the dubbed
versions and their original counterparts, the latter being the most com-
mon (and also extremely productive) approach following the integration
of Descriptive Translation Studies in the field of AVT in the early 1990s.
This a priori analysis will undoubtedly be of help in understanding the
reasons behind text manipulation (in various forms and to various extents)
in any dubbing script. Besides, as mentioned earlier, the examples anal-
ysed will prove to be an opportunity to observe how the strategies and
tools discussed in Part II can be applied. The insertion and use of dubbing
notations (see Sect. 5.3) is a typical example. The examples analysed are
drawn from first-hand dialogue writing experience and consist of Italian-
dubbed versions of English-language or French-language serial produc-
tions. Back translation is provided all throughout to make the whole
rewriting process accessible to readers who are not familiar with Italian.
The dialogue excerpts selected are meant to illustrate cases of text manip-
ulation that are not easily apparent in the final version, unless one has
access to the inside perspective or to the so-called black box, which records
the “backstage” trials required to come up with a specific text.
The term black box has been applied to dubbing by Richart Marset
(2009, 2012, 2013), who insists on the need for an analytical process that
takes into account all the professional roles involved in manoeuvring the
dubbing text. She believes that a comparative analysis between the origi-
nal text and the final dubbed version merely skims through the dubbing
adaptation process, since it only provides a single perspective based on
the final end product. She invites scholars to substitute the question How
has the dialogue line been translated in its dubbed counterpart? with Which
translational and non-translational operations, during the dubbing process,
have led to the decision of assigning a specific adapted line to a specific char-
acter? To what extent did the several “hands” manoeuvring the text have an
impact on the final recorded solution?
Applied Strategies 193
These considerations have enticed Richart Marset to develop a genetic

analysis model that can be applied to the dubbing adaptation process,
and which has been accompanied by further research (Matamala 2010;
Zanotti 2014; de los Reyes Lozano 2015, for AVT; and Munday 2013,
for translation in general). This model requires full, or at least partial,
access to what she refers to as the black box, a term that highlights its inac-
cessible and hidden nature. This is made up of the working material and
documentation that reveal the transformation process of the dubbing
text, in other words the various dubbing deliverables and script compo-
nents, as referred to in this monograph (see Chaps. 4 and 5).
According to Richart Marset, the main obstacle to the type of exhaus-
tive and multi-perspective analysis that she proposes has always been the
enormous difficulty of acquiring access to such material, a phenomenon
that she refers to as archive fever, drawing on Jacques Derrida’s terminol-
ogy (1995). A genetic analysis would need to rely on the original dialogue
list provided by the production house; the translators’ drafts and solution
proposals; the dialogue writers’ numerous drafts and corrections; record
of the changes adopted in the studios, and so on. Richart Marset seems
to suggest that this dubbing material is practically unavailable to the
researcher because the industry itself adopts a secretive approach and
intentionally limits accessibility to outsiders. In other words, accessibility
to the archive would depend on the willingness of the industry to share
inside knowledge.
It is a fact that scripts are protected by copyright laws and regulations
and that there are restrictions on the distribution of material to third par-
ties that are not involved in the dubbing process of a specific project, as
well as confidentiality restrictions on disclosure of information. However,
it is also true that, generally speaking, the translated and adapted drafts,
which could potentially reveal the transformational process (especially
through visible, or somehow traceable corrections and modifications of
the text) are not retrievable because they have been discarded (de los
Reyes 2015). In a digital era, where almost all, if not all, dubbing scripts
are prepared in electronic form, the newly rewritten and revised version
is saved onto the word-processing file or script template, and this auto-
matically deletes the previous draft, the ones before that having been
already replaced, thus leaving only the last adopted version. The detailed
step-by-step moulding traces are consequently lost, unless dialogue writ-

ers make it a point to save the various changing drafts of their dialogue
lines and/or entire scripts (depending on the rewriting method adopted:
simultaneous or consecutive (see Sect. 3.1)).
7.1.1 Text Modification During Recording
As to the manipulation of the text that takes place during the recording
sessions, everything depends on whether the specific company keeps a
record of the changes (that have been applied in the studio) and actually
saves an updated “as recorded” script. In any case, the finalized recorded
script coincides with the broadcast version, and therefore can easily be
transcribed from the audio track. Even if it had to be available, the final “as
recorded” script would not highlight the actual changes or corrections.
Consequently, comparative analyses between the recorded script and
the final draft submitted by the dialogue writer would be necessary to
single out the text modification that took place in the recording studios.
Having said that, identifying the changes would still not reveal the rea-
sons for them. (At most, these could be deduced.) Therefore, full avail-
ability of the dubbing archive material, could, at most, shed light on the
what and the how, but not on the why. Only the professionals involved in
the specific process can unfold certain detail, in the case of intentional
choices, and provided that they are able to remember past works.
Indeed, Richart Marset draws onto Derrida’s philosophical notion that
the physical or actual externalization of this archive is what allows for its
existence, as well as its destruction, disappearance, or prohibition. This,
however, may also lead to the conclusion that the inaccessible nature of
the dubbing archive is, to some extent, unintentional. One could say that
there is a lack of intent in maintaining a comprehensive black box able to
record those parts of the process that are almost always discarded. This
most probably derives from the lack of a functional need for such an
exhaustive archive in the dubbing industry.
Similarly, Zanotti (2014) discusses the importance of the intervention of
all the dubbing agents involved and the impact this has on the script. She,
too, claims that it is very difficult to identify this type of intervention due
to lack of textual evidence. Despite this, she tries to promote the idea that
it is sometimes possible to draw traces of the joint efforts that contribute
towards a dubbing text from the script. She investigates a set of translated
typewritten dialogue manuscripts, which include handwritten corrections,
mostly pertaining to films prior to 1980. These have been retrieved from a
government archive which preserves those texts that had undergone an
official film rating process.
Zanotti analyses two 1955 dubbing scripts. One of them consists of a
literal translation with handwritten revisions added to the same text, revi-
sions intended for dubbing adaptation purposes. The differences between
the revised handwritten version and the actual dubbed version are minimal.
The second dubbing script analysed consists of a literal translation, with
added comments and remarks, in the page margins, on the quality and
effectiveness of the translation. She therefore had to rely directly on the
actual recorded version to make comparisons and draw conclusions.
Zanotti encourages a genetic criticism approach, focusing on the pro-
cess rather than on the end product. She believes that the review of
retrievable translator manuscripts is imperative, in understanding the
dubbing process, even if, perhaps, a comprehensive picture can never be
reconstructed. She applies this genetic approach in a specific case study,
in an effort to analyse interventions, on the submitted script, by the stu-
dio personnel. She sets out to assess the impact that studio interventions
may have on the script by comparing the translated script with handwrit-
ten revisions (the film in question dating back to 1974) to the final
dubbed version transcribed from the audio track of the DVD edition.
There are countless differences between the two versions; Zanotti tries to
shed light on the possible reasons, categorizing them into four underlying
issues: synchronization, the way characters are depicted through lan-
guage, forms of address, and the humoristic effect of dialogue lines.
7.1.2 A Genetic Analysis Approach
In this chapter, it is possible to retrace the rewriting process because the

various drafts, in their progressive stages, have been deliberately retained
for academic purposes. Even though the analytical approach adopted in
this chapter does not directly apply Richart Marset’s genetic analysis
model (2012), it is certainly inspired by this method.
Richart Marset’s genetic analysis model is divided into four phases and
envisages a thorough analysis on multiple levels of the following: (1) source
text, (2) translation, (3) adaptation, and (4) final draft. The examples set
out in this chapter have much to do with the last two phases of the genetic
analyses approach, because their focus lies on the various adaptation drafts
leading to the final recording draft.
The third phase of Richart Marset’s model encompasses the modified
solutions proposed by the dialogue writers, that is, the changes applied to
the rough translation of the text on various linguistic and synchronization
levels. This also implies attention towards camera shots, the visibility of the
actors’ mouths, and the overall coherence of the narrative. This phase also
incorporates any extra adaptation alternatives, comments, and notes
accompanying the text.
The fourth phase, on the other hand, focuses on text manipulation
carried out in the studios, by dubbing directors, supervisors, actors, and
sound technicians. It also includes an attempt to show the reasons behind
such text manipulation, which Richart Marset summarizes as follows:
synchronization issues; the suitability of dialogue lines to the quality and
characteristics of an actor’s voice; the role interpretation and needs of the
actors; and suggestions coming from other professional roles in the stu-
dio. This last phase also embraces a final generic analysis of the product
from a semiotic, linguistic, and audiovisual perspective; from an aestheti-
cal contrast viewpoint; as well as from an ideological standpoint.
The tables offered in this chapter present various progressive drafts of
the same adapted dialogue lines, leading to the selection of the submitted
draft. The ultimate objective of this progressive draft analysis is to unfold
the reasoning behind the text moulding process at every stage. It attempts
at revealing the contents of a more “abstract” black box, which is undoubt-
edly hard to come by, because it is made up of the mental effort and
thought process of the dialogue writer along the way. Similarly, the text
manipulation that follows script submission can only be witnessed there
and then in the recording studios.
The tables presented in this chapter provide the reader with the follow-
ing: (1) the original excerpt; (2) a raw translation (in this case carried out by
the dialogue writer and not another translator); (3) the dialogue writer’s
adaptation drafts in progress; (4) the final draft submitted to the dubbing
company; and (5) the “as recorded” version, which either coincides with the
final draft submitted by the dialogue writer or differs due to changes made
by the dubbing director (or other agents in the studios) during the recording
phase. The “as recorded” version is the one that is broadcast and that the
viewers finally access. In some cases the tables also include a preadapted ver-
sion (see Sect. 3.7), and the dialogue writer’s footnotes (explanatory notes or
alternative solutions) accompanying the submitted script (see Sect. 5.8).
The examples included in the tables feature letters in bold, intended to
highlight phonetic synch requirements, while italics are used for back
translation into English. In general, a natural back translation (provided in
italics) has been opted for (with an accompanying literal version, only when
necessary) in order to provide the reader with the viewers’ generic percep-
tion of each dialogue line. Italics are also used for words and phrases drawn
from the dialogue and cited below the tables for explanatory purposes.
7.2 Technical Synchronization

This section focuses on text manoeuvring strategies used to achieve syn-
chronization requirements. Therefore, focus lies on the technical con-
straints mentioned in the practitioner-oriented classification of constraints
proposed in Sect. 1.3.1. The examples illustrated embrace the proposed
order of tasks in Fig. 3.1.
7.2.1 Synchronies and Dubbing Notations
Examples 7.1a and 7.1b are drawn from the TV series Make It or Break It
(Disney/abc Studios 2009–2012). In this episode the main characters, a
group of female gymnasts, travel to Boston to compete at the National
Championships. Kaylie, one of the gymnasts and team leader of her
group, feels torn between her boyfriend, Carter, and her father, who is
also her coach. The chosen scene is a conversation between Kaylie and
Carter, just before the final competition. The two characters are facing
each other in close proximity and are in close-up shot as they speak.
Example 7.1a Excerpt drawn from TV series Make It or Break It (Disney/

abc Studios 2009), Season 1, Episode 10, “All that glitters”.1
01:08:26:00 CARTER Kaylie, please. I love you so much. Please, Kay,

you have to forgive me.
01:08:33:03 KAYLIE You need me to forgive you. My dad needs me
to be the champion. Sasha needs me to focus.
Everybody is so quick to tell me what they
need me to do. But what about me, Carter?
Huh? What about what I need?
Example 7.1b Same excerpt drawn from Italian-dubbed TV series Make

It or Break It (Disney/abc Studios 2010), Season 1, Episode 10, “Ai
Nazionali”.2
CARTER (in.DS) Kaylie, ti prego. / Io ti amo.. da morire. / Ti

supplico, Kaylie, tu devi perdonarmi.
KAYLIE (in.DS) Tu ti aspetti / il mio perdono. / Mio padre si
aspetta.. una medaglia d’oro. Sasha si aspetta.. che io mi
concentri.. (p.FIATO) Siete bravi.. quando si tratta di
dirmi cosa devo o non devo fare. E qualcuno pensa a me,
Carter?.. Eh? / (DS) A quello che voglio io?!
Tables 7.1, 7.2, 7.3, 7.4, and 7.5 reveal the translation and adaptation
process leading to the final recorded version in Italian.
Table 7.1 Synchronies and dubbing notations I(a)

a. Original language Kaylie, please I love you so much.
b. Translation Kaylie, ti prego, ti amo così tanto.
Kaylie, please, I love you so much
c. Adaptation 1 (in.DS) Kaylie, ti prego, / ti amo.. così tanto.
Kaylie, please, I love you so much
d. Adaptation 2 (in.DS) Kaylie, ti prego. / Ti amo.. davvero tanto.
Kaylie, please, I love you really a lot.
e. Submitted draft (in.DS) Kaylie, ti prego. / Io ti amo.. da morire.
Kaylie, please, I love you to bits. (literally: to death)
f. As recorded Idem
Table 7.1, rows a and b: The original dialogue line reveals two on-
screen, evident bilabial consonants: /p/ and /m/, as well as the mouth
articulation necessary for a set of rounded vowels: <ou>.
Table 7.1, row b: Rough or literal translation; the bilabial consonant
at the end of the line is not matched.
Table 7.1, row c: The slash and the two dots indicate the pauses, the
first pause being longer than the second. The notation (in.DS) (inizia di
spalle—starts over the shoulder) signifies that the camera shifts from an
over-the-shoulder shot to an on-screen shot, hence revealing Carter’s
mouth movements.
Table 7.1, row d: In such cases, the dialogue writer must ensure that
the word coinciding with the first on-screen instance, matches the mouth
movements; this can only be achieved by capturing and reproducing the
correct rhythm. Therefore, the /p/ in please is matched by the /p/ in ti
prego. The close back rounded vowel in you is matched by the final /o/ in
amo; this is followed by a very short comma-like pause (indicated by the
two dots) and by davvero tanto (so much), which introduces a double
labiodental consonant <vv>, in an attempt to match the /m/ in much.
However, it does not fall in the right position for synch purposes; besides,
the line is too long; thus, isochrony is not met.
Table 7.1, row e: Lip synch is obtained when davvero tanto is replaced
by da morire (to bits), which matches the /m/ in much. The expression da
morire is emotionally stronger than so much, though it is not perceived as
out of place in this specific scene and context, considering the actor’s
performance that uses a pause and slight hesitation; besides, it meets a
functional purpose. The final target language (TL) solution also ensures
that the dialogue line is broken in a natural manner by the pause. The
pronoun Io (I), despite being redundant, was inserted in the final adapta-
tion for rhythmic purposes and isochrony.
On a more practical level, there is a single space between the dubbing
notation and the beginning of the dialogue line, a single space before and
after the pause slash, and also after the two continuation dots indicating
the second pause.
Table 7.2 Synchronies and dubbing notations I(b)

a. Original language Please, Kay, you have to forgive me.
b. Translation Ti prego, Kay, devi perdonarmi.
Please, Kay, you have to forgive me.
c. Adaptation 1 /Ti prego, Kaylie, devi perdonarmi.
Please, Kaylie, you have to forgive me.
d. Adaptation 2 /Ti prego, Kaylie, ho bisogno del tuo perdono.
Please Kaylie, I need your forgiveness.
e. Submitted draft /Ti supplico, Kaylie, tu devi perdonarmi.
I beg you, Kaylie, you have to forgive me.
f. As recorded Idem
Table 7.2, row c: Kay is expanded to Kaylie since name consistency is

used throughout the series. Company guidelines very often require
names to be spelled out in full. The single slash is inserted to highlight
the pause.
Table 7.2, row d: This adaptation attempt anticipates cohesion with
Kaylie’s response in her next line (see Table 7.3c); hence, the noun per-
dono (forgiveness) is used, instead of the verb perdonarmi (to forgive me).
The reason for this is that Kaylie’s first line in response to Carter ends in
you (see Table 7.3a), and therefore calls for rounded vowels as opposed to
the literal translation of to forgive me (perdonarmi), which encompasses
the bilabial consonant-vowel <mi>.
Table 7.2, row e: However, it is immediately obvious that this solution
is not viable because Carter utters forgive me; therefore, perdonarmi is
opted for once again, and phonetic synch is prioritized over cohesion
with subsequent lines. Also, bisogno (need) does not aesthetically match
the verb have, with its front unrounded open vowel, as well as the frica-
tive /v/. Ti prego (please) this time becomes ti supplico (I beg you) in
order to provide an alternative to the repetition of please, which fits the
scene on a dramatic level and also meets phonetic synch requirements. In
most target languages, repetition may not necessarily produce the same
effect it produces in the English language. It can sometimes come across
as heavier in the target language. The redundant pronoun tu (you) is
inserted once again for rhythmic purposes, as well as for isochrony and
lip synch.
Table 7.3 Synchronies and dubbing notations I(c)

a. Original language You need me to forgive you.
b. Translation Tu hai bisogno che io ti perdoni.
You need me to forgive you.
c. Adaptation 1 (in.DS) A te serve / il mio perdono.
You require my forgiveness.
d. Adaptation 2 (in.DS) Tu vuoi / il mio perdono.
You want my forgiveness.
e. Submitted draft (in.DS) Tu ti aspetti/ il mio perdono.
You expect my forgiveness.
f. As recorded Idem
Table 7.3, row c: The notation (in.DS) (inizia di spalle—starts over the
shoulder) signifies that Kaylie is first seen over the shoulder and then, at
some point, perhaps half a second later, the camera shifts to an on-screen
shot in which her mouth is visible. The slash coincides with a pause; the
dialogue line is split in a natural way.
Following a literal translation (see Table 7.3b), the first adaptation
attempt focuses on the final rounded vowels <ou>, so the noun perdono
(forgiveness) is adopted, instead of the verbal subjunctive ti perdoni. The
noun bisogno (need) is replaced by the synonym verb serve (to need or
require), which is possibly closer in articulation to need, though the frica-
tive /v/ is not enough to match the bilabial consonant in me. Kaylie’s
speech is in close-up and she utters her lines strongly emphasizing mouth
articulation, which probably supports the dramatic way in which she
expresses herself.
Table 7.3, rows d and e: The verb serve (need or require) also does not
sound very natural; the second adaptation attempt utilizing vuoi (want)
is probably more suitable as a translation, but does not respect the mouth
movement accompanying the verb need. Hence, the concept of “needing”
is subsequently substituted by the concept of “expecting”, which seems to
fit the dramatic emphasis placed on recitation. Ti aspetti (you expect)
meets phonetic synch requirements: both mouth articulation and bilabial
consonants. The pronoun tu is maintained for the sake of consistency
with the lines to follow in Tables 7.4 and 7.5, as well as for rhythmic
purposes and isochrony.
Table 7.4 Synchronies and dubbing notations I(d)

