EEE-281

Introduction to Power
Engineering
Fahd Ali Shifa
Lecturer, Office no. G-02, ECE Department,
COMSATS University Islamabad, Islamabad Campus.
Email: fahd.shifa@comsats.edu.pk

1
  Cosine of angle between voltage & current in AC circuits
 Said to be lagging for inductive loads since current lags voltage while said to
be leading for capacitive loads since current leads voltage
 Large reactive component of load current ‘Isinφ’ means larger φ (lower PF)
 Power factor correction (PFC) involves reduction of reactive/sine component
of load current
Power Factor  Sometimes expressed in percentage e.g. “0.8 PF leading” also expressed as
(PF) 80% leading

2
  Power triangle obtained by multiplying each vector with voltage ‘V’ in figure
6.1, therefore, by Pythagoras theorem:
OB = OA2 + AB2
S = P 2 + Q2 and PF = cosφ = P/S
 Reactive power (Q) drawn from supply for lagging PFs and vice versa while
power triangle reversed about x-axis for leading PF
 Poor lagging PF improved by connecting device with leading PF and vice
Power Triangle versa [1]

[1] Reactive phasors are anti-phase and tend to ‘shift the balance’.

3
  Given: An AC circuit draws 10A current at 220V and 0.85 PF
lagging
 Calculations:
 Apparent power = S = VI = 220x10 VA = 2200VA
 Real power = P = VIcosφ = 220x10x0.85 W = 1870W
Illustrative  Reactive power = Q = VIsinφ = 220x10xsin(cos-10.85) VAR = 1159VAR

Example  Observation: Supply must send 2200 VA to load which requires

only 1870 W for operation
 Supply must send ‘Isinφ’ to load along with useful component
‘Icosφ’ thereby increasing transmission requirements
 Transmission costs can be reduced if this reactive component is
provided to load locally

VAR = Volt Ampere Reactive

4
  For single phase circuits
 P = VLILcosφ
 IL = P/Vlcosφ
 For three phase circuits
Load Current  P = 3VLILcosφ
and Power  IL = P/ 3Vlcosφ

Factor  Observation: For same amount of power transferred at same

voltage, line current is inversely proportional to PF
 Higher the PF, lower the line current and associated losses

5
 i. Larger requirements of kVA rating of equipment
 Electrical machinery (transformers, generators, protective equipment) always
rated in kVA
 ‘kVA = kW/cosφ’ → Lower the power factor greater would have to be the kVA
Disadvantages rating of equipment to supply the given kW

of Low Power ii. Greater conductor size (larger current flowing through it)
 10kW motor operating @ 230V & unity PF draws 10000/230 A = 43.5A
Factor  Same motor operating at 0.85 PF lagging has kVA rating of 10/0.85 kVA =
11.8kVA thereby drawing 11800/230 A = 51.3A from supply
iii. Large copper losses → I2R losses (Increase due to increase in current)
iv. Poor voltage regulation → Due to increase in I2R losses

6
  Excessive use of induction motors (IM) in industries
 PF between 0.2 – 0.3 when IM lightly loaded and between 0.8 – 0.9
at full load
Causes of Low  Arc lamps, electric discharge lamps, industrial heating furnace
Power Factor operate at low Power Factors
 Variable load on power system result in corresponding PF
variations

7
Power Factor
1. Static capacitor
Correction 2. Synchronous condenser
(PFC) 3. Phase advancers
Technique

8
  Connected in parallel with equipment and draws leading current from
supply thereby cancelling out the lagging component of load current
 Raises power factor by supplying a portion of load current locally
 Advantages → low losses, low maintenance requirements [1], light-
weight, easy installation, can work under normal atmospheric conditions
 Disadvantages → short service life [2], damaged due to over-voltages,
repairs are uneconomical if damaged, provide easy path to ground to
Static higher order harmonics causing heating of capacitor bank

