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A. Far fields (r � λ) z
v + dl 2
I (0)
∫
1 v
dl eff = v
I (0)
I (z) dz
dl 2
ˆ eff k 2 η
�
Ê0 Idl µ
Êθ = ηĤφ = sin(θ)e−jkr , Ê0 = − ,η =
jkr 4π �
B. Intensity �Sr �
1 �
ˆ ∗ = 1 |E
¯ˆ × H̄
�
¯ˆ |2
�Sr � = Re E
2 2η
1 |Ê0 |2
= sin2 (θ)
2η k 2 r 2
ˆ eff |2 k�42 η�2
1 |Idl
= sin2 (θ)
2η� 16π 2� k�2 r2
ˆ eff |2 k 2 η
|Idl
= sin2 (θ)
32π 2 r2
C. Total time average power �P �
� π � 2π
�P � = dθ dφ �Sr � r2 sin(θ)
0 0
ˆ eff |2 ηk 2
|Idl
=
12π
2πη dleff 2
� �
1 ˆ2
= |I| R ⇒ R = radiation resistance
2 3 λ
D. Gain
�Sr �
G(θ, φ) =
�P � /(4πr2 )
ˆ�eff
|Idl
�
��|2�2 η sin2 (θ) · 12π(4πr�
k� 2
� ��� )
= �
π 2�
32� r��ˆ�eff
2 |Idl |2 �2
k�
��
8�
� �
3
= sin2 (θ)
2
1
II. Receiving Antennas
Z
e
ϕ
x
For d1 << λ
¯ = Ē0 + Ē1
E (1)
¯ = H̄0 + H̄1
H (2)
�2 �� � �
¯ · n̄ = 1
� � � �
P = da Sˆ da Ē ˆ × (H̄
0
ˆ ∗ + H̄
0
ˆ ∗ ) · n̄ +
1 da ˆ × (H̄
Ē 1
ˆ ∗ + H̄
0
ˆ ∗ ) · n̄
1 (10)
S1 2 S1 S1
� � � � � �
da Eˆ ˆ∗ + H
¯0 × (H̄ ˆ ∗ ) · n̄ =
¯ ˆ · (H̄
da Ē ˆ ∗ + H̄
ˆ ∗ ) × n̄
0 1 0 0 1
S1 S1
� � �
ˆ ·
= Ē da (Hˆ¯ ∗ + H
ˆ¯ ∗ ) × n̄
0 0 1
S1
ˆ · Iˆ d ī
= −Ē (from (4)) (11)
0 1 eff z
� � � � � � � � �
ˆ ˆ ˆ
¯ 0∗ + H
¯1 × (H
da E ¯ 1∗ ) · n̄ = da Ēˆ × H̄ˆ ∗ · n̄ + da ˆ × H̄
Ē ˆ ∗ · n̄ (12)
1 0 1 1
S1 S1
� S1 �� �
|Iˆ1 |2 (R+jX)
� � � � � �
ˆ
¯ ˆ ∗
da E1 × H̄0 · n̄ = − da H̄ ˆ∗ × E ˆ¯ · n̄
0 1
S1
� S1 � �
=− da H ˆ¯ ∗ × (E ˆ¯ + E ˆ ) · n̄
¯
0 0 1
�S1 � � � � �
=− ˆ
¯ ∗ ˆ
¯ ˆ ∗
da H0 · (E0 + Ē1 ) × n̄ = −H̄0 · da Eˆ¯ + Ē
ˆ × n̄
0 1
S1 S1
= 0 (from (3)) (13)
1 � ˆ¯ ˆ � 1
P = −E0 · I1 deff īz + |Iˆ¯1 |2 (R + jX) = V̂1 Iˆ1∗
2 2
ˆ · d¯
V̂T H = V̂oc = −Ē (d¯eff = deff īz )
0 eff
A. Circuit Description
^ ^
I1 I2
^ ^
V1 V2
�
V̂th1 = Iˆ2 Z12 = − ˆ¯ · dl = −E
E ˆ¯ · dl
1 1 eff
ˆ¯ · dl
V̂th2 = Iˆ1 Z21 = −E 2 eff
1 |�
2|
�2 ˆ�
1 |E 2 2
2 | sin (θ) · 3λ
� 2
�P2 � = Arec (θ, φ) �Sr � = Arec (θ, φ) · � = �
2 η� 8 2πη�
3 λ 2 λ 2
Arec (θ, φ) = sin2 (θ) = Grec (θ, φ)
2 4π 4π
C. Representative Parameters
1. Minimum received power ≈ 10−20 watts
For total transmitted power of 1 watt, how far away can the receiver be at f = 1
GHz?
�Ptrans � λ2
�Prec � = 2
G trans G rec
� 4πr �� � � ��4π�
�Sr � Arec (θ,φ)
c 3× 108
fλ = c ⇒ λ = = = .3 m
f 109
3
Gtrans = Grec = sin2 (θ) (for short dipoles) (identical transmitting and receiving antennas)
2
π 3
2 Ptrans λ
r = Gtrans Grec
Prec 4π
� � � �2
1 9 .3
= −20
10 4 4π
= 1.28 × 1017 m2
r = 3.58 × 108 m = 3.58 × 105 km ≈ 200, 000 miles
−9 −9
10−9 watts received power allows M = 10Eb = 4×1010−20 = .25 × 1011 bits/s
Ptrans =?
c
f = 3GHz ⇒ λ = = .1 m
f
M = 1 bit/s, Eb = 4 × 10−20 Joules/bit
Prec = M Eb = 4 × 10−20 Watts
Gtrans = Grec = 107
5
� �2
Prec 4πr
λ
Ptrans =
Gtrans Grec
� �2
−20 4π(9×1015 )
4 × 10 .1
= 14
10
= 512 Watts
For M = 2.4 kb/s ⇒ Ptrans ≈ 1.2 MW (with a 1 year delay each way)
4. Optical Communications: E = hf, h = 6.625 × 10−34 Joule-sec (Planck’s Constant)
a. Radio Photons
c 3 × 108
λ = 0.5 µm ⇒ f = = ≈ 6 × 1014 Hz
.5 × 10−6 .5 × 10−6
Eb 4 × 10−20
N= = ≈ .1 photon/bit
hf 6.625 × 10−34 · 6 × 1014