a. Original My dad needs me to be the champion. Sasha needs me to
language focus.
b. Translation Mio padre ha bisogno che io diventi una campionessa. Sasha
ha bisogno che mi concentri.
My father needs me to be a champion. Sasha needs me to
focus.
c. Adaptation 1 A mio padre serve.. una figlia campionessa. A Sasha serve..
un’atleta concentrata. (p.FIATO)
My father needs a champion daughter. Sasha needs a
focused athlete.
d. Adaptation 2 Mio padre vuole.. che io diventi una campionessa. Sasha
vuole.. che io mi concentri. (p.FIATO)
My father wants me to become a champion. Sasha wants me
to focus.
e. Submitted Mio padre si aspetta.. una medaglia d’oro. Sasha si aspetta..
draft che io mi concentri.. (p.FIATO)
My father expects a gold medal. Sasha expects me to focus.
(literally: expects that I focus)
f. As recorded Idem
Table 7.4, rows a and b: In the original dialogue line there is once
again the phrase needs me; hence, it is uttered three times in total. There
is also the double bilabial consonant group <mp> in champion. In this
instance, retaining the repetition is important, because it emphasizes the
dramatic recitation (see classical rhetoric modification devices in Sect.
2.3, in particular geminatio (repetition) and anaphora (repeating same
word at the beginning of neighbouring clauses)).
Dad is translated as padre (father) as often happens when parents are
referred to in the third person, since using the literal and more affection-
ate term mio papà could sound inappropriately childish in Italian.
Table 7.4, rows c and d: The dubbing notation (p.FIATO) (presa di
fiato—breath intake) indicates that the actress takes a pause to catch her
breath. The two continuation dots indicate very short pauses; once again,
attention must be paid to the manner in which the lines are broken by
pauses in terms of naturalness.
It is imperative that consistency with the previous dialogue line is
maintained: various adaptation solutions are in line with the adaptation
proposals of the previous dialogue line (see Table 7.3 c/d/e). The fricative
/v/ in diventi (become) is an attempt to match the /b/ in be.
Table 7.4, row e: The slight pause before to be the champion obliges this
phrase to be translated within specific length/time restrictions, hence the
utilization of the shorter una medaglia d’oro (a gold medal) as against che
io diventi una campionessa (to become a champion). Familiarity with the
plot allows for this manipulation. The /m/ in medaglia d’oro is an attempt
to match at least one of the bilabials: the /b/ in be and the <mp> in cham-
pion, despite it not coinciding perfectly with any of them, position-wise.
The labiodental /f/ in focus is matched by the /m/ in mi concentri.
Table 7.5 Synchronies and dubbing notations I(e)

a. Original Everybody is so quick to tell me what they need me to do.
language But what about me, Carter? Huh? What about what I
need?
b. Translation Sono tutti così bravi a dirmi cosa hanno bisogno che io
faccia. E io Carter? Eh? E quello di cui ho bisogno io?
Everyone is so capable of telling me what (I have) to do. And
what about me, Carter? What about what I need?
c. Adaptation 1 Sono tutti così bravi a dirmi cosa hanno bisogno che io
faccia. E io Carter?.. Eh? / E quello di cui ho bisogno io?
Everyone is so capable of telling me what (I have) to do. And
what about me, Carter? What about what I need?
d. Adaptation 2 Tutti quanti.. sono così bravi a dirmi cosa vogliono. E
qualcuno pensa a me, Carter?.. Eh? / (DS) A quello che
voglio io?!
Everyone is so capable of telling me what they want. Does
anyone think about me, Carter? Huh? About what I want?
e. Submitted Siete bravi.. quando si tratta di dirmi cosa devo o non devo
draft fare. E qualcuno pensa a me, Carter?.. Eh? / (DS) A quello
che voglio io?!
You’re all very capable when it comes to telling me what I
should or should not do. And does anyone think about me,
Carter? Huh? About what I want?
f. As recorded Idem
Table 7.5, row a: Kaylie’s dialogue contains a number of bilabial con-

sonants and two pauses. Kaylie is seen over the shoulder in the final part
of the dialogue, so bilabial consonants are not a problem in this particular
instance. In any case, however, isochrony needs to be observed, especially
because Carter replies immediately after she stops speaking, so overlap-
ping must be avoided.
Table 7.5, row b: The literal translation of the first line is clearly too
tortuous and requires simplification and rewriting, as shown in the sec-
ond adaptation attempt.
Table 7.5, row e: The final adaptation draft goes a step further in
rewriting the dialogue lines in order to make it sound more natural in the
target language, even though in respect of the meaning, effect, and stra-
tegic positioning of pauses. The slight shift in syntax also allows the /b/ in
everybody to be matched by the /b/ in bravi, while the /m/ in tell me is
tallied by the /m/ in dirmi. The mouth movement accompanying the
verb need is matched by the verb devo, and the fricative /f/ in fare is meant
to correspond with the /m/ in need me. The addition of pensa (think of/
care about) helps to cover the /b/ in about, while the /m/ in me is paired
to me in Italian.
7.2.2 Synchronies and Dubbese
Examples 7.2a and 7.2b are drawn from an episode of the TV series,
Castle (Disney/abc Studios 2009–2016). In this episode, the main pro-
tagonists, Detective Beckett and Castle are investigating the murder of a
prominent assistant district attorney, Jack Buckley. They soon discover
that the victim headed a call girl organization.
In the chosen scene, the detectives are interrogating an escort: Scarlett
Price, who was also a legal protégé of the murdered attorney. This exam-
ple features a monologue (followed by the rest of the interrogation) with
multiple close-up shots. The character adopts a dramatic tone; she sobs
while she speaks almost all throughout her performance. Perhaps, one of
the most challenging technical aspects of Scarlett’s monologue is the
continuous alternation between over-the-shoulder shots, off-screen
shots, and on screen close-up shots. The dialogue writer must therefore
ensure that the intended, chosen word coincides with the sudden shifts
to on-screen shots. In such occurrences, mastering and reproducing the
rhythm into the script is the only way to achieve the required synchroni-
zation on the part of the actors who will be putting voice to the adapted
work.
Example 7.2a Excerpt drawn from the TV series Castle (Disney/abc

Studios 2009), Season 2, Episode 9, “Love me dead”.3
01:15:32:03 SCARLETT I started seeing him about a year ago. He

hadn’t been with anyone since his divorce.
He was just lonely, you know? We’d spend
most of his dates talking. He’d take me to
fancy restaurants even though I told him
he didn’t have to. But I think he wanted to
make it feel as normal as possible. Then one
night he saw a law book in my bag. I told
him I was only working as an escort to pay
my way through law school. A few months
later he said he had an internship opening
up in his office, would I be interested?
01:16:16:04 BECKETT He wanted to help you escape the life?
01:16:19:20 CASTLE Who’s Danton?
01:16:21:05 SCARLETT I don’t know.
01:16:22:10 BECKETT Don’t lie to us, Scarlett.
01:16:24:01 SCARLETT I’m not.
Example 7.2b Excerpt drawn from Italian-dubbed TV series, Castle

(Disney/abc Studios 2010), Season 2, Episode 9, “Il secondo lavoro”.4
SCARLETT Abbiamo iniziato a vederci.. più o meno un anno fa./

(DS) Dopo il divorzio non era stato con nessuna donna.
/ (DF) Si sentiva solo, / è così. / (in.DS) Passavamo
molte serate a parlare./ Mi portava in ristoranti di classe
/ anche se.. gli dicevo che non era necessario. / (in.DS)
Forse così gli sembrava che fossimo una coppia
normale. / Poi, una sera vide un libro di diritto penale..
nella mia borsa./ (in.DS) Gli dissi.. che lavoravo come
escort solo per pagarmi la facoltà di giurisprudenza./
(in.FC) Qualche mese dopo, / mi offrì il praticantato
presso il suo ufficio / e ovviamente accettai.
BECKETT (in.FC) Voleva tirarla fuori da quella vita?
CASTLE Chi è Danton?

SCARLETT Non lo so.
BECKETT Non le credo, Scarlett.
SCARLETT È la verità.
Table 7.6 Synchronies and dubbese I(a)

a. Original I started seeing him about a year ago. He hadn’t been with
language anyone since his divorce. He was just lonely, you know?
b. Translation Abbiamo iniziato a frequentarci circa un anno fa. Non era
più stato con una donna dal giorno del divorzio. Si
sentiva semplicemente solo, sapete?
We started dating about a year ago. He hadn’t been with
another woman since the day he divorced. He simply felt
lonely, you know?
c. Adaptation 1 Abbiamo iniziato a frequentarci.. circa un anno fa. / (DS)
Non era più stato con una donna dal giorno del divorzio./
(DF) Si sentiva semplicemente solo, / sapete?
We started dating about a year ago. He hadn’t been with
any other woman since the day he divorced. He simply
felt lonely, you know?
d. Adaptation 2 Abbiamo iniziato a vederci.. più o meno un anno fa./ (DS)
Dopo il divorzio non era stato con nessuna donna. / (DF)
Si sentiva solo, / sapete? /
We started dating more or less a year ago. After he
divorced he had not been with another woman. He felt
lonely, you know?
e. Submitted Abbiamo iniziato a vederci.. più o meno un anno fa./ (DS)
draft Dopo il divorzio non era stato con nessuna donna. / (DF)
Si sentiva solo, / è così. /
We started dating more or less a year ago. After he
divorced he hadn’t been with any other woman. He felt
lonely, that’s it.
f. As recorded Idem
Table 7.6, rows a and b: The translation replaces the generic anyone
with donna (woman). Specification and explicitation are common dub-
bing strategies in Italian (Brincat 2015), and other target languages (Goris
1993; Martí Ferriol 2010), when English is the source language.
Table 7.6, row c: In the first instance pauses and rhythm are identified,
followed by the insertion of dubbing notations and tempo markers (see
Sects. 5.2 and 5.3). The dialogue line is in fact still identical to the trans-
lation. As mentioned earlier, the character is crying as she speaks; how-

ever, this is not specified in the dubbing notations, since it is clearly
evident to the actor in both the aural and visual stimuli. The slashes high-
light the pauses, while the (DS) (di spalle) refers to an over-the-shoulder
shot. The (DF) (di fronte) signifies that the character’s mouth is facing
the viewers once again. Dialogue lines are broken by pauses in the most
natural way possible, all throughout this monologue.
Table 7.6, row d: In the second adaptation attempt, frequentarci (dating)
is substituted by vederci (seeing each other) because of the need for a shorter
solution that also caters for the /m/ in him thanks to the labiodental /v/.
Circa (about) is replaced by più o meno (more or less) in order to cater for
the /b/ in about. The shift in syntax helps to achieve a more natural-sound-
ing line in the target language. The line is also shorter and simplified. The
mouth articulation required for donna (woman) is suitable to that required
for divorce. Semplicemente (simply) is omitted since it lengthens the line and
adds bilabial consonants that are not present in the original language.
Table 7.6, row e: In the final draft, the interrogative expression and SL
calque sapete? (you know) is replaced by the more natural affirmative
expression è così (that’s it), thus also matching the rounded vowels in you
know, and also avoiding a bilabial consonant (the /p/ in sapete) that is not
present in the original version. Shifting from interrogative constructions to
affirmative ones, and vice versa, can be a very useful strategy in obtaining
natural-sounding dialogue in the target language.
Table 7.7 Synchronies and dubbese I(b)

a. Original We’d spend most of his dates talking. He’d take me to
language fancy restaurants even though I told him he didn’t have
to. But I think he wanted to make it feel as normal as
possible.
b. Translation Passavamo la maggior parte dei nostri appuntamenti a
parlare. Lui mi portava in ristoranti d’alta classe anche se
io gli dicevo che non doveva. Ma credo che volesse far
apparire la cosa il più normale possibile.
We used to spend most of our dates talking. He would take
me to high class restaurants even though I would tell him
he didn’t have to. But I think he wanted to make it seem
as normal as possible.
(continued)
c. Adaptation 1 (in.DS) Passavamo la maggior parte dei nostri

appuntamenti a parlare. Lui mi portava in ristoranti d’alta
classe / anche se.. io gli dicevo che non doveva./ (in.DS) Ma
credo che volesse far apparire la cosa il più normale
possibile.
me to high class restaurants even though I would tell him
he didn’t have to. But I think he wanted to make it seem
as normal as possible.
d. Adaptation 2 (in.DS) Passavamo molte serate a parlare. / Mi portava in
ristoranti di classe / anche se.. gli dicevo che non era
necessario. / (in.DS) Ma questo gli faceva sembrare il
rapporto più normale.
We would spend most evenings out talking. He would take
me to classy restaurants even though I would tell him it
was not necessary. But this to him made it feel more like a
normal relationship.
e. Submitted (in.DS) Passavamo molte serate a parlare. / Mi portava in
draft ristoranti di classe / anche se.. gli dicevo che non era
necessario. / (in.DS) Forse così gli sembrava che fossimo
una coppia normale.
me to classy restaurants even though I would tell him that
it was not necessary. Perhaps this way it felt as though we
were just like any other couple. (literally: a normal couple)
f. As recorded Idem
Table 7.7, rows a and b: The term dates is translated literally as appunta-
menti (which also means meetings or appointments); this is used widely in
Italian-dubbed productions, but for many this would hardly be used in
everyday oral discourse when referring to a romantic date. For this reason it
is later modified to molte serate (most evenings) during the adaptation phase
(see Table 7.7d). The need for specific reference is felt when it is used in the
last line. The notion of feel is translated by far apparire (to seem) which, per-
haps, is not too faithful to the original, since the focus lies on the way outsid-
ers perceive the situation. La cosa (the thing) is far from a natural-sounding
solution, hence the more specific Italian equivalent terms for “relationship”,
and subsequently “couple”, are used in the following adaptation attempts.
Table 7.7, row c: The first adaptation attempt is more focused on the
rhythm, pauses, and dubbing notations, rather than on rewriting the text.
The notation (in.DS) (inizia di spalle—starts over the shoulder) signifies that
the character’s mouth is initially not visible, since it is an over-the-shoulder
shot, but then there is a shift to a frontal shot, where the mouth is visible,
once again, on screen. The slashes are inserted to mark the pauses, and the
shorter pause marked by the double dots is strategically placed after anche se
(even though) in order to break the line in a natural-sounding manner.
Table 7.7, row d: In the second adaptation attempt, the first dialogue line
is condensed, and, as already mentioned, appuntamenti (dates) is replaced by
serate (evenings). The pronoun lui (he) is dropped, to match real spontaneous
discourse, and d’alta classe (high class) is shortened to di classe (classy) for
isochrony purposes. Gli dicevo che non doveva (I told him that he wasn’t
obliged to) is rewritten as gli dicevo che non era necessario (I told him that it
was not necessary) in order to match the mouth articulation of the rounded
o in have to. Besides, this avoids having to repeat the imperfect tense: “dicevo”
and “doveva”, which creates a possibly annoying rhyming effect. Gli faceva
apparire (it made it seem) is replaced by gli faceva sembrare (it made it feel),
which is closer in meaning to the original.
Table 7.7, row e: Che fossimo una coppia normale (that we were a nor-
mal couple) replaces the previous adaptation gli faceva sembrare il rap-
porto più normale (made it feel more like a normal relationship) for
natural-sounding purposes.
Table 7.8 Synchronies and dubbese I(c)

a. Original Then one night he saw a law book in my bag. I told him I
language was only working as an escort to pay my way through law
school.
b. Translation Poi, una sera vide un libro di diritto nella mia borsa. Gli
dissi che lavoravo come escort solo per pagarmi la facoltà
di legge.
Then, one night he saw a law book in my bag. I told him I
was only working as an escort to pay my way through law
school. (literally: law faculty)
c. Adaptation 1 Poi, una sera vide un libro di diritto.. nella mia borsa. / (in.
DS) Gli dissi che lavoravo come escort solo per pagarmi la
facoltà di legge. /
Then, one evening he saw a law book in my bag. I told him
I was only working as an escort to pay my way through
law school.
(continued)
d. Adaptation 2 Poi, una sera vide un libro di diritto penale.. nella mia
borsa./ (in.DS) Gli dissi.. che lavoravo come escort solo per
pagarmi la facoltà di giurisprudenza./
Then, one evening he saw a criminal law book in my bag. I
told him I was only working as an escort to pay my way
through law school. (literally: jurisprudence faculty)
e. Submitted Poi, una sera vide un libro di diritto penale.. nella mia
draft borsa./ (in.DS) Gli dissi.. che lavoravo come escort solo per
pagarmi la facoltà di giurisprudenza./
Then, one evening he saw a criminal law book in my bag. I
told him I was only working as an escort to pay my way
through law school. (literally: jurisprudence faculty)
f. As recorded Idem
Table 7.8, rows b and c: The translation and first adaptation attempt
are quite straightforward and faithful to the original in every aspect.
Table 7.8, rows d and e: The second adaptation attempt replaces facoltà di
legge (law faculty) with facoltà di giurisprudenza (jurisprudence faculty), since
the latter matches the multiple mouth flaps and mouth articulation in way
through law school. The only addition to the original text is the law book being
further qualified as one on criminal law. This allows the /b/ in book to be
matched by the /p/ in penale. This addition is necessary (and does not hinder
the plot): the /b/ in libro di diritto does not suffice because it does not coin-
cide with book as far as rhythm and timing are concerned (see classical rheto-
ric modification devices in Sect. 2.3, in particular adiectio (addition)).
Table 7.9 Synchronies and dubbese I(d)

