Accepted Manuscript

Integrating Solar Photovoltaic Energy Conversion Systems into

industrial and commercial electrical energy utilization—A Survey

K. Padmanathan , Uma Govindarajan ,

Vigna K. Ramachandaramurthy , T. Sudar Oli Selvi ,
Baskaran Jeevarathinam

PII: S2452-414X(17)30074-2
DOI: 10.1016/j.jii.2018.01.003
Reference: JII 53

To appear in: Journal of Industrial Information Integration

Received date: 8 October 2017

Revised date: 7 January 2018
Accepted date: 8 January 2018

Please cite this article as: K. Padmanathan , Uma Govindarajan , Vigna K. Ramachandaramurthy ,
T. Sudar Oli Selvi , Baskaran Jeevarathinam , Integrating Solar Photovoltaic Energy Conversion Sys-
tems into industrial and commercial electrical energy utilization—A Survey, Journal of Industrial Infor-
mation Integration (2018), doi: 10.1016/j.jii.2018.01.003

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 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Highlights

 Industrial Information Integration Engineering concepts.

 Solar PV system and its prices and technology trend.
 Revolution in solar cell conversion efficiencies.
 Effect of partial shading on various Solar PV modules arrangement.
 Technical issues and challenges of components in solar PV plants.

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Integrating Solar Photovoltaic Energy Conversion Systems into industrial and

commercial electrical energy utilization—A Survey
Padmanathan K.1,*, Uma. Govindarajan1, Vigna K. Ramachandaramurthy2,
Sudar Oli Selvi. T.1, Baskaran Jeevarathinam3,
1
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, College of Engineering, Guindy, Anna University, Chennai, Tamilnadu-600025, India; uma@annauniv.edu; tselvi@annauniv.edu
2
Institute of Power Engineering, Department of Electrical Power Engineering, College of Engineering, Universiti Tenaga Nasional, Kajang 43000, Malaysia; vigna@uniten.edu.my
3
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Adhiparasakthi Engineering College, Melmaruvathur, Tamil Nadu 603319, India; baski11@gmail.com
*
Correspondence: padmanathanindia@gmail.com; Tel.: +91-9500144328

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Journal of Industrial Information Integration xx (20xx) xx–xx

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Industrial Information Integration

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jii

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Integrating Solar Photovoltaic Energy Conversion Systems into Industrial and

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Commercial Electrical Plants—A Survey

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ABSTRACT
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Exploration of energy technology market and the role of innovation in solar energy form the core research hypothesis in this paper. There is a
phenomenal growth experienced in solar photovoltaic (PV) energy market. Technological advancements have reduced the cost of solar PV generation
and brought policy changes from governments across the globe. Among the solar energy technologies, solar PV system is becoming increasingly popular.
Thus, there is a need to assess the pro-poor technology solutions, including field performance, consumer adoption, grid interconnection, energy storage
and environmental impact assessment. This paper examines the technical issues and challenges of components associated with the generation of energy
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in solar PV plants. Emphasis is also given to solar PV modelling. Finally, the paper analyzes the important studies from the perspective of fault analysis
and the need for energy storage and compiles them in a cohesive manner to highlight the research gaps. There is a possibility that highly educated
consumers may misinterpret the information regarding solar energy and electricity. Hence, this paper shall provide an insight thereby making an
interaction between industry-information-integration-communication with the society about new solar PV energy technology and energy management
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system. Furthermore, the application of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) and its benefits together with the environmental impact
assessment (EIA) will be elaborated.

Keywords: Solar PV System; Market Pricing; Technology trends; Technical Issues; Interpretations and Recommendations.
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© 20xx Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Highlights


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Industrial Information Integration Engineering concepts.

