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Training-Induced Changes on Blood Lactate Profile and Critical Velocity in

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Article  in  The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research · March 2011

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 TRAINING-INDUCED CHANGES ON BLOOD LACTATE
PROFILE AND CRITICAL VELOCITY IN YOUNG
SWIMMERS
ARGYRIS G. TOUBEKIS,1,2 AIKATERINI P. TSAMI,1 ILIAS G. SMILIOS,1 HELEN T. DOUDA,1
1
AND SAVVAS P. TOKMAKIDIS
1
Department of Physical Education and Sports Science, Democritus University of Thrace, Komotini, Greece; and 2Department of
Aquatics, Faculty of Physical Education and Sport Science, University of Athens, Athens, Greece
ABSTRACT
Toubekis, AG, Tsami, AP, Smilios, IG, Douda, HT, and
Tokmakidis, SP. Training-induced changes on blood lactate
profile and critical velocity in young swimmers. J Strength Cond
Res 25(6): 1563–1570, 2011—This study examines the
efficacy of critical swimming velocity (CV) for training pre-
scription and monitoring the changes induced on aerobic
endurance after a period of increased training volume in young
swimmers. An experimental group (E: n = 7; age: 13.3 6 1.3
years), which participated in competitive training was tested at
the beginning (W0), the sixth week (W6), and 14th week (W14)
to compare the changes of aerobic endurance indexes (CV;
lactate threshold [LT]; velocity corresponding to blood lactate
concentration of 4 mmol
L21: V4). A control group (C: n = 7;
age: 14.1 6 1.6 years), which refrained from competitive
training, was used to observe maturation effects and was tested
for CV changes between W0 and W14. The average weekly
training volume was increased after the sixth week in the E
group and was unchanged for the C group. The CV was not
different between or within groups at W0 and W14 (p . 0.05).
The LT of the E group was no different compared to V4 and CV
at W0 and W6 (p . 0.05) but was higher than CV at W14 (p ,
0.05). The LT increased (6.5 6 5.3%, p , 0.05), but V4 and CV
were unchanged after W6 (3.6 6 1.9%; 2.1 6 1.2%, p . 0.05).
LT, V4, and CV were unchanged despite the increased training
volume from W6 to W14 (LT: 1.2 6 4.3%, V4: 0.8 6 1.5%, CV:
0.3 6 0.8%; p . 0.05). These findings suggest that CV pace
may be effectively used for the improvement of aerobic
endurance in young swimmers. The aerobic endurance indexes
used for the assessment of swimmers’ progression showed
different rates of change as a response to the same training
Address correspondence to Argyris G. Toubekis, atoubekis@phed.uoa.gr.
25(6)/1563–1570
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research
Ó 2011 National Strength and Conditioning Association
Copyright © National Strength and Conditioning Association Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
stimulus and cannot be used interchangeably for training
planning.
K EY W ORDS swimming training, endurance testing,
performance
INTRODUCTION
A
erobic endurance planning and evaluation in
swimming are frequently applied using endurance
indexes such as the velocity corresponding to the
lactate threshold (LT) or the velocity correspond-
ing to blood lactate concentration of 4 mmol
L21 (V4)
(18,21,26,28,30). Moreover, the critical swimming velocity
(CV) defined as the velocity that can be maintained con-
tinuously without exhaustion has been suggested as a valid
and reliable method for endurance evaluation and training
prescription (5,7,11,26). The aerobic endurance indexes such
as LT and V4 have been shown to increase as a response to
training (15,18,21,23,28), and this may also occur for CV
(14,19). However, the rate of changes between these param-