a. Original A few months later he said he had an internship opening
language up in his office, would I be interested?
b. Translation Qualche mese dopo, mi disse che c’era la possibilità di un
tirocinio presso il suo ufficio e mi chiese se fossi interessata.
A couple of months later, he told me that there was the
possibility of an internship in his office and he asked me if
I were interested.
c. Adaptation 1 (in.FC) Qualche mese dopo, / mi disse che c’era la possibilità
di un tirocinio presso il suo studio / e mi chiese se fossi
interessata.
A couple of months later, he told me that there was the
possibility of an internship in his firm and he asked me if I
were interested.
(continued)
d. Adaptation 2 (in.FC) (DI SEGUITO) Qualche mese dopo, mi offrì

l’opportunità di svolgere un tirocinio presso il suo ufficio, /
e mi chiese se fossi interessata.
A couple of months later, he offered me an internship
opportunity in his office, and he asked me if I were
interested.
e. Submitted (in.FC) Qualche mese dopo, / mi offrì il praticantato presso il
draft suo ufficio / e ovviamente accettai.
A couple of months later, he offered me an apprenticeship
in his office, and obviously I accepted.
f. As recorded Idem
Table 7.9, rows a, b and c: The major setback in this dialogue line is
the length. A great deal of condensation is necessary.
Table 7.9, row d: The dubbing notation (DI SEGUITO) (continuous)
implies that the actor should omit the first pause; this is technically pos-
sible because the actress’s mouth is off-screen and therefore more words
can be included.
Table 7.9, row e: The above-mentioned escamotage should only be
used as a last resort, hence a better solution is recommended. The line is
condensed further, without altering the meaning and contents. The final
part of the sentence, on the other hand, presents a variation on the origi-
nal utterance. In this line, the question at the end: would I be interested?,
although not grammatically linked to the initial part of the sentence,
makes perfect sense, and is easily understood in English. The same, how-
ever, cannot be said, if it were to be transferred literally to the Italian
language. Expansion therefore is required: e mi chiese se fossi interessata
(and he asked me if I were interested) (see Table 7.9d), is a possible
option, which, however, is too long and does not meet isochrony require-
ments. It must also be said that the answer to that question is implied in
the monologue and in the plot in general, hence the shorter affirmative
statement: e ovviamente accettai (and obviously I accepted) is not in any
way unfaithful to the plot or content. Apart from that, it is necessary for
phonetic synch needs, since the /b/ in be (seen in full close-up shot) is
catered for. Also, the TL ending <ai> in accettai (I accepted) tallies with
the final mouth opening movement.
Table 7.10 Synchronies and dubbese I(e)

a. Original language - He wanted to help you escape the life?
- Who’s Danton?
- I don’t know.
- (16:12) Don’t lie to us, Scarlett.
- I’m not.
b. Translation - Voleva aiutarla a dire addio a quella vita?
He wanted to help you say goodbye to that life?
- Chi è Danton?
Who is Danton?
- Non lo so.
I don’t know.
- Non ci menta, Scarlett.
Don’t lie to us, Scarlett.
- Non sto mentendo.
I am not lying.
c. Adaptation 1 - (in.FC) Voleva aiutarla a lasciare la vita da escort?
He wanted to help you leave the escort life?
- Chi è Danton?
Who is Danton?
- Non lo so.
I don’t know.
- Non ci menta, Scarlett.
Don’t lie to us, Scarlett.
- Non sto mentendo.
I am not lying
d. Adaptation 2 - (in.FC) Voleva aiutarla a uscire/fuggire dal mondo
delle escort?
He wanted to help you exit/escape the escort life?
- Chi è Danton?
Who is Danton?
- Non lo so.
I don’t know.
- Non le credo, Scarlett.
- I don’t believe you, Scarlett.
- È la verità.
It’s the truth.
(continued)
e. Submitted draft - (in.FC) Voleva tirarla fuori da quella vita?

He wanted to get you out of that life?
- Chi è Danton?
Who is Danton?
- Non lo so.
I don’t know.
- Non le credo, Scarlett.
I don’t believe you, Scarlett.
- È la verità.
It’s the truth.
f. As recorded Idem
Table 7.10, row a: The interrogative statement He wanted you to escape

the life?, undergoes a substantial amount of rewriting so that it may be
natural sounding in the target language.
Table 7.10, rows c, d, and e: The first adaptation attempts try to specify
the kind of “life” referred to, but in the end isochrony requirements call for
a shorter line, with the insertion of the fricative /f/ in fuori (out) to match
the /p/ in escape, and most of all the /v/ in vita (life) to match the very evi-
dent /f/ in life. Escort at the end of the line would undoubtedly generate an
unaesthetic mismatch. The line also adopts an affirmative construction
rather than an interrogative one. The dubbing notation (in.FC) (inizia fuori
campo—starts off-screen) signifies that the character is off-screen initially,
but appears on-screen again later, as he talks.
The last dialogue line is perhaps more interesting and should be looked
at closely. The reply I’m not—if literally transposed into Italian (Non
sto)—does not form a complete semantic unit. Hence, it is necessary to
complete the sentence with mentendo (lying); therefore: non sto mentendo
(I’m not lying) which is too long in terms of isochrony. Besides, the
Italian translation for don’t lie to us: non ci menta includes a bilabial con-
sonant which is not present in the original language, and the mouth
articulation is totally different. Hence, don’t lie to us (non ci menta) is
rewritten as I don’t believe you. Subsequently, I’m not can be adapted by a
shorter target line, compared to the initial translated version: è la verità
(it’s the truth). The /v/ also caters or the /m/ in I’m not.
An interesting aspect worth pointing out is the use of the polite form
in Italian, accompanied by the character’s first name: Non le credo, Scarlett.
This is a common strategy in Italian-dubbed language (Paolinelli and Di

Fortunato 2005, p. 69). The English language does not have a polite form
for you, even though formality would be deduced from other elements.
Also, the Italian language and culture, in general, requires formal forms
of address in contexts where the people engaged in conversation do not
know each other well. Thus, titles and surnames are used as a form of
respect, rather than first names. However, the use of the polite form,
combined with the first name (normally used when the polite form is not
required if persons are on a first-name basis), is a widely accepted use of
language in dubbing, and Italian viewers are totally accustomed to it.
This can fall within the dubbese categorization.
The above examples are meant to highlight synchronization constraints.
The ideal scenario is one in which dialogue writers succeed in striking a
balance between synchronization requirements and natural-sounding dia-
logue (Whitman-Linsen 1992). Some, if not many, directors and dialogue
writers have a tendency to shift the balance to one side or the other.
Professional dialogue writers should ideally establish their sought-after
client-specific preferences before manipulating the dialogues. The pursuit
of natural-sounding dialogue is the common main objective that runs
through all the examples cited in this chapter.
7.3 Intertextual References

This section provides an example of text manipulation that is required
due to an intertextual reference. The latter could be considered as a non-
technical constraint (see Sect. 1.3.1). In any case, this translation issue
would also need to come to terms with the technical constraints imposed.
For scholarly works on intertextual references, see Leppihalme (1997),
Chiaro (2010, 2014), Botella (2010), Martínez Sierra (2010), Chaume
(2012, 2016), López González (2015), and Ranzato (2016), among sev-
eral others.
The chosen excerpt is drawn from the previously cited TV series, Castle
(Disney/abc Studios 2009–2016). The detectives are at the police pre-
cinct office discussing the murder of an attorney. They refer to their newly
identified suspect who had motive for seeking vengeance and killing the
victim, who was responsible for trying to get the suspect imprisoned.
Castle makes reference to a parallel situation in the film Cape Fear5
(Universal pictures 1991), by quoting and imitating the recitation of a
dialogue line spoken by the main character Max Cady, played by Robert
De Niro. In the quoted scene, Max Cady, who wants revenge, holds a
baseball bat in hand as he entices the lawyer, Sam Bowden, to come out
of his hiding place.
This example also illustrates how a dubbing script can be modified
further in the studios, during the recording session, after it has been
handed over by the dialogue writer.
Example 7.3a Excerpt drawn from the original “as broadcast” script of
TV series, Castle (Disney/abc Studios 2009), Season 2, Episode 9, “Love
me dead”.6
01:07:45:03 CASTLE Right, and then it’s all, (imitating Robert De

Niro) “Come out, come out, wherever you are”.
(Come…are = dialogue from the Cape Fear, delivered by Robert De Niro)
01:07:49:05 RYAN Really? That’s your De Niro?
(your De Niro = implying Castle’s impersonation of De Niro was not good)
Example 7.3b Excerpt drawn from the Italian dubbing script of TV

series, Castle (Disney/abc Studios 2010), Season 2, Episode 9, “Il secondo
lavoro”.7
CASTLE E a quel punto recita “Sono simile a Dio e Dio è simile a me.”*
RYAN Bravo, eh? / Sarebbe De Niro? **
*Oppure: E allora fa “Avvocato, vieni fuori, dai forza, fatti vedere!”

Nota del dialoghista: Nel film Cape Fear Robert De Niro recita questa bat-
tuta: “come out, come out, wherever you are” (vieni fuori, dai forza, fatti
vedere) con la cantilena. Nella versione doppiata la cantilena non c’è,
quindi la battuta è meno riconoscibile. Si propone un’altra battuta cele-
bre tratta dallo stesso monologo, battuta che viene recitata con enfasi e
gestualità.
**Opp: Mi dispiace, non sai fare De Niro
Table 7.11 Intertextual references I(a)

a. Original language Right, and then it’s all, (imitating Robert De Niro)
“Come out, come out, wherever you are.”
b. Translation Esatto, e a quel punto fa: “Avanti, vieni fuori,
ovunque tu sia.”
Ok, so it is all “Come out, come out, wherever you
are.”
c. Adaptation Esatto, e a quel punto recita: “Vieni fuori, dai forza,
fatti vedere!”
Good, case closed. Come out, come on, let me see
you.
d. Submitted draft E a quel punto recita “Sono simile a Dio e Dio è simile
a me.”
So, case closed. “I am like God and God is like me.”
e. Alternative in E allora fa “Avvocato, vieni fuori,dai forza, fatti
footnote vedere!”
So, case closed. Come out, come on, let me see you.
f. Italian dub Vieni fuori, dai forza, fatti vedere!
Cape Fear—Il Come out, come on, let me see you.
promontorio della
paura
g. Dialogue writer’s Nel film “Cape Fear” Robert De Niro recita questa
footnotes battuta: “come out, come out, wherever you are”
(vieni fuori, dai forza, fatti vedere) con la cantilena.
Nella versione doppiata la cantilena non c’è, quindi
la battuta è meno riconoscibile. Si propone un’altra
battuta celebre tratta dallo stesso monologo,
battuta che viene recitata con enfasi e gestualità.
In the film “Cape Fear” Robert De Niro recites this
line: “come out, come out, wherever you are” (vieni
fuori, dai forza, fatti vedere) in a sing-song
intonation. In the Italian-dubbed version, there is no
such intonation, so the line is less identifiable.
Another well-known line drawn from the same
monologue is proposed, a line which is recited with
emphasis and gesticulation.
h. As recorded Allora, caso risolto. Grande, grande sono un grande!
So, case closed. I’m great, I’m great, I’m great!
i. Castilian Spanish Y allí empieza “Abogado, sal de donde quiera que
dubbing estés”.
Castle Counselor, come out from wherever you are.
(continued)
j. Castilian Spanish Sal ratita, quiero verte la colita.

dubbing (Cape Come out little rat, let me see your little tail.
Fear) (literally: I want to see your little tail)
El Cabo del miedo
k. French dubbing Il l’a peut être joué à la De Niro: J’irais te chercher
Castle partout, où que tu sois!
He was possibly imitating De Niro: I will look for you
everywhere, wherever you are! (literally: he possibly
played it the De Niro way)
l. French dubbing Hé, l’avocat! Ça va, mène-toi, sors de ta cachette.
(Cape Fear) Hey, counselor! Come, come on, come out of your
Les nerfs à vif hiding place!
Table 7.12 Intertextual references I(b)

a. Original language Really? That’s your De Niro?
b. Translation Davvero? Questa è la tua imitazione di De Niro?
Really? Is this your imitation of De Niro?
c. Adaptation Sul serio? / Sarebbe il tuo De Niro?
Seriously? Was that supposed to be De Niro?
d. Submitted draft Bravo, eh? / Sarebbe De Niro?
I’m impressed, eh? (literally: you’re good) Was that
supposed to be De Niro?
e. Alternative in (Opp) Mi dispiace.. Non sai fare De Niro.
footnote (Or) I’m sorry.. you don’t know how to imitate De Niro.
f. As recorded Modesto, che faremmo senza di te?
How modest. We would be lost without you. (Literally:
What would we do without you?)
g. Spanish ¿En serio? Asi habla De Niro?
Castilian dubbing Really? Does De Niro speak like this?
Castle
h. French dubbing Oui, oui, c’est De Niro ça.
Castle Yes, very precise imitation of De Niro. (literally: yes, yes,
that’s De Niro)
Table 7.11, rows a and b: “Come out, come out, wherever you are” is a
citation from a very popular monologue in the film Cape Fear; this part
of the film is often referred to as the “counsellor scene” and is immedi-
ately recognizable to most viewers. There is an existing Italian-dubbed
version of the film, which cannot be ignored (see Table 7.11f ). The man-
ner in which the character (Castle) performs this line is also to be given
consideration. He pushes his arms forward, leans slightly backwards, and
speaks with enormous emphasis, using marked facial expressions, as well

as a sing-song intonation, emulating that of the film being quoted. This
line, in the original language, is well known and identifiable thanks to its
sing-song intonation, although this peculiarity has not been retained in
the Italian-dubbed version of the original film.
Table 7.11, row c: In the Italian-dubbed version of Cape Fear, the
melody of this line is flattened, thus simply requoting this line would not
leave the intended effect on the Italian viewers of Castle. They would not
recognize the reference to Cape Fear since the line would not stand out as
much (at least, not until De Niro is mentioned in the following line),
besides, it would not justify the gesticulation and facial emphasis in
Castle’s recitation. Therefore it is immediately evident that a substitution
may be called for.
Table 7.11, row d: The argument set out for Table 7.11 row c, leads
towards another solution: a line drawn from the same monologue in
Cape Fear, and that would sound more familiar to Italian viewers, who
could associate it more easily with the film being cited. Besides, it fits into
Castle’s interpretation. Castle’s line is intended to simulate the suspect’s
desire to track down and kill the district attorney, murdered victim in the
episode in question. He does so by referring to the parallel situation in
Cape Fear where the main character, Max Cady, seeks vengeance against
the counsellor who knowingly withheld evidence and left him in prison.
The solution proposed implies having an intertextual reference within
the intertextual reference, since the character in Cape Fear is citing
Salatius, mystical and religious poet from the seventeenth century.
Table 7.11, row e: The existing Italian-dubbed version of the line in
the cited film is offered as an alternative in footnote.
Table 7.11, row h: This is the version opted for by the dubbing direc-
tor in order to avoid the reference to God in the dubbed episode of Castle,
in compliance with the preferences and suggestions of the production
house in Italian territory. The TV series is meant as a family programme
and is broadcast also on the local public TV network (Rai Due), always
prior to 11 pm. This, in addition to the influence of the Vatican, and the
production house’s criteria based on quality, brand, taste, and decency
factors entice dialogue writers, dubbing directors, and all the dubbing
team responsible for the TL edition to omit or tone down references to
God, even when these are perhaps present in the original text (refer to
Sect. 6.8). Therefore, in the said circumstances the clients’ needs are given
precedence over the intertextual reference which is lost in the Italian
broadcasted version.
Table 7.12, row f: Modesto, che faremmo senza di te? (How modest. We
would be lost without you.). The following dialogue line, in reply to Castle,
is necessarily moulded according to the previous dialogue line; the men-
tion of De Niro is totally omitted.
Table 7.11, rows i and j, and Table 7.12, row g: It is interesting, at this
point, to go beyond the genetic analysis approach for a while and take a
look at the Spanish- and French-dubbed versions simply to draw the read-
er’s attention towards the different reasoning and choices that every dia-
logue writer may adopt, resulting in multiple solutions for the same
translation issue. This time the analysis can only be based on assumptions.
The Castilian Spanish-dubbed version of the Castle episode does not draw
the famous line from the existing Spanish-dubbed version of the cited
film, that is: Sal ratita, quiero verte la colita (Come out little rat, I want to
see your little tail). Instead, it offers a faithful translation of the English
line. The Spanish dubbing actor also adopts the same sing-song intona-
tion, though this is applied to an altogether newly written Spanish adap-
tation of this line in Cape Fear. Hence the already-existing dubbed Spanish
version is not quoted and the adapted line chosen was never spoken by De
Niro in Cape Fear. However, the reference to De Niro is maintained in
the other character’s response. Besides, the sing-song intonation (present
in the Spanish dubbing of Cape Fear) and the addition of the well-known
vocative abogado at the beginning of the line are probably enough for the
Spanish audience to identify the reference to Cape Fear, at the least.
Table 7.11, rows k and l, and Table 7.12, row h: In the French-dubbed
version of the Castle episode, Castle refers explicitly to De Niro before
imitating the dialogue line in Cape Fear. The dialogue writer therefore
wants to ensure that the target audience immediately realizes that it is an
imitation of De Niro. The reference to De Niro is also maintained in the
responding dialogue line. The French-dubbed version of the dialogue line
in Cape Fear does come with a sing-song intonation, just like the original,
and therefore association with the film is easier. Similarly to the Spanish
version, the French-dubbed version does not draw the dialogue line from
the French-dubbed version of Cape Fear but is limited to the imitation of

the recitation style and sing-song intonation. This, over and above the
repeated explicit reference to De Niro, is enough to render the association
with the film in question.
7.4 Wordplay
This section offers examples of wordplay, also combined with intertextual
references, culture-specific references, and humour. These translation
issues can be considered as non-technical constraints (see Sect. 1.3.1).
When different meanings of one word are exploited to create wordplay,
manipulation in the target version is usually accounted for by the neces-
sity to maintain the effect intended in the original version, while simul-
taneously respecting all types of synchronies, as well as meaning and
content. A wider range of text modification strategies are adopted in such
cases. (See classical rhetoric modification principles in Sect. 2.3, espe-
cially, immutatio (change in form) and transmutatio (change in order).)
For research on wordplay and translation, reference can be made to
Delabastita (1996, 1997); and for research on wordplay, humour, and
audiovisual translation (AVT), reference can be made to Martínez Sierra
(2008), De Rosa et al. (2014), and Minutella (2014); for culture-specific
references: Katan (2009) and, Ranzato (2011, 2014, 2016); for culture-
specific references and humour: Zabalbescoa (1996), Chiaro (2010),
Brincat (2017), and Iaia (2018), among several others.
7.4.1 Wordplay and Visuals
The first chosen excerpt in this section also combines a specific technical
restriction: on-screen text, placing further constraint on the extent of
manoeuvrability and modification. The scene is drawn from the TV series
Psych (NBC/Universal Studios 2006–2014). A group of detectives are
chasing a notorious serial killer, Yin Yang, who has kidnapped the mother
of the main protagonist and detective, Shawn. The detectives receive
threatening riddles from the killer; these are intended as clues that lead to
him and the kidnapped mother. There are few close-up shots on the char-
acters’ faces, and the performance is not characterized by any particular

emphasis or recitation style. The visuals, however, include a set of words
scribbled in red lipstick on a bathroom mirror. These form part of a riddle
which is read aloud by one of the characters, while the camera highlights
the text a few words at a time, offering various extreme close-up shots.
Example 7.4a Excerpt drawn from the TV series Psych (NBC/Universal

