Basics and Principles

of Cartography
“Maps are, in the final analysis, the way geographers think”.
(Ronald F. Alder, The Professional Geographer, Vol 40: 3, 1985)
 INTRODUCTION: Maps and
Cartography?

 What is a map, and what is cartography?

 Knowledge representation
 The needs for maps
 What purposes maps can serve?
 What are characteristics of maps?
 What are categories/type of maps?
 Cartography versus Mapping:
 Meaning of Cartography and Mapping
 What is scope of cartography?
 Knowledge Representation
 What are different forms of knowledge representation?
 Communication, understanding one another, is essential and also is part of
our daily routines.
 If not in prehistory, the earliest ways of knowing and communicating used
utterances and drawings to create the mental images involved in
understanding objects and their relationship.
 From these utterances and sounds developed the spoken, written natural
languages and mathematics of today, and the sketches evolved into present-
day graphics.
 These vehicles of thought and communication are forms of knowledge
representation.
 The use of written language is called literacy, while the use of spoken language
is called articulacy;
 Communicating with numbers is a way of symbolizing and dealing with
relationship among abstractions, sets, numbers, and magnitudes is called
numeracy or mathematics.
 Mathematics can range from abstract relationships to precise calculations.
 Graphicacy is another way of communicating.
 Continued …
 Graphic methods extend from drawing and painting to the
construction of plans and diagrams including images.
 The Graphics used to capture the spatial structure of the
environment is the subject of this course.
 Communicating with others by describing spatial
relationships, nearness or farness from a given reference, or
inside or outside of something, etc., we want our description to
evoke a similar image in that person’s mind.
 The best way to do so is to provide a visual representation of
the image.
 A saying that goes with this is “ a picture worth thousand
words”.
 Such graphic presentation of the geographical setting is what
we call a Map.
 What are Maps?
 The answer to the question, “what is a map?” is that “ maps are neatly drawn, bird’s
eye views of the earth’s surface or beyond”.
 They are drawn/graphical representation of features of the earth’s surface or
beyond.
 A map is “a graphic depiction of all or part of a geographic realm in which the real-
world features have been replaced by symbols in their correct spatial location at a
reduced scale.” (Clarke, 2001)
 “A map is a symbolized image of geographic reality, representing selected features
or characteristics resulting from the creative efforts of cartographers and designed
for use when spatial relationships are of special relevance.” (ICA, 1995)
 What are maps:
 This days maps exist in different forms: tangible or intangible, visible or
invisible (mental & digital maps that exist in human and computer memory
respectively), aerial photographs (e.g. orthophoto maps), and satellite images,
(like Google maps).
 The conventional maps mentioned so far are only part of the
contemporary map picture that the definition of maps must include an
extremely broad range of “products”.
 Some of these products show topics that are physical in nature (like road
maps), some show more social or cultural topics (like language maps), and
some show even more abstract subjects like maps of income levels).
 Maps are not limited to representing features of the earth’s surface but
they are used to showing features found on the moon or other celestial
bodies;
 They can be used to show patterns of the distribution of features that exist on
the ground or surface (e.g. topographic maps), under the ground (e.g.
geological and hydrogeological) or above the ground (e.g. weather maps).
 Thus, given a variety of possible maps, a map may be defined broadly as “any
concrete or abstract images of the distributions and features that occur
on or near the surface of the earth or other celestial bodies” (Campbell,
6
1991).
 What Purposes Maps Serve?
 Maps can serve many purposes:
i) Cartography is concerned with reducing the spatial characteristics of a large
area- a portion or all of the earth, or another celestial body- and put it in a map form to make it
observable.
- As microscopes and telescopes used to enlarge microscopic things and enable to see
objects found at great distance, respectively, a map extends our normal range of vision.
- A map enables us see the broader spatial relations that exist over large areas or the details
of microscopic particles.
-This is the fundamental function (instrumentality) of maps i.e. cartography helps to
bring a reality which is extensive into view.
ii) Maps are carefully designed instruments for recording, calculating, displaying, analyzing,
and understanding the interrelation of things.
iii) Regardless of variation in the type and size all maps have the same goal of communicating
spatial relationships and forms or patterns.
- Maps clearly preserve the locational attributes of spatial information, i.e. they show
the r/ship b/n one feature and another.
- They show not only the features and their location but show also extent and spatial
limits of phenomena; they are used to measure distances, direction and area
 - They are used to determine spatial patterns formed by many features on the surface
of the earth.
 Continued … purposes map serve?
iv) Maps show not only information about physical and cultural features but also show
distributions of more abstract features- trade flow, use of communication,
extent of political influence, or areas occupied by peoples of various
races, languages, or religion.
v) Maps provide a major source of historical documentation and are used for
regional planning and property assessment purposes.
 Large scale or detailed map of a small region, can depict its landforms, drainage, vegetation,
settlement patterns, roads, geology, or host of other detailed distributions, communicates the
relationships necessary to plan and carry on many types of work such as building a road, a
house, a flood-control system, or almost any other construction requires prior mapping.
 Small scale or less detailed maps of larger areas showing floodplain hazards, soil erosion, land
use, population character, climates, income, and so on, are indispensible to understanding the
problems and potentialities of an area.
 Highly abstract maps of the whole earth indicate generalizations and relationships of broad
earth patterns with which we may study the course of past, present, and future events.
vi) These and others can assist researchers in the generation of hypotheses as to why
the existing spatial patterns emerged?
- What are driving forces behind such spatial relationships/patterns and what would
be the trend?
 Summary of what maps perform
 Maps perform two important functions:
 Storage medium for information
 Provides a picture of the world to help understand:
 Spatial patterns
 Spatial relationships
 Environmental complexity
 Maps tell us:
 Where it is
 What it is
 When it is (often but not always)
 What is nearby
 How far away
 In which direction
 How do I get there
 How might they be related 9
 Categories of Maps
 As a result of the number of possible combinations of map
scales, subject matter, objectives and now form one can identify
couples of different map groups.
 Consequently, there is an almost unlimited variety of maps.
 I. Based on the definition that follows: “a map is any concrete
or abstract image of the distributions and features that occur on
or near the surface of the earth or other celestial bodies”; maps
may be classified as either 1) real maps or 2) virtual maps.
1) Real (paper) map is any tangible map product that has a permanent
form and that can be directly viewed.
- This is paper map.
- In the digital world such products are often referred as a “hard copy”.
- Conventionally drawn or printed products, items that were
traditionally called maps.
2) Virtual maps are related to real maps in one way or another and have qualities that
allow them to be converted into real maps.
They are divided into three types:
a) Images that can be directly viewed but that are not permanent; images

projected in computer screen of a cathode-ray tube (CRT).

- Such an image is real enough, while the computer is turned on and the
information it shows similar or identical to that of real map
except it the image vanishes when it is turned off
b) Mental images are the conceptual equivalent of a conventional printed map.
- These are maps that we have in our minds.
- they provide us with an awareness of the location of places. r/ships b/n
places in terms of direction and distance, the size &
characteristics of regions, etc.
- They are called “ the environmental image, the generalized mental picture
of the exterior physical world held by individual.
- They are “quite unlike (real) maps… because they are personal,
fragmentary, in complete and presumably, frequently erroneous.”
- They can be converted into a more conventional real map by sketching its
image on paper.
 c) Digital Map are maps produced by computers (in GIS environment or from RS
data) and stored in computer memory in digital form.
 Limitations of Virtual Maps: they have limitations that frequently make the
use of more conventional real maps a necessity.
 Moreover, ‘mental maps’ are inadequate as useful stores of locational
information.
 Paper maps:
 They can be bought physically on physical stores: Paper maps are printed on
physical papers and can be available for purchase on physical stores on your
way home.
 Storage requires physical space: Storage of paper maps requires that you
keep them in a dedicated place in your house or in your suitcase since it can be
physically handled.
 Paper maps can be accessed offline: Paper maps are printed on paper that can
be stored anywhere and can therefore be accessed from anywhere. You do not
need a computer or internet connection to access it.
 Mostly uses symbols to represent features and routes: Paper maps mostly
rely on symbols to represent features or routes that are physically seen on
land. You therefore need to interpret the symbols when reading paper maps.
 Cannot be updated easily: Paper maps are printed on paper and can therefore
not be updated on the same paper. This means that you cannot make any
changes on the map based on the changes in landforms.
 Paper maps
 It is static: Paper maps are static representations of features on land at the
time when the representations were created. One cannot modify to see the
previous version of the area.
 Paper maps cannot represent all features at the same time: paper
maps usually make a representation of one aspect of the land at a time, For
instance, a map could represent the rivers only or the geographical area of a
place.
 Paper maps are limited to specific area based on the scale of the map:
Paper maps are representations that are limited on a specific area of the
land and not the entire geographical location.
 It requires skills to interpret because of the symbolic representation
of features: Paper maps do not show objects but use symbols instead.
Which means special skills are required to interpret the symbols when
reading the map.
 Good at showing boundaries and for data analysis: Paper maps are
ideal for showing boundaries of an area and for analysis of data.
 It is important for use as data storage and for comparison of change
in landforms: Since they are static, paper maps are ideal for use as data
 Digital Maps:
 They can be downloaded for free: Digital maps are not sold in physical shops
but instead they are available online and can be downloaded for free.
 Storage requires digital space: Digital maps do not require physical space for
storage. They are stored in digital format and therefore require digital space.
 Digital maps must be accessed online: Digital maps cannot be accessed
anywhere else besides online. One therefore requires an internet connection to
access them online.
 Shows all features including time and the actual building: Digital maps do
not depend on symbols to represent features. Instead, they show the actual
features and the time.
 Can be easily updated: Digital maps are mostly real time representations of an
area and can therefore be updated easily because the changes will be updated
automatically.
It is dynamic: Digital maps are dynamic which means one can choose to view
the previous versions of the represented area unlike paper maps.
Digital….
 Digital maps can represent all features at the same time: Digital maps can be used
to represent all features of a given area at the same time. They allow filtering for
specific features but can also show the entire area.

 Digital maps are not limited to any area: Digital maps are not limited to show only
a specific area based on scale. They can be widened to show the entire area.

 May not require special skills since it shows the real life object: Interpreting digital
maps is easier than paper maps since the features are real representations of the real
world objects.

 Good at showing area overlays from various angles: Digital maps do not only show
2D representations of an area. They can be used to show the 3D angle of the area
and also show the area overlays.

 Cannot be used to show changes in land forms because it is always up to date:

Digital maps are always up to date and may therefore not be ideal for use to show
changes in land forms.
 Categories …
II. Categorized based on Scale:-
 Scale is a ratio between the dimensions of the map and those of reality
(ground).
 It shows the amount of reduction made in size when one goes from the reality
(ground) to map size.
 When a small sheet of paper is used to show a large area such as a map of
Africa or even the world on a sheet the size of a page, the map is described as
being small-scale map.
 If a map of one page size of a book used to show only a small part of reality,
e.g. less than one square kilometer area; it would be described as a large
scale map.
 There is no consensus on the quantitative limits of the terms small, medium,
and large-scale;
 There should not be reason why there should be for the terms are relative.
 But most cartographers would agree:
 Reduction ratio of 1:50,000 or less (e.g. 1:25,000) would be a large-scale map;

 Maps with ratios of between 1: 50000 and 1:1,000,000 would be considered medium-scale
maps;
 Maps with a scale of 1: 1,000,000 and or beyond would be referred to as small-scale maps.
 Categories …
III. Classed by Function:-
 Based on function and purpose maps serve one can recognize three main
classes of maps:
 1) General Reference Maps:
 The main objective is to show the locations of a variety of different features such as water
bodies, coastlines, boundaries, roads, contour lines, etc.
 They are supposed to serve a general purpose; they can be used people of different
background- engineers, agriculturalists, geographers, planners, etc.
 1.1) Large-scale general reference maps of land areas are called topographic maps.
 They are usually made by public agencies such as EMA, using photogrammetric
methods, and are issued in series of individual sheet.
 They are required for site location and other engineering purposes;

 Great attention is paid to their accuracy in terms of positional relationships among

the features mapped;
 They have the validity legal documents and are the basis for boundary determination,
tax assessments, transfer of ownership, and other such functions that require great
precision.
 1.2. Small-scale general reference maps are typified by the maps of states, countries,
and continents in atlases.
 Such maps show similar phenomena to those on large-scale general reference maps;
 But because they must be greatly reduced & generalized, they cannot attain the detail and positional
accuracy of large-scale maps.
 Categories …
 2) Thematic Maps
 Thematic maps are also referred to as special purpose or single topic
maps.
 The show and concentrate on the distribution of a single attribute or the
relationship among several.
 They range from satellite cloud cover images to shaded maps of election
results.
 Thematic maps are typified by maps of precipitation, temperature,
population distribution, atmospheric pressure, average annual income,
cadastral maps, vegetation map, soil map, etc.
 They are referred so if they focus attention on the structure of the
distribution rather than on location.
 Otherwise such maps may be regarded as general reference maps rather
than thematic if they focus on location.
 Thematic maps may not be only small in scale, they can be large in scale.
 For example: there is demand for maps to show the structure of individual phenomena at
a level of detail suitable for making site-specific decisions like decision on ownership,
fixing tax, etc.
 Hence, such maps need to be relatively large scale.
 3) Charts
 These are maps especially designed to serve the needs of navigators, nautical and
aeronautical, are called charts.
 Charts differ from other classes of maps in that they are to be worked on while
others maps are to be looked at.
 On charts, navigators plot their courses, determine positions, mark bearings,
and so on.
 Note that navigators also use general reference maps.
 Marine equivalent of the topographic map is the bathymetric map.
 Although not called a chart, the familiar road map is really a ‘chart’ for it is used
to navigate on land.
 It supplies information about routs, distances, road qualities, stopping places,
and hazards, as well as incidental information such as regional names and places
of interest.
 Note that there can be few “pure” general reference maps, thematic maps, or charts.
 Most of them combine functions:
 Topographic maps as general reference maps may have thematic components like vegetation cover,
elevation (relief), boundaries, settlements, etc.
 Likewise most thematic maps include boundaries, cities, rivers, and other basic reference
information, so that users can more easily fix location of the subject distribution.
 Hence, they have general-purpose as well as thematic functions, while charts more likely have one
specific function.
 Charts…
Note that there can be few “pure” general reference
maps, thematic maps, or charts.
 Most of them combine functions:
 Topographic maps as general reference maps may have thematic
components like vegetation cover, elevation (relief), boundaries,
settlements, etc.
 Likewise most thematic maps include boundaries, cities, rivers, and
other basic reference information, so that users can more easily fix
location of the subject distribution.
 Hence, they have general-purpose as well as thematic functions, while
charts more likely have one specific function.
 Charts…
IV. Classed by Subject Matter
 Included in this class are maps identified by their subject
matter.
 Several important categories may be recognized in this
class.
1. cadastral maps:
 Cadastres were drawings that accompany the official list of
property owners and their land holdings, while Cadastral map
shows the geographic relationships among land parcels.
 They are common and record property boundaries much as they
did several thousand years ago.
 The fact that cadastres are used to assess taxes may explain why
cadastral maps have always been with us.
 .
2. Engineering Maps (Plans):
 They are closely allied with cadastral maps except they are more general in
nature.
 Plans are in a category of large-scale maps.
 They are detailed maps, sometimes called plans or engineering maps;
 They are used to showing buildings, roadways, boundary lines visible on
the ground, , administrative boundaries;
 They are used for guiding engineering projects, such as bridges or dams,
and as aid to estimating the construction costs of such projects.
3. Flood Control Maps: are used to provide information about areas
subject to flooding’
 They are derived from topographic maps’
 Detailed and accurate terrain information is critical to determining
such areas of risk.
4. Landscape map: is another type of map derived from topographic maps;
 It provides detailed site information and planting plans for gardens and parks.
 You may sketch a map of this type for own use or may need to interpret
landscaping plans prepared by landscape architect.
 .
 There is no limit to the number of type of
maps grouped according to their subject
matter;
 There are soil maps, geological maps,
climatic maps, population maps,
transportation maps, economic maps,
statistical maps, cadastral maps, and so on
without end.
 Basic characteristics of all maps:
An Overview
 Location
 Attribution
 Reduction of reality
 Scale
 Geometrical transformation/projection
 Abstractions of reality/generalization
 Symbolism

26
 Basic Characteristic of Maps
 Although we have identified different classes of maps and individual map
types differentiated based on their function, scale, being used for general or
special purpose, etc., all have something in common.
 They are all graphical tools (drawings or images) used to communicate
spatial (geographic) information.
 1. All maps are concerned with two elements of geographical features:
location and attributes.
 Locations are positions in 2-dimensional space (x,y), while attributes are
qualities or magnitudes (e.g. temperature, elevation, language, population
size, etc)
 From the above two many relationships can be established:
i) Relationships among locations b/n two or more points (features) can be
shown ; e.g. one can reflect distances and direction needed to navigate b/n
features, pattern, density, etc.)
ii) Relationships among various attributes of one location, such as temperature,
precipitation, and soil type, etc. of Addis Ababa City.
iii) Relationships among locations of the same attributes of a given distribution
such as variation of temperature or precipitation from place to place, e.g.
different parts of Ethiopia.
iv) Relationships among the locations of derived or combined attributes of
given distributions such as the relation of per capita income to educational
attainment or population density as they vary from place to place.

27
 Hence, all sorts of topological and metrical properties of
relationships can be identified and derived , such as distances,
directions, adjacency, insidedness, patterns, networks, and
interactions.
 A map is therefore a powerful tool of spatial analysis.
2) The other thing important about maps is that all maps are
reduced representation (reductions) of a reality.
 The geometric r/ship between dimension on map and the
reality is called scale.
 Because of “poverty” of map space the scale sets a limit on the
information that can be included on a given map.
3) All maps involve geometric transformations called map
projection.
4) All maps are abstractions (generalization) of reality.
 Maps portray only the information that has been chosen to fit
the use of map.
5) All maps use signs to stand for elements of reality.
 The meanings of the signs make up the symbolism (language) of
cartography.