 Solar PV system and its prices and technology trend.
 Revolution in solar cell conversion efficiencies.
 Effect of partial shading on various Solar PV modules arrangement.
 Technical issues and challenges of components in solar PV plants.
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1. Introduction technologies, in a flexible and reversible manner, is necessary to

Industrial Information Integration Engineering (IIIE)
perception is essential for the innovation and evolution of
technologies. Li Da Xu (2015) [1] and Li Da Xu et al (2016) [2]
demarcated the correlation of design concepts and ideas for IIIE.
Similarly, another study by Chen (2016) [3] deliberated and
provided a holistic view about IIIE. The IIIE structure has been
classified into five interconnected levels which encompass the
integration of engineering system. The development of new
conserve natural resources. Figure 1 provides a simplified and
integrated method for Socio-Economical-Technical and
Environmental (SETE) aspects of sustainability. Implementing
solar energy systems in a systematic manner will pave way for a
clear linkage among all the counterparts involved. Pansera, M
et.al (2016) considered novel impressions through grassroots for
sustainable development [4].
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Source: Own depiction and partially adapted from Pansera, M et.al (2016)

globe. Though the solar PV technology plays a prominent role in

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Fig. 1. Integrated method for Socio-Economical-Technical and Environmental
Solar PV technology is gaining immense attention across the by Indian solar energy players are graphically represented.
Various experts have contributed to concepts of solar PV energy
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the power sector, it is still subversive to factors, such as high systems and components. These consolidated outcomes are
capital cost and low efficiency in power generation, which leads presented here which will further aid in the enhancement of the
to lesser acceptability. In rural areas, where the cost to provide solar PV energy system.
grid connection is relatively high, solar PV system provides much
hope. However, in urban areas, solar PV systems are becoming
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more common and people often install PV systems on their house

rooftops for energy generation. Although there is a huge technical
potential and large-scale deployment of solar energy technologies
available, there are still financial and technical barriers all over
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the world. Unless both technical and financial barriers are

overcome, the increase in energy supplied from the solar PV
system will necessitate the continual of costly energy policies.
The amount of solar energy which gets converted into
electrical power and fed into the common grid or stored in
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batteries is highly dependent on seasonal variations, temperature

variation, losses in the system, and battery/grid conditioning
losses. Hence, there is a need for new strategies to address the Fig. 2. Solar energy developmental barriers ratings in India [6].
challenges due to the aforementioned factors. The solar PV
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system generally encompasses components such as Power
Conditioning Unit (PCU), PV module array, tracking mechanism,
wiring for interconnection, Supervisory Control and Data
Acquisition (SCADA), Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT),
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This study intends to highlight the significance of the solar PV
system and characterization of the components with regard to grid
code compliance. Further, it will also explore the technical
requirements that meet the limitations cited in the literature
especially in the field of trial results and technical failures. The

and batteries for storage. The layout for internal solar power plant
and its distribution grid needs evaluation to ensure the best design
and control for solar PV plants. Mohamed, et al. [5] investigated
the significance of grid-connected PV system characterization. An
in-depth analysis was conducted by Rathore, et al. [6] through
interview with regards to the opportunities and obstacles faced by
Indian solar energy developers in various aspects. About 63%
Indian solar energy players feel that the policy, regulatory and
technological aspects act as the barrier in their business while
53% developers mentioned that, in addition to the above,
infrastructure barriers too, add burden on the developers
significantly. Next to the above, 27% and 28% developers feel
other set of barriers as financing, transparency and accountability
aspects. In the figure 2, all the above discussed challenges faced
study also generates information after comparing the Indian
electricity markets with global ones so that more awareness and
access are created among the public with redefined perceptions
about solar PV energy system. Furthermore, certain new evidence
can be found out from the study in order to support new policy
decision towards EIA which can be concluded from market
coordination, transition challenge and removal of barriers that
hinder restructuring with command-and-control measures.
2. Solar Project Executions Outline
The solar PV system project plan is detailed as the prominent
communication platform such that all the members receive
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knowledge about the specific project objectives and how their role stages with different teams conjoined together to achieve the
is interwined in the project. In figure 3, the execution of solar PV execution tasks. In order to achieve smooth scheduling of generic
energy project is outlined. The objectives are derived at various processes, Gantt charts can be used while executing the project.