Studios 2009) Season 3, Episode 16, “An evening with Mr. Yang”.
INT. STONEWALL HOTEL AND SUITES BATHROOM—

MOMENTS LATER
Lassiter “You should be moving as most people do but instead you
sit and enjoy the view. ‘P.S.’ Mommy says hi and bye…just
in case.”
Gus “V.U.”
TEXT VU
Gus (cont’d) Why did he spell it that way?
Mary Maybe that’s the hint. Maybe he ran out of lipstick.
Example 7.4b Excerpt drawn from the Italian dubbing script of the TV
series Psych (NBC/Universal Studios 2009) Season 3, Episode 16,
“Indovina Indovinello”.
LASSITER “Mettetevi comodi, occhi in su; e godetevi il finale.. déjà

vu.* (fin.FC)/ (IC) P.S: La mamma ti saluta.. e dice
addio, non si sa mai.”
GUS (in.FC) “Déjà vu”: “Già visto”. Perché è in francese?**
MARY Forse l’indizio è quello.. O forse vuol far vedere che è
poliglotta.***
*In inglese si gioca sulla parola “view” (vista) che viene pronunciato
“view” (viù), ma scritto “vu”, come se l’assassino avesse contratto la parola,
avendo finito il rossetto. “Vu” è un indizio: è il nome di un “drive-in” che
si legge sia sullo specchio, sia in un flashback che inquadra l’insegna del
drive-in, perciò bisogna usare il “vu”
**Lett: Perché è scritto in quel modo?
***Lett: O forse gli è finito il rossetto
Table 7.13 Wordplay and visuals I(a)

a. Original “You should be moving as most people do but instead you sit
language and enjoy the view. ‘P.S.’ Mommy says hi and bye… just in
case.”
b. Translation “Dovresti muoverti, come fanno in molti, invece stai lì seduto
a goderti la vista. P.S. La mamma dice ciao e addio… non si
sa mai.”
You should be moving as most do, but instead you sit and
enjoy the view. P.S. Mummy says hi and goodbye… you
never know.
c. Adaptation (IC) (LEGGE) “Dovresti muoverti, come fanno in molti, invece
stai lì seduto a goderti la vista. (fin.FC) / (IC) P.S. La mamma
dice ciao e addio… non si sa mai.”
You should be moving as most do, but instead you sit and
enjoy the view. P.S. Mummy says hi and goodbye… you
never know.
d. Submitted (IC) (LEGGE) “Mettetevi comodi, occhi in su; e godetevi il
draft finale.. déjà vu. (fin.FC)/ (IC) P.S: La mamma ti saluta.. e dice
addio, non si sa mai.”
Make yourself comfortable, look upwards, and enjoy the déjà
vu ending. P.S. Mummy says hi and goodbye, you never know.
e. As recorded Idem
f. Dialogue In inglese si gioca sulla parola “view” (vista) che viene
writer’s pronunciato “view” (viù), ma scritto “vu”, come se
footnotes l’assassino avesse contratto la parola, avendo finito il
rossetto. “Vu” è un indizio: è il nome di un “drive-in” che si
legge sia sullo specchio, sia in un flashback che inquadra
l’insegna del drive-in, perciò bisogna usare il “vu”.
In English there is a pun on the word “view” (view) which is
pronounced as “view” (viù), but is written as “vu”, as though
the killer had to abbreviate the word as he ran out of lipstick.
“Vu” is a clue: it is the name of a drive-in cinema which is
read both on the mirror, as well as in a flashback frame,
depicting the drive-in sign, therefore, “vu” needs to be used.
Table 7.13, row c: The dubbing notation (IC) (in campo) informs the
dubbing actor that the character, Lassiter, is now on screen. This is speci-
fied because prior to this he had just finished speaking off-screen. The
notation (LEGGE) (reads) advises the dubbing actor to use a reading
intonation. Lassiter reads the riddle aloud; the on-screen mouth signifies
that the riddle is not being shot while he is reading. This allows the dia-
logue writer a certain degree of freedom, since the riddle created in the
TL is not restricted to the length of the text written on the mirror. Despite
this, a number of factors are taken into consideration:
• the riddle (written on the mirror) has a specific function in the plot, so
the same underlying message or clues must be included;
• the riddle contains rhyming words, and so the style must be maintained;
• the last word of the riddle is visible to the audience; therefore, it must
necessarily be integrated in the TL adapted riddle; this last word is the
most important clue because it leads to the killer’s whereabouts;
• another two words of the riddle are seen in a close-up shot in a subse-
quent moment of the scene.
The dialogue lines that follow (spoken by other characters) are in

response to the riddle; consequently, continuity is of utmost importance.
Actually, the TL dialogue lines responding to the riddle should ideally be
tackled before the riddle itself, in order to establish which plot elements
necessarily need to be included. The riddle can then be created according
the character’s responses.
The dubbing notation (fin.FC) (finisce fuori campo—ends off-screen)
signifies that towards the end of the line the character is off-screen. This
is followed by a pause (marked by a forward slash), and once again (IC)
(in campo—on screen) is used to indicate that the mouth is visible on
screen. Despite the evident bilabial consonant towards the end of the line
(/b/ in bye), in this context the semantic content of the riddle is given
priority over phonetic synchronization. The term addio (goodbye) is
important to highlight the threatening tone assumed by the murderer;
the latter wants to suggest that he is ready to kill the person he has kid-
napped, that is, the main protagonist’s mother.
Table 7.13, row d: The final draft of the riddle contains rhyme and simi-
lar indirect clues, which are meant to recall a drive-in cinema where the
audience can watch a movie seated in a car, looking up towards the screen.
The word V.U., spelled and pronounced this way, needs to be included,
since it is visible in an extreme close-up shot of the mirror. Besides, it is the
name of the drive-in cinema where the killer is holding his hostage; hence,
it is an important clue in the plot. The riddle in English plays with the
pronunciation and spelling of the word. The full stop separating the two
letters—V.U.—makes it sound like view when spelled aloud. So view refers
to the movie being watched, as well as to the actual name of the cinema
drive-in. However, the detectives, at this point are still trying to figure out
the underlying meaning of the riddle and what location it refers to. In
order to reproduce the exact word (as it appears on screen), the Italian-
adapted version resorts to the use of the French déjà vu. In this setting it
does not stand alone as an expression, but qualifies the term finale (ending)
as “already seen”. The expression déjà vu is used in day-to-day spoken
Italian and consequently does not sound completely unfamiliar or out of
place in the TL. Besides, as seen later in Table 7.14d, its translation is also
included in the TL version to clarify its meaning in this given context and
to avoid leaving room for incomprehension. In this manner, the reference
to a finale déjà vu (déjà vu ending) blends into the threatening tone and
message, by recalling all the previous murders committed, in this same
episode. When the camera closes in on V.U., the rest of the written message
is not visible on screen, which means that the déjà could easily be hidden
away off-screen and left to the Italian viewers’ imagination. After all, “vu”
is the clue that the film director is trying to highlight in the close-up shot.
It should be interesting to note that on many occasions resorting to a
parallel expression in a third language, and even more so in the source
language, enables dialogue writers to reproduce the same intended effect
in the TL text. In other words an expression in English could be replaced
by another expression in English that is utilized in the TL version, thus
familiar to the audience. Hence, the language obstacle is overcome and
comprehension ensured without having to resort to a more domestic-
sounding solution in the TL. This is especially the case with specific jar-
gon, for example business language (e.g., English words such as briefing,
meeting, convention, and others used instead of their existing Italian
equivalents for the sake of lip-synch reasons or other).
Table 7.14 Wordplay and visuals I(b)

a. Original language “V.U.” Why did he spell it that way?
b. Translation V.U. Perché è scritto in quel modo?
“V.U.” Why is it written like that?
b. Adaptation (in.FC) “V.U.” / Perché è scritto in quel modo?
“V.U.” Why is it written like that?
d. Submitted draft (ant. su muto) (in.FC) “Déjà vu”: “Già visto”.
Perché è in francese?
Déjà vu: already seen. Why French? (literally: why
is it in French?)
e. As recorded Idem
f. Dialogue writer’s Lett: V.U. Perché è scritto in quel modo?
footnotes Literally: V.U. Why is it written like that?
Table 7.14, rows a and d: Gus, another detective helping in the

investigation, repeats the word V.U. loudly, while questioning the
spelling. In Italian, too, the character needs to repeat what is said in
the previous dubbed line, so déjà vu is taken up again. Explicitation is
used to help the viewer focus on the literal meaning of the expression,
that is, an ending which has already been seen (the countless murders
committed by the serial killer (refer to adiecto as an applicable device
in Sect. 2.3)). The line is too long, but the initial off-screen shots, as
well as the short speech-free gap preceding this line, allows the dub-
bing actor to start uttering his line slightly before the original one. In
so doing, all the necessary information is integrated. The dubbing
notation (in.FC) (in fuori campo—starts off-screen) signifies that the
character is initially off-screen, and then on-screen, after a while. The
notation (ant. su muto) (anticipato su muto—uttered in advance on
mute) warns the actor to start earlier on the speech-free gap, that is,
when the character in question has not as yet started uttering his line.
Table 7.15 Wordplay and visuals I(c)

a. Original language Maybe that’s the hint. Maybe he ran out of lipstick.
b. Translation Forse l’inidizio è quello. Forse gli è finito il rossetto.
Perhaps that’s the clue. Perhaps he ran out of lipstick.
(literally: perhaps the clue is that)
c. Adaptation Magari è quello l’indizio.. O magari gli è finito il
rossetto.
Maybe that’s the clue. Or maybe he ran out of lipstick.
d. Submitted draft Forse l’indizio è quello.. O forse vuol far vedere che è
poliglotta.
Maybe that’s the clue or maybe he wants to show off
his polyglot skills. (literally: he wants to show that
he is a polyglot)
e. As recorded Idem
f. Dialogue writer’s Lett: o forse gli è finito il rossetto.
footnote Literally: or perhaps he ran out of lipstick
Table 7.15, rows a and d: The first part of the adaptation is faithful to
the original and highlights the possibility that V.U. is an intended clue.
The comment on the killer running out of lipstick is meant to have a
slight comic effect and carries no relevance to the plot. Likewise, the ref-
erence to the killer’s polyglot skills justifies all the previous adapted lines,
while at the same time ensuring that the /p/ in lipstick is matched with
another bilabial consonant: poliglotta (polyglot).
7.4.2 Wordplay and Humour
Examples 7.5a and 7.5b present a case of source text manipulation that
prioritizes the effect of wordplay. It is drawn from the TV series Castle
(Disney/abc Studios 2009–2016). The main protagonist of the series,
Richard Castle, is a crime novelist who, for research purposes, helps a
female detective, Kate Beckett, investigate a number of murders. The fic-
titious character in his novels, Nikki Heat, is based on real-life Detective
Beckett. In the chosen scene, Castle is at his own book launch presenting
one of his “Nikki Heat” novels. Beckett turns up at the event and com-
plains about the name chosen for the main character that he has based on
her personality.
Example 7.5a Excerpt drawn from the original “as broadcast” script

Castle (Disney/abc Studios 2009), Season 1, Episode 2, “Hell hath no
fury”.8
01:40:46:27 BECKETT What kind of a name is “Nikki Heat”?

01:40:49:00 CASTLE A cop name.
01:40:49:27 BECKETT It’s a stripper name.
(stripper = erotic dancer)
01:40:50:29 CASTLE Well, I told you she was kind of slutty.
01:40:52:12 BECKETT Change it, Castle.
01:40:53:18 CASTLE Well, hang on a second. <chuckling exhale>
Think of the titles. Summer Heat. Heat
Wave. In Heat.
(Summer…Heat = note wordplay; listing potential book titles that could be

generated using his proposed protagonist’s name, “Heat”)
(Heat Wave = refers to a prolonged period of excessively hot weather)
(In Heat = meaning to be sexually aroused)
Example 7.5b Excerpt drawn from the Italian dubbing script of Castle
(Disney/abc Studios 2009), Season 1, Episode 2, “Morte di un
candidato”.9
BECKETT Che razza di nome è: Nikki Heat?

CASTLE Un nome da poliziotto.
BECKETT O da spogliarellista!
CASTLE Ti avevo detto che è una tipa focosa. (fin.COP)
BECKETT Cambialo, Castle!
CASTLE No, aspetta un minuto. (SORR).. Pensa ai possibili titoli:/
“Heat instinct”,.. “Heat and the city”,.. “Strip Heat”.*
*Nota del dialoghista: Storpiature dei titoli di film/serie TV che comunque

mantengono la componente erotica del cognome “Heat”: “Basic Instinct”,
“Sex and the city”, “Striptease”. Orig: Summer heat, heat wave, in heat.
(Lett: calore estivo, ondata di calore, in calore)
Table 7.16 Wordplay and humour

a. Original language Well, hang on a second. <chuckling exhale> Think of
the titles. Summer Heat. Heat Wave. In Heat.
b. Translation No, aspetta un minuto. Pensa ai possibili titoli: “Calore
estivo”, “Ondata di calore”, “In calore”.
No, hang on a minute. Think of the potential titles:
“Summer Heat”, “Heat Wave”, “In Heat”. (literally:
wait a minute)
c. Adaptation No, aspetta un minuto. (SORR).. Pensa ai possibili titoli:/
“Heat instinct”,.. “Heat and the city”,.. “Strip Heat”.
“Heat instinct”, “Heat and the City”, “Strip Heat”.
d. Submitted draft No, aspetta un minuto. (SORR).. Pensa ai possibili titoli:/
“Heat instinct”,.. “Heat and the city”,.. “Strip Heat”.
Heat instinct, Heat and the City, Strip Heat.
e. As recorded Idem
f. Dialogue writer’s Storpiature dei titoli di film/telefilm che comunque
footnotes mantengono la componente erotica del cognome
“Heat”: Basic Instinct, Sex and the city, Striptease.
Wordplay on film/telefilm titles that in any case retain
the erotic nuance contained in the surname “Heat”:
Basic Instinct, Sex and the City, Strip tease.
Table 7.16, row c: The notation (SORR) (sorriso-smile) indicates the

chuckling exhale.
Table 7.16, rows d and e: In this case, the “as recorded” version coin-
cides with the dialogue writer’s final draft. The emphasis is laid on the
intended effect rather than on faithfulness to the original text. The play
on words is retained, and the same name Heat is used, since it is relevant
to the plot and characters. It has also been taken into consideration that
this name would come up again in future episodes. Instead of using
common English-language expressions with the word heat and which
could contain sexual or erotic nuances, existing film titles are adopted
and moulded to suit the situation. The solutions proposed are meant to
recall films, in which both titles and plot contain the same type of
nuance. Therefore, intertextual references are added to the dubbed
version.
Table 7.16, row f: Once again, the dialogue writer’s footnote offers an
explanation for the adopted solution. Such explanations can be useful
during the recording session: the note draws the dubbing director’s atten-
tion to the fact that the original text has been manipulated to a significant
extent. Dubbing directors are not always highly conversant with the
source language (Chaves 2000, p. 207), and might not necessarily grasp
certain nuances in the original version. The explanation seeks to involve
the dubbing director in this creative decision; the director will have to
decide whether to approve and accept, or opt to change the dialogue lines
again, perhaps after consulting the client.
7.4.3 W
ordplay and Cultural and Intertextual
References
Examples 7.6a and 7.6b are drawn from the TV series Castle (Disney/abc
Studios 2009–2016). The chosen scene is a conversation between father
and daughter and which involves a number of close-up shots. This exam-
ple requires a certain amount of text manipulation due to wordplay, com-
bined also with cultural and intertextual references.
Example 7.6a Excerpt drawn from the TV series Castle, Season 2,

Episode 6, “Vampire weekend” (Disney/abc Studios 2009).10
01:01:09:15 CASTLE So, have you come up with a name for your
parenting project baby egg yet? Wait! Uh.
Let me guess. Zac Eggfron? No, Egg Begley
junior?
(parenting…egg = a school assignment in
which students are given an egg as a substitute
baby in order to experience some of the
responsibilities of parenting)
(Zac Eggfron = play on Zac Efron, American
actor and singer)
(Egg…junior = play on Ed Begley junior,
American actor and activist)
01:01:18:15 ALEXIS I went Dickensian. Paige and I are calling
him Feggin. Get it?
(Dickensian = meaning she named the egg in
the fashion of a novel by Charles Dickens,
famed 19th century English author)
(Feggin = play on Fagin, a character from
Charles Dickens’ 1838 novel “Oliver Twist”)
01:01:23:02 CASTLE Feggin?
01:01:23:17 ALEXIS Fake baby egg.
01:01:25:04 CASTLE Wouldn’t that be “Fa-keg”
(fa-keg = note wordplay, “fake” + “egg”)?
Example 7.6b Excerpt drawn from the TV series Castle (Disney/abc

Studios 2010), Season 2, Episode 6, “Weekend con i vampiri”.11
CASTLE Allora, / (FC) come hai chiamato l’uovo.. che hai adottato
per il progetto scolastico?* (IC) Aspetta! Fammi
indovinare: / “Zac Uovfron”** … / no,.. Denzel
Uovington. (fin.IC)
ALEXIS (in.DS) È un nome dickensiano. / Paige e io l’abbiamo

chiamato Uoliver***.. Ti piace? (fin.DS)
CASTLE Uòliver?
ALEXIS Uovo più Oliver. ****
CASTLE Non sarebbe “Uòviler”?*****
*Lett: per il progetto di cura genitoriale?