eters may (19) or may not be similar (22). This issue needs
further clarification because coaches and sport scientists may
use these parameters for training prescription and aerobic
endurance evaluation, and they need to know any differences
or similarities on the rate of changes of these parameters
during the training period.
The LT velocity and V4, besides their use for the evaluation
of aerobic endurance, are also used for the adjustment of
training pace (15). We hypothesize that changes of a valid
endurance index, such as the CV, may also be effectively used
for training prescription and adjustment of the training pace.
It has been suggested that training prescription based on
the CV pace may induce appropriate adaptations to improve
several aspects of endurance (5). However, the efficacy of
training prescription using CV as an intensity criterion on
aerobic endurance and competitive performance improve-
ment has never been reported for swimmers. Although there
are several methodological considerations (7,11,22,26,30)
and limitations (8,9) about CV calculation in young and adult
swimmers, the metabolic responses when swimming at the
VOLUME 25 | NUMBER 6 | JUNE 2011 | 1563
 Training and Aerobic Endurance Changes
intensity of CV support its use for aerobic endurance training
(5,6,12,27,29).
Moreover, changes on training content (distance, intensity,
and load) during a training period have been reported for
adult swimmers but without concomitant aerobic endurance
changes (16). Nevertheless, limited data exist concerning
the training content that is adequate to induce alterations
on aerobic endurance of young swimmers. Thus, it seems
interesting to examine the possible alterations on CV and
compare them with those observed on other aerobic
endurance indexes (i.e., LT and V4) after an increase in the
aerobic training distance and intensity. This study examines
the changes of CV, LT, and V4 after a period of training
prescribed according to CV pace and how these aerobic
endurance indexes are altered after an increase in aerobic
training distance and intensity.
METHODS
Experimental Approach to the Problem
Using a controlled repeated-measures design, the changes of
selected aerobic endurance indexes such as CV, LT, and V4
and the competitive performance were examined in a group
of young swimmers (experimental: E group) during a period
of 14 weeks of training. The mean weekly training distance
was used as an independent variable and was increased by
15 6 9% during the second part (weeks 7–14: W7–W14)
compared to the first part of the training period (weeks 1–6:
W1–W6). The adaptations that occurred on aerobic endurance
after this training content changes were detected with valid
indexes of aerobic endurance capacity such as CV, LT, and V4
(4), whereas the competitive performance was used to assess
the overall effect of training. We hypothesized that changes of
endurance indexes may follow the same rate of improvement,
as a response to the training pace adjustment according to CV
and the increments of training contents. To examine the effect
of independent variables (training distance, weeks of training),
the changes of CV, LT, and V4 (dependent variables) were
evaluated during the start (W0) after the sixth (W6) and after
the 14th week (W14) of training. These changes were related
to the training content and competitive performance changes
of the E group in 100- and 200-m distances. A control (C)
group was also tested for changes on CV during the same
period and was used to account for maturation effects. The C
group followed low distance–low intensity recreational
swimming training, which was not altered during the
14-week experimental period. The training intensity of both