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Fig. 3. Outline of solar project execution

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3. Pricing Trend of Solar PV System Hardware Cost Soft Cost Others Cost

Over the years, the total solar PV system costs have declined
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by more than 70%. The high rate of utilization and demand for Photovoltaic Installation Supply Chain
energy led to such changes in pricing. The cost of solar PV system Module Cost Cost
relies on several factors. Padmanathan, et al. [7] considered the
detailed costing models ranging from 1kW to 1MW in Indian
solar PV energy market. Furthermore, they considered Multiple Customer
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Inverter Labour Cost

acquisition cost
Criteria Decision Making (MCDM) analysis in decision making,
stakeholder process and performance of solar PV System in
Indian market scenario. Jäger-Waldau [8] deliberated the growth balance-of- Construction
Taxes
of electricity sector in India since 1947-2017. Central Electricity
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system (BOS) Cost

Authority (CEA), Bridge to India and solar mango have been
contributing a more genuine and practical results in solar energy
field in terms of market scenario, technology transition, policy Fig. 4. Solar PV System Cost Drivers [16].
changes, forecasting studies, barriers and Strength, Weakness,
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Opportunities, Threats (SWOT) perspective [9-14].
The costs of the solar PV system could be segregated as soft
costs, hardware cost, and other costs. The hardware cost
encompasses inverters, modules, tracking, and Balance-Of-
System (BOS) hardware, which are necessary for the preparation
of a complete PV energy system. However, the soft costs and
other costs category include costs such as labor, installation, and
development of utility-scale and commercial PV systems [15, 16].
The drivers of the solar PV system cost are depicted in figure 4.
Observations of several literatures have revealed that the price
of solar PV modules is not stable and fluctuates every week. This
is due to the ups and downs in the market prices, demand and
final end prices that are based on mutual negotiation, reduction in
profit of manufacturer module, and the stress of market
acquisition. The conducting path in solar cells is made up of silver
and its price changes from time to time at the manufacturing
stage. In addition, there are also changes in the prices of shares
which further affect the INR value. Based on the aforementioned
factors of fluctuation, an analysis was performed to estimate the
future prices of cells. In 2014, suppliers in China have dominated
the entire market for solar module. The Chinese module
manufacturers continue to lead the rankings in solar module
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manufacturing. Although China is the largest market in the globe,

it is closed to suppliers from outside the nation [16].

Fig. 6. Solar system and components cost trends since 2012 to 2016

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4. PV System

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Fig. 5. Commercial Trend of Solar PV Installation Price (Main Source: NREL)
[16]. A grid-connected PV system is made up of solar PV Modules,
one or more inverters, power conditioning units, and equipment

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From figure 5, it can be observed that a drastic drop in overall for grid connection. Typically, PV systems are implemented as
solar PV system cost is evident over the last few years. Key small residential and commercial rooftop to large-scale solar PV
market developments are envisioned since there is a decline in plants. Grid-connected PV systems are cheaper when compared
prices of inverters, module price, labor, installation and the with stand-alone PV systems and battery storage system (Off-
Balance-Of-System (BOS). With a maximum of 20% Compound Grid). The stand-alone and off grid PV system may also
Annual Growth Rate (CAGR), the prices of modules are expected
to decrease to 30 Cents/Wp in the year 2018 from 260 Cents/Wp in
2009. The average was taken on a global basis from National
Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) source since there is a
US encompass an integrated battery solution which can make the
system expensive. Even highly educated people misinterpret the
information regarding solar energy utilization. A classic example
is that the consumers are yet to understand the difference between
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variation in region-to-region tax, labor cost and module cost. This solar thermal and solar PV system and the variants available in
concludes that the module prices are the key factor in deciding the Solar PV system and its applications. Figure 7 clearly presents the
cost of solar PV system (Ezysolare). Likewise, in the figure 6, the visual diagram for grid tied, off grid, stand alone and utility scale
cost trends of PV solar system and its components in India from solar project.
2012 to 2016 are shown.
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Fig. 7. Visualized diagram for grid tied, off grid, stand alone and utility scale solar project (Schneider Electric) [17]
Şenol, et al. [18] presented a process that uses location study, The manuscript concluded two best possible system sizes.
components of solar PV energy system, costs analysis, Anticipated CO2 emission is factored into the design. The figures
meteorological data analysis, load flow analysis and overview of 8 to 12 exemplify the block diagram and visual diagram for grid
international standards for the main solar PV system components. tied, off grid, stand alone and utility scale solar project.
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Fig. 8. Block diagram for grid tied PV System

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Eltawil, et al. [5] examined the potential and technical

problems of grid-connected solar PV systems, where the survey
revealed that the solar PV grid connected inverters performed
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Fig. 9. Block diagram for off-grid PV System
better than other inverters. High conversion efficiency and power
factor exceeding more than 90% in wide operating mode aided the
reduction of Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) to less than 5%.
Harmonic distortion requirements, islanding detection, and
electromagnetic interference are important issues for grid-
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connected PV system application. The control circuit includes

enhanced control and protective functions, such as inverter current
control, power factor control, and maximum power tracking.
When PV inverters with a variable power factor at high
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penetration levels are used, the probability of islanding increases.