Capacitors

[1] no rotating parts

[2] 8 – 10 years

9
  Synchronous condenser → Synchronous motor takes up leading current when
over-excited behaving like capacitor
 Over-excitation: DC voltage to rotor higher than that required for rated
voltage
 Advantages → step-less control of PF [1], motor windings have high thermal
stability to ISC [2], faults easy to remove
 Disadvantages → considerable losses in motor, high maintenance cost, noise,
cost more than static capacitors for sizes less than 500 kVA, complicated
Synchronous starting of motor (via prime-mover or by starting as an induction motor)

Condensers Some real current is also drawn

from supply due to losses
inside synchronous motors

[1] current can be adjusted continually rather than in steps or taps to adjust PF
continually.
[2] Thermal stability is the ability of any equipment to withstand heating effect under
given current conditions.

10
  Used to improve PF of induction motors
 The reason for low power factor of induction motor is that the stator
windings draw exciting current which lags supply voltage by 90o
 Solution: Provide exciting current via some other AC source mounted on
the same shaft connected to rotor circuit
Phase  Stator winding is relieved of exciting current and power factor is thereby
Advancers increased
 Provides exciting ampere-turns to rotor at slip frequency so that lagging
kVAR drawn from supply are reduced
 Advantage: May be used where synchronous motors can not be used
 Disadvantage: Not economical for motors rated below 200 HP

11
  Problem: Inductive Load drawing lagging
current I at cosφ1
 Solution: Connect device drawing leading
current (capacitor) in parallel
 Draws current IC which leads voltage by 90o
Power Factor  Phasor diagram shown in figure
 Current IC subtracted from Isinφ to give
Correction new resultant reactive current
(PFC)  New PF ‘cosφ2’ higher than old PF ‘cosφ1’
 New current drawn by load is I’ at cosφ2
lagging
 Value of capacitor calculated as:
1 V C I
XC = ωC = I which implies C = ωV
C

12
 Statement: An alternator is supplying a load of 300 kW at a PF of
0.6 lagging. If the power factor is raised to unity, how many more
kilowatts can alternator supply for the same kVA loading?
Solution:
Example 6.1 kVA rating of alternator = kW rating/PF = 300/0.6 kVA = 500kVA
Power in kW supplied by 500kVA generator at unity PF = 500x1 kW =
500kW
So the generator can supply 200kW more power at unity PF.

13
 Statement: A single phase motor connected to
400 V, 50 Hz supply takes 31.7A at 0.7 lagging.
Compute the capacitance required in parallel
with the motor to raise the power factor to 0.9
lagging.
Solution: Phasor diagram can be drawn as
shown in figure.
Now OA = IMcosφM = 31.7x0.7 A = 22.19A
Example 6.2 This component will remain the same at both
PFs (Static capacitors only improve reactive
component of I)
OA 22.19
So Isinφ = × sin cos −1 0.9 A = ×
0.9 0.9
0.436 A = 10.75A
IC = IMsinφM – 10.75 = 31.7sin(cos-10.7) – 10.75
A = 11.9A
IC 11.9
C = = F = 9.47x10-5 F = 94.7μF
ωV 2π(50)(400)

14
15
 Statement: A 3-phase, 5 kW induction motor has a PF of 0.75 lagging. A bank
of capacitors is connected in delta across the supply terminals and PF raised
to 0.9 lagging. Compute the kVAR rating of the capacitors connected in each
phase.
Solution:
Pin = Pout/efficiency (assumed to be 100%) = Pout = 5kW
Example 6.4 Original kVA = 5/0.75 kVA = 6.67kVA
Original kVAR = 6.67sin(cos-10.75) kVAR = 4.40kVAR
New kVA = 5/0.9 kVA = 5.56kVA
New kVAR = 5.56sin(cos-10.9) kVAR = 2.45 kVAR
kVAR supplied by capacitor bank = 4.40 – 2.45 kVAR = 1.95kVAR
kVAR supplied per phase = 1.95/3 kVAR = 0.65 kVAR