**Orig: Zac Eggfron per l’attore Zac Efron, Egg Begley Junior per l’attore
e attivista Ed Begley Junior. (opp: Jean Coque-teau, Jean-Coque Van
Damme, Dwight Eisenuover)
***Lett: Fagin, personaggio di Oliver Twist. Gioco di parole: F-egg-in
****Lett: Finto bebè uovo. (Orig: wordplay, fake +egg = fakegg)
*****Lett: “Fa keg”?
As can be seen in Example 7.6a, the original script happens to pro-

vide explanatory notes in order to help the dubbing translator and
ensure correct interpretation (see Sect. 4.1). Dubbing directors do not
necessarily consult the original script during the recording sessions;
the new TL script is the main working tool; hence, dialogue writers
will have to include any necessary or useful notes in the dubbing script
(see Sect. 5.8). This particular scene contains references to Charles
Dickens’ novel, Oliver Twist. Moreover, it contains play on words that
recall famous public figures, in this case Ed Begley Junior and Zac
Efron.
Tables 7.17, 7.18, and 7.19 illustrate the various attempts at recre-
ating the same intended wordplay effect, while retaining the intertex-
tual reference to Dickens as well as the cultural references (American
celebrities). The same celebrity (Zac Efron) referred to is retained,
while the political figure (Ed Begley Junior), recalled in the original
text, is replaced by an American actor and celebrity, who is more
known among Italian viewers. Hence the reference is easily identifi-
able. Once again, the strategy to pick a parallel option from the
source culture avoids domestication while obtaining the intended
effect in the TL.
Table 7.17 Wordplay and cultural and intertextual references I(a)

a. Original So, have you come up with a name for your parenting
language project baby egg yet? Wait! Uh. Let me guess. Zac
Eggfron? No, Egg Begley Junior?
b. Translation Allora, hai già scelto il nome per l’uovo bebé del tuo
progetto genitoriale? Aspetta! Fammi indovinare: Zac
Eggfron, no, Egg Begley Junior.
So, have you already chosen a name for the baby egg of
your parenting project? Wait! Let me guess. Zac
Eggfron, no, Egg Begley Junior.
c. Adaptation 1 Allora, / (FC) hai già deciso come chiamare il tuo uovo..
per il progetto di cura genitoriale? (IC) Aspetta! Fammi
indovinare: / Jean Coqueteau… / no,.. Jean Coque Van
Damme.
So, have you decided what to name your egg.. for the
parental care project? Wait! Let me guess: Jean
Coqueteau, no, or else, Jean Coque Van Damme.
d. Adaptation 2 Allora, / (FC) hai già deciso come chiamare il tuo uovo..
che hai adottato per il progetto scolastico? (IC)
Aspetta! Fammi indovinare: / Zac Uovfron… / no,..
Dwight Eisenuover.
So, have you decided what to name the egg.. that you
adopted for your school project? Wait! Let me guess:
Zac Uovfron, no, or else, Dwight Eisenuover.
e. Submitted draft Allora, / (FC) come hai chiamato l’uovo.. che hai adottato
per il progetto scolastico? (IC) Aspetta! Fammi
indovinare: / Zac Uovfron … / no,.. Denzel Uovington.
(fin.IC)
So, what have you named the egg.. that you adopted for
your school project? Wait! Let me guess: Zac Uovfron,
no, or else, Denzel Uovington.
(literally: have you decided how to call the egg that you
adopted)
f. As recorded Idem
g. Alternatives in Lett: per il progetto di cura genitoriale?
footnote Literal: for the parental care project?
Oppure (Or): Jean Coque-teau, Jean-Coque Van Damme,
Dwight Eisenuover.
h. Dialogue writer’s Orig: Zac Eggfron per l’attore Zac Efron, Egg Begley
footnotes Junior per l’attore e attivista Ed Begley Junior.
Original: Zac Eggfron referring to actor Zac Efron, Egg
Begley Junior referring to activist Ed Begley Junior
Table 7.17, row c: A number of solutions combining both famous

names and the word egg or similar are tried out. Wordplay on coque,
which in Italian is used to refer to the way in which eggs can be served, is
tested first, but the word uovo (egg) allows for further alternatives, even
later on in the same dialogue exchange.
Table 7.17, rows d and e: In the final draft, reference to Dwight
Eisenhower (used in the previous adaptation) is replaced by Denzel
Uovington simply because the pun on the latter name sounds better
and is perhaps more familiar to the Italian audience. Dwight
Eisenhower is, however, included as a possible alternative in footnote.
This way the dubbing team in the studio can opt for its preferred
choice.
The references to the said personalities and the play on words occur
almost entirely in close-up shot. This imposes a restriction on the length/
duration: three mouth flaps in the first case, and then five mouth flaps
(shifting from off-screen to on-screen). In these two specific cases, the
visible mouth flaps coincide with the syllables uttered on-screen (Zac-
Egg-fron, Egg-Beg-ley-Ju-nior). Therefore, the TL wordplay must fit into
the same space and possibly respect the same mouth flaps and phonetic
synchronization, with a labiodental consonant in the first surname: /f/ in
Eggfron, and a bilabial consonant in the second surname: /b/ in Begley.
Priority in such cases is given to the references and pun, although an
effort is made so that the number of word syllables and the use of the
fricative /v/ also meet synchronization requirements (Zac-Uov-fron,
Den-zel Uov-ing-ton).
The cultural reference to the typical parenting project assigned in
American schools is also retained; there is no other choice since the egg
used for the said project is seen in the images and is relevant to the epi-
sode plot. The dubbing notations indicate that parts of the line are off-
screen. In particular, (fin.IC) (finisce in campo—ends on-screen) at the
end implies that the line was previously off-screen for a while and then
shifted to on-screen. The slight pause in the middle has also been inte-
grated. Adding the notion of adoption makes the whole phrase sound
more natural and familiar, while it makes the reference to the baby egg
project more comprehensible to an audience that is not familiar with
such American school practices (see Sect. 2.3 for classical rhetoric modi-
fication devices, adiectio (addition), in particular).
Table 7.18 Wordplay and cultural and intertextual references I(b)

a. Original language I went Dickensian. Paige and I are calling him
Feggin. Get it?
b. Translation Ho scelto un nome dickensiano. Paige e io lo
abbiamo chiamato Feggin. L’hai capita?
I chose a Dickensian name. Paige and I have called it
Feggin. Did you get it?
c. Adaptation 1 (in.DS) È un nome dickensiano. / Paige e io
l’abbiamo chiamato Feggin.. Ti piace? (fin.DS)
It’s a Dickensian name. Paige and I have called it
Uoliver. Do you like it?
d. Adaptation 2 (in.DS) È un nome dickensiano. / Paige e io
l’abbiamo chiamato Uoliver.. Ti piace? (fin.DS)
Uoliver. Do you like it?
e. Submitted draft (in.DS) È un nome dickensiano. / Paige e io
l’abbiamo chiamato Uòliver.. Ti piace? (fin.DS)
Uòliver. Do you like it?
f. As recorded Idem
g. Dialogue writer’s Lett: Fagin, personaggio di Oliver Twist. Gioco di
footnotes parole: F-egg-in.
Literal: Fagin, a character in Oliver Twist. Play on
words: f-egg-in.
Table 7.18, rows d and e: Apart from being retained, the reference to
Oliver Twist is probably enhanced (in an Italian context) by replacing
Fagin’s character with Oliver’s character. Italian viewers who might not be
so familiar with Anglophone literary works would more easily under-
stand the association. Bold lettering and the grave accent placed on the
/ò/ in Uoliver ensures correct emphasis. The dubbing notations (in.DS)
(inizia di spalle—starts over the shoulder) and (fin.DS) (finisce di spalle—
ends over the shoulder) are meant to suggest to the actress that the line
commences and ends in an over-the-shoulder shot. The forward slash
marks a short pause.
Table 7.19 Wordplay and cultural and intertextual references I(c)

a. Original language Feggin?
Fake baby egg.
Wouldn’t that be “Fakeg”?
b. Translation Feggin?
Finto bebè uovo
Non sarebbe “Fakeg”?
c. Adaptation Uoliver?
Uovo più Oliver.
Non sarebbe “Uoviler”?
d. Submitted draft Uòliver?
Uovo più Oliver.
Non sarebbe “Uòviler”?
e. As recorded Idem
f. Dialogue writer’s footnotes Orig: wordplay fake+ egg =fakegg
Originale: gioco di parole: fake + egg = fakegg
Table 7.19, row d: Once again it is pertinent to point out the use of
bold lettering and grave accents, meant to ensure correct emphasis on
specific words.
In general, this last strategy can also be useful with homonyms in
order to help the actors save time, for instance the word subito in Italian
can be an adverb (immediately) or a verb (to endure or be subjected to).
None of these take an accent in the written language, and the most com-
mon use is the adverb, pronounced súbito. Hence, an additional accent
when the same word is meant to be pronounced as subíto would help the
actors to realize, at a glance, that it is being used as a verb, and would
place the necessary emphasis accordingly.
7.5 Natural-Sounding Dialogue

The search for natural-sounding dialogue can also be considered as a non-
technical constraint (see practitioner-oriented classification of constraints
in Sect. 1.3.1) when this is set as an intention by the dialogue writer. An
academic reflection on this issue is offered in Sect. 1.4 when discussing
quality standards, and a number of related scholarly works have already
been cited, among which Brincat (2000), Chaume (2001), Pavesi (2005,
2008, 2016), Baños Piñero (2006), Romero-Fresco (2006, 2007, 2009a, b,
2012), Bonsignori and Bruti (2008), Baños Piñero and Chaume (2009),
and Sánchez Mompeán (2012, 2015, 2016, 2017), among others.
Examples 7.7a, 7.7b, 7.8a, 7.8b, 7.9a and 7.9b mainly illustrate text
manipulation for the purpose of achieving natural-sounding dialogue in
scenes that are considered to be vital, and where the performance and
emotional level are given priority over everything else. The three scenes are
once again drawn from Castle (Disney/abc Studios 2009–2016). The first
is a monologue in which detective Beckett is interrogating a suspect, and
this could be her last interrogation in that police precinct. The second is a
critical conversation between the two main characters, Castle and Beckett,
which is the finale to one of the TV show seasons. The third is a serial
killer’s monologue, a character who often reappears throughout the series,
leaving a huge impact on the main characters. All the chosen scenes have
a number of close-up shots and are characterized by a dramatic perfor-
mance. They are the type of scenes that stand out as key moments in a TV
series, also thanks to their emotional impact on the viewers. Consequently,
the focus lies on natural-sounding dialogue, so that the text presented to
the dubbing actors will instigate their best performances.
The detailed broken-down progressive transformation presented in
Tables 7.20, 7.21, 7.22, 7.23, 7.24, 7.25, and 7.26 should enable the
reader to observe the rewriting process aimed at achieving more natural-
sounding lines. These examples also include a language-focused preadap-
tation phase, as illustrated in Fig. 3.4, and follow the working methodology
proposed in Sect. 3.7 and the order of tasks suggested in Figs. 3.1 and
3.3. This time, however, only one adaptation draft is being presented
prior to the submitted final draft.
Castle, Season 5, Episode 24, “Watershed” (Disney/abc Studios 2013).12
01:38:19:08 BECKETT Do you have any idea how many people have sat
across that table and confessed their sins to me?
What makes you think that you’re any
different? Any smarter? You’ve only been in this
room for one hour. But this room, this room
has been my life. My home. And I will not let
you sit there and lie to me in my own home.
(Disney/abc Studios 2013), Season 5, Episode 24, “Il bivio”.13
BECKETT Sa quante persone si sono ritrovate su quella sedia e mi

hanno confessato i loro peccati? / Che cosa le fa pensare
di essere diverso? / O più furbo? / Lei è qui, fra queste
mura*, solo da un’ora. / Ma queste mura**, / queste
mura sono state la mia vita. / La mia casa. / E non tollero
che lei continui a mentirmi mentre è a casa mia, capito?
*Lett: stanza
**Lett: stanza
Table 7.20 Natural-sounding dialogue I(a)

a. Original Do you have any idea how many people have sat across
language that table and confessed their sins to me? What makes
you think that you’re any different? Any smarter?
b. Translation Ha idea di quante persone erano sedute a questo tavolo e
mi hanno confessato i loro peccati? Che cosa le fa
pensare di essere diverso? O più intelligente?
Do you have any idea how many people have sat across
that table and confessed their sins to me? What makes
you think that you’re any different? Or any smarter?
(Literally: intelligent) (You: polite form used)
c. Preadaptation Sa quante persone si sono ritrovate sedute lì a
confessarmi i loro peccati? Che cosa le fa pensare di
essere diverso? O più intelligente?
Do you know how many people have sat there and
confessed their sins to me? What makes you think that
you’re any different? Or any smarter? (Literally:
intelligent)
d. Adaptation Sa quante persone si sono ritrovate su quella sedia e mi
hanno confessato i loro peccati? / Che cosa le fa pensare
di essere diverso? / O più furbo? /
Do you know how many people have ended up (literally:
found themselves) on that chair and have confessed
their sins to me? What makes you think that you’re any
different? Or more clever?
(continued)
e. Submitted Sa quante persone si sono ritrovate su quella sedia e mi

draft hanno confessato i loro peccati? / Che cosa le fa pensare
di essere diverso? / O più furbo? /
Do you know how many people have ended up (literally:
found themselves) on that chair and have confessed
their sins to me? What makes you think that you’re any
different? Or more clever?
f. As recorded Idem
g. Alternative in None
footnote
Table 7.20, row e: The word table is replaced by sedia (chair) in the TL so
that the same effect is carried over to the TL in the most natural-sounding
way possible, taking real spontaneous discourse as a benchmark. The use of
the verb ritrovarsi (ending up) on that chair places emphasis on the dynam-
ics of the situation: a suspect being interrogated against his will and the posi-
tion of power of the detective who, in this dialogue, highlights the fact that
this is her home and that the person sitting there has to behave accordingly.
As far as phonetic synch is concerned, the /b/ in furbo (sly) matches the
/m/ in smarter. Lip synch is prioritized over the equivalent nuance in the TL.
Table 7.21 Natural-sounding dialogue I(b)

a. Original You’ve only been in this room for one hour. But this room,
language this room has been my life. My home. And I will not let
you sit there and lie to me in my own home.
b. Translation Lei è in questa stanza solo da un’ora. Ma questa stanza,
questa stanza è stata la mia vita. La mia casa. E non le
permetterò di starsene lì seduto a mentire in casa mia.
You’ve been in this room for only an hour. But this room,
this room has been my life. My home. And I will not allow
you to sit there and lie to me in my home.
c. Preadaptation Lei è in questa stanza solo da un’ora. Ma questa stanza,
questa stanza è stata la mia vita. La mia casa. E non le
permetterò di starsene lì seduto a mentire in casa mia.
(continued)
d. Adaptation Lei è in questa stanza solo da un’ora. / Ma questa stanza, /

questa stanza è stata la mia vita. / La mia casa. / E non intendo
permetterle di starsene lì seduto a mentire in casa mia.
e. Submitted Lei è qui, fra queste mura, solo da un’ora. / Ma queste mura*,
draft / queste mura* sono state la mia vita. / La mia casa. / E non
tollero che lei continui a mentirmi mentre è a casa mia, capito?
You’ve been here within these walls for only an hour. But
these walls, these walls have been my life. My home. And I
will not tolerate you lying to me in my home, is that clear?
(literally: that you continue lying to me)
f. As recorded Lei è qui, in questa stanza, solo da un’ora. / Ma questa
stanza, / queste mura, sono state la mia vita. / La mia casa.
/ E non tollero che lei continui a mentirmi mentre è qui a
casa mia, capito?
You’ve been here in this room for only an hour. But this
room, these walls, have been my life. My home. And I will
not tolerate you lying to me, here, in my home, is that
clear? (literally: that you continue lying to me)
g. Alternative *Lett: stanza
in footnote (literal: room)
Table 7.21, row f: This example presents a case of text modification in

the recording studios. The alternative provided by the dialogue writer, in
footnote, is taken into account by the dubbing director and the solution
is partially adopted. The studio version adds the adverb qui (here) to
ensure that all visible mouth flaps are covered, as well as for emphasis.
Also, in the submitted draft, mura (walls) is chosen for lip synch pur-
poses. In the recorded version, the more faithful translation and footnote
alternative stanza (room) is chosen over mura (walls) twice, giving prior-
ity to the concept of room over the bilabial consonant in room. The third
time around, mura (walls) is used to avoid repetition, because it would
not have the same dramatic effect as in the original version. Besides, the
word stanza repeated over and over can be slightly cacophonic.
The director’s intention is to move closer to the original text on a
semantic level, and this is prioritized over lip synch. The solution
proposed for lip synch purposes is also partially retained. This results in a
variation of terms in the TL dialogue, as opposed to the consistency