groups was adjusted according to the CV pace.
Subjects
Seven young swimmers participating in daily training
volunteered to take part in the study and were assigned to
the E group. Seven swimmers members of the same club were
selected from a larger group of volunteers who had stopped
regular training participation and were assigned to the C
group. The swimmers of the C group were selected to match
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1564 Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research
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the biological maturation of the E group. The biological
maturation was assessed by pubic hair development (24),
(E group: n = 7, 4 girls and 3 boys, mean 6 SD: age: 13.3 6
1.3 years, body weight: 52.6 6 7.3 kg, height: 1.61 6 0.05 m,
Tanner stage: 2.7 6 0.9; C group: n = 7, 3 girls and 4 boys,
age: 14.1 6 1.6 years, body weight: 55.0 6 9.0 kg, height:
1.64 6 0.10 m, Tanner stage: 3.0 6 1.0). The swimmers of the
E group had been participating in training and competitions
for the previous 3–4 years. During the testing period, all
swimmers followed the training sessions for 5–6 times per
week for a total of 10–14 hours covering distances of 15,000–
35,000 m
wk21. The swimmers of the E group were tested on
breaststroke (3 swimmers), backstroke (2 swimmers), and
front-crawl swimming techniques (2 swimmers). The swim-
mers of the C group had followed regular training during the
previous seasons, and they had 3–4 years of competitive
training and participation background. They had stopped
regular participation in training sessions 6–9 months before the
beginning of the study and followed recreational training
sessions 1–2 times per week (2,000–4,000 m
wk21). The
swimmers of the C group completed all tests using the front
crawl (6 swimmers) and breaststroke swimming techniques
(1 swimmer). The participants and their parents were informed
in detail on the experimental risks and signed an informed
consent document before the investigation. The investigation
was approved by the Institutional Review Board for use of
Human subjects. Parents of the swimmers in the control group
approved their children’s participation but without any blood
testing. Therefore, no blood tests were done for this group.
Procedures
The Speed–Lactate Test. The swimmers of the E group
performed 4 repetitions of 200 m in their best swimming
technique with a 15-minute passive recovery. Velocity
increased after each repetition corresponding to 80, 85, 90,
and 100% of their most recent maximum effort for the first,
second, third, and fourth repetitions, respectively. Capillary
blood samples for the determination of blood lactate
concentration were obtained after each 200-m repetition
from the finger tip (10 mL) and were immediately analyzed
enzymatically using Dr. Lange’s photometric method
(Dr. Lange M8; Berlin, Germany). The LT was determined
from the x-axis projection of the intersection of the lines
connecting the 2 higher and the 2 lower points of the
speed–lactate curve (18,26). The V4 was also calculated from
the speed–lactate curve by interpolation of a second order
polynomial function. The reliability of using a speed–lactate
test for the detection of the V4 has been reported to be high
(intraclass correlation coefficient = 0.847, p , 0.05) (28).
Swimmers were asked to follow the same diet with a similar
carbohydrate content in their nutrition and a similar low-
intensity aerobic training 2 days before blood testing.
Calculation of Critical Velocity. Within 3 days after the
speed–lactate test, the swimmers were timed in counter-
balanced order on distances of 50, 100, 200, and 400 m