28
 Cartography and Mapping
 Cartography is about the making and study of maps in their all aspects.
 It is the artistic and scientific foundation of map making
 “Cartography is the art, science and technology of making maps, together
with their study as scientific documents and works of art.”
 It is one of the branches of graphics for it is an efficient way of manipulating,
analysing, and expressing ideas, forms, and relationships that occur in two- and or
three-dimensional space.
 In broad sense , cartography includes any activity in which the presentation and use
of maps is a matter of basic concern.
 This may include:
 Teaching the skills of map use involving map reading, analysis & interpretation;
 Studying the history of cartography;
 Maintaining map collections with associated cataloguing & bibliographic activities;
 Collection, organization, and manipulation of data and
 Design & presentation of maps, charts, plans, and atlases.
 Cartography is concerned with the philosophical and theoretical basis of the rules
of map making including the study of map communication.
 All these involves highly specialized procedures and trainings.
 But all of them deal with maps.
 It is the unique character of the map as a central intellectual object that unites all
cartographers.
 Cartography & Mapping …
 Mapping or map making refers to the production
of (tangible) maps.
 It is the aggregate of those individual and largely
technical processes of:
 data collection,
 cartographic design and construction (i.e. drafting,
“scribing”, display),
 reproduction, etc.,
normally associated with the actual production of maps.
 Mapping then, is the process of designing,
compiling and producing maps.
 The map maker may be called cartographer.
 The Scope of Cartography
 Cartography is like a drama played by two actors, the map
maker and map user, with two stage properties- the map
and the data domain (all information that can be puton a
map).
 The map maker selects information from the data domain
and puts it into map format.
 The map user then observes and responds to this
information.
 There are four process in cartography:
 Collecting & selecting the data for mapping
 Manipulating (processing) & generalizing the data,
designing and construction of the map
 Reading or viewing the map
 Responding to or interpreting the information
To master this processes a cartographer must also should
know about human thought and communication
(cognitive science) & the disciplines associated with
environmental features being mapped.
Cognitive
sciences
Environmen Mapping
tal sciences sciences

MAP

 Geographers are the primary users of maps but they are not the
only ones.
 People in the sciences, engineering, and humanities also see the
map as a valuable way to organize & express ideas.
Information Transformation in Cartography
Geographical
Environment
Census
Ground Survey Transform
Remote sensing 1
Compilation
Recognized
Geographical
Selection, Information
Classification, Transform
Simplification, 2
Exaggeration
Symbolization MAP
Reading Transform
Analysis 3
Interpretation Map
Image
 Cartography is in the midst of revolution in technology.
 Technological revolutions are not new in the history of cartography.
But the contemporary one goes beyond the normal upheaval.
 It is caused by a universal use of electronics and, computers.
 The use of computer technology in cartographic process is referred
to as digital cartography (contrasts to analogue/traditional cartography).
The revolution is not only influencing the highly technical field of
cartography but also affecting the relation b/n mapping and society
in general.
Cartography today. Analogue maps provided in the past two important
functions:
i) Served as a storage medium of spatial information needed by humans;
ii) Provided a picture of the world to help us understand the spatial
patterns, r/ships, and complexity of the environment in which we live.
 The computer revolution in cartography preserves
the basic elements of cartographic science.
Satisfy each of the former functions;
 Besides digital cartography provides two other distinct products:
i) The digital database is replacing the printed map
as the storage medium for geographic information;
ii) Cartographic visualizations on many different
media now satisfy the second function served
previously by printed maps.
Today the computer hardware available to cartographic scientists
is capable of replacing all analogue methods used previously in
cartography.
 Software algorithms can nearly replicate all standard methods;
however some of the more subjective analogue techniques, such as
feature generalization and geographic name placement, are still
rather crudely replaced by computer software.
Cartography tomorrow. When the revolution is through the
science of cartography will have been transformed.
 Maps will not disappear, but they will take on new forms and
encourage new uses/users.
 Many new cartographic visualization is envisioned in the
future.
Likewise individual access to and use of very large spatial
database will become common place.
 The revolution has already run through punched cards and
magnetic tapes as media of choice, and we are now using floppy
disks, CD-ROMs, cassette tapes, optical disks and flash disks to
store and convey digital spatial data.
Undoubtedly, newer media will soon be discovered and existing
media will be perfected.
.
Implications of the changes.
i) Cartographers are losing the control they exercised in
the past.
 When the print media was the sole product, cartographers
were controlling graphic presentation of every bit of spatial
information.
But now with the emergence of digital cartography and
GIS, cartographers are losing the control they
exercised in the past because with digital technology , users
can select the information they want to include in a
visualization.
ii) Thus , as the expertise of cartographers will be confined to
codifying the mapping software and data structures available to
non-professionals, the non-professionals role will be shifting to
the earlier map preparatory stage.
 The map user s on the other hand are taking on more of the actual
map production assignment.
iii) Professional cartographers placed a high
importance on scale.
 “Always compile a map from larger to smaller
scales.” They follow the same advice in digital
cartography.
But individual users may adhere to it or not.

iv) Many users of digital spatial data can be

accommodated by a file collected at one scale and used
for visualization at a range of scales including large
scales.
v) Such change in technology will generate new
requirements for data and greater knowledge on the
part of new users, which thus demand an expanded
emphasis on cartographic education.
 vi) The need for data standardization.
 Local units will feed data to central (state, national,
global) coordinating organizations.
 Such organizations must be responsible for setting
data standards and distribution.
 Standards are needed for data quality, data exchange,
hardware and software interoperability, and data
collection procedures.
 Hence, knowledge of data model, features, attributes
and data set lineage are some of the concepts
cartographers must learn.
vii) The need to reorganize cartographic institutions.
To efficiently provide the two principal cartographic
products- the database & visualization- cartographers
will have to reorganize cartography institutions.
 The fundamental problems of
traditional cartography are to:
i) Set the map's agenda and select
characteristics of the object to be mapped.
 This is the concern of map editing.
 Traits may be physical, such as roads or land masses, or may be
abstract, such as toponyms or political boundaries.
ii) Represent the terrain of the mapped object on flat
media.
 This is the concern of map projections.
iii) Eliminate characteristics of the mapped object
that are not relevant to the map's purpose.
 Reduce the complexity of the characteristics that will be
mapped. This is also the concern of generalization.
 This is the concern of generalization.
iv) Orchestrate the elements of the map to best
convey its message to its audience.
 This is the concern of map design.
Modern cartography is closely integrated with
geographic information science (GIScience) and
constitutes many theoretical and practical foundations of
geographic information systems.
 The fact that geographical information is spatially referenced
means that it is associated with the field of cartography, as the
traditional method of recording the location of spatial phenomena
and the relationships between them.
 The application of computing technology to geographical
information handling has impacted the discipline of cartography.
 The development of GIS may be seen to have paralleled
(ushered) the efforts to automate cartographic production
methods.
 However, the growth in the application of GIS technology
is now so great so that, to some, cartography appears to
be becoming subsumed with in the field of GIS.
This view may be understood if we see that the traditional
role of cartography has combined the function of helping
us understand spatial relationships with that of providing a
database recording of the form of the earth’s surface and
the objects located upon it.
 The introduction of GIS does not necessarily eclipse the
role of cartography in the visualization of spatial
knowledge.
But, as a means of storing, managing and analysing
spatial information, a GIS provides immense benefits
when compared to the analogue technology of
communicational maps.
 The GIS may then be seen to be taking over and greatly
extending the role of spatial data storage which was
previously played by maps.
 Once spatial data have been represented in digital form it
becomes very much easier to carry out measurements
on the data, to perform analysis in various ways, and
to make changes to it.
Some of the operations can be applied without recourse
(resort) to a graphic map of any sort.
 e.g. One can enquire about the distance b/n two named
places or, say, the area of eucalyptus forest around Addis
Ababa, without referring to a map.

 However, for many applications of geographical
information, a map serves for communication purpose
as the ideal means of identifying objects of interest
and for understanding their spatial properties.
 In the context of a GIS, a map may be seen as one of
an infinite number of possible visual symbolizations of
the stored data.
 Thus, computer technology opens up opportunities
for visualizing and exploring spatial data in new ways
or in ways that in the past were too expensive or time-
consuming to contemplate.
 This sense of exploration of spatial data through
cartography is enhanced when the possibilities of
interaction with the map are considered.
This sense of exploration of spatial data through
cartography is enhanced when the possibilities of
interaction with the map are considered.
 Interactive graphics enable the map to be linked to
(non-map) graphical displays of statistics directly
associated with the map data.
 Maps may also be regarded as a powerful form of
user interface to a wide range of information
sources.
 Thus we can expect to see interactive maps
becoming more commonplace in public information
systems and networked information resources such as
the World Wide Web (WWW).
 Communication System
 Communication is the transfer of knowledge, ideas, information,
in one word or else message from one person to another.
 The action of communicating a message containing
information or news
 It may refer to the means of sending or receiving such as a
letter, computer (email, skyp, facebook, tutter,), telephone,
radio, TV, etc.
 Communication in its most general sense, is a chain of events in
which the significant link is a message.
 The chain connects a source that originates and a destination
that interprets the message.
 The process of communication involves the production,
transmission, and reception of messages.
 Messages are events that signify other events,
 Messages are formally coded, symbolic, or representational
pattern of some significance in a culture.

46
 Communication continued

 Culture may be broadly conceived as any

system in which the messagers cultivate and
regulate relationships.
 In human culture and in the conduct of man’s life and
society, communication plays its most complex and
destinctive part.
 Man’s hand, brain, eyes, ears and mouth are chief
organic means of communication and intelligence.

47
 Communication continued

 A typical communications network in its

simplest form consists of a source, a channel
that conveys the message and a recipient who
receives the message.

Signal

SOURCE ENCODER CHANNEL DECODER RECIPIENT

NOISE

Model of Typical Communication System

48
 Communication continued
 In everyday terms, using spoken language as an
illustration:
 a speaking person may be the source,
 the voice mechanism will be the encoder,
 the sound waves generated will be the channel, and
 the ear-brain capabilities of the listener will be the decoder that
transforming the sound waves back into thoughts.
A distracting but an inevitable part of every
communication system is an element generally called
noise.
 Noise is any unwanted attribute in the signal-channel
portion of the system that interferes with the efficiency
of the transmission, such as static in radio and snow and
distortions on TV screens.

49
 History of Communication Theory
The Academic Study of Communication
 Communication has existed since the beginning of
human beings, but it was not until the 20th century that
people began to study the process.
 As communication technologies developed, so did the
serious study of communication.
 When World War I ended, the interest in studying
communication intensified.
 The social-science study was fully recognized as a
legitimate discipline after World War II.
 Before becoming simply communication, or communication
studies, the discipline was formed from three other major
studies: psychology, sociology, and anthropology.
50
Psychology is the study of human behaviour,
Sociology is the study of society and social
process, and anthropology is the study of
communication as a factor which develops,
maintains, and changes in culture.
 Communication studies focus on communication
as central to the human experience, which
involves understanding how people behave in
creating, exchanging, and interpreting messages.
[Communication Theory has one universal law
posited by S. F. Scudder (1980).
The Universal Communication Law states that,
"All living entities, beings and creatures
communicate."
51
All life communicates through
movements, sounds, reactions, physical
changes, gestures, languages, and
breath.
Communication is a means of survival.
 Examples - the cry of a child (communicating
that it is hungry, hurt, or cold);
 the browning of a leaf (communicating that it
is dehydrated, thirsty per se, or dying);
the cry of an animal (communicating that it is
injured, hungry, or angry).
Everything living communicates in its quest for
survival." 52
Cartographic Communication System
 In the realms of maps communication takes place b/n the
cartographer and the map user via the map.
 Thus, maps are medium of communication.
 In the cartographic communication process:
 the real world is the source,
 the encoding is the symbolism of the map and
 the signal is the two dimensional graphic pattern
created by the symbols.
 The signal consists of the light rays transmitted through
the channel space to the decoder, which is the eye-mind
mechanism of the recipient.
 Noise is anything in the signal or channel that interferes
with the transmission, such as distracting graphic patterns
on the map or poor lighting, which decreases visibility.
53
 Model of Cartographic Communication
System

Real Recipient’s
Cartographers
World Map Conception
Conception

Any thing that adversely interferes with map

communication and distract graphic patterns on the
map such as poor lighting which lowers visibility and
lack of map use/reading skills, and poor drawing are
called Noise. 54
The following table shows some sources and possible noises in a
cartographic communication process.
Sources of possible noises Examples of possible noises
Data Collection Collects incomplete or wrong data

Use of wrong concepts

Making wrong generalization e.g. in classification

Map editor Makes wrong choice of data

Wrongly defined purposes

Includes too much or too little information

Cartographic designer Selecting wrong visual variables

Design wrong symbols

 Poor lay out
Applies overpowering lettering

Cartographic draftsman Produces poor line quality

Places text incorrectly

Reproduction Specialist Produces poor quality products

Produces low quality printing

Map user Does not detect all relevant information

55
Had no adequate background knowledge
Model of Cartographic Communication
 Many writers tried to describe the cartographic
communication process in more detail and to
represent this in a model form.
 One such type and often cited is the one produced by
the Czechoslavakian cartographer Kolacny.
U
U = Reality
C M C = Cartographer’s reality
M = Map user’s reality

External factors External factors

Content
Content of Cartographic of Map
cartographer’s Cartographic MAP
language language user’s
mind Mind

Kolacny’s Model of Cartographic Communication 56

 The point of departure in the model is the reality
around us (U), the situation as it exists.
 This reality is observed by the map author, (e.g.
geologist, forester, geographer, statistician, etc.) or
the cartographer, who collects information from the
reality according certain methods and classifications.
 The cartographer then translates this information
into ideas for a map, elaborates the information and
transforms it into graphical symbols.
 Then the cartographic production and reproduction
works finally produces the hard/soft copy of the map.
 The map is distributed and arrives in the hands of the
map user who studies and interprets the map by
detecting and understanding symbols, by observing
spatial distribution of features by recognizing
relations.
57
 In this way (he/she) adds to his already
existing knowledge (new information).
 Thus a new and better image of the
reality is created in his/her mind.
This map users’ reality again is part of
the existing reality.
An increase in acquired information by
the map users can have correct and
erroneous elements.

 58
 CHAPTER THREE
What Does Mapping Involve?
 Mapping is a process
 It involves
 defining scale of a map (reduction),
 data collection & processing,
 map projection,
 generalization,
 symbolization,
 map design and construction
(production) and
 reproduction. 59
 Maps are Reductions
 All maps are reduced graphical representations of an
area.
 Hence geographical maps are reductions.
 Hence, a map is smaller than the region it represents.
 A map has a defined dimensional relationship
between reality and the map.
 This relationship is called scale.
 Because of he relative “poverty” of map space, the
scale sets a limit on the information that can be
included.

60
Scale varies b/n 0 and 1.
It is a fraction less than one but more than 0.
 0<S<1
 Scale can get smaller but can never be equal to
zero. 0 1
S
Like wise it can get larger but it cannot be equal
to one.
 Because there is no live size representation.
 The other important thing one should bear in
mind is that scale may not be the same all over a
map.
 It can be same however at a point, along a line
or two (standard line(s))
61
 Scale

 Types of scale:
 Graphical:
 Verbal (Statement scale): One inch represents one mile
 Representative Fraction (RF): 1:24,000
 Areal (Linear) scale
 Variable Scale

62
 Large Scale vs. Small Scale
 Small scale = large area
 Small scale = large denominator (1:1,000,000)
 Large scale = small area
 Large scale = small denominator (1:24,000)

Large Scale Vs.

Small Scale

63
 Scale & Generalization
•Smaller scale means fewer features
•Smaller scale means smoother features
•Smaller scale means combining features
•Smaller scale means displacing features
Data Aggregation

It is not advisable to enlarge

a map from small scale
to large scle for it involves
exaggeration of errors

64
 i. Map Projection
Basic Geodesy: Shape and Size of the Earth
 All maps involve geometrical transformations.
 It is common in mapping to transform a spherical surface
of the earth to a surface that is easier to work with such as a
computer screen or a flat map sheet, which are plane (2-
dimensional) surfaces.
 Such a systematic transformation is called a map
projection.
 The choice of a map projection affects how a map
should be used.
 It is often convenient to use map referencing systems
called plane coordinate grids.
 Coordinate systems depend on map projections for
their accuracy. 65
Shape of the earth: Sphere, Ellipsoid & Geoid
 What is the shape of the earth, in other words what the
earth looks like?
 Mapping involves specifying geographic locations of
features on the earth and transforming these
locations on a flat map through use of a map
projection.
 Geographic locations are specified by geographic
coordinates called latitudes and longitudes.
 To establish a system of geographic coordinates for
the earth, we 1st must know its shape and size.
 The earth is very ‘smooth’ geometrical figure.
 The earth’s surface appears rugged and rough, but the
irregularities even the highest peaks and ocean
trenches are barely noticeable on the smoothly
curving surface. 66
 On the earth reduced to a ‘sea level’ ball (globe) of 25.4 cm
in diameter [S = 25.4 cm/(6378 x 2= 12756km= 1275600000 cm)=
1: 52 000 000] in diameter.
 Mt Everest would be but a 0.176 mm bump and the Mariana
Trench would appear only a 0.218 mm scratch on the ball.
 As the earth’s average land elevation & ocean depth is much less
than these extremes ,
 we are safe in saying that if the earth were the size of a
bowling ball.
 it would be smoother than any bowling ball yet made!
 Depend on the scale of reductions to be made three ever more
accurate approximations can be made to the earth’s shape: the
sphere, the ellipsoid, and the geoid.
 Spherical earth. Most educated people in the ancient
world (e.g. Pythagoras 6th C. B.C.) regarded the shape of
the earth as ‘sphere’ b/c sphere considered as a perfect
shape.
67
Mariana Trench
• The Mariana Trench or
Marianas Trench is the
deepest part of the world's
oceans.
• It is located in the western
Pacific Ocean, to the east of
the Mariana Islands.
• The trench is about 2,550
kms (1,580 mi) long but has
an average width of only 69
km (43 mi).
• It reaches a maximum-
known depth of 10.994 km
(10,994 ± 40 m) or 6.831 mi
(36,070 ± 131 ft).

68
 In the 4th Century B.C. however Aristotle argued for spherical shape of the earth
b/c he noted that sailing ships always disappear from view hull first, mast last,
rather than becoming ever smaller dots on the horizon of a flat earth.
 Astronomical observations , shadow of the earth cast on the sun or moon during
eclipses were powerful evidences.
 This days satellite images can easily show the curved (spherical) shape of the
earth.
 Hence, the sphere shape of the earth prevailed and widely accepted in ancient
Greece.
 The size of the earth was calculated for the 1st time by Eratosthenes, a Greek
scholar who was head of Egyptian library in Alexanderia in 250 B.C.
 His calculation (46,250 km) was very much close to the present day figure of
about 40,030.2km. (The central angle formed at the centre subtended by arc
distance b/n Syne and Alexanderia was 7012’ (1/50th of 3600).
 His figure was only about 15% too large.
 The earth is not a perfect sphere, rather it is slightly ellipsoidal in shape.
 However, cartographers use a sphere of the same surface area as the ellipsoid called
an authalic sphere, as basic figure for small scale mapping.
 The dimension of the most recently determined authalic sphere is 6371 km radius
with a circumference of 40o30.2 km.
69
 N. P.

SUN
Alexandria
820 48’0

900
T. Cancer
Syene/Aswan
70 12’
Equator

The Geometrical Relationships Eratosthenes

Established to Calculate the Circumference of the Earth.

70
 Ellipsoidal Earth. Until the late 1600, the earth was thought to be perfectly
spherical in shape.
 The change came around 1670, when Sir Isac Newton explored that the
earth has bulged at the equator due to centrifugal force generated by
the earth’s rotation while the poles flattened by about 1/300th of the
equatorial radius.
 This was confirmed by measurements made b/n 1735 to 1743 by
expeditions sent to Ecuador and Finland to measure distance.
 If we sliced the earth from pole to pole through its centre one would see
slightly elliptical cross section.
 Rotating this ellipse about the polar axis b
Polar Axis
Equatorial Axis
would outline the 3-dimensional figure a
of the earth called an oblate ellipsoid.