opted for by the dialogue writer.
Therefore, contrary to what some studies may reveal, dubbing studios
do not always necessarily prioritize lip synch over meaning or language;
there are dubbing directors who have the target language at heart and try
to strike a balance by opting for the choice that can satisfy both synch
aesthetics and language standards. Prioritization sometimes also depends
on the specific client involved. Certain production houses, such as the one
from which this example is drawn (Disney/abc Studios), supervise texts
and give importance to target language quality, taking into account their
own brand criteria, as well as the indirect didactic function of TV series.
Example 7.8a presents a scene in which the main characters, Castle
and Beckett, are sitting on two swings in a park. This is where their most
significant conversations usually take place. Beckett has been offered a
position in another city and this could entail the end of their relationship.
In this scene Beckett intends to tell Castle that she has decided to accept
the offer.
Castle (Disney/abc Studios 2013), Season 5, Episode 24, “Watershed”.
01:41:15:06 CASTLE It’s who you are. You don’t let people in. I’ve
had to scratch and claw for every inch.
(I’ve…inch = implying that he had to make
a huge effort to get through to her)
01:41:23:06 BECKETT Castle--
01:41:23:19 CASTLE (interrupts) Please, let me finish. I’ve been
doing a lot of thinking about us, about
our relationship. What we have. Where
we’re headed.
01:41:40:09 CASTLE I’ve decided I want more. We both
deserve more.
01:41:51:15 BECKETT I agree.
01:41:55:13 CASTLE So, whatever happens, whatever you
decide, Katherine Houghton Beckett,
will you marry me?
(Disney/abc Studios 2013), Season 5, Episode 24, “Il bivio”.
CASTLE Sei fatta così. / Non ti apri facilmente. / Ho dovuto

faticare per far parte della tua vita.
BECKETT Castle…
CASTLE (INT) Ti prego, fammi finire. / Ho riflettuto molto su di
noi, sul nostro.. rapporto,.. su ciò che abbiamo, / e sul
futuro*. / E ho deciso che non mi basta**. / Entrambi
meritiamo di più.
BECKETT Sono d’accordo.
CASTLE Perciò, a questo punto, / qualunque scelta farai***, /
Katherine Houghton**** Beckett, / (IC) vuoi sposarmi?
*dove ci condurrà
**lett: voglio di più
***Opp: qualunque cosa deciderai
****Pron: hàwtin
Table 7.22 Natural-sounding dialogue II(a)

a. Original It’s who you are. You don’t let people in. I’ve had to
language scratch and claw for every inch.
b. Translation Tu sei fatta così. Tieni le persone a distanza. Ho dovuto
faticare per ogni centimetro guadagnato.
It’s the way you are. You keep people out. (literally: at a
distance) I’ve had to make a huge effort to earn every
centimeter. (literally: for every centimeter earned)
c. Preadaptation Sei fatta così. Tieni le persone a distanza. (oppure: Non ti apri
facilmente.) Ho dovuto faticare per far parte della tua vita.
It’s the way you are. You keep people out. (literally: at a
distance) (or: You don’t open up easily) I’ve had to make
a huge effort to be a part of your life.
d. Adaptation Sei fatta così. / Non ti apri facilmente. / Ho dovuto faticare
per far parte della tua vita.
It’s the way you are. You don’t open up easily. I’ve had to
make a huge effort to be a part of your life.
e. Submitted Sei fatta così. / Non ti apri facilmente. / Ho dovuto faticare
draft per far parte della tua vita.
It’s the way you are. You don’t open up easily. I’ve had to
make a huge effort to be a part of your life.
f. As recorded Idem
Table 7.22, row e: In this case, the concept of “not letting people in” is
inverted and replaced by that of “not opening up to others” (non ti apri
facilmente), which feels more in line with real spontaneous TL discourse.
A more straightforward solution is adopted to translate the phrase to
scratch and claw (faticare), and the idea of “being a part of her life” (far
parte della tua vita) is introduced to translate for every inch.
Explicitation and amplification (see Sect. 2.3) are adopted to make the
phrase sound more natural, flowing, and straightforward. The phrase
highlights the effort made in one single word (faticare) and shifts the
focus and stress on the reason for this effort: to be a part of her life. This
is also a better match for the vowel openings and avoids having to place
the longer word centimetro (centimetre) over the word inch.
Table 7.23 Natural-sounding dialogue II(b)

a. Original (interrupts) Please, let me finish. I’ve been doing a lot of
language thinking about us, about our relationship. What we have.
Where we’re headed. I’ve decided I want more. We both
deserve more.
b. Translation Ti prego, lasciami finire. Ho pensato molto a noi, alla nostra
relazione. A quello che abbiamo. A quello che ci aspetta.
Ho deciso che voglio di più. Entrambi meritiamo di più.
Please, let me finish. I’ve thought a lot about us, about our
relationship. About what we have. What is awaiting us.
I’ve decided I want more. We both deserve more.
c. Preadaptation (INT) Ti prego, lasciami finire. Ho riflettuto molto sulla nostra
relazione e su come stanno le cose fra di noi. (oppure: ho
pensato molto a noi due, alla nostra relazione, e a come
stanno veramente le cose fra di noi.) (oppure: E alla
direzione che sta prendendo.) (oppure: A quello che
abbiamo e quello che ci aspetta.) / E ho deciso che voglio di
più (or: non mi basta). Entrambi meritiamo di più.
Please, let me finish. I’ve thought a lot about our
relationship and how things stand between us. (or: I
thought a lot about us, about our relationship and how
things really stand between us.) (or: and about the
direction this is taking) (or: about what we have and what
is awaiting us) And I’ve decided I want more (or: that it is
not enough). We both deserve more.
(continued)
d. Adaptation (INT) Ti prego, fammi finire. / Ho riflettuto molto su di noi,
sul nostro.. rapporto,.. su ciò che abbiamo, dove ci
condurrà. / E ho deciso che non mi basta. / Entrambi
meritiamo di più.
relationship, about what we have, where it is taking us. And
I’ve decided that it is not enough. We both deserve more.
(literally: not enough for me)
e. Submitted (INT) Ti prego, fammi finire. / Ho riflettuto molto su di noi,
draft sul nostro.. rapporto,.. su ciò che abbiamo, / e sul nostro
futuro. / E ho deciso che non mi basta. / Entrambi
meritiamo di più.
relationship, about what we have and our future. And
I’ve decided that it is not enough. We both deserve more.
(literally: not enough for me)
f. As recorded Idem
Table 7.23, row e: The concept of voglio di più (I want more) is inverted
and translated into non mi basta (it is not enough). The character nods in
dissent before uttering this line, so it could seem more suitable. The verbs
to decide and to deserve are retained in the TL.
The notation (INT) stands for interrupting (interrompendo, in
Italian).
Example 7.9a in this section is drawn from the same series, Castle
(Disney/abc Studios 2012). This time, a serial killer named Jerry Tyson,
alias 3XK, has framed Castle for murder. While Castle is at the pre-
cinct, behind bars, Tyson, disguised as an officer, pays him a visit. The
scene proposed below is part of the conversation between the two
characters.
Castle (Disney/abc Studios 2012), Season 5, Episode 5, “Probable cause”.14
01:24:20:01 CASTLE Well, if it’s revenge you wanted, why not just
kill me?
01:24:22:22 JERRY Where’s the fun in that? No, no, no. It’s more
TYSON fun to destroy you. Why do you think I let
you live that night in the motel? People think
it’s killing that I like. But murder’s just an act.
It’s all about the anticipation, the planning.
Watching you and your daughter taking a
walk. You and Beckett making love. Standing
in your living room, being inside your life,
knowing that I’m gonna take it all away from
you. That’s what I like.
(Disney/abc Studios 2012), Season 5, Episode 5, “Colpevole o
innocente?”15
CASTLE Se volevi solo vendicarti perché non mi hai ucciso?

JERRY (in.FC) E rovinarmi il divertimento? / No, no, provo più
TYSON gusto a distruggerti,.. sai./ Altrimenti perché ti avrei
risparmiato in quel motel? Tutti credono che mi piaccia
uccidere,.. ma l’omicidio in sé è solo una parte. / Ciò che
mi intriga.. è la pianificazione.. e la trepidazione: / (in.FC)
osservarti / mentre passeggi con tua figlia, / o mentre fai
l’amore con Beckett, / mentre mi trovo.. nel tuo
soggiorno.. Intrufolarmi nella tua vita, / sapendo di poterti
strappare via tutto quanto. (fin.FC) / Ecco cosa mi piace.
Table 7.24 Natural-sounding dialogue III(a)

a. Original Where’s the fun in that? No, no, no. It’s more fun to destroy
language you. Why do you think I let you live that night in the motel?
b. Translation E che divertimento ci sarebbe? No, no, no. È più divertente
distruggerti. Perché credi che ti abbia lasciato vivere quella
notte in quel motel?
And what fun is there in that? No, no, no. It’s more fun to destroy
you. Why do you think I let you live that night in the motel?
c. Preadaptation E rovinarmi (oppure: perdermi) il divertimento? No, no, no. C’è
più gusto nel distruggerti. Perché credi che ti abbia risparmiato
quella sera al motel?
And ruin (or: miss out on) the fun? No, no. There is more
pleasure in destroying you. Why do you think I spared you that
night in the motel? (literally: evening)
d. Adaptation (in.FC) E rovinarmi il divertimento? / No, no, c’è più gusto nel
distruggerti,.. no? Perché credi che ti abbia risparmiato quella
sera al motel?
And ruin the fun? No, no. There is more pleasure in destroying
you, right? (literally: no?) Why do you think I spared you that
night in the motel? (literally: evening)
e. Final draft as (in.FC) E rovinarmi il divertimento? / No, no, provo più gusto
submitted a distruggerti,.. sai./ Altrimenti perché ti avrei risparmiato
in quel motel?
And ruin the fun? No, no. I enjoy destroying you much
more, you know. (literally: I feel more pleasure in
destroying you) Otherwise why would I have spared you
that night in the motel? (literally: evening)
f. As recorded Idem
Table 7.24, row e: The phrase And where is the fun in that? is enhanced
with further meaning when the idea of rovinarmi il divertimento (ruining
the fun) is introduced. The reason behind this is to retain the same effect
in a natural-sounding way in the TL. The more generic notion of fun is
also replaced by gusto (pleasure) to provide an alternative in the second
line without having to repeat divertimento. This further stresses the char-
acter’s cruel attitude.
The additional sai (you know) allows the dialogue line to have com-
plete semantic units before and after the short pause that interrupts the
line. The original line is recited to destroy … you. Respecting the same
grammatical break is not possible in Italian; besides, the pause would not
sound natural. The way the pauses break dialogue lines (see Sect. 5.2) as
well as choice of words, the way they are placed, and the choice of omit-
ting or retaining repetition (see Sect. 3.8) are all delicate strategies that
can make or break the dramatic effect of a monologue, which in such a
scene is prioritized over everything else.
Having to shorten the line for isochrony purposes, that night is omitted
and the motel prioritized and retained, though the reference to a specific
moment and place is rendered by a shift as it becomes quel motel (that
motel). The adverb altrimenti (otherwise) connects the last two lines to
increase the flow of the dialogue. In general, the use of connectors and
conjunctions is a common strategy to help the actor speed up the phrase
thanks to its enhanced flow, notwithstanding the additional elements.
The concept of “letting one live” is inverted and replaced by that of
“sparing him”, which places focus on death rather than life, further
enhancing the dramatic effect.
Table 7.25 Natural-sounding dialogue III(b)

a. Original People think it’s killing that I like. But murder’s just an act.
language It’s all about the anticipation, the planning.
b. Translation La gente crede che a me piaccia uccidere. Ma l’omicidio è
soltanto un atto. Il bello è l’attesa, la pianificazione.
People think it’s killing that I like. But murder’s just an act.
The best part is the anticipation, the planning. (literally:
What is nice is the…)
c. Preadaptation Si pensa che a me piaccia uccidere, ma l’omicidio in sé è
solo una parte. Ciò che mi intriga è la pianificazione e la
trepidazione;
People think it’s killing that I like. (literally: It is believed
that I like killing), but murder’s is only a part of it. What
intrigues me is the anticipation, the trepidation.
d. Adaptation Si pensa che a me piaccia uccidere,.. ma l’omicidio in sé è
solo una parte. / Ciò che mi intriga.. è la pianificazione.. e
la trepidazione: /
People think it’s killing that I like. (literally: It is believed
that I like killing), but murder’s is only a part of it. What
intrigues me is the planning, and the trepidation.
e. Submitted Tutti credono che mi piaccia uccidere,.. ma l’omicidio in sé
draft è solo una parte. / Ciò che mi intriga.. è la pianificazione..
e la trepidazione: /
Everyone thinks that I like killing, but murder’s is only a
part of it. What intrigues me is the planning, and the
trepidation.
f. As recorded Idem
Table 7.25, rows a and e: The emphasis on killing that emerges from
the syntactical structure in the original version is sacrificed, and a more
straightforward solution is adopted to prioritize flow of dialogue. The
meaning of the next line is also slightly modified when act is replaced by
solo una parte (only a part), and the idea of “intrigue” is introduced. This
addition, chosen in line with the implied effect of the dialogue, enables
the dialogue line to be broken down into complete semantic units as it is
interrupted by pauses. In the last part planning is placed first, followed by
the replacement of anticipation with trepidazione (trepidation) to retain
the same dramatic effect.
Table 7.26 Natural-sounding dialogue III(c)

a. Original Watching you and your daughter taking a walk. You and
language Beckett making love. Standing in your living room, being
inside your life, knowing that I’m gonna take it all away
from you. That’s what I like.
b. Translation Guardare te e tua figlia mentre passeggiate insieme. Te e
Beckett mentre fate l’amore. Stare in piedi nel tuo
soggiorno, essere dentro la tua vita, sapere che ti porterò
via tutto questo. È questo che mi piace.
Watching you and your daughter as you take a walk
together. You and Beckett making love. Staying in your
living room, being inside your life, knowing that I’m
gonna take it all away from you. That’s what I like.
c. Preadaptation Osservarti mentre passeggi con tua figlia o mentre fai
l’amore con Beckett. Entrare nel tuo soggiorno;
intrufolarmi nella la tua vita, con la consapevolezza di
poter strapparti via tutto quanto. È questo ciò che mi piace.
Watching you as you take a walk with your daughter or
while you make love to Beckett; sitting in your living
room, sneaking into your life, with the awareness of
being able to take it all away from you. That’s what I like.
d. Adaptation (in.FC) Osservarti / mentre passeggi con tua figlia / o mentre fai
l’amore con Beckett; / mentre mi trovo.. nel tuo soggiorno.
Intrufolarmi nella tua vita, / con la consapevolezza di poter
strapparti via tutto quanto. (fin.FC) / Questo mi piace.
while you make love to Beckett; while I am in your living
room. Sneaking into your life, with the awareness of
being able to take it all away from you. This is what I like.
(literally: This I like)
(continued)
e. Submitted (in.FC) Osservarti / mentre passeggi con tua figlia, / o

draft mentre fai l’amore con Beckett, / mentre mi trovo.. nel
tuo soggiorno.. Intrufolarmi nella tua vita, / sapendo di
poterti strappare via tutto quanto. (fin.FC)/ Ecco cosa mi
piace.
while you make love to Beckett; while I am in your living
room, sneaking into your life, knowing that I can take it
all away from you. This is what I like.
f. As recorded (in.FC) Osservarti / mentre passeggi con tua figlia, / o mentre
fai l’amore con Beckett, / mentre ti rilassi.. in soggiorno..
Intrufolarmi nella tua vita, / sapendo di poterti strappare
via tutto quanto. (fin.FC)/ Ecco che cosa mi piace.
while you make love to Beckett; while you relax in your
living room, sneaking into your life, knowing that I can
take it all away from you. This is what I like.
Table 7.26, row f: Even in this case, there are some text modifications
that have been applied during the recording session. Cosa (what) is
replaced by che cosa (what) to comply with the production house’s gram-
mar requirements. Standing in your living room refers to the character
speaking, but the dubbing director probably finds that keeping the sec-
ond person singular helps to retain the dialogue flow in this specific
instance, while perhaps enhancing the idea of someone being observed.
In fact, the act of watching is further enhanced in effect by the use of
osservarti (observing you). Intrufolarmi nella tua vita (sneaking into your
life) enhances the idea of invasion while allowing for a natural way to
express this line. The gerund form of being in Italian would not render
the same effect and would not sound natural.
Knowing that I’m gonna take it all away from you actually requires
expansion for isochrony purposes; therefore, the idea of “being able to
take it all away” (sapendo di poterti strappare via tutto) is introduced.
Despite the line ending off-screen, isochrony is respected, because hang-
ing onto the original rhythm is fundamental for the dubbing actor to
reproduce a faithful dramatic interpretation (see Sect. 3.3).
7.6 Censorship
Censorship and other types of blacklisted words and expressions have
already been tackled in Sects. 1.3.1 and 6.8. For research on this issue, refer-
ence can be made to Scandura (2004), Ranzato (2009), Diaz Cintas (2012),
Gutiérrez Lanza (2012), Parini (2012), Di Giovanni (2016) (in this case
specific for children), and others, also cited earlier in this monograph.
Examples 7.10 to 7.17 each include a table showing the text manipula-
tion required to adapt an adult production for a young target audience, on
the specific request of a local broadcaster in Italy. The examples are drawn
from the co-produced French- and Italian-animated series Potlach
(Ellipsanime 2006), which is about a group of anthropomorphic farm ani-
mals that live on a farm without humans. The series, aired on the French
television network (France 3), was intended as a production for the whole
family; the Italian-dubbed version was aired on Sunday mornings on the
Italian television network (Rai 3) and the text underwent manipulation in
order to suit the programme for Italian children. The Italian broadcaster’s
requirements included: omitting the sexual double entendre present in
most dialogue lines, toning down references to adult life and references to
love, and replacing the attribution of human characteristics with animal
characteristics. The latter implied refraining from referring to animals as
humans, for instance: donne (women), uomo (men), and bambini (children)
are instead referred to as femmine (females), maschi (males), and pulcini
(chicks). Any other term considered to be unsuitable for a child audience
was modified, for instance the common noun dio was replaced by eroe.
Tables 7.27, 7.28, 7.29, 7.30, 7.31, 7.32, 7.33, and 7.34 illustrate a
few excerpts drawn from Potlach, which in Italy was titled Aia, the Italian
term for farmyard. The tables with their embedded comments are meant
to be self-explanatory. This time, each example of text manipulation is
illustrated in three phases: the original excerpt, the translation, and the
final submitted draft, while the comments accompanying some of the
tables reveal specific reasons behind the adaptation choices.
Example 7.10 Excerpt drawn from Potlach/Aia (Ellipsanime 2006),