exerting maximum effort and using the same swimming
technique as in the speed–lactate test. During each testing
distance, the starting procedure applied during official
competition was adopted while an experienced timekeeper
recorded the swimming times. From the 4 timed distances,
the linear relationship of time vs. distance was drawn, and the
CV was individually determined as the slope of the regression
line according to Wakayoshi et al. (30). The test–retest
reliability in swimming testing while using constant distances
(a procedure similar to that used for the CV determination)
has been shown to be highly reliable and shows a low
coefficient of variation (r = 0.98, CV = 0.56%) (1).
Critical velocity, LT, and V4 of the E group were calculated
at W0, W6, and W14 of the training period, whereas the CVof
the C group was calculated at W0 and W14. All tests were
performed in the same order at W0, W6, and W14 after
a standard warm-up, at the same time of the day in a 25-m
outdoor swimming pool with a controlled water temperature
of 24–25°C. The swimmers of the E group only, participated
in 2 regional official competitions the weekend after W6 and
W14; competing at distances of 100 and 200 m on their best
individual swimming technique (the same technique was
used for CV calculation and the speed–lactate test). The
swimming time for each swimmer was collected from
the official printed results.
Training Content and Training Levels Categorization
During the 14-week training period, the training content was
recorded daily, and all training sets were prescribed and timed
individually. Individual levels of training intensity and load
were calculated as has been described by Mujika et al. (16).
For the categorization of training intensity levels, the CV
determined during W0 was used as a reference. The training
intensity was readjusted after W6 according to the changes in
CV. More specifically, for training intensity level I, swimmers
swam 2–3% slower than the CV (CV23), mainly covering
distances of 1,500–2,000 m with repetitions of 200–400 m.
For training intensity level II, swimmers covered distances of
1,000–1,800 m with repetitions of 100–400 m at a velocity
equal to the CV (CVV). For training intensity level III,
swimmers covered distances of 800–1,200 m with repetitions
of 50–200 m at a velocity 2–3% faster than the CV (CV+3).
During the training sessions, when a distance shorter or
longer than 200 m was used (i.e., 100 or 400 m), the
prescribed velocity was increased or decreased, respectively,
by 2% to obtain similar metabolic responses (27). This
practice is used for endurance training prescription when
different distances or interval duration are used (15). A short
rest interval was kept between repetitions at all training
intensity levels, ranging from 10 to 20, 15 to 30, and 15 to 45
seconds for intensity levels I–III, respectively. All distances
swum faster than 4% of CV (anaerobic training: AN; intensity
level IV) and all maximal intensity short distance repetition
(Sprint training: ST; intensity level V) were considered as
anaerobic training (AN-ST). Training intensity levels IV and
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V of the anaerobic training are presented in 1 combined level
in the Results section. Warm-up, leg-kick or arms only, and
training distances to improve swimming technique (swim-
ming drills) were also included in each training session and
were incorporated to the lowest level of training intensity. For
the calculation of training load, the distance for each training
intensity level (CV23, CVV, CV+3, AN, ST), was multiplied
with a corresponding coefficient 1, 2, 3, 5, and 8 and divided
by 1,000 (16). For each swimmer, it was the performed and
not the prescribed speed and volume of training that was
considered and used to categorize the training level of
intensity.
Dry-land training was also performed in 1 or 2 sessions per
week. This type of training was not included in the calculation
of total training load because it consisted of arm swings,
stretching, sit-ups, back extensions, and exercises to improve
coordination and motor abilities. The load of these exercises
was considered as very light and was not included in the
calculation of training load. In all cases, the duration of dry-
land training did not exceed 30 minutes.
During W7–W14, the mean weekly training distance of
the E group was planned to increase compared to W1–W6.
The distance of CVv and CV+3 training levels was increased
by 10 and 2%, respectively, aiming to overload the aerobic
energy system while maintaining all other training levels
(CV22, AN-ST) at a similar percentage of the total training
distance. In addition, the pace of training was readjusted
according to the changes of CV determined at W6. No
changes were applied in the training content of the C group
during the experimental period.
Statistical Analyses
Normal distribution of the data was tested using the
Kolmogorov–Smirnov test. To test that no maturation effect
on endurance occurred, a 2-way analysis of variance for
repeated measures was performed to compare the CVdata on
W0 and W14 between C and E groups (2 groups 3 2 testing
periods). A separate 2-way analysis of variance was performed
to compare changes in the LT velocity, V4 velocity, and CVon
the E group (3 tests 3 3 testing periods). Where appropriate,
the Tukey post hoc test was applied to locate any differences
between means. Student’s t-test for dependent samples was
used to compare training content changes between W1–W6
and W7–W14. The relationship between variables was
examined using the Pearson product–moment correlation
coefficient. Effect size (ES) for changes of endurance
parameters was calculated as described by Rhea (20) and
Power (P) of analysis was computed using the SPSS statistical
package. Data is presented as mean 6 SD and the accepted
level of significance was set at p # 0.05.
RESULTS
Training Content
The total training distance completed by swimmers of the E
group during the first 6 weeks (W1–W6) was 129,000 6
VOLUME 25 | NUMBER 6 | JUNE 2011 | 1565
 Training and Aerobic Endurance Changes