16
 Statement: A 3-phase, 50 Hz, 400 V motor develops 100 H.P. (74.6 kW), the power
factor being 0.75 lagging and efficiency 93%. A bank of capacitors is connected in
delta across the supply terminals and power factor raised to 0.95 lagging. Each of
the capacitance units is built of 4 similar 100 V capacitors. Compute the
capacitance of each capacitor.
Solution: Pin = Pout/efficiency = 74.6/0.93 kW = 80.22kW
Original kVA = 80.22/0.75 kVA = 107kVA
Original kVAR = 107sin(cos-10.75) kVAR = 70.8kVAR

Example 6.5 New kVA = 80.22/0.95 kVA = 84.44kVA

New kVAR = 84.44sin(cos-10.95) kVAR = 26.37kVAR
kVAR supplied by capacitor bank = 70.8 – 26.37 kVAR = 44.43kVAR
kVAR supplied per phase = 44.43/3 kVAR = 14.81kVAR
Let C be capacitance of capacitors in each phase. Then phase current ICph = Vph/Xph
ICph = 2πfCVph = 125664C A and kVAR/ph = VphICph/1000 = 400x125664C/1000 =
50265.6C
C = 14.81/50265.6 F = 2.94x10-4F so CP = 4C = 1178.5μF (Sol)

17
Example 6.6: The load on an installation is 800 kW, 0.8 lagging PF which works for 3000 hours per annum. The
tariff is Rs. 100 per kVA plus 20 paisa per kWh. If the power factor is improved to 0.9 lagging by means of loss-free
capacitors costing Rs. 60 per kVAR, compute the annual saving effected. Allow 10% per annum for interest and
depreciation on capacitors.
Solution:
Old load kVA = 800/0.8 kVA = 1000kVA
Old load kVAR = 1000sin(cos-10.8) kVAR = 600 kVAR
kVA cost = Rs. 1000x100/- = Rs. 100000/-
Total annual kWh = 800x3000 kWh = 2400000kWh;
Example 6.6
kWh cost = Rs. 2400000 x (20/100) = Rs. 480000/-
Total cost = Rs. 480000+100000 /- = Rs. 580000/-
New load kVA = 800/0.9 kVA = 889kVA
New load kVAR = 889sin(cos-10.9) kVAR = 387.5 kVAR
Compensation provided by capacitors = 600 – 387.5 kVAR = 212.5kVAR;
Capacitor cost = Rs. 60x212.5/- = Rs. 12750/-; 10% for interest + depreciation = Rs. 1275/-
New kVA cost = Rs. 889x100/- = Rs. 88900/-
Total cost = Rs. 88900+480000+1275 /- = Rs. 570175/-
Annual saving = Rs. 580000 – 570175 /- = Rs. 9825/-

18
100 W per kVAR or
0.1 kW per kVAR
NOT 100 W per kVA

19
 Statement: A factory operates at 0.8 p.f. lagging and has a monthly demand of
750 kVA. The monthly power rate is Rs 8.50 per kVA. To improve the power factor,
250 kVA capacitors are installed in which there is negligible power loss. The
installed cost of equipment is Rs 20,000 and fixed charges are estimated at 10%
per year. Compute the annual saving effected by the use of capacitors.
Solution: Real component of monthly demand = 750x0.8 kW = 600kW
Reactive component of monthly demand = 750x0.6 kVAR = 450kVAR
Improvement in kVAR = 450 – 250 kVAR = 200kVAR (∵ kVA = kVAR because of
Example 6.8 negligible losses in capacitors)
New monthly kVA = 6002 + 2002 kVA = 632.5kVA
Monthly kVA reduction = 750 – 632.5 kVA = 117.5kVA
Monthly kVA saving = Rs. 117.5x8.5 = Rs. 998.75/-
Yearly kVA saving = Rs. 12x998.75 /- = Rs. 11,985/-
Yearly fixed charges = Rs. 0.1x20000/- = Rs. 2000/-
Total yearly savings = Rs. 11,985 – 2000 /- = Rs. 9985/- (Sol)