Episode 16.
Table 7.27 Censorship I
a. Original language Mais ne méritent-ils pas un partenaire dans l’existence?
But don’t they deserve a partner in their life?
b. Translation Non meritano un compagno nella loro vita?
But don’t they deserve a partner in their life?
c. Adaptation/ Non meritano anche loro di trovare l’amore?
submitted draft But don’t they deserve to find love?
d. Comments The notion of partner is toned down into the more
generic love.
Example 7.11 Excerpt drawn from Potlach/Aia (2006), Episode 16.
Table 7.28 Censorship II

a. Original language […] J’ai une chance de séduire […]
I have the possibility to seduce.
b. Translation […] Ho la possibilità di sedurre […]
I have the possibility to seduce
c. Adaptation/submitted draft […] Posso attrarre […]
I can attract
d. Comments Séduire (to seduce) is toned down into
attrarre (to attract).
Table 7.29 Censorship III

a. Original Mais Albumine n’est. pas poule à se laisser impressionner
language par l’engin d’Alan, aussi gonflé fut-il.
But Albumine is not the type of hen that would get
impressed by Alan’s device, no matter how inflated it was.
b. Translation Non è il tipo di gallina che si lascia impressionare
dall’aggeggio di Alan, per quanto possa essere gonfio.
impressed by Alan’s device, no matter how inflated it
can be.
c. Adaptation/ Ma Albumine non è il tipo di gallina che si lascia
submitted impressionare da un pallone gigante, non importa
draft quanto possa volare in alto.
impressed by a huge balloon, no matter how high it
can fly. (literally: ball)
d. Comments Reference is made to a hot-air balloon which is seen in
the images, thus specifying avoids double entendre
interpretation.
Table 7.30 Censorship IV

a. Original language Et si je proposais à Cassandra de passer la nuit avec
elle?
What if I ask Cassandra to spend the night together?
(literally: And if I had to propose to Cassandra to spend
the night with her?)
b. Translation E se proponessi a Cassandra di passare la notte con lei.
What if I ask Cassandra to spend the night together?
(literally: And if I had to propose to Cassandra to spend
the night with her?)
c. Adaptation/ Forse potrei riuscirci se dormissi nella tenda di
submitted draft Cassandra!
Perhaps I could succeed if I sleep in Cassandra’s tent!
d. Comments This adaptation is meant to avoid any sexual allusions
associated with the expression “to spend the night
with”, while sleeping in the tent could be associated
with play and child activities.
Table 7.31 Censorship V

a. Original language J’ai hyper envie de t’embrasser, alors, si t’es
d’accord, on s’embrasse.
Bon, alors, comment on fait? Tu me prends dans tes
bras, je m’assoie sur tes genoux, on s’allonge, ou
bien, je bascule, et…
I have this strong urge to kiss you, so if you agree,
let us kiss each other. (literally: I really want to
kiss you)
Good, so, how shall we do this? Will you take me
in your arms, shall I sit on your knees, shall we lie
down, shall I turn over…?
b. Translation Ho una voglia matta di baciarti, quindi se sei
d’accordo,.. baciamoci! Allora, come facciamo? Mi
prendi tra le tue braccia, mi siedo sulle tue
ginocchia, ci sdraiamo, oppure, mi giro e…?
I have this strong urge to kiss you, so if you agree, let
us kiss each other. (literally: I really want to kiss you)
down, shall I turn over and then…?
(continued)
c. Adaptation/submitted Ho una voglia matta di baciarti, quindi se sei

draft d’accordo,.. sbaciucchiamoci! Allora, come
facciamo? Mi prendi tra le tue braccia, mi siedo
sulle tue ginocchia, ci sdraiamo, oppure, faccio la
capriola e…?
I really feel like kissing you, so if you agree, let us
kiss each other’s faces off. (literally: I really want
to kiss you)
down, shall I make a somersault and then… ?
d. Comments The expression sbaciucchiarsi (to kiss each other’s
faces off) in Italian is perceived as more playful
and less sexually charged. The images, obviously,
cannot be changed, and in this particular scene
the character (a female cow) uses explanatory
gestures to accompany the words, for example
when referring to the flipping over. The two
characters, a cow and a sheep, are then seen as
they kiss and roll over behind a bush. This poses
limitations to the extent of text manipulation
possible.
Table 7.32 Censorship VI

a. Original language Les corps se rapprochent.
Their bodies move closer.
b. Translation I corpi si avvicinano.
Their bodies move closer.
c. Adaptation/submitted draft Si abbracciano affettuosamente.
They hug each other affectionately.
Table 7.33 Censorship VII

a. Original language Et le bébé, on va le faire quand?
And when are we going to conceive a baby?
(literally: make a baby)
b. Translation E quando lo facciamo il bambino?
And when will we conceive a baby? (literally:
make a baby)
c. Adaptation/submitted draft E quando lo vuoi il pulcino?
And when do you want a little chick?
Table 7.34 Censorship VIII

a. Original language Tu sais, si t’as des fantasies, tu peux me les dire,
on est. mariés!
You know, you can share any fantasies you
have, we are married! (literally: if you have
any fantasies, you can tell me)
b. Translation Se hai delle fantasie me le puoi dire. / Siamo
sposati!
If you have any fantasies you can share them,
we are married! (literally: you can tell them to
me)
c. Adaptation/submitted Tesoro, se ti va di giocare al carceriere/ basta
draft chiederlo.
Sweetie, if you want to play the prisoner’s
game, you just need to say so. (literally: you
just need to ask.)
d. Comments The images reveal a typical prisoner’s lead ball
chained to the character’s claw, so faithfulness
to the image has to be maintained, while the
word fantasies (fantasies) was omitted. Once
again the attempt is to obtain a playful effect.
7.7 Specialized Jargon

This section is dedicated to specialized jargon. Hence text manipulation has
to take account of synchrony factors and the accurate use of technical terms,
which will then have to be incorporated into the TL in a natural way.
Once again, each example is illustrated in three phases: the original
excerpt, the translation, and the final submitted draft, while the com-
ments accompanying each table offer specific adaptation details.
Example 7.18, illustrated in Tables 7.35 and 7.36, is drawn from the
sitcom The Big Bang Theory (Warner Bros 2007–2019). In the chosen epi-
sode, Penny has asked astrophysicist Sheldon to help her impress Leonard,
her boyfriend, by teaching her some physics. In the selected monologue,
she shows off her newly acquired knowledge to Leonard and her friends.
Example 7.18 Excerpt drawn from The Big Bang Theory (Warner Bros
2009–2010), Season 3, Episode 10 “The gorilla experiment” / “Progetto
gorilla”.
Table 7.35 Specialized jargon I(a)

a. Original language Actually, that’s not true, Leonard. In fact,
recently I’ve been thinking that given the
parameters of your experiment, the transport
of electrons through the aperture of the
nano-fabricated metal rings is qualitatively no
different than the experiment already
conducted in the Netherlands.
b. Translation Veramente, non è così, Leonard. In effetti,
recentemente ho pensato che stando ai
parametri del tuo esperimento, il passaggio di
elettroni attraverso le aperture di anelli
metallici nano costruiti, qualitativamente non
è diverso rispetto all’esperimento che hanno
già condotto in Olanda.
Actually, that’s not true, Leonard. In fact,
recently I thought that given the parameters
of your experiment, the transport of electrons
through the aperture of the nano-fabricated
metal rings is qualitatively no different
compared to the experiment already
conducted in the Netherlands.
(continued)
c. Adaptation/submitted (VERSO) / In realtà, (VERSO) .. non è del tutto

draft vero.. (in.FC) Stando ai parametri del tuo
esperimento, ho potuto constatare che l’analisi
qualitativa del passaggio di elettroni
attraverso i nano-anelli metallici, è molto
simile a quella che è già stata condotta in
Olanda. /
In actual fact, that’s not totally true. Given the
parameters of your experiment, I was able to
establish that the qualitative analysis of the
transport of electrons through the aperture of
the nano-fabricated metal rings is very similar
to the one conducted in in the Netherlands.
d. Comments Paraphrasing not only allows for condensation,
but also moves closer to the type of jargon
utilized in the target culture. The name
Leonard is omitted for condensation purposes.
Table 7.36 Specialized jargon I(b)

a. Original language (o.s.) Their observed phase shift (on) in the
diffusing electrons inside the metal ring
already conclusively demonstrated the electric
analogue of the Aharonov-Bohm quantum-
interference effect.
b. Translation L’aver osservato lo spostamento di fase negli
elettroni diffusi nell’anello metallico ha già
dimostrato in modo definitivo l’analogia
elettrica dell’effetto di interferenza quantistica
Aharonov-Bohm.
Observing the phase shift in the diffusing
electrons inside the metal ring has already
conclusively demonstrated the electric analogy
of the Aharonov-Bohm quantum-interference
effect. (literally: demonstrated in a definite
manner)
c. Adaptation/submitted (in.FC) Hanno già dimostrato la relazione tra lo
draft spostamento di fase degli elettroni diffusi negli
anelli e l’interferenza quantistica dell’effetto
Aharonov-Bohm.
They have already demonstrated the relation
between the phase shift in the diffusing
electrons inside the rings and the Aharonov-
Bohm quantum-interference effect.
(continued)
d. Comments The line is condensed for isochrony purposes.
The reference to metal is already present in the
previous line so it is omitted. Aharonov-Bohm
placed at the end enables the bilabial /b/ to
match the character’s lip movement at the very
end. Penny concludes her line, but then there
are two silent mouth flaps, that is, two single
movements, in which she opens and shuts her
lips. Even if no sound is uttered, not covering
that mouth movement can come across as a
synchronization error to the target audience.
Example 7.19, illustrated in Tables 7.37 and 7.38, is drawn from the
TV series House, M.D. (NBC/Universal Studios 2004–2012). In the cho-
sen scene, Dr. House’s medical team is trying to come up with a diagnosis
for a patient with a pulmonary oedema and intermittent tachycardia. In
Table 7.38, Dr. House advices his team on how to proceed.
Example 7.19 Excerpt drawn from House, M.D. (NBC/Universal Studios

2008–2009), Season 5, Episode 8, “Emancipation” / “Emancipazione”.
Table 7.37 Specialized jargon II(a)

a. Original - Irregular heartbeat would account for the
pulmonary edema.
- The edema was acute, “vasculitis” makes more
sense.
- There’s no sign in her bloodwork. And if she had
“vasculitis” she’d be too weak to work in a
factory. […]
b. Translation - Il battito irregolare potrebbe aver causato
l’edema polmonare.
- L’edema era acuto, è più probabile che sia vasculite.
- Nessuna traccia nel sangue e poi se fosse vasculite
sarebbe troppo debole per lavorare in fabbrica.
- The irregular heartbeat could have caused the
pulmonary edema.
- The edema was acute, it is more likely “vasculitis”
- No traces in her bloodwork and anyway if it were
“vasculitis” she’d be too weak to work in a
factory.
(continued)
c. Adaptation/submitted – (da FC) Il battito irregolare spiegherebbe l’edema
draft polmonare.
– (DP) Ma era acuto; è più probabile che sia vasculite.
– Nessuna traccia nel sangue e se lo fosse non
potrebbe sostenere il lavoro in fabbrica.
– The irregular heartbeat would explain the
pulmonary edema.
– But it was acute, it is more likely “vasculitis”
– No traces in her bloodwork, and if it were so, she
wouldn’t be able to sustain factory work.
d. Comments A very concise dialogue style is required in such
cases. This may also entail a certain amount of
omission that prioritizes the medical jargon over
the rest. For example, the line commences with:
Nessuna traccia… (no traces) rather than Non c’è
nessuna traccia (there are no traces), which would
usually be the case in spontaneous Italian
discourse. Very often, abbreviated medical terms
in English need to be written in full in the TL and
this is the main isochrony issue when medical
jargon is involved. (See classical rhetoric
modification devices in Sect. 2.3, especially
detractio (omission).) [DP: Di Profilo - side view]
Table 7.38 Specialized jargon II(b)

a. Original […] Steroids could cause the irregular heartbeat
making her current one “irregular-er”.
Foreman, let’s start her on beta-blockers. Rest
of you, do anything that isn’t starting her on
beta-blockers.
b. Translation Gli steroidi potrebbero causare battito
irregolare, rendendo il suo ancora più
irregolare. (oppure: iperregolare) Foreman,
somministrale i beta-bloccanti. Voi altri, fate
qualunque altra cosa che non sia somministrare
beta-bloccanti.
Steroids could cause irregular heartbeat making
her current one even more irregular. (or:
hyper-irregular) Foreman, give her beta-
blockers. And the rest of you: do anything that
isn’t giving her beta-blockers. (literally: you
others, do anything that isn’t administering
beta-blockers)
(continued)
c. Adaptation/submitted (p.FIATO) Gli steroidi alterano il battito e
draft potrebbero rendere il suo “iper-alterato”. / (FC)
Foreman, somministrale i beta-bloccanti. E voi
tre, fate qualsiasi altra cosa che non sia quella
che fa Foreman. (fin.IC)
Steroids could alter the heartbeat and could
make hers hyper-irregular. Foreman, give her
beta-blockers. And you three, do anything that
isn’t what Foreman is doing. (literally:
administer to her)
d. Comments House adds colour to his dialogue line by adding
the suffix er to irregular, to say “more
irregular”. This is accompanied by an emphatic
facial expression. He lifts his eyebrows and
amplifies the mouth movement required to
pronounce the extra er. The TL therefore needs
to find a way to justify and match this gesture.
Also, the last line is necessarily modified, and
the reference to beta-blockers removed in
order to condense the line for isochrony
purposes.
The reasons behind text adaptation are often intertwined in the deci-
sion-making process, therefore it is not always easy for dialogue writers
themselves to identify which quality-standard-prioritization is driving the
final decision. In time, dialogue rewriting becomes an automated process
which, by default, tries to seek an equilibrium, despite the several strings
pulling from all sides. At times it becomes necessary to shift the balance to
one side or the other due to specific challenges posed by translation issues
and technical constraints. And although it is such situations that usually
come under academic scrutiny and examination, the remaining text can-
not be neglected. All the ‘in-between’ moments of adaptation demand
that the strings attached are kept at the right tension all throughout, with-
out losing any along the way. And this, too, plays an important role in the
effort required to try to guarantee a harmonious viewer experience.
Revealing these blackbox contents in this chapter was possible only
because the drafts of the adaptation in progress had been retained, and
therefore the rewriting process could actually be traced. The use of first-
hand material has restricted the examples to Italian as a TL, but it is also
what has enabled the genetic analysis approach.
The ideal scenario would be one where the rewriting process of the same
texts dubbed into multiple languages could be saved and archived, by a
collective effort of dialogue writers and dubbing companies across coun-
tries. Comparing the detailed transformation process could help further
determine the extent to which dialogue writing strategies are bound by
personal taste, constraints, client requirements, and target culture and TL
norms. This type of research study would only be possible if the aims,
methods, choice of product and target languages are agreed to a priori by
dialogue writers and dubbing companies. At the very least it would imply
keeping track of adaptation drafts in progress and possibly any text modi-
fication made during recordings. This would not be an easy task on a prac-
tical level due to the industry’s fast tempo and short deadlines which could
possibly discourage the collaboration of dubbing professionals.
Such a study would certainly constitute a step further in unfolding and
understanding the dialogue writing process, and the acquired data could be
used to bridge the gap between academia and the professional industry.
Scholarly research in the field would gain additional value if it were to aim
at slowly inducing an impact on the dubbing industry. This could imply,
for example, using research-based results to propose working approaches

and methodologies (similar to the ones suggested in Chap. 3) that might
help to ensure or further enhance one or more of the commonly accepted
quality standards (see Sect. 1.4), for the benefit of all.
Notes
2. Excerpt used with the courtesy and permission of The Walt Disney
Company Italia.
Company Italia.
5. The cited scene drawn from the film Cape Fear is easily retrievable on the
web by using the keywords: Cape Fear counsellor scene.
Company Italia.
Company Italia.
Company Italia.
Company Italia.
Company Italia.
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Filmography
TV Series
Cape Fear. (1991). M. Scorsese, Amblin Entertainment/Cappa Films/Tribeca

Productions.
Make It or Break It. (2009–2012). H. Sorensen, Disney/abc studios.
Potlach. (2006). Ellipsanime.
Psych. (2006–2014). S. Franks, NBC.
Index1
A B
Abbreviations, 107, 129, 136–143, Background noise, 115, 126,
153 143–148, 181
Accents, 30, 40, 74, 101, 107, 159, Bande rythmo, 5, 7, 16–22, 25, 40, 72,
164–173, 233, 234 75, 78, 83, 87, 127, 135, 181
Acoustic synchronization, 30 bande rythmographique, 16–17
Adaptateur, 27 See also Lip-synch band
Adaptation Barre de précision, 19, 75
adaptation linguists, 27 Beats, 79, 126, 132, 138
adaptor, 27 See also Pauses
Adattatori, 60 Bilabial, 20, 21, 53, 84, 135, 201,
Adiectio, 54, 55, 210, 233 203, 255
Ad lib, 145 Bilabial consonants, 53, 84, 90, 91,
Ajustadores, 27 199–203, 207, 213, 223, 226,
Ambiance, 75, 132, 134, 144 232
Amplification, 54, 81 Black box, viii, ix, 192–194
Anaphora, 54, 202 Brand, 33, 177, 179, 218
Archive fever, 193 As broadcast, 105, 106, 151, 175,
Art directors, 10 215, 226, 235, 239, 243
Note: Page numbers followed by ‘n’ refer to notes.