TABLE 1. Distance covered at each training intensity level and percentage of total distance during the 14-week training
period.*†

Percentage of total training

Distance (m) volume (%)
Training
intensity level Wks 1–6 Wks 7–14 Wks 1–6 Wks 7–14

CV23 26,843 6 3,024 42,572 6 8,490 20.8 6 2.3 20.9 6 4.2

CVV 6,057 6 1,727 28,857 6 5,438 4.7 6 1.3 14.2 6 2.7‡
CV+3 2,657 6 360 8,329 6 1,183 2.1 6 0.3 4.1 6 0.6‡
AN-ST 3,596 6 452 6,746 6 929 2.8 6 0.4 3.3 6 0.5‡
Tech 55,946 6 7,853 66,964 6 8,199 43.3 6 6.1 32.9 6 4.0‡
A-L 16,168 6 1,557 23,114 6 3,723 12.5 6 1.2 11.4 6 1.8
W-U 17,829 6 2,255 26,943 6 2,249 13.8 6 1.7 13.2 6 1.1
*CVV = swimming at critical velocity; CV+3 = swimming velocity 2–3% faster than CV; CV23 = swimming velocity 2–3% slower
than CV; AN-ST = anaerobic training; Tech = swimming drills; A-L = arms only and leg-kick exercise; W-U = warm-up.
†Values are given as mean 6 SD.
‡p , 0.05 compared with weeks 1–6.

15,200 m and increased by 36 6 7% to 203,500 6 26,600 m the first and the second part of the training period are shown
during the last 8 weeks (W7–14) of the experimental period in Table 1 and weekly changes of training distance and load
(p , 0.05). The mean distance swum per week of training was are shown in Figure 1. The total training distance completed
also significantly increased by 15 6 9% during W7–W14 by group C during W1–W6 and W7–W14 was similar
compared to W1–W6 (21,500 6 2,500 vs. 25,400 6 3,300 m; (20,644 6 14,700 vs. 23,100 6 19,600 m, p . 0.05).
t6 = 4.105; p , 0.05). The distance covered for CV23, CVV,
CV+3, and AN-ST training levels was increased by a factor Changes on Endurance Parameters
of 1.6 6 0.3, 5.4 6 2.8, 3.2 6 0.8, and 1.9 6 0.5 during W7– Critical velocity of the E group did not change during the
W14 compared to W1–W6. The training load was increased training period (W0: 0.983 6 0.08, W6: 1.005 6 0.10, W14:
by 44 6 8% during W7–W14 compared to W1–W6 (162 6 1.008 6 0.09 m
s21; ES = 0.2, Figure 2, p . 0.05) and
19 vs. 291 6 35 a.u., p , 0.05). The distances covered during corresponded to 97.0 6 0.6, 97.4 6 0.6, and 97.3 6 0.5% of the
400-m velocity at W0, W6, and
W14. The V4 improved after
W14 (ES = 0.5, p , 0.05) but
not after W6 compared to W0
(W0: 0.991 6 0.08, W6: 1.029 6
0.10, W14: 1.037 6 0.09 m
s21,
Figure 2, p , 0.05). The LT
increased both after W6
(ES = 0.8, p , 0.05) and W14
compared to W0 (W0: 0.960 6
0.12, W6: 1.024 6 0.08, W14:
1.038 6 0.10 m
s21, Figures 2
and 3, p , 0.05). The greater
percentage increase of CV, V4
and LT, was observed during
the first 6 weeks of training and
was no different between the 3
tests (W0 to W6; CV: 2.1 6 1.2,
95% confidence interval [CI]:
1.0–3.2% vs. V4: 3.6 6 1.9, 95%
Figure 1. Training volume and load for each week during the experimental period. The arrows indicate the timing of CI: 1.8–5.4% vs. LT: 6.5 6 5.3%,
blood testing followed by the test for CV determination. C = competition. 95% CI: 1.6–11.4%; ES = 0.8,
Figure 2, p . 0.05). The
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p = 0.7; p , 0.05; Figure 2).