The shape of an oblate ellipsoid is determined by the relative

length of the equatorial (semi-major ) axis (a) and the polar
(semi-minor) axis (b).
 The amount of polar flattening (oblateness) is given by the ratio f= (a-b)/a where a & b are equatorial and
polar radius respectively.
 Flattening is usually expressed as 1/f, so that Newton’s predicted value would be 1/300.
 However based upon modern satellite based orbital data it is around 1/298.
71
The shape of an oblate ellipsoid is determined by the relative
length of the equatorial (semi-major) axis
(a)and the polar (semi-minor) axis(b).
72
 Since about 1800 about 20 determinations of the earth’s radii and flattening
have been made from measurements made at widely different locations.
 The following table shows 11 different official ellipsoids used as the basis or
mapping in various parts of the world.

Name Date Equatorial Polar

flattening
Radius a Radius b (f)
(meters) (meters)

WGS 84 1984 6378,137 6356,752.3 1/298.257 Int’l

Standard
GRS 80 1980 “ “ “

WGS 72 1972 6378.135 6356750.5 1/298.26

Australian 1965 6378160 6356774.7 1/298.25

Krasovsky 1940 6378245 6356863 1/298.3

Internation 1924 6378388 6356911.9 1/297

al
Clarke 1880 6378249.1 6356514.9 1/293.46

Clarke 1866 6378206.4 6356583.8 1/294.98

Bessel 1841 6377397.2 6356079.0 1/299.15

Airy 1830 6377563.4 6356256.9 1/299.32

Everest 1830 6377276.3 6356075.4 1/300.8

73
 The WGS (World Geodetic System) 72 and 84 ellipsoids, were determined from
satellite orbital data.
 They are considered more accurate than the earlier ground measurement
determinations.
 But they may not give the best fit for a particular part of the earth.

Geoidal Earth. An even more faithful figure of the earth, called the
geoid (meaning earthlike).
 It deviates so slightly from the ellipsoid in a particular manner.
 The geoid is the 3-dimensional shape that would be approximated by sea
level in the oceans and the surface of a series of hypothetical sea-level
canals criss-crossing the continents.
 It is supposed sea level equipotential surface.
 The surface on which gravity is everywhere equal to its strength at mean
sea level.
 Had the earth’s surface been uniform in its geological composition and
devoid of mountain ranges, ocean basins, and other vertical
irregularities, the geoid surface would match the ellipsoid exactly.
 However, due primarily variations in rock density and topographic
relief, the geoid surface deviates from the ellipsoid by up to 100 meters
in certain locations. 74
 Cartographic Use of the Sphere, Ellipsoid
& Geoid
 Cartographers use these three approximations to
the earth’s true shape in different ways.
 The authalic sphere is the reference surface
for small scale maps of countries, continents
and larger areas.
 This is so, because the difference b/n sphere
and ellipsoid is negligible when mapping large
areas in a general manner on page-size maps.
 As there is significant increase with the
complexity of map projection equations for
the ellipsoid it makes sense to use sphere for
small-scale maps. 75
 With detailed large-scale maps of small areas, such as
topographic maps and nautical charts, the differences
between locations on the spherical and ellipsoidal
approximations can be significant.
 Hence, one needs to take the earth’s oblateness into
account for making large-scale maps.
 Distances, directions, and areas measured on these
detailed maps would be incorrect at individual
locations if the authalic sphere were used.
 Cartographers use the ellipsoid as the reference
surface for large scale maps.
 Using ellipsoid also ties in well with modern data
collection methods for large scale mapping.
 Global positioning satellite receivers, for e.g.,
compute latitude, longitude, and elevation using the
WGS 84 ellipsoid as the reference surface.
76
 The geoid is the reference surface for ground surveyed
horizontal and vertical positions. As the irregularities
on the geoid would make projection and other
mathematical computations extremely complex,
horizontal positions are adjusted to the ellipsoid
surface.
 On the other hand, elevations are determined relative
to the mean sea level geoid.

77
 Coordinates System: Graticules
Geographical coordinates
 The geographical coordinate system is the primary
locational reference system for the earth.
 Latitude, north-south angular (arc) distance from the
equator, and longitude, east-west angular distance from
the prime meridian are used to establish the system.
 Its use can be traced back to the 2nd century B.C. to
astronomer geographer Hipparchus of Rhodes.
 It has always been used in cartography and for all basic
locational reckoning, such as navigation and surveying.
 It was devised to establish statement of location for each
earth features
 The north and south poles, points of intersection of the
surface of earth with the axis of rotation, are the only two
unique points on which to base the system.
 The equator, is then ,can be considered half way b/n the
two poles; 78
 When one makes a small-scale maps based on
spherical earth one should use authalic latitude.
 It ranges pole to pole from 900N to 900S, or +900 to -900
(When using digital data base and map projection
equations.)
 It is normally given in degrees, minutes and seconds
but computer calculations often require the decimal
degree system, e.g. 540 30’ expressed as 54.50
 The N-S distance on the sphere b/n each degree of
authalic latitude is identical, and only depends on the
circumference of the sphere.
 For the WGS 84 authalic sphere of circumference is
40,030.2 km and the distance b/n each degree of latitude
is 111.20 km.

79
Geodetic latitude is a latitude on the ellipsoid.
 It is the angle formed by a line from the equator toward
the centre of the earth, and the second line perpendicular
to the ellipsoid surface at one’s location.
 Note that the perpendicular line
intersects the first line at
the centre of the ellipsoid
only at the geodetic latitudes
of 0 and 90 degrees.

E Ø
Authalic Latitude

Geodetic latitude (Ø)

on the ellipsoid.
80
The N-S distance b/n geodetic
latitudes though shows slight Latitu Km
de (Ø)
changes, it steadily increases pole
00 110.57
wards. 100 110.61
 The next table shows the list of 200 110.70
distances for the WGS 84 ellipsoid, 300 110.85
showing the steady increase from 400 111.04
110.57 at the equator to 111.69 km 500 111.23
600 111.41
at the two poles.
700 111.56
800 111.66
900 111.69
Length of a degree of arc
centred on the named
latitude

81
 The N-S distance b/n the authalic latitudes is 111.20 km.
 This matches with the geodetic distance only at about 500
geodetic latitude.
 Such slight difference of 1 km in 110 km is of little
significance when making small-scale maps.
 But this cannot be neglected in making large scale maps
& charts.
 Geodetic latitude should always be used for large-scale
mapping, whereas geodetic latitudes of ground features
can be thought of as equivalent to authalic latitudes for
small-scale mapping.


82
 Longitude is the angle formed by a line going from the
intersection of the prime meridian and the equator to the
centre of the earth, and back to the intersection of the
equator and the local meridian passing through the
position.
 Sets of meridians drawn joining points that have same
longitude establish our east-west position from the prime
meridian.
 Unlike the equator, no meridian has a natural basis for
being the starting (reference) line to reckon east-west
position.
 The choice of the starting line (prime meridian) has always
been a matter of international concern and national pride.
 Eratosthenes placed one of the earliest prime meridian
through his home city Alexandria, later the Canary Islands,
the then westernmost point of the known world.
 83
 Until 1884 many countries published their maps and
charts with the prime meridian running through their
capital.
 However since 1884 the Royal Observatory at Greenwich,
which is found near London was universally agreed upon
at the International Meridian Conference in Washington
D.C.
 The choice of Greenwich as the prime meridian
established 00 00 point of origin of the geographical
coordinate system situated in the Gulf of Guinea.
 It also has become the starting point for international
time zones.
 The 1800 longitude which is found amidst of the Pacific
Ocean, opposite to the prime meridian, established the
International Date Line.
 Days on earth must begin and end there.
84
Latitude Km

00 111.32  The length of one degree of longitude

100 109.64 on the ellipsoid almost follows the above
200 104.65 formula, but not precisely.
300 96.49 The ellipsoidal equation for this purpose
400 85.39 is
500 71.70 D= a/(1-e2sin2 (Ø)) ½.cos(Ø). δλ
600 55.80
700 38.19 Where a and e are the semi-major axis
800 19.39 and eccentricity of the ellipsoid, Ø is the
900 0.00 geodetic latitude of the parallel, and λδ is
the difference in longitude (one degree
converted to radians, in this example)

85
Length of one degree of longitude.
 We know meridians converge at the two poles.
 As a result the east-west distance, the distance
b/n two consecutive meridians along a parallel
becomes progressively diminish pole wards.
 It diminishes from 111.20 km for distance of one
degree longitude at the equator and this reduces
to by half (55.1 km) and to zero km at 600 and 900
respectively.
 But the distance remains same all along one
parallel.
Like wise the distance of one degree longitude
diminish to zero km at the poles as shown in the
next table. 86
 Properties of The Graticules
Graticule is the imaginary network of parallels and
meridians on the earth as projected on a flat map
surface.
 Graticules have geometrical properties some of which are
preserved when cartographers make map projection for
part or all of the earth.
 The main properties deal with distance, direction, area
and shape.
a) Distance on sphere and great circle
 The shortest distance b/n two points on a plane surface is a
strait line.
 Whereas, on curved 3-dimensional surface of the spherical
earth, it is impossible to follow a strait line.
 The shortest straight line course over the curved surface
b/n any two points on a curved surface like sphere is the arc
on the surface directly above the straight line. 87
The spherical arc is formed by drawing a circle
passing through the two points in question
and the centre of the earth.
 Such circle that divides the earth into
hemispheres is called a great circle.
 The equator is the only great circle. Meridians
are one-half of a great circle in length, but
pairs of meridians make a great circle.
 All parallels other than the equator are called
small circles.

88
 Their circumference (C) is
C= 2Π*R*cos Ø, where Ø is the parallel of latitude
 Great circle distance b/n any two points on the sphere is computed
using the following formula:
cos D = (sin a sin b)+ (cos a cos b cos | δλ |)
Where a & b are the geographical latitudes of point A & B, and | δλ
| is the absolute value of the difference in longitude between A
and B. Note that if A and B are on opposite side of the equator,
the product of the sins will be negative.
Example: Great circle distance b/n Washington D.C. (38050’N,
77000’W) and Addis Ababa (90 N, 380 46’E).
Cos D= sin(38.833)*sin 9.0) + cos (38.833) * cos (9.0)*cos |-77.0 -
38.46|
Cos D=(0.627* 0.16) +(0.779*0.78)*(-0.43)
Cos D = (0.1003+0.6076)*(-0.43)
Cos D = 0.708-0.43= 0.28
D = cos -1 (0.28) =73.740
D km= 73.740 X 111.20 km/ 0 = 8199.9 km
89
 It is possible to process map projection so that all meridians
made same length and half as long as the circumference of the
equator.
 Graticules can also be projected so that all parallels and the
equator become straight lines proportional in length to their
small or great circle circumference.
 However, doing so requires either distorting other properties
of the graticule.
 Distance on girded maps:
 Dg = Sq root of [(Ea-Eb)+(Na-Nb)]

b) Direction
 Direction on the earth are entirely arbitrary.
 Because a spherical surface has no edges, beginning or end.
 By convention north-south is defined as direction along any
meridian and east-west is defined as direction along any
parallel.
90
 Such direction which are determined by the orientation
of the graticule are called geographic or true directions as
distinguished from two other kinds of direction,
magnetic and grid.
 The needle of a magnetic compass aligns itself with the
earth’s field of magnetic force.
 The magnetic field poles do not coincide with the poles
of the earth’s rotation, 900 N&S.
 The magnetic poles change position over time.
 The north magnetic pole currently locate at 780 N, 1030 W,
about 1300 km south of the geographical pole.


91
 Consequently, there is usually a difference is called
compass variation on nautical charts and magnetic
declination on topographic maps.
 Cartographers show angular differences b/n the true and
magnetic and along with grid north, by drawing a
declination diagram.
 Direction of a line on earth is called many things:
bearing, course, heading, flightline, or azimuth.
 Their meanings are the same except the context in which
they are used.
 Two direction specifications of special importance in
cartography are azimuth and constant azimuth, and
bearing. * GN MN
0055’

171/2
92
 True azimuth. Directions established by graticule are likely to change
constantly as we move along the arc of a great circle.
 Only along meridians or the equator does direction remain constant.
 One can designate true azimuth by measuring the clockwise angle
that the arc of the great circle makes with the meridian at the starting
point.
 Commutation can be made using the following formula:
cot Z = [(cos a tan b csc| δλ |)- (sin a cot | δλ |)]
Where a & b are the latitudes of points A & B, and | δλ | is the
absolute value of the difference in the longitude b/n A & B.
 Example of true azimuth b/n Washington D.C. (A=38050’N, 770 00’ W)
and Moscow(B= 550 45’N’N, 370.37’E)
 cot Z = [(cos (38.833) tan (55.75) csc |(-77.0- 37.62|)- (sin 38.833.00 cot
|(-77.0- 37.62) |]
= [(0.779 * 1.469 * 1.100)-(0.627*-0.458)]
= 1.259 + 0.287 = 1.546
tan Z = 1.0/1.546
Z = tan -1 (0.647)
= 32.90 93
 Direction on Gridded Maps
Direction on rectangular grids may be
calculated as follows:
tan (Azg) = (N2-N1)/(E2-E1)

 If the direction thought is in the first quadrant the

result is less than 90;
 if it is Quadrant IV the result should be 90+ but less
than 180;
 if it is in Quadrant III the result should be 180+ but
less than 270 a;
 if it is in Quadrant II the result should be 270+ but
should be less than 360 degree. 94
 Exercise
 1) The Ethiopian airlines plane flies non-stop from Addis Ababa to Washington D.C.
The plane took off from Bole Air Port on Monday morning at 6 am and the flight took
say 14 hours.
a) What will be the day & local time in Washington DC when the plane arrives.
b) What will be the local time in Addis A. when the plane lands in Washington DC?
 2) The Japanese airlines plane flew from Tokyo to Los Angles. The flight is
non-stop and the plane flies eastwards. The plane took of from Tokyo Air Port
on Sunday mid-day (12 am) local time and the flight took 10 hours.
 a) What will be the day & local time when the plane landed at Los Angles air port?
 b) What will be the local time in Tokyo when the plane lands in Los Angles?
 3) Calculate the distance between Addis Ababa and Cairo?
 4) What (how much) is direction of Addis A. due (from) Cairo? (Give in
degrees and decimals of minutes).
 5) Given grid coordinates of two towns, Werabe (410000mE, 868000mN) and
Kebul (393000 mE, 870000 mN), both are found in Selti Zone, SNNPR.
 a) What is strait line distance between the two towns in kilometer?
 b) What is the direction of Kebul due (from) Werabe?

95
 As the great circles are the shortest course between two
points, A & B, movements along such lines is economical.
 Hence cartographers construct special map projection
which maintain these directional relations.
 Constant azimuth also called rhumb line or loxodrome is
a line that intersects meridian at constant (same) angle.
 It is a line of constant bearing.
 All meridians have constant azimuth of o0 (north) or 1800
(south) depending on the direction of travel.
 All parallels and the equator have also a constant bearing
of 900 (east) or 2700 (west).
 To maintain constant bearing while moving crossing all
other meridians, one should trace out a spiral known as
loxodromic curve.

96
A great circle is the most economical route to
follow when travelling on the earth.
 However it is not practical for pilots to change
course continuously.
 In order for ships and aircrafts to follow the
great circle route b/n two points as closely as
possible.
 Hence movement is directed a long a series of
constant azimuths that approximate the great
circle route.
 Cartographers prepare maps and charts
employing Mercator projection, on which all
plotted straight lines will be constant azimuth.
97
Rhumb lines or Loxodromes
= Lines of constant bearing

Loxodome

98
 c. Area
 The surface area of quadrilaterals, area bounded by two
consecutive parallels and meridians changes pole wards.
 The systematic decrease in surface area (S) may be
computed with the following equation:
Ssq.km = R2 . (sin a. Sin b). δλ
where a & b are the latitudes of upper and lower
parallels and δλ is the difference in longitude b/n the
bounding meridians in radians.
 The following table shows the systematic decrease of
areas pole wards.

99
The following table shows the systematic decrease of areas
pole wards.
Surface area of 100 x 100
Latitude (lower) Area (km2 )
00 1224480
100 1188528
200 1117359
300 1011480
400 875136
500 711510
600 525312
700 322195
800 108584

100
 Summary of properties of Graticules
 One can visually evaluate many projections effectively
just by ‘looking’- by comparing the graticule on the
reference globe with the way they appear on the
projected map.
 The following properties would be helpful in making
such evaluation.
 It outlines important visual characteristics of the earth’s
coordinate system as portrayed on a globe.
1. Parallels are parallel.
2. Parallels when shown at constant interval are spaced
uniformly on meridians.
3. Meridians and great circles on a globe appear as straight
lines when viewed orthogonally (looking straight down)
which is the way we look at a flat map.
4. Meridians converge at the two poles and diverge toward the
equator. 101
5. Meridians when shown at a constant interval are
equally spaced on the parallels, but their spacing
decreases from the equator to the poles.
6. When both are shown with the same intervals,
meridians and parallels are equally spaced at or near
the equator.
7. When both are shown with the same intervals,
meridians at 600 latitude are half as far apart as
parallels along the equator.
8. Parallels and meridians always intersect at right
angles.
9. The surface area bounded by any two parallels and
two meridians is the same anywhere between the same
parallels, if the interval maintained the same.

102
 Scale Factor, Transformations, Distortions
Resulting from Map Transformations
 Globe maps are best models of the earth.
 When we make globe all what we change is the size.
 Relative distances, angles, and areas, as well as azimuths,
ruhumbs, and great circles, are all retained without any
additional distortion.
 Globes, on the other hand, have many practical
disadvantages.
 They are expensive to make, difficult to produce,
cumbersome to handle, awkward to store, and difficult to
measure and draw on.
 All these drawbacks are eliminated when a map is
prepared on a flat surface.
 However, constructing a map on a flat surface does
require an important operation besides altering scale. 103
  The spherical surface must be transformed to a plane
surface.
 Combination of scale alteration and a system of
transformation results in a map projection.
Scale Factors.
 Let us assume that map projection is a two-stage process.
 First, the earth has been mapped on a globe reduced to the
size (scale) chosen for flat map.
 Such a hypothetical globe from which the 1st projection is
processed is the reference globe.
 Second, the globe’s surface is mathematically transformed,
point by point, onto a flat surface.
 The three-dimensional information of the globe is now
displayed on a two-dimensional flat surface.