1

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04966-9
266 Index
As broadcast (cont.) Continuity scripts, 101, 104

as recorded, 13, 194, 198, Conversions, 162
201–203, 206, 208, 210, 211, Copyright, 147, 178, 193
213, 216, 217, 222, 224, 225, Culture-specific references, 105, 220
227, 228, 231, 233, 234, 237, Currency, 162
238, 240, 244, 245
D
C Deletio, 55
Calques, 13, 36, 37, 87, 93, 207 Détecteur, 20, 83
Captions Détection, 20–22, 25, 75, 83
digital captions, 15, 112, 158 Detractio, 54, 55, 256
on-screen captioning, 16, 23 Dialoghista, 26
Censorship, 28, 31, 32, 177, 248 Dialogue list, 11, 12, 25, 28, 31, 71,
Character allocation, 15, 134, 150, 72, 86, 102, 110, 116, 133,
152, 163, 165–166 144, 159, 180, 193
Character list, 126, 147, 149, Dialogue segmentation, 23,
152–155 112–116, 126
character names, 20, 107, 108, Dialogue track, 3, 7, 73, 131, 144, 180
116, 117, 132, 153–155, 165 Dialogue transcript, 102, 104, 105,
Classical poetics, viii, 49, 54–58 144
Cognitive Dialoguiste, 26
aspects, 88 Diction, 7, 9, 11, 77, 92, 163
informatics, viii, 50 Diegetic, 172
process, 89 Discourse markers, 36, 62, 81
science, 88 Dubbed product, 7, 9, 33, 119, 125
Collaborative dubbing, 24 Dubbed productions, 3, 20, 35, 37,
Combined continuity and spotting 38, 74, 75, 90, 91, 159n7,
scripts, 102, 103 170, 178, 208
Company guidelines Dubbese, 35–40, 87, 94, 214
company policy, 7, 25 Dubbing actors, 9, 11–12, 14, 16,
company procedure, 25, 27 18–20, 24, 25, 38, 39, 72–79,
Consistency sheet, 116–119, 155, 172 89, 94, 95, 109, 110,
Constrained translation, 49 119–121, 126, 128, 130–132,
constrained writing, 49, 51 135, 139, 141, 143, 150, 154,
Constraints, viii, 13, 29–33, 35, 36, 158, 163, 164, 167, 168,
38, 49–53, 57, 60, 61, 70, 71, 171–175, 219, 222, 225, 235
77, 88, 89, 177, 197, 214, See also Voice talents
220, 234 Dubbing agents, 5, 194
Index 267
Dubbing assistants, 7, 9, 11, 25, 96, 101, 105, 130, 131, 138, 139,
108, 112, 117, 119, 120, 147, 141, 143, 150, 164, 166–168,
148, 153, 163 179, 180, 195, 200, 204, 209,
Dubbing bible, 116, 155 218, 220, 224–226, 228, 230,
Dubbing deliverables, ix, 69, 252, 254
101–121, 193 Ellipsis, 127
Dubbing directors, 7–11, 14, 16, 35, Epiphora, 54
40, 56, 77, 81, 82, 93, 105, Euphony, 55
109, 116, 119, 134, 147, 153, Explicitation, 31, 225
159, 171, 172, 174, 175, 196, Extensions, 19, 79
218, 228, 230
See also Art directors
Dubbing effect, 91 F
Dubbing glossary, 116–119 Fictitious language, 166–173
Dubbing industry, vii, 4, 26, 27, 69, Film semiotics, 31
82, 103, 129, 194 Foley, 7, 143, 180
Dubbing modus operandi, 24 Foreign language, 62, 78, 102, 104,
recording modus operandi, 105, 107, 119, 150, 166–173,
14–25, 74 176, 224
Dubbing notations, 25, 79–80, 126, See also Fictitious language
129–143, 150, 192, 199, 202, Formulaicity, 36
206–208, 211, 213, 222, 223, Fricative, 21, 200–202, 204, 213,
225, 232, 233 232
Dubbing process, vii, viii, 3–15, 25,
29, 81, 101, 125, 163–165,
171, 175, 192, 193, 195 G
Dubbing scriptwriters, 27 Geminatio, 54, 202
Dubbing specifics, 53, 69, 93, 117, Generic buzz, 132, 143, 144,
159n7, 161 148
Dubbing symbols, 79, 129 Genetic analysis, ix, 191–197
Dubbing translator, 26, 28, 58, 60, genetic criticism, 195
230
Dubbitis, 38, 74, 75
I
Iconography, 59
E Ideological manipulation, 32
Editing, 7, 11, 13, 33, 59, 158 Imitatio, 54, 55
commands, 142, 181 Immutatio, 54, 220
Effects, 4, 7, 8, 31, 33, 37, 55, 56, Ingenium, 56–58
59, 62, 73, 75, 88, 90–92, Interjections, 81, 162–163
268 Index
Intertextual references, 214–220, lip band, 18, 22, 83

228, 230 Literary criticism, viii, 56
See also Culture-specific references Localization, 3, 9, 10, 22, 41n7,
Intonation, 10, 34, 37–40, 74–75, 41n8, 54, 79, 104, 159n2,
87, 89, 90, 92, 139, 151, 163, 164, 168
164, 172, 216, 218–220, 222 Loops, 10, 11, 73, 95, 96, 110–112,
intonational, 20, 37 119–121, 128, 165
Intralingually, 173, 175 loop segmentation, 11, 15, 25,
Isochrony, 20, 29, 36, 77, 80–82, 110–112, 126
199–201, 203, 209, 211, 213,
255–257
M
Mastering, 7, 8, 33, 56, 204
K McGurk effect, 88, 90, 91
Kinesic synch, 29 Measurements, 162
kinesic synchronization, 82 Metadata files, 116–119
Mixing, 3, 4, 7, 8, 11, 13, 16, 24,
33, 59, 141, 166
L Mouth articulation, 12, 59, 82, 85,
Labial 88, 199, 201, 207, 209, 210,
labialized, 84 213
labiodental, 20, 53, 84, 199, 203, mouth flaps, 210
207, 232 Music and effects, 7, 31, 73, 105,
labiodental consonants, 20, 199, 131, 144, 166, 181
232 sound effects, 7, 101, 180
Language-focused preadaptation, 86 special effects, 7, 59
Layouts, ix, 20, 23, 25, 52, 107, 108, Mute, 73, 139, 225
110, 112, 116, 119, 128, 132,
148, 165, 166, 170
Lectern, 15, 72, 95, 112, 158 N
Linguists Naturalization, 31
adaptation linguists, 27 Naturalness, 13, 36, 37, 89, 202
linguistic, ix, 12, 13, 15, 26, 33, Natural-sounding dialogue, 30, 34,
36, 37, 40, 52, 58, 71, 92, 94, 197, 207, 214, 235
117, 125, 170, 171, 173, 196 Numbers, 10, 16, 20, 21, 27, 32, 33,
Lipogram, 51 37, 50, 56, 60, 75, 76, 83, 88,
Lip reading, 88 95, 108, 110, 112, 115–117,
Lip-rounded, 53, 84 119–121, 125, 126, 138, 152,
Lip-synch band, 17–18, 20, 23, 78 154, 158–159, 161–164, 167,
Index 269
174, 177, 178, 180, 191, 203, Phrase synch dubbing, 82

222, 226, 228, 232, 234, 235 Pose de texte, 20, 22, 83
Postadaptation, 92, 93
Postproduction chain, 6
O Postproduction recording sheet,
Off-screen, 21, 78, 81, 113, 115, 119–121
129, 131, 132, 135, 136, 138, Postsynchronization, 8, 11
143, 150, 204, 213, 222–225, Preadaptation, 86, 89, 93, 94, 236,
232 237, 240, 241, 244–246
Offset timecodes, 102, 103 Production house, 9, 28, 31, 102,
On-screen, 16, 21, 78, 81, 91, 104, 167–169, 176, 193, 218
113, 114, 129, 135, 138, 140, Pronunciation, 74, 77, 85, 92, 153,
150, 151, 199, 201, 204, 220, 159, 163, 172, 223
222, 225, 232 pronunciation list, 116, 117
on-screen inserts, 119 Prosody, 175
on-screen text, 119 prosodic, 20, 30, 37–39
Onset time codes, 102, 108, 112, Proxemics, 59
128, 139, 148, 150, 151, 169 Punctuation, 40, 163–165
offset time codes, 103
Oulipo
Oulipian writers, 52 Q
Qualitative lip synch
quantitative lip synch, 29
P Quality standards, ix, 7, 9, 33–40,
Paralinguistic, 20, 30, 59, 74, 79, 57, 87, 91, 93, 102, 125, 234
129, 138, 181
Paraphrases, 81, 82
Paraphrasis, 54 R
Paratextual, ix, 15, 25, 125 Reaction, 37, 58, 62, 91, 105, 127,
Pauses, 12, 19–21, 31, 73, 76, 79, 133, 134, 138
82, 112, 115, 126–128, 132, Recaps, 155–158
134, 135, 138, 164, 199–204, Recording studio, vii, 6, 8, 11, 13,
206–209, 211, 223, 232, 233 14, 16, 19, 22, 23, 25, 38, 81,
Performance, 4, 8, 10, 12, 20, 33, 128, 158, 194
34, 38, 39, 75, 77, 78, 92, Reduction, 37, 54, 55, 81
111, 173, 199, 204, 221, 235 Remuneration, 82, 110
Phatic markers, 81 Repetitio, 55
Phonaesthetics, 11, 30, 31, 33, 62, Restrictions, 31–33, 53, 57, 62, 71,
92 177–179, 193, 203, 220, 232
270 Index
Rewriting process, ix, 28, 61, 192, Software applications, 16, 19–25,
195 40n5, 41n9, 165, 181
Rhyme, 92, 223 Songs, 53, 71, 105, 107, 172,
Rhythm, 12, 17, 19, 21, 31, 39, 62, 174–176, 178, 216, 220
73, 76, 78–80, 82, 88, 89, 96, Sound bites, 143, 147, 152, 167
132, 133, 139, 199, 204, 206, Sound effects, 101, 143, 180
208, 210 Sound engineers, 7, 8, 11, 14, 16,
Rhythmic, 57, 75, 78, 79, 82, 24, 109, 121, 128, 150, 163
199–201 Sound mixing, 4, 33, 59
rhythmic framework, 76–79 Sound quality, 33, 167
rhythmic pattern, 20, 76, 77, 80, Sound technicians, 138, 142, 156,
81, 135 196
Rights, 17, 19, 22–24, 28, 52, 55, audio technicians, 7, 8
58, 71, 81, 88, 95, 103, 107, sound engineers, 7, 8, 11, 14, 16,
154, 199, 215, 216, 244 24, 109, 121, 128, 130, 131,
See also Copyright 141, 147, 174
Role interpretation, 34, 74, 92, 109, Source interference, 37, 39, 75
126, 135, 144, 163, 164, 196 Specific terminology, 116–118
Rough translation, 12, 71, 86, 196 Spelling, 89, 163–165, 221,
Rounded vowels, 20, 53, 199–201, 223–225
207 Standardization, 31, 161, 176
Royalties, 28, 55 Studium, 56–58
Substitutio, 55
Subtitles, 35, 61, 116, 148, 149,
S 167, 168, 171, 173
Screenwriter, 28, 50, 56, 60, 61 subtitling, 16, 22, 55, 60, 107,
screenwriting, 28, 50, 55, 60–61 119, 154, 169, 170, 174
Semiotic, 30, 31, 196 Supervision, 104
Shooting script, 102, 114 Suspension of disbelief, 4, 13, 34,
Shot 80, 91, 149, 167, 169
camera shots, 79, 181, 196 Synchronization, 4, 8, 13, 15, 20,
close-up shots, 84, 90, 91, 139, 22, 23, 28–31, 38, 59, 61,
150, 197, 204, 211, 220, 221, 73, 76, 78, 80, 82–86, 90,
223, 228, 232, 235 94, 96, 126, 135, 139, 143,
extreme close-up shot, 221, 223 145, 195, 196, 204, 214, 223,
long shot (LS), 8, 130, 142 232
medium shot (MS), 142 Synchrony
over-the-shoulder (OTS), 21, acoustic, 30
133, 139, 140, 199, 204, 207, isochrony, 20, 29, 36, 82, 209,
209, 233 211, 213
shot-reverse-shot, 78 kinesic synch, 29, 82
Index 271
lip synchrony, vii, 11, 13, 17, 20, Time codes, 16, 22, 23, 25, 73, 101,
23, 28, 29, 33, 34, 36, 78, 102, 110, 115, 116, 126–128,
82–85, 90, 121, 143, 145, 224 153
mouth synchrony, 8, 130 See also Offset time codes; Onset
nucleus synch, 29 time codes
phonetic synch, 29, 53, 76, 82, Titles, 104, 151–155, 158, 214, 227,
83, 85, 91, 135, 197, 200, 228, 248
201, 211, 223, 232 Tolerance threshold, 34, 37
quantitative lip synch, 29 Translational routines, 36, 93, 94
qualitative lip synch, 29 Transmutation, 54
Synopsis, 104, 116, 152–155
V
T Visual synchronization, 29
Takes, 10, 11, 73, 110, 119, 135, VO, see Voice-over
137, 165 Voice casting, 9, 105, 106, 116, 121
See also Loops voice enunciation, 77
Target language scripts, ix, 107–116, voice selection, 4, 9, 10, 33
179, 230 Voice-over (VO), vii, 73, 79, 80, 82,
Technical synchronization, 11, 13, 114, 130, 136, 138, 143, 149,
197–214 153, 155
Templates, 22, 25, 107, 116, 120, Voice talents, 9, 12, 119, 120, 153
128, 154, 193
Tempo markers, 25, 79, 107, 110,
126–128, 134, 137, 138, 206 W
Text manipulation, vii, 180, 192, Walla, 119, 131, 132, 134, 143, 144,
196, 214, 226, 235, 248, 253 146–148
text manoeuvering, 71, 191, 192, See also Ambiance; Background
197 noise; Generic buzz
Textual, ix, 13, 14, 30, 40, 86, 87, 195 Workstation, 8, 16, 24, 94–96

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Giselle Spiteri Miggiani

“A truly ground-breaking contribution to Audiovisual Translation, Dialogue

“Drawing on extensive first-hand practice in the dubbing industry, Spiteri

Dialogue Writing for

ISBN 978-3-030-04965-2 ISBN 978-3-030-04966-9 (eBook)

Library of Congress Control Number: 2018966701

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2019

Cover illustration: © boonchai wedmakawand / Getty Images

This monograph deals with the preparation and elaboration of a dialogue

The insider’s perspective is strengthened further by research into and

• Part I. The dialogue writing practice—a descriptive approach

recording sessions, as well as consultation and discussion with dubbing

i­nformation on their modus operandi: in particular SDI Media (with

Part I The Dialogue Writing Practice 1

1 Dialogue Writing Set in Context 3

2 Bridging Disciplines: Analogies and Applicable Devices 49

Part II Strategies and Know-How 67

3 Dialogue Writing Itinerary 69

4.4 Postproduction Recording Sheet 119

6 Standards and Practices161

Part III Black Box Revealed 189

7.1.2 A Genetic Analysis Approach 195

Fig. 1.1 Dialogue extracted and replaced. (Sketch drawing by Sara

Fig. 4.3 Loop segmentation 111

Table 4.1 Dubbing consistency sheet 117

Table 7.20 Natural-sounding dialogue I(a) 236

© The Author(s) 2019 3

(2007) both lay special interest on the various stages of dubbing in

and additional professional roles involved in using the bande rythmo

1.1.1 Sound Technicians

can then be entrusted to someone else. It is not surprising, therefore,

1.1.2 Dubbing Directors

via a cloud infrastructure, showcase voice talent recording samples

1.1.3 Dubbing Assistants

1.1.4 Dubbing Actors

“continuous series of stops and starts, rather than a theatrical perfor-

1.1.5 Translators and Dialogue Writers

The dubbing team also involves translators, dialogue writers, and

Lack in general synchrony, and more specifically in lip synchroniza-

Submitted final draft

Fig. 1.3 Textual itinerary (a)

linguistic content or synchronization results. Dubbing scripts that func-

1.2.1 The Bande Rythmo

mographique, indeed, offers a visual rendering of the voice track rhythm.

Fig. 1.6 The bande rythmo

it involves a different modus operandi and different mental processes for

an “open mouth” start or finish, while the up arrows at the beginning or

1.2.2 Other Software Applications

Displaying the dialogues on screen can also be done in subtitle fashion

same software program also allows dialogue writers to verify synchroni-

DUB [0 N 01:02:09:11>01:02:11:15] JOHN

This on-screen captioning method may require a different layout and

1.2.3 Collaborative Dubbing

Another interesting dubbing modus operandi is the collaborative dub-

called dubbing translators to prepare a raw adaptation in the TL (i.e., a

1.3.1 Synchronies and Constraints

1. Isochrony, which refers to the duration of a target line matching that

1. Content synchronization, which refers to the actual semantic con-

3. Acoustic synchronization or characterization, which refers to

1. Formal constraints, which refer to the three synchronies.

This monograph proposes a further classification of dialogue writing

• Translation (transfer of semantic content, translation issues).

• Blacklisted expressions (due to forms of censorship, or other types of

information on their modus operandi: in particular SDI Media (with

Part I The Dialogue Writing Practice 1

1 Dialogue Writing Set in Context 3

2 Bridging Disciplines: Analogies and Applicable Devices 49

Part II Strategies and Know-How 67

3 Dialogue Writing Itinerary 69

4.4 Postproduction Recording Sheet 119

6 Standards and Practices161

Part III Black Box Revealed 189

7.1.2 A Genetic Analysis Approach 195

Fig. 4.3 Loop segmentation 111

Table 4.1 Dubbing consistency sheet 117

Table 7.20 Natural-sounding dialogue I(a) 236

1.1.1 Sound Technicians

1.1.2 Dubbing Directors

1.1.3 Dubbing Assistants

1.1.4 Dubbing Actors

1.1.5 Translators and Dialogue Writers

1.2.1 The Bande Rythmo

1.2.2 Other Software Applications

1.2.3 Collaborative Dubbing

1.3.1 Synchronies and Constraints

1.4 Quality Standards

2.2 Creative Writing Techniques

2.3 Classical Poetics and Literary Criticism

2.3.1 Studium or Ingenium

2.4.1 From Dialogue Writing to Screenwriting

2.4.2 Accepting the Notion of Loss

3.1 Establishing a Method

another professional), from the translation-and-adaptation dialogue

3.2 Impersonating the Dubbing Actors

3.3 The Rhythmic Framework

3.4 Inserting Dubbing Notations

3.6 Kinesics and Lip Synchronization