No significant changes were
observed in LT, V4, and CV
during the period of overloaded
training from W6 to W14 (LT:
1.2 6 4.3%, 95% CI: 22.8 to
5.2%; V4: 0.8 6 1.5%, 95% CI:
20.6 to 2.2%; CV: 0.3 6 0.8%,
95% CI: 20.5 to 1.1%; p .
0.05). The correlations between
CV, LT, and V4 were high
during W0, W6, and W14
(r = 0.93–0.99, p , 0.05).
A separate analysis was ap-
plied to examine the differences
between E and C groups in CV
determined at W0 and W14.
The CV was not different be-
tween the 2 groups at either the
start or the completion of the
Figure 2. Changes of swimming velocity at the lactate threshold (LT) swimming velocity corresponding to blood experimental period (E: 0.983 6
lactate concentration of 4 mmol
L21 (V4) and critical swimming velocity for the experimental (CV-E) and control 0.08 and 1.008 6 0.09 m
s21;
group (CV-C), during the training period. *p , 0.05 for LT at W6 and W14 compared to W0. †p , 0.05 for V4 of ES = 0.3, p . 0.05 vs. C: 1.058 6
W14 compared to W0. ap , 0.05 compared to CV at W14. Numbers above the brackets indicate the percentage
changes during the corresponding training periods. W0: start of the training period, W6: week 6, W14: week 14. 0.08 and 1.054 6 0.09 m
s21;
ES = 0.1, p . 0.05, p = 0.3;
interaction, p . 0.05; Figure 2).

percentage increase of LT and V4 velocity after W14 Performance Changes

compared to W0 was significantly higher compared to the Competitive swimming velocity was improved by 1.88% (95%
increase of CV (LT: 7.7 6 5.1 and V4: 4.4 6 1.9% vs. CV: 2.4 CI: 0.74–3.01) on the 200 but did not change (0.77%, 95% CI:
6 1.3%, ES = 1.0; P = 0.8; p , 0.05). The CV, LT, and V4 20.70–2.25) in the 100-m distance (100 m: 1.161 6 0.124 vs.
were not different at W0 and W6 (p . 0.05); however, LT 1.169 6 0.113 m
s21, ES = 0.1, p . 0.05; 200 m: 1.086 6 0.109
was higher compared to CV at W14 (ES = 0.3; vs. 1.106 6 0.107 m
s21, ES = 0.2, p , 0.05). Differences in
100- and 200-m competitive
swimming velocity from W6
to W14 did not correlate with
the changes of CV, LT, or V4
during the same period (100-m:
r = 0.6, r = 20.14, r = 0.02; 200-
m: r = 20.37, r = 20.65, r = 0.21,
p . 0.05). The percentage
change in LT from W0 to W6
correlated significantly (p ,
0.05) with the total training
distance (r = 20.84), total
training load (r = 0.80), mean
weekly distance (r = 20.84),
and mean load (r = 0.80) of the
first 6 weeks of training. The
percentage changes on training
distance and load from
W1–W6 to W7–W14 were
Figure 3. Changes of the speed–lactate curves at the start (W0), after 6 (W6) and 14 weeks (W14) of the training negatively correlated with the
period. percentage improvement of LT
from W6 to W14 (r = 20.92