104
 The representative globe will have a given scale (RF) called the
principal scale.
 This is determined by dividing radius of the reference globe by
the radius of the earth (r/R).
 On the reference globe the actual scale anywhere will be the
same as the principal scale.
 Scale factor (SF) is the actual scale divided by the principal
scale. SF = AS/PS = DPS/ DAS
 By definition the scale factor will be 1.0 everywhere on the
globe.
 This can be the case when all or part of the globe surface is
transformed to a flat map, the actual scale at various places on the
map will be larger or smaller than the principal scale.
 This happens simply because the two surfaces are not
applicable (incompatible).
 One cannot transform the other without stretching,
shrinking, or tearing.
 Hence the SF will always vary from place to place on a flat map.
105
 Imagine what happens to a pattern of equally distant points
on the reference globe.
 Then picture corresponding points established on a flat map.
 The mathematical scheme used to specify positions of the
points on the flat map defines the method of transformations.
 As the two surfaces are not applicable, distance relationships
among the points on the flat map must be modified.
 Consequently, it is impossible to devise a transformation from
the reference globe surface to a plane so that any figure drawn
on one will appear exactly the same on the other.
 Nevertheless, by suitably varying the SF, we can (1) retain some
angular relationships, or (2) retain relative sizes of figures.
 But what if one wants some other attribute, such as straight-
line azimuths from one point to all others?
 In that case, most angular relationships will usually be
changed, and areas of regions on the two surfaces will not have
a constant ratio to each other.
 106
 To be clear with how the two facts apply to map projections,
keep in mind two important details:
a. SF values may occur at a point
b. SF values may be different in different directions at
a point.
 Let us have a look at each of these aspects:
 Picture an arc of 900, projected orthogonally (at right
angles) to a straight line tangent at a.
 Imagine that a, b, c... j are the positions on the arc at 100
interval.
 The respective positions after transformation on
tangential line (plane) at a are indicated by points a, b’, c’,
d’ ... f’.


107
 j‘
j I’ h’
i hg g’
 Line aj’ represents arc aj. f
f’
e’
e
d d’
c C’
Orthographic b b’
a
Projection of
an Arc to a
Tangent
Straight Line
As indicated by the figure the intervals on the
straight line, starting at the point of tangency, a,
becomes progressively smaller as j’ is approached.
 If SF = 1.0 along the arc, then on the transformation
of the arc, the SF gradually reduced to from 1.0 at a to
0 at j’.
108
 The rate of change is graphically indicated by
decreasing the spaces between the points.
 Since it is a continuous change, every point on aj’
must have a different SF.
 Now, let us explore the second proposition- that
scale at a point may be different in different
directions.
 To visualize this fact, let us picture a rectangle
abcd.
 Imagine that it is projected to ab’c’d so that side
ad coincides in abcd and its projection ab’c’d.
(see the figure (A) in the next slide).

109
 A B
b

c
b
c

b’ b’ c’
a

d c’ a d
Projection of rectangle abcd to rectangle ab’c’d with side ad held
constant. In drawing (A) the perspective view shows the geometric
relation of the two rectangles. Drawing (B) shows the relation of the
two rectangles when they are each viewed orthogonally.
 Then, take a look at figure B .
 It is an orthogonal view of rectangle abcd and its
projection superimposed with line ad of each
coincident.
110
 If the SF is 1.00 and the length ad is the same in each rectangle,
there has been no change in scale in that direction.
 However the length ab’ is half the length of ab, and it is
evident from the method of transformation that the change
has been made in a uniform fashion.
 Thus, the SF along ab’ must be 0.5.
 Moreover, by projection, line ac has become line ac’.
 The ratio of lengths ac’ to ac makes the SF along ac’.
 Hence the ratio is neither the 1.0 ratio along ad nor the 0.5
ratio along ab’; it is somewhere in between.
 Any other diagonal from point a to a position on side bc would
have its corresponding place of intersection on b’c’.
 The ratio of lengths of similar diagonals on the two rectangles
would be different for each such line.
 Hence the scale at a point a in rectangle ab’c’d is different in
every direction.
111
 The two propositions noted so far that:
 SF values may occur at a point and that SF values may
be different in different directions at a point are very
important.
 They provide the basis for analysing how a projection has
transformed distances, directions, angles, and areas on the
sphere.
 On the reference globe, there is at each point an infinite
number of paired orthogonal directions, such as N-S with E-W.
NE-SW with NW-SE, and so on.
 When transformation to the plane is made, the paired
orthogonal directions on the globe will be represented by
paired directions on the map projection.
 However, these pairs will not necessarily remain orthogonal.

112
Distortions Resulting from Map transformations
 whenever the spherical surface is transformed to a plane,
one thing is certain.
 All of the geometrical relationships on the sphere, such as
parallel parallels, converging meridians, and perpendicular
intersection of parallels and meridians, can not be entirely
duplicated.
 The major alterations have to do with angles, areas,
distances, and directions.
i. Transformation of Angles
 At each point on the globe’s surface except at the two
poles the cardinal directions are always 900 apart.
 It is possible to retain this property of angular relations
on a map projection.
113
 When correct angles are retained, the projection is referred to as
conformal or orthomorphic.
 Both terms imply “correct form or shape”.
 The terms apply to the directions or angles that occur at points in
infinitesimally small areas.
 Conformality does not apply to regions of any significant size.
 It is possible however, that arrange the stretching and
compression so that at each point on a projection the SF is
constant in every direction at every point, (i.e. Q=b and the
projection is conformal).
 When this condition occurs, all directions around a point will be
represented correctly, and the parallels and meridians will
intersect at at 900.
 It must be emphasized that this desirable quality is limited to
direction at points and does not necessarily apply to direction b/n
distant points of the projection.
 It should be noted b/c a projection show perpendicular parallels
and meridians, it does not necessarily have the property of
Conformality. 114
 ii. Transformation of Areas
 It is also possible on a map projection to retain representation to retain
of areas so that all regions will be shown in correct relative size.
 Such a projection is referred to as equal area or equivalent
projection.
 This property is obtained by arranging the SF in the principal
directions so that the product of the SF’s equal 1.0 (i.e. Ab = 1.0) at
every point.
 But SF varies in every other direction about a point; hence the
projection cannot be conformal.
 It is evident that scale requirements for Conformality (a=b=1.0) and
equivalence (ab=1.0) for all points are contradictory.
 Theoretically this condition is met at standard points or at every
point on a standard line.
 Consequently no map can be both conformal and equivalent at the
same time.
 Thus all conformal transformations represent similar earth regions
with unequal sizes, and all equal area transformations will deform
most earth angles. 115
 iii. Transformation of Distances
 Reproducing correct distances is a matter of maintaining consistency
of scale.
 For true distance b/n two points to be truly represented on a map
projection, the scale must be uniform along the entire extent of the
line joining the two points.
 The scale must also be the same as the principal scale on the
reference globe.
 There are two options when representing distance on a map:
 A scale of 1.0 may be maintained along one or more parallel lines, but
only along the lines. Such lines are called standard lines or standard
parallels.
 A scale factor of 1.0 may be maintained in all directions from one or two
points, but only from those points.
 The resulting map projection is called equidistant projection and the
points/lines are also called standard points/lines.

116
 iv. Transformation of Directions
 As it is impossible to represent all earth distances with a consistent
map scale, so does impossible to represent all earth directions
correctly with straight lines.
 It is true that we can arrange the SF distribution so as to show rhumbs
or arcs of great circles as straight lines.
 But no projection can show directions so that all great circles are
straight lines with the same angular relations to the map graticule
that they have with the globe graticule.
 We can think of correct direction on a map projection as being a
great circle shown as a straight line.
 At starting point on both reference globe and map projection, this
line will set out from the meridian at the same azimuth (angle).
 Given these conditions several representations are possible:
 a) Great circle arcs b/n all points may be shown by straight lines for a very limited
area.
 However, angular intersections of great circles with meridians (azimuths) will not be
shown correctly.
 b) Great circle arcs with correct azimuths may be shown as straight lines for all
directions from one or, at the most, two points. Such projections are called
Azimuthal.
117
 Type of Map Projection
 The shape of the Earth is represented
as a sphere.
 It is also modeled more accurately as
an oblate spheroid or an ellipsoid.
 A globe is a scaled down model of the
Earth. Although they can represent
size, shape, distance and directions of
the Earth features with reasonable
accuracy, globes are not practical or
suitable for many applications.
 They are hard to transport and store;
 Globes are not suitable for use at large
scales, such as finding directions in a
city or following a hiking route, where
a more detailed image is essential.
 They are expensive to produce,
especially in varying sizes (scales).
 On a curved surface, measuring
terrain properties is difficult, and it is
not possible to see large portions of
the Earth at once.
 Maps do not suffer from the above
shortcomings and are more practical
than globes in most applications.
 Historically cartographers have tried
to address the challenge of
representing the curved surface of the
Earth on a map plane, and to this end
have devised map projections.
 A map projection is the
transformation of Earth’s curved
surface (or a portion of ) onto a two-
dimensional flat surface by means of
mathematical equations.
 During such transformation, the
angular geographic coordinates
(latitude, longitude) referencing
positions on the surface of the Earth
are converted to Cartesian coordinates
(x, y) representing position of points
on a flat map.
118
Map Projection Classes
 Basically there are three I. Perspective Projections: this
are strictly geometrical projections.
major group (classes) of
 They are derived from a
map projection: ‘generating’ (reference) globe.
I. Perspective  Differences within a group is
Projections obtained by varying the position
of the point of origin of the
II. Non Perspective
projection (center of the globe or
Projections opposite surface, remote
III. Conventional distance or infinity distance)
Projections and by varying the nature of the
surface (cylinder, cone, planar)
on which the projection is to be
made, etc.
119
 2, Non Perspective Projection: 3) Conventional Projections.
 These embrace projections which  This embraces those projections which
are in effect derived from their are purely conventional in form, and in
perspective counterparts by suitable
which the idea of ‘projection’, as
modifications.
generally understood, is not apparent.
 Since they are not ‘projected’ in the
usual sense of the term, and are  The parallels and meridians are drawn
consequently known as non- so as to conform to some arbitrarly
perspective projections. chosen principle.
 The method and degree of  Included in this group are some very
modification can be adjusted to suit valuable projections, especially those
any particular requirement. designed to show the whole world on
 Because they can be so rapidly one map.
adapted to individual
 Example: Molwede Projection,
circumstances, they assume great
importance. Sinusoidal projection, etc.

120
 Type of Map Projection based on
developable surface
 One way of classifying map projections  Keep in mind that while some
is by the type of the developable projections use a geometric
surface onto which the reference process, in reality most
sphere is projected. projections use mathematical
 A developable surface is a geometric equations to transform the
shape that can be laid out into a flat coordinates from a globe to a flat
surface without stretching or tearing. surface.
 The three types of developable surfaces  The resulting map plane in most
are cylinder, cone and plane, and their instances can be rolled around
corresponding projections are the globe in the form of cylinder,
called cylindrical, conical and planar cone or placed to the side of the
.
globe in the case of the plane.
 Projections can be further categorized
 The developable surface
based on their point(s) of contact
serves as a good illustrative
(tangent or secant) with the reference
surface of the Earth and their analogy of the process of
orientation (aspect). flattening out a spherical
object onto a plane.
121
Type of Map Projection based on
developable surface

122
 Within each projection type, there are several different projections.
Each produces a map with differing latitude and longitude patterns.
 Although the concept of map projection is presented in a graphical
context, actual projections are now done mathematically.
 Each projection type has a set of complex equations used to transfer a
position from the Earth's surface to the map.
 Even maps developed in the 15th and 16th centuries were
mathematically based.
 Modern mapping techniques are still produced mathematically, but use
computers to speed and make more accurate the process of map
creation.

123
 Cylindrical Projection.
 Perhaps the easiest map projection to visualize is
the cylindrical projection.
 The map is produced by projecting the surface of the
globe onto the inner surface of a cylinder.
 The cylinder is then cut lengthwise and unrolled to
produce the developed surface or the map.
 Where the cylinder touches the globe is the tangent
line and is the region of least distortion.
 The further and further from the tangent line, the
greater the distortion. With this type of projection,
areas on the globe near the cylinder axis cannot, in
fact, be projected onto the map surface.
 Thus, only a certain portion of the globe's surface can
be represented by these types of projections.
124
 Types of Cylindrical Projection
There are three types of cylindrical map projections:
normal,

transverse and
oblique.
 For each type, the geometric relation between the
cylinder axis and the planet axis determines the
position of the tangent line on the globe.

125
 Normal Cylindrical Projection
Normal cylindrical projections are produced when
the axis of the cylinder and that of the planet are
parallel. In this orientation, the tangent line
corresponds to the Equator. The meridian along which
the cylinder is cut determines which continents occupy
the center part of the map. For example, a cylinder cut
along the Prime Meridian will produce a map in which
the Pacific Ocean occupies the central portion of the
map.

126
An Example of Normal Cylindrical
Projection: Mercator Projection

127
 Traverse Cylindrical Projection
 By orienting the cylinder axis
perpendicular to the planet axis,
a transverse cylindrical projection is
produced.
 In this projection, the tangent line is
oriented N-S and passes through the
poles thereby paralleling longitude
lines.
 The longitude for the tangent line is
determined by what area of the globe
will be shown in the center of the
final map

128
 Oblique Cylindrical Projection
 When the cylinder and planet axes
are at an angle to each other, the
projection is an oblique
cylindrical projection.

 In this type of projection, the

tangent line is oblique to both
longitude and latitude lines

129
 Cylindrical projection - tangent and secant
 The cylinder may be either tangentequatorial aspect
or secant to the reference surface of
the Earth.
 In the tangent case, the cylinder’s
circumference touches the
reference globe’s surface along
a great circle (any circle having the
same diameter as the sphere and
thus dividing it into two equal
halves).
 The diameter of the cylinder is
equal to the diameter of the globe.
The tangent line is the equator for
the equatorial or normal aspect;
while in the transverse aspect, the  The tangent and secant lines are important
cylinder is tangent along a chosen since scale is constant along these lines
meridian (i.e. central meridian).
(equals that of the globe), and therefore there
 In the secant case, the cylinder is no distortion (scale factor = 1).
intersects the globe; that is the
 Such lines of true scale are called standard
diameter of the cylinder is smaller
than the globe’s. lines. These are lines of equidistance.
 At the place where the cylinder
Distortion increases by moving away from
cuts through the globe two secant standard lines.
lines are formed. 130
General characteristics of Equirectangular projection

•Plate Carree-square grid

•One of the oldest and simplest projections
• Both meridians and parallels are equally spaced (equidistant)
•Lines of latitude and longitude are parallel intersecting at 90 degrees
•Meridians are equidistant
•Forms a rectangular map
•Scale along the equator or standard parallels (lines of tangency) is true
•Can have the properties of equidistance, Conformality or equal area
•The poles are represented as lines
Plate Carree Equirectangular Projection
 Azimuthal projections
 Azimuthal projections are formed
when the globe is projected onto a
plane.
 The plane is tangent to the globe at a
single point.
 Distortion is least near the point of
tangency and increases outward from
there.
 Because of the orientation of the map
plane, azimuthal projections depict
only the hemisphere of the globe
touching the map plane.
 When the map plane is tangent to the
pole, a normal azimuthal projection.
 This type of projection will image
either the Northern or Southern
hemispheres but not both
133
 Oblique Azimuthal Projections
 Oblique azimuthal
projections are those in
which the map plane is
tangent at any point other
than the poles.
 This type of projection
produces very complex
patterns of longitude and
latitudes.

134
 Tangent vs secant planar (oblique) projection
 The plane in planar projections
may be tangent to the globe at a
single point or may be secant.
 In the secant case the plane
intersects the globe along a small
circle forming a standard
parallel which has true scale.
 The normal polar aspect yields
parallels as concentric circles,
and meridians projecting as
straight lines from the center of
the map.
 The distortion is minimal
around the point of tangency in
the tangent case, and close to the Examples of azimuthal projections include:
standard parallel in the secant o Azimuthal quidistant,
case. o Lambert Azimuthal Equal-area,
o Gnomonic, Stereographic, and
o Orthographic projections.
135
 Azimuthal Perspective Projections
 Some classic azimuthal
projections are perspective
projections and can be
produced geometrically.
 They can be visualized as
projection of points on the
sphere to the plane by shining
rays of light from a light
source (or point of
perspective).
 Three projections, namely
gnomonic, stereographic and
orthographic can be defined
based on the location of the
perspective point or the light
source.
 The point of perspective or
the light source is located at Gnomonic Projection (also known as Central
the center of the globe in
gnomonic projections. Great or Gnomic Projection)
circles are the shortest
distance between two points
on the surface of the sphere
(known as great circle route).
 Gnomonic projections map all
great circles as straight lines,
and such property makes
these projections suitable for
use in navigation charts.
 Distance and shape distortion
increase sharply by moving
away from the center of the
projection.
136
 Stereographic Projection
o In stereographic
projections, the perspective
point is located on the
surface of globe directly
opposite from the point of
tangency of the plane.
o Points close to center point
show great distortion on
the map.
o Stereographic projection is
a conformal projection, that
is over small areas angles
and therefore shapes are
preserved. It is often used
for mapping Polar Regions
(with the source located at
the opposite pole).

137
 Orthographic Projection
 In orthographic
projections, the point
of perspective is at
infinite distance on the
opposite direction from
the point of tangency.
 The light rays travel as
parallel lines.
 The resulting map from
this projection looks
like a globe (similar to
seeing Earth from deep
space).
 There is great
distortion towards the
borders of the map.

138
 CONICAL PROJECTIONS
 The conic map projection can be visualized by imagining placing a paper
cone on a globe and projecting points on the globe onto the inner side of the
cone.
 A map is produced by cutting the cone from the apex to the base and
unrolling it.
 Where the cone touches the globe is the tangent line and is the region of
least distortion.
 The further and further from the tangent line, the greater the distortion.
 With this type of projection, only one hemisphere of the globe can be
represented on the final map.
 Thus, conic projections produce maps that show on half of the globe's
surface.
 There are three types of conic map projections.
 For each type, the geometric relation between the cone axis and the planet
axis and the angle of the cone determines the position of the tangent line on
the globe.
 (More complex conic projection maps are created by having the cone of
projection actually pierce the globe.) 139
 Normal conic projections.
 These are the ones in which the
planet axis and that of the cone
are coincident.
 The cone is tangent along a
selected latitude determined by
the angle of the cone.
 On these types of maps,
longitudes will consist of a series
of lines radiating from the pole.
 In contrast, latitudes will form
arcs of circles centered on the
pole.
140
ii. Traverse Conic Projections.
 These are produced when the
cone of the axis is oriented at
right angles to the planet axis.
 This puts the apex of the cone
over the equation.
 The tangent line, as with the
oblique conic projection, cuts
across both latitudes and
longitudes.
 The pattern produced by the
longitudes and latitudes are very
complex.
141
ii. Oblique Conic Projections.
 By orienting the axis of the cone
at an angle to the planet axis,
an oblique conic projection is
produced.
 On these maps, the tangent line
cuts across both latitude and
longitude lines and they have no
simple geometric relationship.

142
 Map scale distortion of a tangent cylindrical projection - SF
= 1 along line of tangency
 As mentioned above,
there is no distortion
along standard lines as
evident in the following
figures.
 On a tangent surface to
the reference globe, there
is no scale distortion at
the point (or along the
line) of tangency and
therefore scale factor is 1.
 Distortion increases with
distance from the point
(or line) of tangency.

143
 Scale distortion on a tangent surface to the globe
 On a secant surface to the reference
globe, there is no distortion along
the standard lines (lines of
intersection) where SF = 1.
 Between the secant lines where the
surface is inside the globe, features
appear smaller than in reality and
scale factor is less than 1.
 At places on map where the surface
is outside the globe, features appear
larger than in reality and scale
factor is greater than 1.
 A map derived from a secant
projection surface has less overall
distortion than a map from a
tangent surface.