20
 Statement: A synchronous motor improves the power factor of a load of 200
kW from 0.8 lagging to 0.9 lagging. Simultaneously the motor carries a load of
80 kW. Compute (i) the leading kVAR taken by the motor (ii) kVA rating of the
motor and (iii) power factor at which the motor operates.
Solution: Phasor diagram can be drawn as shown in figure.
OD = 200+80 kW = 280kW, CD = 280xtan(cos-10.9) kVAR = 135.6kVAR
AB = 200xtan(cos-10.8) kVAR = 150kVAR
Example 6.9 Leading kVAR taken by motor = 150 – 135.6 kVAR = 14.4kVAR (Sol i)
kVA rating of motor = 802 + 14.42 kVA = 81.3kVA (Sol ii)
Power factor at which the motor operates = 80/81.3
cosφM = 0.984 leading (Sol iii)

21
22
23
24
 Attempt all the tutorial problems on
pages 116 – 117 of the softcopy of
Exercise 1
your textbook available from shared
OneDrive link

25
 1. Industrial consumers must pay charges for his maximum demand in kVA
plus the amount of energy used
 Improving power factor reduces maximum demand (in kVA) thereby
Importance of reducing max. demand charges
PF  Installation of PFC equipment costs money but saves money in long term
Improvement 2. PF very important to the generation system as well
 Measure of how much energy transferred by generation equipment
 Low PF demands high rating kVA equipment to supply the required kW

26
  Maximum demand of consumer decreases when PFC techniques
are employed thereby resulting in annual savings
 Capital costs of PFC technique must be paid off in multiple annual
installments, therefore:
Net saving = kVA savings – PFC annual expenditure
 As power factor is improved, kVA savings and PFC annual
Most expenditure are increased (not at the same rate)
Economical PF  Value to which the PF must be improved to ensure maximum
annual savings known as most economical PF
𝑦 2
 Most economical power factor is given by: 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑2 = 1− [1]
𝑥
 Where, ‘x’ is charging rate of annual max. demand in ‘Rs. Per kVA’
and ‘y’ is the cost of PFC equipment in ‘Rs. Per kVAR’
 Most economical PF is independent of original PF cosφ1

[1] φ2 is the phase angle after PFC techniques have been applied.

27
  Suppose, a consumer drawing ‘P kW’ power at power factor of ‘cosϕ1’ is charged
for max. demand @ ‘Rs. x per kVA’ and PFC equipment costs @ ‘Rs. y per kVAR
per annum’ [1]
 Let us find the most economical PF ‘cosϕ2’ at which the net savings of this
consumer are maximized
 kVA demand at cosϕ1 = P/cosϕ1 = Psecϕ1
 kVA demand at cosϕ2 = P/cosϕ2 = Psecϕ2
Most  Savings from kVA reduction = x(Psecϕ1 – Psecϕ2) = xP (secϕ1 – secϕ2)
Economical PF  kVAR improvement (kVARs of PFC technique) = yP(tanϕ1 – tanϕ2)
 Net Saving = xP (secϕ1 – secϕ2) – yP(tanϕ1 – tanϕ2) (i)
 Since only ‘ϕ2’ is variable in (i) therefore, maximum savings are achieved when
‘d/dϕ2’ of (i) is zero
 Or, xPsecϕ2 tanϕ2 = yPsec 2 ϕ2 which implies xsinϕ2 = y or sinϕ2 = y/x
𝑦 2
 Which gives 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙2 = 1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜙2 = 1− as the most economical PF
𝑥

[1] interest and depreciation already considered in ‘y’.