VOLUME 25 | NUMBER 6 | JUNE 2011 | 1567

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 Training and Aerobic Endurance Changes
to 20.94; p , 0.05). All endurance indexes were significantly
related to competitive performance of 100 and 200 m both
during W6 and W14 (LT, r = 0.83–0.94, CV, r = 0.94–0.96,
V4, r = 0.91–0.97, p , 0.05).
DISCUSSION
The findings of this study indicate that the critical velocity can
be used for training prescription in the preparatory training
period. Training pace adjusted according to the CV pace
improves the LT velocity and velocity at 4 mmol
L21 lactate
concentration in young swimmers after 6 and 14 weeks of
training, respectively. However, CV did not change during
the same training period in response to the same stimulus.
Therefore, the aerobic endurance indexes measured in this
study (CV, LT, and V4) may not follow the same rate of
change during a 14-week training period in young swimmers.
Furthermore, a 15% increase in mean weekly training
distance for a period of 8 weeks was not adequate to induce
a further improvement in LT, V4, and CV.
In this study, the CV calculated from the distances of 50–
100–200–400 m was used for the prescription of the pace
during intermittent aerobic endurance training. Blood lactate
concentration during intermittent swimming below CVand at
the CV pace may be maintained ,4 or at 4–5 mmol
L21 in
trained children and young swimmers, respectively (12,27).
Intermittent swimming with a velocity faster than CV, such
as in the CV+3 training pace in this study, is expected to cause
a higher blood lactate concentration and probably character-
izes exercise at a higher intensity domain (6). Although this
has not been tested in child swimmers, a swimming pace 5%
faster than the CV (calculated from distances of 100–200–
400–800 m) may characterize exercise training within the
severe intensity domain, and despite interindividual differ-
ences the oxygen uptake values may reach near maximum
levels (6). In addition, the minimal velocity that elicits
V_ O2max (vV_ O2max; i.e., the 400-m pace for swimmers) may
be appropriate during intermittent swimming with short
resting intervals to reach V_ O2max (13). In this study, the CV
corresponded to 97% of the 400-m velocity. This velocity was
increased by 3% and applied for intermittent training at the
training intensity level III (CV+3) aiming to reach V_ O2max
during the set. Taking into consideration all the above, the
training applied in this study covered a wide range of training
intensity domains, and it was appropriate to induce aerobic
metabolic adaptations in young swimmers. This was
confirmed by the increase of LT after 6 and V4 after 14
weeks of training.
The LT and V4 were improved by 6.5 and 3.6% during the
first 6 weeks of training in this study. Improvements of 13 and
7% in the velocities corresponding to 4 and 6 mmol
L21
lactate concentration have been observed in well-trained
adult swimmers after 8 weeks of training (21,23). However, in
the above studies (21,23) and in this study, the subsequent
improvement of the aerobic endurance indexes was very
small (i.e., 0.7–1.3% for the previous studies [21,23], vs. 0.8%
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1568 Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research
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for V4 and 1.2% for LT from W7 to W14 in this study).
During the first 6 weeks of the training period, the greater
volume was swum at a pace 2–3% below CV (21%). This pace
seems appropriate to induce adaptations on aerobic
endurance as is confirmed by the 6.5% increase on LT.
Training intensity during W7–W14 of the training period was
individually adjusted according to the improvement of CV
after W6. Given the small increase (2.1%; 95% confidence
limits: 1.01–3.19%) in the velocity of endurance training, and
despite a substantial 10 and 2% increase in the training
distance of CVv and CV+3 training levels during W7–W14,
this was not adequate for a further improvement in aerobic
endurance. In fact, for a significant endurance improvement,
an increase in training intensity and not in training volume
should be applied (3,16). Nevertheless, it seems that prescrib-
ing swimming training intensity based on CVcalculation may
be effective for improvement of aerobic endurance during the
preparatory phase of a training season in young swimmers.
The reason for no further improvement from W7 to W14, of
aerobic endurance indexes, may indicate that the desired
adaptations had reached their maximum or that the intensity
and distance of training was not appropriate to induce any
further improvements. Furthermore, the great interindividual
metabolic responses when swimming at a CV pace (6) may
have induced different adaptation to the swimmers in this
study and masked any changes in aerobic endurance.
Despite the improvement of the LT and V4, the CV did not
change during the 14-week training period. Reis and Alves
(19) reported that the CV determined from distances of 200
and 400 m and from distances of 50, 200, and 400 m showed
similar improvements compared to V4 in 13-year-old
swimmers (i.e., 5.2 vs. 4.8 vs. 6.6%). However, Santhiago
et al. (22) reported higher values of LT compared to CV at the
start of the preparatory and at the end of the high-quality
training periods in men but not in women swimmers.
Furthermore, their swimmers showed significant improve-
ment in CV, within a 14-week training period before a taper,
with no changes in LT (22). An improvement of 2.8% after 8
weeks of mainly aerobic training but not after 3 weeks of
high-intensity mainly anaerobic training has been reported
by MacLaren and Coulson (14). Moreover, Turner et al. (28)
found a different magnitude of changes in the velocity
corresponding to a 2 mmol
L21 compared to a 4 mmol
L21
blood lactate concentration after 9 and 20 weeks of training.
It should be noted that the nature of the testing protocol (i.e.,
maximal intensity time trial for CV determination, sub-
maximal to maximal with progressively increasing intensity
for LT and V4 determination) the methodology used (i.e., for
the LT determination), the period within a season that
swimmers were tested, or the age of the swimmers may
influence the result when comparing different methods of
aerobic endurance assessment (4). On the other hand, none
of the endurance indexes applied for evaluation of swimmers
(i.e., LT and V4) can be used as a ‘‘gold standard’’ because of
the great diversity in methodologies used and the definitions