144
Map scale distortion of a secant cylindrical
&Plannar projections

 Map scale distortion of a

secant projections - SF =
1 along secant lines

145
 Tissot's indicatrix – visualizing map distortion
pattern
 A common method of classification of map projections is
according to distortion characteristics - identifying
properties that are preserved or distorted by a projection.
 The distortion pattern of a projection can be visualized
by distortion ellipses, which are known as Tissot's
indicatrices.
 Each indicatrix (ellipse) represents the distortion at the
point it is centered on.
 The two axes of the ellipse indicate the directions
along which the scale is maximal and minimal at that
point on the map.
 Since scale distortion varies across the map, distortion
ellipses are drawn on the projected map in an array of
regular intervals to show the spatial distortion pattern
across the map. 146
The ellipses are usually centered at the intersection
of meridians and parallels.
Their shape represents the distortion of an
imaginary circle on the spherical surface after
being projected on the map plane.
The size, shape and orientation of the ellipses are
changed as the result of projection.
Circular shapes of the same size indicate
preservation of properties with no distortion
occurring.

147
 Equal Area Projection – Equivalent or Authalic
• Equal area map Gall-Peters cylindrical equal-area
projections (also known
as equivalent or authalic
projection Tissot's indicatrix
projection) represent areas
correctly on the map.
• The areas of features on the
map are proportional to
their areas on the reference
surface of Earth.
• Maintaining relative areas
of features causes distortion
in their shapes, which is
more pronounced in small-
scale maps.
• Along the standard parallel
 The shapes of the Tissot’s ellipses in this world
lines in this map (45° N and
map Gall-Peters cylindrical equal-
45°S), there is no scale
area projection are distorted; however each of
distortion and therefore the
them occupies the same amount of area.
ellipses would be circular. 148
 Equal area projections are useful where:
 relative size and area accuracy of map
features is important (such as displaying
countries / continents in world maps),
 as well as for showing spatial distributions
and
 general thematic mapping such as
population, soil and geological maps.
 Some examples are Albers Equal-Area
Conic, Cylindrical Equal Area,Sinusoidal
Equal Area, and Lambert Azimuthal
Equal Area Projections.
149
 Conformal Projection – Orthomorphic or
Autogonal
 In conformal map projections (also known
as orthomorphic or autogonal projection) local angles are
preserved;
 that is angles about every point on the projected map are the same
as the angles around the point on the curved reference surface.
 Similarly constant local scale is maintained in every direction
around a point.
 Therefore shapes are represented accurately and without distortion
for small areas.
 However shapes of large areas do get distorted.
 Meridians and parallels intersect at right angles.
 As a result of preserving angles and shapes, area or size of features
are distorted in these maps.
 No map can be both conformal and equal area.

150
Tissot’s indicatrices are all circular (shape preserved)
in this world map Mercator projection, however they
vary in size (area distorted).
Here the area distortion is more pronounced as we
move towards the poles.
 A classic example of area exaggeration is the
comparison of land masses on the map, where for
example:
 Greenland appears bigger than South America
and comparable in size to Africa, while in reality
it is about one-eight the size of S. America and
one-fourteenth the size of Africa.

151
Tissot Mercator Projection

152
 A feature that has made Mercator projection especially suited
for nautical maps and navigation is the representation
of rhumb line or loxodrome (line that crosses meridians at the
same angle) as a straight line on the map.
A straight line drawn on the Mercator map represents
an accurate compass bearing.
 Preservation of angles makes conformal map projections
suitable for navigation charts, weather maps, topographic
mapping, and large scale surveying. Examples of common
conformal projections include
 Lambert Conformal Conic,
 Mercator, Transverse Mercator, and
 Stereographic projection.

153
 Equidistant Projection
Equirectangular (equidistant
cylindrical) projection Tissot's
indicatrix
 Equidistant projections are neither  Similarly if a projection is
conformal nor equal-area, but rather a
compromise between them.
 In equidistant map
projections, accurate
distances (constant scale) are
maintained only between
one or two points to every
other point on the map.
 Also in most projections there
are one or more standard lines
along which scale remains
constant (true scale).
 Distances measured along
these lines are proportional
to the same distance
measurement on the curved
reference surface.
centered on a point, distances to
every other point from the
center point remain accurate.
154
 … Continued
In this world map equidistant cylindrical
projection (also known as plate carrée), Tissot’s
ellipses are distorted in size and shape.
 However while there are changes in the ellipses, their
north-south axis has remained equal in length.
 This indicates that any line joining north and south poles
(meridian) is true to scale and therefore distances are
accurate along these lines.
 Plate carrée is a case of equirectangular projection with
Equator being a standard parallel.
 Equidistant projections are used in air and sea navigation
charts, as well as radio and seismic mapping.
 They are also used in atlases and thematic mapping. Examples
of equidistant projections are azimuthal equidistant,
equidistant conic, and equirectangular projections. 155
 True-Direction Projection – Azimuthal or Zenithal
 The gnomonic map projection in
the image is centered on the
North Pole with meridians
radiating out as straight lines.
 In gnomonic maps great circles
are displayed as straight lines.
Directions are true from the
center point (North Pole).
 Directions from a central point
to all other points are
maintained accurately
in azimuthal projections (also
known as zenithal or true-
direction projections).
 These projections can also be
equal area, conformal or
equidistant.

Gnomonic projection
156
 True-direction projections are used in
applications where maintaining directional
relationships are important, such as
aeronautical and sea navigation charts.
 Examples include
 Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area,
 Gnomonic, and azimuthal
equidistant projections.

157
 Compromise Projections

 Some projections do not preserve any of the properties of the reference surface of
the Earth;
 However they try to balance out distortions in area, shape, distant, and direction
(thus the name compromise), so that no property is grossly distorted throughout the
map and the overall view is improved.
 They are used in thematic mapping. Examples include Robinson
projection and Winkel Tripel projection, Mollwade Projection, Sinosodial Proj.
158
etc.
 Mollweide projection
 The projection trades accuracy of
angle and shape for accuracy of
proportions in area, and as such
is used where that property is
needed, such as maps depicting
global distributions.
 The projection was first
published by mathematician and
astronomer Karl (or Carl)
Brandan Mollweide (1774 – 1825) of
Leipzig in 1805.
 The Mollweide projection is an equal-  It was reinvented and popularized
area, pseudocylindrical, map projection by Jacques Babinet in 1857, who
generally used for global maps of the gave it the name homalographic
world or night sky. projection.
 It is also known as the Babinet  The variation homolographic
projection, homolographic projection, arose from frequent nineteenth
and elliptical projection.
century usage in star atlases.[1]

159
 Properties
 Carl B. Mollweide created this pseudo-cylindrical projection in
1805. It is an equal-area projection designed for small-scale
maps.
 The Mollweide projection has several alternate names: Babinet,
Elliptical, Homolographic, and Homalographic
 Method of Projection:
 A pseudo-cylindrical equal-area projection. All parallels are
straight lines and all meridians are equally spaced elliptical arcs,
except the central meridian, which is a straight line. The poles
are points.
 Linear Graticule:
 The Equator and central meridian.
 Properties:
 Shape: Shape is not distorted at the intersection of the central meridian
and latitudes 4044' N and S.
 Distortion increases outward from these points and becomes severe at the
160
Mollwadie Projection

The Mollweide projection with

Tissot's indicatrix of deformation

161
 Properties continued …
Area: Equal-area.
 Direction: Local angles are true only at the intersection of the
central meridian and latitudes 4044' N and S. Direction is
distorted elsewhere.
 Distance: Scale is true along latitudes 4044' N and S.
Distortion increases with distance from these lines and
becomes severe at the edges of the projection.
 Limitations:
 Useful only as a world map.
 Uses and Applications:
 Suitable for thematic or distribution mapping of the entire
world, frequently in interrupted form.
 Combined with the Sinusoidal to create Goode's Homolosine
and Boggs
162
 Choice of Map projection
 As all projections are made from geographical coordinates on the
earth’s surface to 2D map grids involve some sort of distortions.
 No projection has all the ideal qualities of conformality,
equivalence, and equidistance all in one graticule.
 The choice of projection is governed by a desire to minimize one or
more of the distortions of either angles, linear dimensions or areas.
 For this reason it is important to appreciate the process of map
projection and the way in which they introduce internal changes in
scale which give rise to these distortions.
 Some of the factors that influence the choice for map
projection include
 Purpose of the map and needs of the map user,
 Position of the area to be mapped on the globe
 Shape and dimensions of the area to be mapped,
 Practical considerations
163
 In the 15th, 16th, and 17th C. when there was a great
expansion in ocean going voyaging there was a great need
for conformal navigation charts.
 Mercator's projection which is conformal polar
cylinderical met the real needs of the time and still used
today when a simple straight course line is needed for
navigation.
 B/c of its great importance in earlier ‘voyages of dicovery’
it has perhaps been overused.
 But it has no equivalence property it is not at all suitable
to show world wide distribution.
 For example Brail is about 5 times larger appears equal to the
area of Alaska.


164
 Route finding is greatly assisted by gnomonic Azimuthal projections
as any straight line drawn on them represent the Great Circle distance
b/n points.
 Like Mercator projection other conformal projection, e.g. The
Stereographic Polar and Equatorial Azimuthal projections are
suitable for sea, air and meteorological charts.
 Suitable equivalent projections for distribution maps include those
developed by Lambert, whether Azimuthal, Cylindrical or Conical.
 But They are are of course not conformal and do have rather
noticeable distortions which may upset the users.
 It may not be good idea to use conical or Azimuthal projections for
world-wide distribution b/c the circumferential shape may again
upset users but for areas which are usually perceived as circular (e.g.
Polar regions) equivalent Azimuthal or conical maps are acceptable.
 An extremely important equivalent projections are the Albert’s
Equivalent Conical projection which are nearly conformal.
 In the polar aspect they are excellent for mid-latitude distribution
maps, and do not contain the noticeable distributions of Lambert’s
projections. 165
 For topographic maps conformality and equidistance are essential.
 But there are no conformal Azimuthal projections which are
equidistant at the same time.
 The conformal cylindrical projections are equidistant along the
tangent great circles, and the conformal conical projections are
equidistant along the tangent small circles.
 The UTM projection is a conformal cylindrical projection using a
secant cylinder so it meets the conformality and equidistance
requirements of topographic maps almost as well can be expected.
 However, the ideal solution for individual country’s topographic
requirements is probably an oblique aspect conformal conic or
cylindrical projection which is secant, and with the intersection
circles being individually chosen for the country concerned, and
running along the main axis of the country.
 Nevertheless, for each nation to use its own projection would make
international cooperation difficult.

166
 Cartographic Abstraction: map generalization
“ Only he who is master over the matter and can perform with his hands what his mind wishes,
is able to generalize well.” (E. Von Sydow)

 We are surrounded by detail and complexity.

 To avoid being mired in confusion we often focus on universal
characteristics of features rather than on their individual or unique
qualities. (‘ዝርዝር ኪስ ይቀዳል’ ‘the devil lies in the details)
 E.g. We speak average annual rainfall, per capita GDP, median family
income, annual or monthly average temperature, average
slope/elevation, media age of population, etc.
 We categorize features and eliminate visual complexity by simplifying
outlines.
 These are some of everyday actions that help us comprehend our
environment.
 These actions collectively are called generalization.
 Of all the tasks faced in analogue and now digital cartography and the
GIS, few are so fundamental to the process of map making and so
difficult to automate as that of generalization. 167
 As a map is an assemblage of graphic symbols that present a
view of some aspects of our understanding of the world, it is
necessary an understanding of knowledge.
 Mapping is not simply a collection of facts, rather it is a
caricature (picture) of these facts which, in their
transformation to map symbols, assist the map reader to
understand spatial form and structure and to distinguish
important characteristics of the features that are represented.
 The process of generalization requires the selection of those
features that are essential to the map’s purpose and the
representation of them in a way which is clear and informative.
 Both selection and representation expected to involve a degree
of information reduction relative to what is known.


168
 Definition of Generalization
 Generalization is technical process of reducing the
information content of maps due to scale change, map
purpose, intended audience, and/or technical
constraints.
 In the digital environment, Robert McMaster and
Stuart Shea (1992) noted that “ the generalization
process supports a variety of tracks, including: digital
data storage reduction; scale manipulation; and
statistical classification and symbolization.
 Digital generalization can be defined as the process of
deriving, from a data source, a symbolically or digitally-
encoded cartographic data set through the application
of spatial and attribute transformations.

169

Objective of Cartographic Generalization.
 The objective of generalization can be characterized very
generally as “production of unequivocally legible and definite
map image”.
 To Prof Imhof the objective of generalization is:
“the highest accuracy possible in accordance with the map scale,
good geometric informative power, good characterization of the
elements and forms, the greatest possible similarity to nature in
the forms and colours, clarity and good legibility, simplicity and
explicitness of the graphical expression and coordination of the
different elements”.
 The map should be in accordance with its purpose and should
really serve the demands required by its users.
 One of the main conditions is that map should be consistent,
which means that what is qualitatively the same on the ground
is also represented in the same way everywhere on the map.
 In generalization one primarily attempts to achieve a balanced
170
total image.
Objectives….
 The two writers, Robert McMaster and Stuart Shea
(1992), set the objectives of digital generalization as:
 (i) the reduction in scope and amount, type, and
cartographic portrayal of mapped or encoded data
consistent with the chosen map purpose and intended
audience; and
 (ii) the maintenance of graphical clarity at the target
scale.
 The theoretical problem of generalization in the
digital domain is straightforward: the identification
of areas to be generalized and the application of
appropriate operations.
171
 Why is Generalization Necessary?
 Generalization becomes necessary for the following reasons:
a)Increasing density of the map contents due to scale
reduction
 If the map contents do not decrease proportionally in direct ratio
to the reduction of the paper size, an increasing density of the
map contents arises at the smaller scale.
b) Limit of acuity of the eye
 The reduction of objects and forms in a map cannot continue
indefinitely.
 It should terminate where the limit of acuity of the eye is reached.
 This is approximately 0.02mm at a distance of 30 cm from the eye.
 When the contrast is good, fine lines with a line width of 0.04 mm
can still be distinguished.
 This is also the approximate limit of printing capability. 172
 c) Minimum sizes.
 It may not be wise continue decreasing the size of map elements
down to the just perceptible and printable limits.
 Reason for this are
 Important objects should be immediately obvious, not just
perciptible,
 Differences in form should be clearly distinguishable,
 Faint illumination and printing colours reduce the contrast,
 The best reproduction and printing techniques and
equipment are not always available or may not be
economical.
 Therefore line widths and interspaces in minor landforms
should not be less than certain minimal dimensions.

173
For topographic maps and black or very dark printing colours
the following values apply:

174
 Factors of Generalization
i. Scale
 Scale determines the image size of the object on a map.
 A major constraint to the information content of a map is the
scale b/c it dictates the space available for map symbols.
 Hence map generalization may be regarded as a scale-
dependent process of information abstraction.
 Therefore, the degree of generalization is largely dependent on
the chosen scale.
 Degree of generalization increases as map scale becomes
smaller.
ii. Source material.
 The source material for every map, which has to be generalized,
should be analysed.
 It should be either ungeneralized or else correctly generalized.
 In particular, for a series of scales of derived maps at decreasing scales,
attention should be paid to the degree of generalization on the map
175
used as base for the next scale in the series.
iii. Special condition for legibility
 When the use of a map is known in advance, special map
reading conditions should be taken into account during
generalization.
 Maps made for walkers (travellers),
 Maps to be read in dim light, bad weather conditions and map
reading while travelling by car, etc.
 In all these cases particularly high demands have to be on the
readability and clarity of the map image.
iv. Symbol specification.
 The drawing up of signs and symbols comes at the
beginning of every map design.
 It influences fundamentally the degree of generalization.
 In the symbol specification the size and colour of every
symbol occurring in the map should be accurately specified
and represented.
 For every change of scale a new symbol specification 176 is
v. Choice of colors
 The choice, the number and intensity of colour have their effect
on the generalization.
 Pale colour for example, requires wider lines and not too small
coloured area symbols.
 This again influences the size of the symbols and thus again, the
generalization.
 Special consideration in the choice of colours is necessary where
a map is designed for printing in different colour variant.
vi. Technical reproduction capability
 The quality of the presently available reproduction and printing
processes is sufficient to produce the finest, even scarcely
identifiable details.
 But often simpler, less expensive or quicker processes have to be
applied.
 Hence n order not to get lost important information through loss
of quality, the reproduction process should be taken into account
during the original design and generalization. 177
vii Revision
 For topographic maps in particular, there is the need to
update.
 When revision is made certain elements of map contents,
e.g. Trigonometrically points and objects which are used for
topographic surveying should not be displaced.
 Thus, this influences the generalization.
 A map should be designed and generalized in such a way
that the revision elements can be inserted among the
existing ones without technical difficulties. 178
 When and where does generalization start?
 Every map is, in principle, generalized.
 The finest details of structure and arrangement of natural and
man-made features cannot be truly & accurately represented.
 A scales of 1:50000 and larger, the planimetric accuracy of the
original survey data can be and larger, the plan metric accuracy
of the original survey data can be maintained.
 At a scale of 1:10 000, the double-line road symbols are no longer
true to scale.
 Every reduction of plans and maps gives rise to increasingly
dense image and to a large number of barely legible
irregularities in the line work.
 That which the eye can no longer clearly and unequivocally
recognize and explain should be graphically simplified and
legibly represented.
 Generalization should, therefore, begin at the point where self-
evidence of the graphic statement and legibility become
difficult. 179
 When generalization is required?
 Six of the fundamental conditions where generalization will
be required in digital cartographic environment include:
 a) Congestion b) Coalescence c) Conflict
 d) Complication e) Inconsistency f) Imperceptibility

 Congestion refers to the problem when, under scale reduction, too

many objects are compressed into small space resulting in over-
crwoding due to high feature density.
 Coalescence refers to the condition graphically collide due to scale
change.
 Features actually touch one another.
 This may require displacement operation.
 Conflict may result in when, due to generalization, an
inconsistency b/n or among features occurs.
 For e.g. if generalization of a coastline eliminated a bay with a city
located on it, either the city or the coastline would have to be moved to
ensure that the urban area remained on the coast. 180
The condition of complication is
dependent on the specific conditions
that exist in a defined space.
An example is a digital line that changes in
complexity from one part to the next, such
as a coastline that progress from very
smooth to very crenulated .
.

181
 Aspects and Fundamental Operations of
Generalization
Aspects of generalization:-
 Map size or scale reductions are mixed blessing.
 On the one hand, space shrinkage allows us to see the
geographical arrangement of phenomena.
 On the other hand, the increased complexity and
crowding promotes visual confusion.
 To counteract these undesirable effects, we must perform two
key operations on the wealth of geographical features.
 One is to limit our concern to those classes of information that
will serve the map’s purpose. We call this operation selection.
 Selection of relevant information from a geographical
database implies powers of abstraction that depend upon
an understanding of geographical concepts.
 We can describe this aspect of generalization as semantic
182
 Graphic representation requires symbolization of the
selected information, which involves both the scale-
dependent transformation of geometric data and the
choice of graphic and textual elements to communicate the
real world meaning of data.
 The aspect of generalization concerned with geometric
transformation is termed geometric generalization;
 Geometric generalization is dictated by the interplay b/n
semantic generalization, symbolization and the constraints of
map scale.