28
 Statement: A factory which has a maximum demand of 175 kW at a
power factor of 0.75 lagging is charged at Rs 72 per kVA per annum.
If the phase advancing equipment costs Rs 120 per kVAR, find the
most economical power factor at which the factory should operate.
Interest and depreciation total 10% of the capital investment on the
phase advancing equipment.
Solution:
Example 6.13 x = Rs. 72 per kVA per annum
y = Rs. 120x0.1 per kVAR = Rs. 12 per kVAR
𝑦 2 12 2
Most economical PF, 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑2 = 1− = 1− =
𝑥 72
𝟎. 𝟗𝟖𝟔 𝐥𝐚𝐠𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐠 (Sol)

29
 Statement: A consumer has an average demand of 400 kW at a p.f. of 0.8 lagging
and annual load factor of 50%. The tariff is Rs 50 per kVA of maximum demand per
annum plus 5 paise per kWh. If the power factor is improved to 0.95 lagging by
installing phase advancing equipment, compute:
(i) the capacity of the phase advancing equipment
(ii) the annual saving effected
The phase advancing equipment costs Rs 100 per kVAR and the annual interest
and depreciation together amount to 10%.

Example 6.14 Solution: Load factor = Average load/Max. demand which implies Max. demand =
400/0.5 kW = 800kW; Original kVA rating = 800/0.8 kVA = 1000kVA
Leading kVAR of equipment = P(tan𝜑1 − tan𝜑2 ) = 800(0.75 – 0.33) kVAR =
336kVAR (Sol i)
New kVA rating = 800/0.95 kVA = 842.1kVA; Reduction in kVA = 1000 – 842.1 kVA
= 157.9kVA
Savings on kVA = Rs. 157.9x50 /- = Rs. 7895/-
Annual expenditure on PFC equipment = Rs. 100x0.1x336 /- = Rs. 3360/-
Annual saving = Rs. (7895-3360)/- = Rs. 4535/- (Sol ii)

30
kVAR compensation = P(tanϕ1 – tanϕ2) = 100(0.88 – 0.75) = 13 kVAR
Expenditure on PFC = Rs. 60 x 13 = Rs. 780
Net savings = Rs. (834 – 780) = Rs. 54 per annum
Note that we are not considering charges of energy consumption in this example as they do not effect savings if
PFC technique employed is lossless.
Example: At 0.85 PF, KVA savings = Rs. 1568 and expenditure on PFC = Rs. 1560 thereby affecting a net saving of
Rs. 8 per annum

31
32
Example 6.17
An industrial load takes 80,000 units in a year, the average power factor being 0.707 lagging.
The recorded maximum demand is 500 kVA. The tariff is Rs 120 per kVA of maximum demand
plus 2.5 paise per kWh. Compute the annual cost of supply and find out the annual saving in
cost by installing phase advancing plant costing Rs 50 per kVAR which raises the p.f. from 0.707
to 0.9 lagging. Allow 10% per year on the cost of phase advancing plant to cover all additional
costs.
Solution:
Energy consumed = 80000kWh; Cost incurred on consumption = Rs. 0.025x80000 /- = Rs. 2000/-;
Expenditure on max. demand = Rs. 120x500 /- = Rs. 60,000/-
Annual cost of supply = Rs. 60000 + 2000 /- = Rs. 62000/- (Sol)
Power consumed at 0.707 lagging, P = 500x0.707 kW = 353.5kW;
kVAR compensation = P(tan𝜑1 − tan𝜑2 ) = 353.5(1 – 0.48) kVAR = 183.82kVAR
Expenditure on compensation = Rs. 0.1x50x183.82 /- = Rs. 919/-
New kVA = 353.5/0.9 kVA = 392.8kVA; Reduction in kVA = 500 – 392.8 kVA = 107.2kVA
Savings on kVA demand = Rs. 107.2x120 /- = Rs. 12864/-
Annual savings = Rs. 12864 – 919 /- = Rs. 11,945/- (Sol)

33
 1. Are the net savings obtained in example 6.17 the max. possible
savings that can be made or can they still be maximized?
Exercise 2 Illustrate your thought process.
2. If the savings in example 6.17 are not maximum, then compute
the maximum net savings that can be made?

34
 Attempt all the tutorial problems on
pages 121 of the softcopy of your
Exercise 3
textbook available from shared
OneDrive link

35