Furthermore, as per the literature [5], PV inverters are
recommended to be operated under unity power factor. The figure
13 illustrated the solar PV system components.
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Fig.10. Block diagram for standalone PV System

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Fig. 11. Block diagram for utility scale PV project

Fig. 13. Illustrated the solar PV system components

5. PV Modules

PV modules utilize light energy particles called ‗photons‘,

which is radiated from the sun, to generate electricity. The rating
for each module is given by its DC output power under the
Standard Test Conditions (STC), where it ranges between 100 to
365 Watts. The module efficiency varies between 14% to 17%
with same wattage and different physical dimensions for different
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manufacturers in the market. There are only a few solar modules
that are available commercially which exceed 22% efficiency
[19], [20]. A solar PV plant consists of PV modules that are
arranged in parallel or series or a mixture to meet the consumer
demand. PV modules manufactured from different materials have
improved efficiency and are available in the market in different
sizes. Majority of the modules utilize wafer-based thin film cells
or crystalline silicon cells. In figure 14, various layers in a solar
PV module are depicted. It is a general misconception that solar
modules are made up of glass which makes it vulnerable.
However solar modules can withstand snow loads (5400 PA) and
wind loads (2400 PA).
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Fig. 14. layers of solar PV module
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Kinsey, et al. [21] modeled a spectral response of the PV
module, wherein the revenue and energy yields were calculated.
For such an examination, four modules made from different
materials, such as multi-crystalline silicon, cadmium telluride,
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monocrystalline silicon, and copper indium gallium selenide were
used at several places in the United States. The results of the
research discern the fact that performance was measured based on
parameters such as external quantum efficiency, daily module
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charge density, hourly clear sky efficiency, energy yield, and
annual revenue. The examination of these parameters revealed
that the modules made from cadmium telluride technology were
better when compared with other technologies. This paved the
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way for new technology modules for an optimized design.
Babu, et al. [22] reduced the PV module to a two-diode model
for simplified PV design. MATLAB was used to perform
simulations which met the practical values of PV modules for
different technologies such as monocrystalline and
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multicrystalline. When compared with a single diode model, the
two-diode method was easier to design and was more energy
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efficient. The examination was performed with various modules
from several manufacturers and they revealed similar results.
Peters, et al. [23] examined various parameters of the textured
multicrystalline silicon wafer solar module parameters. The
modules were associated with glass front surface reflection,
textured solar cell surface, metal fingers, anti-reflection coating
absorption, glass pane, encapsulation layer and front surface
encapsulation. The paper concluded that the current losses are due
to non-perfect solar cell internal quantum efficiency. The analysis
of the losses was based on the model called ‗spherical cap‘ which
is considered for the texture of solar cell front-surface. The
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analytical model describes the absorption in the coating for Anti-
Reflection (AR) and trapping of light in the glass cover. All the
losses were examined under the reflectance module, breakdown of
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the current losses and External Quantum Efficiency (EQE)
module. The measured and simulated signal quantum efficiency
had more than 98% accuracy. Hence, the proposed model is
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promising in enhancing the efficiency of the module [23].
Ye, et al. [24] stated ‗PV module degradation‘ as one of the
major drawbacks in PV system, though the running cost of the
system was relatively less. However, the PV module has a life
span of around 20 to 25 years, which made the investors to think
about the capital cost. In tropical nations such as Singapore, the
PV module degradation was reduced compared to other nations.
In this context, ten types of solar PV modules that were made up
of various materials were used for the analysis. It include CdTe,
Heterojunction crystalline Si, Multicrystalline Si, CIGS, single-
junction/double-junction amorphous Si, Monocrystalline Si back
contact, double-junction ―micromorph‖ Si, and monocrystalline Si
(glass–back sheet with frame and glass–glass without frame).
Statistical decomposition methods were utilized to extract
various factors such as Performance Ratio (PR), Short-Circuit