183
 Selection. This is the intellectual process of deciding
which classes of features will be necessary to serve the
map’s purpose.
 No compromise:
 the choice is either to portray roads or not to portray roads, to
include or not include major hydrographic features, or to name or
not name all cities with populations over 150000.
 Cartographers must have a clear idea of the information
to be presented via the map.
 The overall conception of the map- i.e.
 its purpose and preliminary design- should govern the features and
attributes to be selected for portrayal.
 Once cartographer has selected features and attributes for
mapping, they are ready to move to the next step-
generalization i.e. Geometric generalization.

184
 ... Concepts of Generalization....
 It is wise to define the following five terms:
classification, simplification, exaggeration,
symbolization and induction.
 These five operations are controlled by cartographers
to varying degrees.
 When cartographers use classification, they order,
scale, and group features by their attributes and
attribute values.
 When cartographers use simplification, they
determine important characteristics of feature
attributes and eliminate unwanted detail.
 When they use exaggeration, they enhance or
emphasize important characteristics of the attributes.
 The above three operations require cartographers to
make a series of operational decision.
185
  After making these decisions and applying any necessary
algorithms for the selected data, cartographers use graphic marks
to encode the information for visualization.
 The process of graphically coding information and placing
it into a map context is called symbolization.
 Before assigning marks to represent features and their
attributes, cartographers must make at least two
conceptual decisions.
 Finally, induction occurs when we make inferences from
interrelationships among features on the map.
 Cartographers have little control over induction.
 When we apply inductive generalization, we extend the
map’s information content beyond what the features
actually warrant; we do so by making logical geographic
inferences.

186
For example, suppose you have January average
temperatures for a series of weather stations.
Based on “logical contouring” one can construct a
set of isotherms.
 The drawn isotherms by way of interpolation
allow inferences about probable January
temperatures in areas b/n weather stations
locations.
 Thus, the drawn isotherms convey far more
information than the temperatures recorded at
the weather stations themselves.
 Any such logical extension of data, founded on
accepted associations, is inductive generalization.
187
Digital based Operations of Generalization
 As noted in the McMaster and Shea model the 3rd major
component in the process of generalization involves the
fundamental operations or how to generalize.
 The process can be broken into a series of logical operations that
can be classified according to the type of geometry of the feature.
 For instance, a simplification operation is designed for linear
features, whereas an amalgamation operator works on areal
features. The following table provides a framework for the
operations of generalization by dividing the process into
activities of raster- and vector-based processing.
 Vector-based operators require more complicated strategies b/n
they operate on strings of x-y coordinate pairs and require complex
searching strategies.
 In raster-based generalization however, it is much easier to
determine the proximity relationships that are often the basis for
determining conflict among the features.

188
 Vector-based operators include :
 simplification, smoothing, aggregation,
 amalgamation, collapse, Merging,
 Refinement, exaggeration, enhancement, and displacement.

189
190
 Cartographic Design & Visualization
Cartographic Design:-
 It is creation; graphic design produces visual forms.
 Some maps, such as air photographs and satellite views, are mechanical
images.
 Others are presented in piecemeal fashion by arranging marks to form a
visual representation of selected spatial phenomena.
 In order to display the data describing a phenomenon, we use unlimited
variety of graphic signs.
 By relating graphic characteristics of the marks to attributes of the
data, we assign qualitative and quantitative meanings to the signs, and
they then become designated symbols.
 By arranging the symbols in the horizontal plane, we give them
geographical meaning, and the display becomes a MAP.
 In any graphic system of communication the signs or marks (symbols) must appear
different from each other.
 Based on the similarities and differences among the signs establish likeness and
distinctions among the data they symbolize.
 For a map presentation to be effective, the signs must be carefully chosen &
fitted together so that they form an integrated whole. 191
 Map design has much common with writing:
 An author- a literary designer- must use words with due regard for many
important structural elements of the written language, such as grammar,
syntax, and spelling, in order to produce a first class written
communication/ an essay or composition.
 Likewise, the cartographer must pay attention to the principles of
graphic communication.
 If a map has not been carefully designed it will be a poor map.
 Objectives of map designing is to evoke in the minds of viewers an
environmental image appropriate to the map’s purpose.
Two Aspects of Map Design.
 The first concern in map design is (i) to assign specific meaning to the
distinctive marks you use.
 The second concern should be (ii) to arrange the marks in a total composition
that will make the viewers see the result you intend.
 These two aspects of design are not really separate because one must select the
symbols with the ultimate objective in mind.

192
 … Map Design
 Map making like architecture, is a mixture of art,
science, and technology.
 The making of map is not a mechanical process like taking
a photograph.
 Rather it involves purposeful assembling, processing,
and generalizing diverse data and symbolically
displaying them as a meaningful, functional
portrayal.
 This is highly creative operation and an important part of
it is the development of the graphic design.
 The word ‘design’ is used both as a noun and a verb, design
as a process and a product respectively.

193
Design as a process involves a three stage of
operations:
i) In the first stage one draws heavily on
imagination and creativity.
 One thinks of various graphic possibilities by
considering alternate ways of approaching the
problem and visualizing different solutions;
 The term graphic ideation is used to describe this
intuitive (instinctive)process.
 During this stage one decides on the type of map,
spatial format (size & shape), basic layout, data to be
presented, mapping technique, etc.
 The result establishes a general design plan for the
map to be produced.
194
ii) In the second stage one develops a specific
plan.
 One defines all symbols, line weights, screens,
colours, lettering sizes, etc.
 It presupposes analyzing various alternatives and
weigh them within the limits of your general plan.
 One decides on kinds of symbolism, number of
classes & class limits, colour use, typological
relationships, general line weights and the like.
 One does so that the map components will set into a
coherent graphic display.
 By the time one accomplishes the second stage, one
has made all but minor decisions.

195
iii) Third stage: at this stage one prepares detailed
specifications for map construction, be it by
automated or manual methods.
 One defines all symbols, line weights, screens, colours,
lettering size, and so on.
 Preparing such specifications require a thorough
understanding of all the process involved in map
construction.
 The design process have been significantly
affected by digital method.
 When computers based procedures are employed in
the process the design stems are much more integrated
and each step appears less distinct.
196
When working with the digital environment,
the final artwork can be plotted or printed
automatically.
The flexibility of software driven procedure of
making changes on an electronic map display
(design) has made it relatively easier and
inexpensive to develop several design
prototype before becoming a final specific
plan.
 Had this been to the traditional (manual)
method of mapping, it could become too
expensive and time-consuming to make major
design changes.
197
 The Cartographic Language &
Symbolization
 Cartographic Language. One of the content of map has been
assembled, it is suggested that this information is then converted
into a cartographic language which expresses it in the form of a
map.
 Sometimes this is described as ‘encoding’, but at other times it is
presumed to have some parallel with verbal language and its
structure.
 It is accepted that a language involves vocabulary and grammar
(including syntax) then presumably the whole of the sign
structure of a map, including its arrangement and design, would
have to be covered by the term ‘language’.
 In a verbal language the individual bits which contain meaning
are words, and it is their linear relations (syntax) which control
their aggregation and combination into meaningful statements.
 In a map, arrangement (layout/design) is controlled by the facts
of geographical location. 198
 In cartographic communication, cartographic symbols can
be compared with words in spoken and written language.
 Words have a meaning in themselves and a collection of
words, written down together according to certain
grammar, makes up a certain information.
 Similarly, one single symbol has a specific meaning,
whereas the total collection of symbols, placed in the map
according to the geographical distribution and the
planimetric position of the phenomena they represent and
form the total spatial information to be communicated to
the map user.
 Thus, it may be possible to say that map symbols are
‘building stones of cartographic language’.
 The study of signs or symbols is sometimes referred to by
scientific term “ Semiology”.
 It is derived from the Greek words ‘semion’ = sign and
‘logos’ = speech, word, reason. 199
 ... Symbolization
 In order to display the data describing the phenomena, one can use
an almost unlimited variety of graphic signs.
 By relating graphic characteristics of the mark to attributes of the
data, we assign qualitative and quantitative meanings to the signs,
and they then become designated symbols.
 By arranging the symbols in the horizontal plane, we endow them
with geographical meaning, and the display becomes a map.
 The process of creating graphic symbols to present feature attribute
values is part of what we call symbolization.
 Features exist in the real world, and the cartographer’s task is to
portray those features relevant to the map being created.
 In the digital cartographic environment, the features existing in
reality have been digitized.
 Cartographers take the digital records and symbolize them so that
they communicate reality to map users.
 Cartographers turn to the symbolization process after they have
applied classification, simplification, and exaggeration routines to
features selected for mapping.
200
 Visual Variables.
 Symbolization involves use of visual variables to present the
data summarizations resulting from classification,
simplification, and exaggeration.
 This graphic coding makes the generalization visible.
 Clearly, symbolization is critical to any map’s success.
 Good simplification and classification procedures can be
nullified by poor symbolization.
 Contrary to this, good symbolization can enhance the
effectiveness of simplification and classification.
 In any graphic system of communication, each sign must be
clearly distinguishable from every other sign, just as the letters
of the alphabet must appear different from one another, so that
we do not get mixed up as to the sounds they represent.
 Likewise by the systematic use of graphic similarities and
differences among the signs, we can express likeness and
distinctions among the data they symbolize.
201
 In order to represent the chosen characteristics of spatial data
in meaningful fashion, we must make use of variations in the
graphic qualities of the marks.
 These graphic qualities, which are analogous as communicative
media to the sounds of speech, have been called the visual
variables.
 The term ‘visual variable’ was introduced in 1967 by Jacques Bertin in Semiologie
graphiique, 2nd ed. (Paris Gauter-Villars, and Paris-La Haye: Mouton & Cie, 1973).
 These are the perceptual dimensions of graphic character that
can be systematically modulated to convey meaning.
 There are a number of such variations perceivable to our eyes.
 There are two groups of visual variables:
 i) Primary visual variables
 ii) Secondary visual variables
 We can make point, line, and area marks on the map appear
more or less distinctive and prominent by altering their shape,
size, orientation, or colour (hue, value, chroma/saturation).
 We call these graphic variations the primary visual variables.202
Visual Variables: primary & secondary

203
i) Primary visual variables include shape, size, orientation, hue (colour),
value and chroma.
 a. Shape- may be regular and geometric, as in the case of a square,
circle, or triangle.
 Shapes could also be irregular, as in the case of a pictographic
version of a tree or bridge.
 b. Size- marks vary in size when they have different apparent
geometric dimensions- length, height, area, volume. The larger s sign,
the more important it is thought to be.
 c. Orientation- a direction frame of reference is needed to define the
orientation of a graphic mark.
 d. Hue (colour)- the common term ‘colour’ refers to hue, name of
different colours such as blue, green, red, so on.
 e. Value (colour)- refers to the relative lightness or darkness of a mark,
whether black or any other hue.
 It refers to the perceptual scale of lightness and darkness.
 In the perceptual scale of values, light is referred to as high value
and dark as low value. 204
 f. Chroma- as a graphic quality chroma refers to the degree to which a
hue departs in colourfullness from gray tone of the same value.
 Chroma can range from a gray hue with no apparent colour pigment to a
pure hue with no apparent gray.
 Terms such as saturation, intensity, richness, lightness, and purity are also
used to refer to chroma.
ii. Secondary visual variables- include arrangement (pattern) and
texture
g) Pattern refers to repetition of basic graphic elements (marks)
representing various combinations of these primary visual
variables produces areal graphic effect.
h) Texture- refers to the size and spacing of component marks that
make up a pattern.
 A fine texture is produced by a close spacing of small marks.
 This contrasts with a coarse textured pattern produced by an open arrangement of
larger marks.
i) Orientation of pattern- refers to the directional arrangement of
parallel rows of marks as they are positioned with respect to some
frame of reference.

205
Visual variables for different type of data
 Quantitative data: (ordinal, interval and ratio(numerical))

 spacing, size,
 perspective height

 Colour Hue (marginally effective for numerical data)

 lightness /value(good for ordinal),marginal for Numerical data ,

 saturation good for ordinal and marginal for numerical,

 texture

 Qualitative data: ( nominal )

 shape

 orientation

 arrangement (marginally effective)

 colour hue(Good) and

 texture(good).
Size
 Typical person can easily distinguish maximum 5 different sizes
 Size differences must be sufficiently large for map users to identify high and
low values.

 Works for all quantitative attributes.

The size of the displayed object reflects the unit value of the phenomena.
Texture
 The number of patterns to fill an area is almost unlimited

.use maximum 7-10 variations of brightness for one pattern

color
 Three attributes of colour; hue, value and saturation, can be used as graphic
variables.
 Hue :is synonymous with colour for most people. It is the measure of
wavelengths that a surface reflects resulting in perceived differences in red,
blue, yellow etc.

 Value :is the lightness or darkness of a colour from pure black to pure white.

 Saturation :shows how pure the colour is compared to a grey tone of the
same value.
Examples of color schems by C. Brewer -
http://colorbrewer2.org
 Sequential colour schemes:

 are suited to ordered data that progress from low to high.

 Lightness steps dominate the look of these schemes, with light colours for
low data values to dark colours for high data values

 Transitions between hues may be used in a sequential scheme, but the light-to-
dark progression should dominate the scheme
Examples of color schems by C. Brewer -
http://colorbrewer2.org
 Diverging schemes:
 put equal emphasis on mid-range critical values and extremes at both ends
of the data range.
 are most effective when the class break in the middle of the sequence, or the
lightest middle colour, is meaningfully related to the mapped data.
 Use the break or class emphasized by a hue and lightness change to
represent a critical value in the data such as the mean, median, or zero.
 Colours increase in darkness to represent differences in both directions from
this meaningful mid-range value in the data.
 A typical diverging scheme pairs sequential schemes based on two
different hues.
Examples of color schems by C. Brewehttp://colorbrewer2.org
Qualitative schemes:( Hue)

 are best suited to representing nominal or categorical data.

 do not imply magnitude differences between legend classes, and hues are
used to create the primary visual differences between classes.

 The lightness of the hues used for qualitative categories should be similar
but not equal
 Map Symbols
Determining the type of symbol that should represent a given
geographic feature (3) should be based on defining the nature
of feature (1) and level of measurement used in symbol
classification (2):

1) The nature of Geographic phenomena;

2)The various levels at which we can measure

Geographic phenomena;

3)The types of symbols that can be used to

represent spatial data.
 1. The nature of Geographic phenomena
 There are five types phenomena extent or spatial dimension or phenomena with
respect to spatial dimension .
1.1 Point Phenomena
 Geographic phenomena that have no spatial extent and can thus be termed
"zero-dimensional,"
e.g. The location of oil well heads(x,y),weather station recording devices
location of nesting site for eagle (x,y,z) z is height above the ground(3
dimensional space)
1.2Linear Phenomena
 Geographic phenomena that is one-dimensional in spatial extent, having length
but essentially no width
e.g. a road on a small-scale map
 -Boundary line b/n countries
 Un closed series of x,y,in two dimensional space
 Un closed series of x,y.z in three dimensional space
Cont…
1.3. Areal Phenomena
Geographic phenomena that are two-dimensional in spatial extent, having
both length and width.
e.g. a forested region, political unit,
data associated with enumeration units can also be considered areal
phenomena because each unit is an enclosed area
1.4.Volumetric phenomena
2 1/2-D Phenomena
A form of volumetric phenomena in which each point on the surface defined
by longitude, latitude, and a value above (or below) a zero point
[i.e. (x, y) coordinate and a value of phenomena is the height above zero
point or below zero point]
e.g. the Earth's topography or elevation above sea level ,because we can
actually see the surface in the real world ,here height above a zero point is
the elevation of the land surface above sea level.
 Amore abstract Example: would be precipitation falling over a region during a
course of a year, in this case the height of the surface would be the total amount of
precipitation for the year.

Another way of thinking about 2 1/2-D surfaces is that they are sigle valued
associate with it.

True 3-D Phenomena

A form of volumetric phenomena in which each longitude and latitude position has
multiple attribute values depending on the height above or below a zero point
[i.e. (x, y, z) coordinate and a value]
e.g. the level of ozone in the Earth's atmosphere varies as a function of elevation
above sea level.

Possible to define longitude, latitude, height above sea level

 Map scale plays a major role in determing how we handle the spatial dimension of a
phenomena .
1.2.1. Model of Geographic phenomena
 spatial dimension one way of thinking about how geographic phenomena are
arranged in the real world .
 another approach is to consider the arrangement of Geographic phenomena
along discret-continous and abrupt-smooth continua. The term continua
,model of Geographic phenomena notion developed by Alan MacEachren and
David DiBiase (1991).
 Discrete Phenomena :Geographic phenomena that occur at isolated locations.
e.g. water towers in a city.
 Continuous Phenomena :Geographic phenomena that occur everywhere,
throughout a geographic region of interest.
E.g. yearly distribution of rainfall in Wisconsin, or sales tax rates for each state
in the United States.
 Discrete and Continuous Phenomena can also be described either abrupt or
smooth phenomena. e.g. rainfall and sales tax rate for state are both
continuous in nature but the former is smooth ,whereas the latter is
abrupt(varying at state boundaries).
abrupt and smooth phenomena
Abrupt Phenomena: Phenomena that change abruptly over geographic space
e.g. sales tax rates for each state in the United States
 Smooth Phenomena
 Phenomena that change gradually over geographic space
e.g. yearly distribution of snowfall in Wisconsin or rainfall
 Phenomena versus Data
 When mapping geographic phenomena, it is important to distinguish b/n the
actual phenomena and the data collected to represent that phenomenon .

 Example: to map percentage coverage of forest a given place. If we try to

visualize the phenomena ,we can conceive of it as smooth and continuous in
some portion of the state where the percentage gradually increases or decrease .
In other areas we can conceive of relatively abrupt changes where the
percentages shifts very rapidly(when say an urban area is bounded by hilly
forested region) form of data use to represent percentage of forest cover
individual values for counties mapping this data by creating the Prism
Map(abrupt) continuous.

Fishnet Map:A map in which a fishnet-like structure provides a three-

dimensional symbolization of a smooth, continuous phenomenon.
Matching Data and Symbol Requirements
 Effective symbol selection requires matching the characteristics of a symbol

with the underlying nature of the geographic referent being mapped,

particularly the spatial dimension and level of measurement of the data

collected to represent that referent (MacEachren 1994; Slocum et al. 2009).

These data characteristics function as criteria to determine which visual

variables may be selected to create an effective map symbol. For discussions

of other symbol selection criteria, see Scale and Generalization, Statistical

Mapping, and Aesthetics & Design (forthcoming).