of the so-called ‘‘lactate or anaerobic thresholds’’ (4,25). It is
worth noting that several protocols and methodologies have
been used to determine ‘‘thresholds’’ in young or elite mature
swimmers (4,10,18,22,26), and different combinations of
distances have been used for CV determination in age group
or mature swimmers (11,26,29,30). As a consequence,
comparison among different tests is difficult.
Whatever the case, the greater percentage improvement of
LTand V4 (after W14) compared to CV in this study does not
necessarily mean that 1 of these tests is superior or more
sensitive than the others. This may underline the fact that
specific components of the aerobic endurance (i.e., swimming
economy) were more easily detected by the LT and V4 tests,
while the CV test is more sensitive to changes in other
components of endurance. Collectively, the different rates of
change of CV, LT, and V4 during the 14-week period indicate
that either the nature of the tests compared (time trial vs.
progressively increased intensity) or the specific intensity and
distance of the training applied were responsible for adaptive
responses that may be more effectively detected with one but
not with another test. These findings may also indicate that
coaches should focus on an arbitrary point of the speed–
lactate curve and follow its displacements as a result of the
training (4,25) while they should adhere in using one of the
aerobic endurance tests during a season.
The training content and endurance index changes (LT, V4,
and CV) were examined in relation to competition perfor-
mance time of 100- and 200-m changes at the end of W6 and
W14. In agreement with previous studies that have examined
these changes in elite swimmers, the changes in LT were not
associated with changes in performance time (18). Further-
more, it has been noted that a substantial improvement of
4–8% in the V4 for male and female swimmers is needed
for only a 1% in performance time (2). The swimmers in this
study were young and a more substantial improvement
of performance than 0.7 and 1.8% for 100- and 200-m was
expected. Whatever the case, a period of a significantly
reduced training distance may be appropriate for performance
enhancement (17), but no such changes of training distance
were applied the weeks before each competition in this study.
In contrast, an increased training distance was applied the
weeks preceding the competition of W14 as compared to W6
and may have masked any improvement in performance.
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
According to the findings of this study, CV can be applied for
the adjustment of training pace and evaluation in young
swimmers. When 21% of the total training distance is set at
a training pace 2–3% below CV, a significant improvement in
aerobic endurance of young swimmers may be induced
within a period of 6 weeks. This improvement is detected with
changes in the LT velocity and confirms adaptive responses
specific to the selected intensity of training. Increase of the
training distance swum at the CVand 2–3% faster than the CV
pace was not appropriate for further improvement of aerobic
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endurance but may contribute to enhance competitive
performance. It is likely that factors other than training
distance may be effective in increasing aerobic endurance.
Coaches should be aware that different indexes of aerobic
endurance show varied rates of improvement during a training
period. Therefore, aerobic endurance indexes, although
interrelated, should not be used interchangeably because
they probably demarcate different exercise intensities.
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