Current (ISC), Open-Circuit Voltage (VOC), and Fill Factor (FF).
The date for measurement from the Outdoor Module Testing
(OMT) facility at the Solar Energy Research Institute of
Singapore (SERIS) was used for the degradation analysis. It was
revealed that the degradation rates of the monocrystalline Si
modules were less than −0.8% a year, while the degradation of
multi crystalline Si module was around −1.0% per year. The a-Si,
micromorph Si, and CdTe modules revealed a rate of degradation
of around −2% per year. The CIGS module, discerned an
exceptional degradation rate of approximately 6% a year [21].
The state-of-the-art research emphasizes on solar cell
conversion efficiency; decreasing the costs of solar cells, systems
and modules; and enhancing PV components and systems
reliability [25]. Figure 15 elaborates various solar cell efficiency
developments from 1975 to 2015.
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Fig. 15. Development pathway of solar cell conversion efficiencies (Source: NREL[25])
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Kalkman, et al. [26] analyzed the available PV technologies
and predicted the future's top three PV technologies such as
perovskite, quantum dot PVs, and concentrated PVs. These
technologies are predicted to be the most preferred and disruptive
emerging PV technologies in the upcoming decade. However, the
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challenge would be to beat C-Si as it continues to break new
records for higher efficiencies. Furthermore, these technologies
are also not assured to meet the rising needs and will increase the
PV installed capacity rankings in the next decade.
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In the figure 16, the reason behind the failure of module is
depicted based on the field engineer survey conducted by Bridge
to India [27].
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Fig. 16. Reasons for module failure [27]
In a study conducted by Moballegh, et al. [28], the peak power
prediction of PV module was analyzed using various modeling
techniques such as Total Cross Tied (TCT), Series Parallel (SP)
and Bridge Linked (BP) on 10 different shading areas. The TCT
model was proved to be efficient when scrutinized 10 different
shading areas, followed by the SP module which was
comparatively better than the BP module. With the help of both I-
V and P-V characteristics of the PV module and tabulations of
output voltage – output power of PV, the TCT model was proved
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to be better when compared with other models [28]. A new and
smart PV module was designed and analyzed by Mazumdar, et al.
[29] which consists of a DC-DC converter with H bridge inverter
operating on feed forward control that acts as the smart AC
module, in which it controls the output AC voltage directly. These
kind of smart modules are preferred for curved surfaces where the
insolation and temperature cause different outputs from one
module to another. Here, the DC link electrolytic capacitors were
replaced by film capacitors for better reliability.
6. Power Electronic Configuration
In solar PV system, power electronics and its applications play
a vital role. In this section, the PV-based power generation and its
implications on related power electronic circuits are reviewed.
Power electronic configurations such as Maximum Power Point
Tracking (MPPT), inverter, and power converters (DC–AC, AC-
DC, DC-DC) are mainly used in a solar power plant. A DC-DC
converter interfacing two non-identical solar panels helps in
maintaining the required current and voltage. Numerous non-
isolated DC-DC converters, such as Buck, Buck-boost, Boost, and
CUK topologies with suitable modification can be used.
Strache, et al [30] proposed different types of inverters for
different locations. For example, string inverter, micro inverter,
and power optimizer were tested and compared in different
locations like PV plant, top of the vehicle, facade PV installation,
and roof top PV installation in order to determine the best location
with high efficiency. Different types of Solar Cells (SC) such as
Monocrystalline Silicon (Mc-Si), Dye-Sensitized SC (DSSC), and
triple junction concentrator PV (CPV) were also used to
determine the suitable inverter for various locations.
Krithiga, et al. [31] designed and investigated a new
configuration using the multilevel boost converter and line
commutated inverter for maximum power from PV, where the use
of separated maximum power point closed loop controller was
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avoided. A new topology of inverter was designed by Li Zhang et
al. [32] in which the use of a transformer for PV-grid connected
system was eliminated. Also, the new H6 topology was compared
with the earlier topologies of H5, and Highly Efficient and
Reliable Inverter Concept (HERIC), and it was found that the new
topology was better in terms of power loss and device cost than
others. However, the leakage current was relatively the same.
When compared with other Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)
techniques, the Sinusoidal PWM technique gave a better
differential mode performance, thus, enabling this type of