 Spatial Dimension
 Data collected to represent phenomena can be grouped into four basic spatial
dimensions: point (zero-dimensional), linear (one-dimensional), areal (two-
dimensional), and volumetric (three-dimensional). These spatial properties
neatly overlap with the graphic primitives used to create most graphical
symbols: points, lines, and polygons (symbol dimension). For instance, census
tract data are areal in nature, and thus typically represented using polygonal map
symbols.
 Importantly, data dimensionality is scale specific. For instance, cities may occur
at points on a small-scale map, but on a large-scale map it is more logical to
display their “footprint” or areal extent. For these reasons, while mapmakers
should attempt to match symbol dimensions with phenomenon dimensions, they
must also ensure the selected symbolization method is appropriate for both the
data collection method used and the intended map scale.
 2. Level of Measurement
When geographic phenomena is measured to create a data set ,we commonly
speak of level of measurement. It refers to the different ways that we
measure attributes: nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio levels
A. Nominal (level of measurement)
 A level of measurement in which data are placed into unordered categories
e.g. classes on a land use/land cover map, religion.
B.Ordinal (level of measurement)
 A level of measurement in which data are ordered or ranked, but no
numerical values are assigned
e.g. ranking states in terms of where you would like to live
C.Interval (level of measurement): A level of measurement in which
numerical values can be assigned to data, but there is an arbitrary zero point.
e.g. Fahrenheit or Celsius (where 40 degrees is numerically double of 20
degrees, but is not twice as warm)
Cont…
D.Ratio level of measurement
A level of measurement in which numerical values are assigned to data,
and there is a non arbitrary zero point.
e.g. Kelvin, where at 0 degrees all molecular motion ceases, and 40 degrees
is twice as warm as 20 degrees
e.g. Percentage of forested land
 Numerical Data:a term used to describe the data associated with the interval
and ratio levels of measurement, as numerical values are assigned to the
data.
 Nicholas Chrisman(1998;2002,25-33)argues that the four level of
measurement is insufficient for working with Geographic data and proposed
several extension
Constrained Ratio:A level of measurement for data sets that are
constrained to a fixed set of numbers
e.g. Probability: 0 to 1
e.g. Percentage: 0 to 100
Cont…
 Cyclical(no linear)
 A level of measurement appropriate for phenomena that have a cyclical
character.
e.g. angular measurements, 360degree –x
e.g. seasons: spring-summer-fall-winter-spring.
 Counts: A level of measurement in which individual objects are counted
e.g. [counting] people. Although count have a non arbitrary zero point,
Chrisman argues that they can not be rescaled as readily as ratio scales
because we can not conceive of a fraction of an object(half of a person)
 Fuzzy Categories
 A level of measurement in which category memberships are fuzzy
e.g. remote sensing classification procedures
Cont…
 Another extension three types of numerical data proposed byJ, Ronald
Eastman(1986)
Bipolar Data
 Data characterized by either a natural or a meaningful dividing point
e.g. percentage of population change
 Balanced Data
 Two phenomena coexisting in a complementary fashion
e.g. Percentage of English and French spoken in Canadian Provinces
 Unipolar Data
 Data that have no dividing point and do not involve two complementary
phenomena
.e.g. states of the United States
 Classes of Cartographic Symbols
 Cartographic symbols may be grouped either based on a) dimension,
b) shape c) being qualitative or quantitative.
a) Based on the dimensional characteristics of the features
cartographic symbols may be classified into
 i) point symbols ii) line symbols iii) area symbols
b) Based on shape cartographic symbols are commonly classified in
three main categories:
 i) Geometrical (abstract) symbols (square, rectangle, circle, triangle, etc)
 ii) Pictorial symbols- are self descriptive and popular (e.g. The ones used
in public buildings, railways stations, airports, etc) and need no
explanation in the legend but they are difficult to draw and are spacious
and hence low locational accuracy and cover other details.
 iii) Associative symbols –are combination of geometric and pictorial
characteristics, e.g. School , church, cemetery, mosque, etc.
 iv) Letter and Number symbols- are composed of letters and numbers.

230
c) Whether a given geographic feature is
expressible in terms of quantity or not,
cartographic symbols are identified as
 Qualitative symbols or
Qualitative point, line and area
symbols
 Quantitative Symbols

231
Quantitative Symbols
 Quantitative point symbols

e.g. Proportional point symbols

 Size of geometric symbol is made proportional to the quantity.
 Quantity is proportional to Area of a circle/square = Πr2/ l.b
 Dotmapping using dot symbols
 Dot size either made same (unit dot size) for all or

 Made to vary where distribution is denser dots

made either to coalesce or larger
 Three aspects of dot mapping that need
attention:
 Dot unit value
 Dot size and
 Dot position/location

232
233
How large should be the dot (dot size), how many … a dot
should represent (stand for) (dot value), and where to
place the dot (location) are important in dot mapping.
  Flow lines and arrows
 Arrow symbols, usually they are made short

 Flow line symbols

- smoothly curved ‘origin-destination’ lines

- straight ‘origin – destination’ lines
- irregular lines more or less following the route
- bands may be used to diversify flow types
 Quantitative area symbols
 Choropleth mapping: the objective is to show the
quantities as they occur within the unit areas.
 Isarithm mapping: the objective is to show the gradient
of the quantities, their size and their distribution.
 (Isopleth maps- maps drawn using isolines= lines of
equal value.)
 Dysmetric mapping: the objective is maily to show areas
of uniform quantities, their regardless of the unit area
boundaries.
236
 Statistical Surface
 Selection of class interval
 Type, class size/width and limit
 Selection of class interval involves generalization
 Statistical Surface
 X, Y and Z-values
 X, Y = plan metric coordinates while Z-value stands for quantity
 Smooth Statistical surface for quantitative features of
continuous nature e.g. rainfall, temperature, slope, air
pressure, etc.
 Stepped statistical surface used to represent features
discontinuous character e.g, popn density, popn change,
income distn, etc.

 237
Statistical Surface

238
 … Selection of class interval

 Selection of C.I. is very important b/c a bad choice of C.I.

may give completely wrong impression of the distribution
of a phenomonon.
 Selection of C.I. should be based on
 The C.I. should encompass the full range of data
 Class may not overlap
 No C.I. should be vacant
 The no. of C.I. shouldSelection of class interval
 be large enough to ensure the accuracy so that detail not
lost but it should not be so numerous suggesting higher
degree of accuracy than warranted by the nature of the data
 Divide the data into reasonably equal groups of observations
239
 Have logical mathematical r/ship b/n C.Is.
 … Selection of class interval
 Types of Class Interval: various systems available to group
data into classes may be described as
 i. Systems with constant C.Is.
 ii. Systems with systematically changing in which the class
become systematically smaller or larger towards the upper
end.
 iii. Systems with irregular C.I.
 Types:
 Equal C.I._= data range divided by no. of classes
 C.I. based on quartiles
 C.I. based on standard deviation
 C.I. based on arithmetic progression
 C.I. based on geometrical progression
 C.I. based on dispersed graph or scatter diagram 240
 Humankind has always needed to describe the location of features on the
earth’s surface.
 Pre-history (primitive) and immobile humans could use word descriptions
to convey the locations of hunting or fishing sites, attractions or dangers, or
other features that were of importance to them.
 Their descriptions could be simple word pictures of the location, such as
“the hill with snow on top”
 “the hole of gushing waters”
 “ at the confluence of a river”
 etc.
 However, as mobility and complexity of human activity increased it
increasingly became important to identify more & more features and to
differentiate b/n many features of the same type.
Today we must be able to describe the location of thousands of places on
earth in accurate and unequivocal terms.
 We must locate features or locale of interest
unambiguously for ourselves and we have to do the
same for others so that they can make their way.
 There are a number of different methods of specifying
location information.
 The commonly used ones include:
 Geographic coordinate system which is based on latitude and longitude
 The World Geographic Reference System (GEOREF)
 Grid Systems
 Simple Reference Grids
 Plane Rectangular Grids

 Universal Traverse Mercator System (UTMS)

 Universal Polar Stereographic (UPS) System
US Military Grid Reference System
State Plane Coordinate System (peculiar to US)
 Latitude and Longitude Positions
 The latitude and longitude graticule on a map is given for determining
positions in two different ways.

E Ø
Authalic Latitude
 2. World Geographic Reference System
 Specifying a location on the earth’s surface in terms of degrees, minutes
and seconds of north and south latitude, and of east and west longitude
appears somehow cumbersome.
 The World GEOREF allows more convenient and rapid reporting and
plotting of locations.
 The GEOREF is primarily used in military operations.
 Latitude and longitude designations are replaced by a simple set of letters
and numbers.
 The world is 1st divided into 15-degree-wide north-south and east-west
bands, utilizing the lines of longitude and latitude. (see the figure)
 The 24 longitudinal zones are lettered in an east-ward direction,
beginning at the 180th meridian.
 The 1st zone to the east of 1800 is identified by the letter A.
 This goes up to Z avoiding letter I & O.
 The twelve latitudinal bands begin with A for the 1st band north of the
South Pole and end with M at the N.P. omitting I.
  Establishing the 15 degree zones and bands results in the formation of 288
quadrangles, each uniquely identified by a pair of letters.
 The first letter of the pair identifies the vertical zone followed by horizontal
band.
 This follows the general rule of grid systems: Read right and then up”.
 See the British Isles, for example, fall largely within square
MK, using the system.
 When more accurate location descriptions are required, additional
subdivisions are used.
 Each 15-degree quadrangles subdivided into 225 1 degree
quadrangles (see Figure).
 Each of these quadrangles is identified by adding a third and fourth letter to
the original pair of letters.
 The north-south zone identified by the 3rd letter, using A through Q
(omitting I & O).
 The letters begin at the western edge of the 15-degree quadrangle.
 The east-west bands are identified by the 4th letter using same letters and
beginning at the southern edge of the 15-degree quadrangle.
 With the four identifying letters one can fully identify a 1-degree
quadrangle in the world.
World Geographic Reference System
  More closer identification of locations is provided by subdividing each 10
quadrangle into 3600 one-minute quadrangles.
 The one minute quadrangles are identified by a four digit number.
 The N-S zones are identified by the 1st two digits.
 These digits designate the zones 00 through 59, numbered west to east.
 The east-west bands are similarly numbered, from south to north.
 These numbers make up the second two digits (see Figure).

 The final level of accuracy is provided by further subdividing each 1 minute

quadrangle into decimal parts.
 The numbering system reads from left to right and then from bottom to top.
 Hence, the GEOREF coordinate identifies any 0.1 minute quadrangle in the
world using only four letters and six numbers, and any 0.01 minute
quadrangle using 4 letters and eight numbers.
 Rectangular Grid System consists of
 Cartesian Coordinates
 Reference Grids
 Plane Rectangular Grids
 Cartesian Coordinates
This is a mathematical construct based on Euclidian Geometry and defined
by origin – i.e. an initial point- and a unit distance.
In a plane 2 axes are established running through the origin and spaced so
that they are perpendicular to each other.
 The axes are called X-axis (abscissa) and Y-axis (ordinate).
3
2
II I
1
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
-1
III -2 IV
-3
-4
 To simplify calculations and avoid negative numbers
and repetition of numbers east and west or north and
south of the axes we use only Quadrant I.
 To accomplish this an arbitrary large value, called a
false easting, is given to the Y-axis origin.
 A second arbitrary large value, called a false northing,
is given to the X-axis origin.
 This in effect moves the new origin (grid reference,
0,0) off the map to the southwest, resulting in all
positive values for X and Y within the map area.
 Rectangular Reference Grids
 Maps may have special reference grids superimposed on them in addition to
the lines of latitude and longitude.
These grids are simply drawn after it has been constructed.

 They are used for locational purpose alone.
 They are designed so that the curvature of the earth’s surface is not taken
into account when they are used for they cover small area.
 Hence curvature becomes negligible.
Reference grids of this type often use letters to designate the horizontal bands
and numbers to designate the vertical ones.
 Both series begin at the lower left corner of the map.
 The numbering and lettering patterns are not standardized.
 The major shortcoming of such grids is that they are specific to each map
 Hence they do not tie into any overall locational system.``

H
G
F
E
D
Square 4D
C
B
A
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Plane Rectangular Grids
 One or more plane rectangular grid systems may be
superimposed on a map after it has been constructed on a
latitude and longitude graticule.
The purpose of such grids is to provide an easily used
locational system that does not require the introduction of
correction for the curvature of the earth.
Reason for why coordinate system came to appear on maps.
With the increasing range of artillery in WWI, it became
more and more difficult for an army to arrive at accurate
azimuth (bearing or direction) and range (distance)
calculations to a target.
 Until WWI, battles were fought hand to hand, or enemies
were within sight of one another.
Plane Rectangular Grids
However with an increase with range of ammunition visual
sighting of targets was no longer necessary, but trajectories had
to be calculated in real time in the field.
Thus as the range of ammunition increased armies had to
calculate where to shoot without being able to see the target.
 Calculations involving latitude & longitude are cumbersome for
quick field calculation..
 To simplify the problem, the Frenches were the first to construct
and use a series of local plane, rectangular coordinate grids on
their maps.
 This proved so useful that other nations quickly followed suit.
 Then cartographers started using them in mapping.
Today the use of rectangular grid systems is almost universal.
To establish a plane rectangular coordinate…Rectangular
system, the Grids

procedure is as follows:
 1st a map is made by transforming the spherical surface to a
plane.
 Then, a rectangular plane coordinate grid is placed over the
map.
 The coordinate grid is most often tied to the map by placing
the origin of the coordinate grid somewhere near the center of
interest on the map.
 The perpendicular axes of the coordinate grid are usually
made to coincide with straight line meridians and/or parallels,
if they exist.
 To locate a position, you need to specify the X and Y
coordinates of that point.
 One can do so to whatever degree of precision one desires in
decimal divisions of whatever earth distance units are used for the coordinate
system.
Plane Rectangular Grids …
It is a standard practice for large scale maps to be on
conformal projections.
On such projections coordinate reference grids maintain the
accuracy you need to calculate directions and distances.
Under such system, every point on the earth surface has an
unique pair of coordinates.
The pair of coordinates of a point are called a grid
reference.
 There is a conventional way to read grid reference in
rectangular map coordinates.
You always give X value first which is called easting
followed by Y value called northing.
A rule of thumb is that one always reads “right, up”
 The following figure shows that point P can be given an easting
value of 14.5 and a northing value of 20.4 by decimal subdivision
of the square.

22

21

*P
20

19

18
12 13 14 15 16

A proportion of a rectangular grid . If the square are 1 km on a side ,

then point P may be located to within a 10 m2 with the grid reference
14562041
Plane Rectangular Grids …
When used on a map , a grid reference is given as an even
set of numbers run together.
The first half of the group is the easting coordinate value
while the second half is the northing.
Decimals are not shown, but are deduced from the
numbering of the lines.
Thus the grid reference noted in the above figure for point P
would be 145201.
With lesser precision it would be 1420 whereas with greater
precision it would be 14562041.
Plane Rectangular Grids …
 The accuracy with which you can use a plane coordinate system depends on
the way the scale factor (SFs) are arranged on the map.
 This, of course , depends upon the map projection.
 In the early part of this country, a variety of projections were used for plane
coordinate system.
 This days however, most plane coordinate systems are based on only 3 map
projections which all are conformal:
 Traverse Mercator,
 The Polar Stereographic and
 Lambert’s Conformal Conic .
 For regions positioned astride or close to the equator one can safely use Mercator
projection.
 Plane coordinates are not usually used on small-scale maps.
 The distortions resulting from transforming the spherical surface to the plane
are so great on small-scale maps that detailed calculations and positioning are
difficult.
 Thus plane coordinates are used only on large scale maps.
 Plane Rectangular Grids …
For regions positioned astride or close to the equator one
can safely use Mercator projection.
Plane coordinates are not usually used on small-scale
maps.
 The distortions resulting from transforming the spherical
surface to the plane are so great on small-scale maps that
detailed calculations and positioning are difficult.
Thus plane coordinates are used only on large scale maps.
Most large scale topographic maps show one or more
systems of plane coordinates.
In the 1:50000 topographic maps of Ethiopia two
reference or coordinate grid systems indicated.
 Plane Rectangular Grids: Universal Traverse Mercator (UTM)
System
 The UTM grid system has been widely adopted
for topographic mapping, satellite imagery,
natural resources data bases, and other
applications that require precise positioning.
 It is a metric system i.e. the meter is the basic
unit of measurement.
 In the UTM grid system, the area of the earth
b/n 840 and 800S latitude is divided into N-S
columns of 60 of longitude wide.
 These columns are called UTM Zones/Gores.
 They are numbered from 1 to 60 eastward,
beginning at the 180th meridian.
 Each column is divided into quadrilaterals of 80
latitude.
 The rows of quadrilateral are assigned letters C
to X consecutively (I & O omitted) beginning at
800 latitude
UTM Gores (Zones)
 UTM System
Each quadrilateral is assigned a number-letter
combination.
For example, 18S denotes a quadrilateral 60 in
longitude, b/n 780 W and 720 W, and 80 in latitude, b/n
320 and 400N.
Each 60 by 80 quadrilateral is divided into 100,000-
meter zones.
 These zones are designated by a system of letter
combinations arranged so that the same two-letter
combination is not repeated within 180.
Within each 100,000-meter square, you can specify an
easting of up to five digits and a northing of up to five
digits.
UTM Gores (Zones)
 UTM System
 In a civilian UTM system
1st a false origin is established, 500,000 meters
west of the central meridian of each UTM zone.
In the Northern Hemisphere, this origin is on the
equator; in the Southern Hemisphere; it is
10,000,000 meters south of the equator.
A square grid, with the lines extended north and
east from the
origin, provides a basic locational framework.
 With such framework, any point on the earth’s
surface, within each zone, has a unique
coordinate.
 Universal Traverse Mercator (UTM) zone
 Zone 37
840 N 00

Central
Meridian Central
Meridian

» 00 10,000,000 m

360 420 E 800S

390
UTM Zones of Africa
1Adindan - GeoRepository

Adindan is a geodetic datum first

defined in 1958 and is suitable for use
in Eritrea ; Ethiopia; South Sudan;
Sudan.
Adindan references the Clarke 1880
(RGS) ...
2Adindan / UTM zone 37N -
EPSG:20137 - EPSG.io
EPSG:20137 Projected coordinate
system for Eritrea. Ethiopia - between
36°E and 42°E. Sudan - east of 36°E.
Large and medium scale topographic
mapping ...
 Techniques of Relief Representation

An accurate topographical map can be used as a basis of

much geographical work and can provide much of definite
and exact information which can be used as a basis for
various purposes and as “ a starting point for further
analysis.”
 Large-scale topographic map is secondary only to the
ground itself to understand a terrain. (Monkhouse &
Wilkinson, 1963).
 Topographic maps or maps in general are tools in reality like
a whole bag of tools containing more ingenious devices than
a boy scout’s knife, and if properly used it will open almost
any geographical problem…” (A. A. Miller, 1949)
 The earth surface is seldom absolutely fat,
map makers have always been challenged
to convey information about its undulations
to map users.
 Because maps are drawn or printed on a flat sheets of
paper, they are not so well-suited to representing terrain
(relief), which is a 3-dimensional phenomenon on two-
dimensional surface.
 Even the 3-D physical models and a number of other
techniques provide partial solution to the problem.
 Both qualitative and quantitative methods are used to
represent a terrain: points like spot heights, lines like
contour lines and areas like hill shading.
 Three dimensional physical models & a number of
other techniques provide partial answer to the
problem of representing a3D terrain in 2-D flat maps.
 Each technique has difficulties of its own, however,
and does not provide the total answer to the problem.
 The available traditional and digital techniques of
relief models include:
i. Spot heights,
ii. Hachures,
iii. Layer tinting,
iv. Hill shading,
v. Physical models,
vi. Block diagrams,
vi. Physiographic diagrams,
vii. Contour lines,
viii. Micro-relief forms,
ix. Digital/Terrain Elevation Model (DEM/DTM).
a. Spot heights
 This is the simplest way of relief representation.
 A spot height on a map indicates the elevation of the earth’s surface at
that point, relative to some datum.
 Sometime the number appear without a symbol.
 But often times a point symbol of some type indicate the location to
which the elevation value refers.
 Bench marks (BM) and trigonometric points are special type of spot
heights.
 They are established by geodetic surveyors and precisely located in
the field and then used as a reference points for further survey works
in the area.
 On maps special symbols are usually used to distinguish a bench mark
and trigonometric point from others (spot heights).
 They provide an exact elevation values at an identifiable location.
 But they do not provide useful height information and about the
shape of the terrain between the spot heights.
 Nor do they convey any visual 3-D t of effect.
 The same set of spot heights could conceivably represent a number of
different surface configurations.
 Hence , spot heights are often combined with one or more other
methods
 of terrain representation, e.g. contour lines
a. Spot heights
 This is the simplest way of relief representation.
 A spot height on a map indicates the elevation of the earth’s surface at
that point, relative to some datum.
 Sometime the number appear without a symbol.
 But often times a point symbol of some type indicate the location to
which the elevation value refers.
 Bench marks (BM) and trigonometric points are special type of spot
heights.
 They are established by geodetic surveyors and precisely located in
the field and then used as a reference points for further survey works
in the area.
 On maps special symbols are usually used to distinguish a bench mark
and trigonometric point from others (spot heights).
 They provide an exact elevation values at an identifiable location.
 But they do not provide useful height information and about the
shape of the terrain between the spot heights.
 Nor do they convey any visual 3-D t of effect.
 The same set of spot heights could conceivably represent a number of
different surface configurations.
 Hence , spot heights are often combined with one or more other
methods
 of terrain representation, e.g. contour lines
 b. Hachures
 Hachures are also an older mode of representing relief.
 They are a form of shading, although different from the one
used in shaded maps.
 They show the orientation of slope, and by their thickness
and overall density they provide a general sense of steepness.
Hachtures
 Being non-numeric, they are less useful to a scientific survey
than contours, but can successfully communicate quite
specific shapes of terrain.
 c. Layer Tints.
 Also called hypsometric tints.
 Often used to fill in b/n contour lines or isobaths to give a stronger
visual indication of general elevation or water depth zones.
 Hypsometric tints are related to contour lines.
 They can be used to depict ranges of elevation as bands of color,
usually in a graduated scheme, or as a color ramp applied to contour
lines themselves.
 A typical scheme progresses from dark greens for lower elevations up
through yellows/browns, and on to grays and white at the highest
elevations.
 Hypsometric tinting of maps and globes is often accompanied by a
similar method of bathymetric tinting to convey depth of oceans;
lighter shades of blue represent shallower water such as the
continental shelf and darker shades deeper regions.
D. Hill shading
 It is also known by other names such as plastic shading and relief
shading.
 This is one of visually effective means of indicating the shape of a terrain.
 It simulates the cast shadow thrown upon a raised relief map, or more
abstractly upon the planetary surface represented.
 The shadows normally follow the English convention of top-left lighting
in which the light source is placed near the upper-left corner of the map.
 It is the application of gray values to the map so that the modeling of the
surface is apparent.
 The idea of hill shading can be visualized by imagining that a light has
been placed elsewhere in the upper left so that it shines on a three-
dimensional terrain model.
 The light is angled at 450 that it strikes obliquely, from the upper-left
corner of the model and shadows are cast toward the lower right.
 If a vertical photograph is taken of this illuminated model, the result is a
type of hill shaded map.
 This days computer assisted techniques have been used to produce hill
shading maps.
Hill Shading
 Illumination is from
upper-right corner at 450
 Shading in gray scale from
lightest in the upper left to
darkest in the lower right.
 Hence shadow casts
toward southeast
  Traditionally drawn with charcoal,
airbrush and other artist's media,
shaded relief is today almost
exclusively computer-generated using
Shaded Relief digital elevation models, with a
resulting different look and feel.
 Much work has been done in digitally
recreating the work of Swiss master
Eduard Imhof, widely regarded as the
master of manual hill-shading
technique and theory.
 Imhof's contributions included a
multi-color approach to shading, with
purples in valleys and yellows on
peaks.
 Shaded relief today can be created
digitally, using a digital elevation
model (DEM) as its basis. The DEM
may be converted to shaded relief
using software such as Photoshop or
ArcMap's Spatial Analyst extension.
 One difference b/n an illuminated model and hill-shaded
map is that the shadows cast on the model always fall directly
in the direction of the light.
 This means that features that trend in the same direction as
the light falls often do not cast sufficient shadow to show their
actual relief.
 With hill shading, on the other hand, the gray values are
determined on the basis of angle of illumination and the
amount of light striking the surface.
 Shortcoming of Hill shading
 The successful creation of strong 3-D effect may produce very dark tonal values
in some areas, which decrease the visibility of other map details (symbols).
 It cannot provide an accurate height values.
 Hence to avoid such short comings spot heights are used with hill shading.
e. Physical Models
This is the most straight forward means of showing
the 3-D aspect of the earth’s surface.
In this case the third dimension does not have to
be simulated, as it does on maps, b/c it actually
exists, and the hills and valleys of the terrain are
directly seen and understood.
 Despite their visual appeal, terrain models are not
used extensively.
This is b/c they are expensive to build and also
involves handling and storage problems.
f. Physiographic illustration
 Physiorgaphic diagrams are a pictorial method of representing
the earth’s surface.
 They consist of an oblique view of a portion of the surface from a
position high above the ground.

 Pioneered by Hungarian-American cartographer Erwin Raisz,

this technique uses generalized texture to imitate landform
shapes over a large area.
 A combination of hill profile and shaded relief, this style of relief
representation is simultaneously idiosyncratic to its creator and
very useful in illustrating geomorphological patterns.
g. Block Diagrams
 Block diagram is a a pictorial representation
of a portion of the earth’s surface, drawn as
though it were a picture taken at an oblique
angle from the window of a high flying
aircraft.
 The oblique angle of view contributes to the 3-
D impression that is the hallmark of such
presentation.
 The terrain is drawn as though it were a piece
of the surface, sliced from the earth in a block,
and the sides of the block are usually shown in
the drawing.
 Although block diagrams
are visually attractive and Block Diagrams
provide a n effective 3-D
appearance.
 But they have
disadvantages to those of
physiographic diagrams.
 1st planimetric
displacement occurs.
 2nd , the oblique viewing
angle causes features with
high elevations to block the
view of lower features
located behind them.
 They are not designed for
the measurement off
distances or elevations.
 Exaggeration is usually
introduced.

u
 Illuminated contours has
been developed to bring h. Illuminated
more effective visual
impression of relief to what Contours
is, otherwise, a standard
contour map.
 In this method, the overall
map is covered with an
intermediate value of gray
or of some single color.
 An imaginary source of
light is placed at the upper-
left corner of the map.
 The contours on the side of
the landform facing the
light source are show as
white lines.
 However, the contours on
the side away from the light
source are shown as dark
lines, as though they are in
shadow.
 The result is a strong impression of the region’s
surface relief.
The other advantage of this method, in addition to
the visual effect of relief, is that the contours can
be read in the usual way.
It is still possible to measure and estimate
elevation . using conventional techniques.
It is unfortunate that the method gives the
unrealistic impression that the terrain surface is
made up of layers, instead of continuous slopes.
 Contour is an imaginary h. Contours
line that joins points of
equal elevation above or
below some datum.
 The contours drawn on
topographic maps are
extremely important b/c
they provide the basis
for the development of a
great deal of helpful
information about the
terrain.
i. Contour Interval (C. I.)
 C. I. is vertical distance between two successive contour
lines.
 Within one map C.I., in principle, has constant value.
 However, if the terrain relatively flat, a close interval is
used so that the small vertical differences can be seen.
 If, on the other hand, the terrain is more mountainous, a
wider interval is used so that map details are not
overwhelmed by detailed contour information.
 The choice of a good contour line interval is very
important as the qualitative and quantitative perception
of an area depends upon it.
 It is certain that the smaller the selected interval is, the
more accurate the relief is represented.
 However, an interval which is too small, results in a
contour line pattern, which is too dense, obscuring the
other topographic details.
The selection of C.I. can be influenced by factors
such as
a) The scale of the map
- A closer c.i. is generally selected for large scale, detailed
maps so that the density of contour lines is sufficient to
provide a good representation of the shape of the terrain.
-A wider interval is used for small scales generalized maps,
to avoid overcrowding.
b) The type of area
- Two C.I. may be used on one map in areas which are
abrupt and very contrast in relief.
- In such case, a clear interval is used in the areas that
have relatively flat terrain and a wider interval is
used in the steep areas.
C ) The purpose of the map or requirement of map user.
d) Economic consideration.
e) The survey techniques applied.
Some recommended contour intervals

Map scale High mountain Low mountain Lowland & hilly

areas areas areas
1:10 000 10 5 2
1:50 000 20 -25 10 -20 5
1: 100 000 50 25 5 -10
1: 250 000 100 50 10 -20
1: 500 000 200 100 20
1: 1 000 000 200 -500 100 20 -50
 Type of Contour Lines
1. Index contour
 In areas of complex terrain, map makers commonly accentuate every
fourth or fifth contour by drawing in wider line weight.
 Such contourlines are called index contours.
 They are easily identified and followed, and have
numbers inserted at interval along their length to
indicate the elevation they represent.
2. Regular contours
These are lines which are drawn with a finer line
weight, spaced at the regular interval and lie b/n the
index contours.
These may also be referred to as an intermediate
contours and as such they may or may not be
numbered.
3. Supplementary Contours
 These are additional contours, sually drawn at intervals that are
some regular fraction of the basic contour interval, often half.
 They are often applied in areas of flat terrain where contours are
widely drawn.
 They are usually dawn as dashed or dotted lines to distinguish with
other contour lines.
 They may start and end at any point.
4. Depression Contour
 These are contour lines drawn with short ticks at right
angles to the contour line.
 The ticks point down slope toward the bottom of the
depression.
5. Approximate Contours.
 These are contour lines drawn in inaccessible areas, heavy forest
areas, and where the forest cover obscure the view of the terrain in
aerial photographs or similar problem.
 In such areas contours lines represent likely surfaces and drawn
6. Carrying Contours
 If a series of contours fall very close together If a series of
contours fall extremely together as in very steep areas or in
cliffy or water fall areas.
 In this regard a single contour is drawn to represent several
contours that d be drawn to represent several other contours
that would be drawn had sufficient map space been available.
7. Underwater Contours
 These are contours that represent underwater surface which
once had been exposed before the area was flooded.
 They indicate elevations above the same datum as the land
surface contours on the map.
8. Depth curve or Isobaths. These are contours drawn to
represent underwater configuration.
Contour Interpretation

 In a number of circumstances knowing the terrain

situation (characteristics) of a particular area in
advance is valuable.
 Activities such as engineering projects, military
operations, land utilization & management, geological
& geomorphological surveys, geographical studies, and
others including day-to-day activities as camping,
hiking, etc. demand good understanding of a terrain.
 A number of map analysis techniques are used to
determine terrain characteristics.
Topographic maps are particularly useful for terrain
analysis projects.
Contour lines are the fundamental sources of terrain
 There are several rules to note when viewing
topographic maps:
 The rule of V's: sharp-pointed v’s usually are stream valleys,
with the drainage channel passing through the point of the v, with
the V's pointing upstream. This is a consequence of erosion.
 The rule of O's: closed loops are normally uphill on the inside
and downhill on the outside, and the innermost loop is the
highest area.
 If a loop instead represents a depression, some maps note this
by short lines radiating from the inside of the loop, called
"hachures".
 Spacing of contours: close contours indicate a steep slope;
distant contours a shallow slope.
 Two or more contour lines merging indicates a cliff.
 Of course, to determine differences in elevation between two
points, the contour interval, or distance in altitude between two
adjacent contour lines, must be known, and this is given at the
bottom of the map.
 Usually contour intervals are consistent throughout a map, but
there are exceptions.
 Sometimes intermediate contours are present in flatter areas;
these can be dashed or dotted lines at half the noted contour
interval.
 When contours are used with hypsometric tints on a small-scale
map that includes mountains and flatter low-lying areas, it is
common to have smaller intervals at lower elevations so that
detail is shown in all areas.
 Conversely, for an island which consists of a plateau surrounded
by steep cliffs, it is possible to use smaller intervals as the height
increases.
Contour Characteristics
 One characteristics of contours is that they all close by
returning to the point from which they started.
 This is always the case although the closure does not necessarily occur on a
given map sheet. .
 Contours that close on a given sheet represent either hills or depressions
of relatively limited size.
 Depressions are also differentiated from hills by the use of depression
contours with their distinctive tick-marks.
 Second, the horizontal spacing of contour lines reveals the
nature of the slopes that the lines represent.
 The vertical interval between contour elevations is constant, if not two c.i.
in case of very contrastive terrain.
 Therefore variation in horizontal spacing reflect variations in slope
gradient.
- If the contour lines are evenly spaced on the map, the slope is uniform.
- Widely spaced lines indicate a gentle slope .
- Closely spaced contour lines, on the other hand, indicate a steep slope.
- If the contour lines are closely spaced at the top and widely spaced at the
bottom, the slope has concave shape.
- If the contour are closely spaced at the bottom and widely spaced the top,
the slope has a convex shape.
Thirdly, the shape of contour reflects other aspects of the terrain.
 For example,
 Water-cut stream valleys frequently have what is characteristic as on V-
shaped cross-section or simply an inverted “U or V” shape, the contours that
cross valleys point in the upstream direction.
 The closed ends of contours that represent ridges or drainage divides, on the
other hand, point in the downstream direction.
 The relative sharpness or rounded form of the contours as they cross the
ridge line reflects the form of the ridge itself.

296Thus, the shapes of ridges, valleys, hills, and

depressions, as well as the characteristics of
slopes, are indicated by the arrangement of
contour lines on a map.
 Article Reading & Presentation Assignment
 Each of you, individually or in pair,
expected to read thoroughly the material.
 Then identify and outline the main ideas,
methodology used, findings and
conclusions.
Finally reflect your assessment result in
the form of judgement by listing the
strength and weak points and gaps.
The article could be book chapter or an
article published in a scientific journal.
297
N Topic Presenters Date of Remark
o presentation
Distribution

1. Geographic Information
Science & Maps (20 p)
17/12/12
10:30-11:00 am

2. Communication Theory and Dec 09, 2014 book

Cartographic Communication 2:00 -2:30 pm chapters
Process (system)
3 GIS & Cartography and the 18/12/12 GIS &
relationship of GIS and Other 10:30-11:00 Computer
Disciplines (17 p). cartography

4. Statistical mapping Dec 11, 2014

2:00- 2:30 pm
5. Scale and Generalization : 12/12/14 2 book
Cartographic Generalization 2:00 – 2:30 pm chapters

6. Thematic Cartography and 15/12/14 Book chapter

Geovisualization: Principles of 11:00 -11:30 am
Symbolization
7. Color theory and Models 16/12/14 Bbok chapter
298
11:00- 11:30 am
 ... Continued
No Topic Presenters Date of Remark
 presentation
8. Map Design and Production Book chap
9. A New Look at Cartography and 17/12/14
Future Research Directions in 11:00 -11:30 am
Cartographic Communication and
Design
10. Data Models for Digital 18/12/14 Book:
Cartographic Information 11:00 -11:30 Elements of
am cartography
p.169 - 186
11 Cartographic communication and 19/12/14 GIS &
Visualization (19 p) 11:00-11:30 Computer
cartography
13. Web Cartography: web mapping
(10? P)
Cartography at Work: Maps as
decision tools
299
 Distribution of Topic for Seminar Papers and Date of
Presentation after 3 weeks starting from Dec 19, 2011.
S/n Name of student Seminar topic Date of R
Present. e
m
a
r
k

1 Berhane Survey of application of GIS and RS environment in the Addis Ja 14, 10am
Ababa City Municipality.
W/Yesus
2 Netsanet Reorganization of EMA in the light of Cartography January 14,-
Technology Revolution. 11:00 am
habtamu (Integration of cartography with digital technology and GIS in
the activities of EMA and institutional readjustment)

3 Teshome Survey of application of GIS and RS environment in the Ja 15, 10am

Ethiopian Road Authority
Matusala
4. Endrias Teka Maps are communication tools: production, functions and Ja 15, 11 am
characteristics past and present

5 Bireda History and development of mapping in Ethiopia, its current Ja 16,13

status and contribution of private mapping organizations 10 am
Alemayehu (consultants).

6 Workaferahu The role of Ethiopian Mapping Agency (EMA), Information Ja 16,

Network Security Agency (INSA) and Ethiopian Standards 11 am 300
Ameneshewa
 Continued
8 ? Survey of Application of GIS and RS Environment: case of Ja 17/13
Ministry of Water Resource Development and Energy 11 am

Reading Assignment

1 Ja 18/13,
10 am

2 Ja 18/13
11:00 am

4 Color theory and Models

301
 Reading Assignment and Class Presentation

Presenter(s) Topic for presentation Date of Remark:

presenta source
tion
1 Cartography yesterday, today Nov , Book
and tomorrow.: history and 2017: chapter
development of cartography 10:00am

2 Scale and Generalization : Nov 30, Book

Cartographic Generalization 2017: chapter
10:00am
3 Thematic Cartography and Dec 01, Book
Geovisualization: Principles of 2017:10:00 chapter
Symbolization am

4 Color theory and Models Dec Book

05,2017:10 chapter
am

302
 Presenter(s Topic for presentation Date of Remark:
) presentation source
1 Cartography yesterday, today Nov 28 , 2018: Book chapter&
and tomorrow.: history and 10:00am Internet sources
development of cartography
2 Scale and Generalization : Nov 30, 2018: Book chapter&
Cartographic Generalization 10:00am Internet sources
3 Cartography and Dec 03, 2018, Book chapter&
Geovisualization: Principles of 10:00am Internet sources
Symbolization
4 Colour theory and Models Dec 05 , Book chapter&
2018:10am Internet sources

5 Location: Coordinate systems Dec 10, 2018, Book chapters&

10:00 am Internet sources
6 Statistical and Thematic Dec 12, 2018, Book chapter &
Mapping 10:00 am Internet sources
303