inverters to be used in a single phase grid-connected PV system.
Sintamarean et al. [33] designed and implemented a 250 kVA
PV inverter that consisted of MOSFET and diodes. The proposed
design tool comprised of Real Field Mission Profile Model
(RFMP), which was implemented and tested for one year in two
different areas, such as Denmark and the USA. The research
results described the device‘s degradation, lifetime, electro
thermal model, and PV model of both the areas. This design tool
helped researchers in analyzing the devices that are used in the PV
inverters, such as loading current, voltage variations, ambient
temperature, and device degradation level. With these data, highly
efficient PV inverters can be designed.
In a study conducted by Hu, et al. [34] a thermal camera was
used to find the healthy and faulty areas of solar module for
Maximum Power Point Tracking of PV system. The thermal
camera produced thermograph images that gave clear pictures of
the healthy and unhealthy sections. With these data, the faulty
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area was sorted out and the Maximum Power Point Tracking was
implemented. A 600 watts PV array boost converter was also
tested, and two faults were investigated, such as single-module
fault in one string and two-module fault in the other string.
As mentioned in a study by Zhou, et al. [35] the power
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converters were replaced with a PV balancer. Two architectures
were designed and verified with different irradiance areas. These
PV balancers were also known as the module integrated inverters
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where each module of the PV array consisted of a PV balancer for
the MPPT. In Architecture I, the input of PV balancers is from the
common DC bus. In Architecture II, the PV balancers share the
front-end converter with the input. The front-end converter steps
down the DC bus voltage and feeds relatively low voltage to the
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PV balancers in each module. Each architecture has its own
features. Among the above mentioned architectures, the
architecture II is more economical and efficient, but with
complicated connection, whereas architecture I is simpler and
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modularized, but with less efficiency and more cost. For
demonstration purpose, the two architectures were connected to
fly back and buck-boost converters with input voltage of 28 Volts.
Thus, it can be said that the development of Module-Integrated
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Converters (MICs) will lead to a new way in replacing power
converters.
According to Wang, et al. [36], one of the important tasks of
PV is the Maximum Power Point Tracking. Here, two Globally
Maximum Power Point Tracking (GMPPT) methods, namely Skip
Judge Global MPPT (SSJ GMPPT) and Rapid Global MPPT
(RGMPPT) were introduced. The results showed that these
methods were highly accurate and fast under partial shading
conditions. Among the two methods, the SSJ GMPPT method had
high accuracy and fast speed searching, whereas the RGMPPT
method had high accuracy & less speed. The setup was carried out
with a 1 kW panel that comprised of a boost converter and a
microcontroller for the purpose of tracking.
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Zhou, et al. [37] opined that the important part of the PV-
based system was the inverter. Among the types of inverter, the Z
source or Quasi Z source inverter is the commonly used inverter
in most systems. The Z source inverter has a problem with Double
Frequency Ripple Energy (DFRE). However, it can be eliminated
either by high capacitance value or by changing the voltage across
the input. In some methods, the electrolytic capacitors are used.
However, due to aging, the chemical used may get evaporated and
will finally reduce the capacitance value. In this article, a different
modulation strategy and a variation of voltages across the input
were used to buffer the DFRE. By using this strategy, a 1 kW
system was developed and tested, and better results were obtained
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with less efficiency reduction.
Khan, et al. [38] proposed Sub module-integrated converters
(SubMics) for harvesting maximum solar energy. The SubMics
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model is compared with central inverter configuration under
various operating conditions like partial shading and uneven
temperature distribution [38]. On the other hand, a new inverter
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topology was designed by Sachin Jain et al. [39] which not only
boosted the output of the PV array, but also converted the DC
produced by the PV array to AC, for feeding into the grid. The
topology comprised of two DC to DC converters which operated
in Discontinuous-Conduction Mode (DCM). Hill Climbing and
Perturb and Observe methods were used as the MPPT for the
proposed topology.
Shen, et al. [40] proposed a converter that can convert the
solar panel output into AC for grid connection. The proposed PV
generation system comprised of a DC-DC converter, high
frequency transformer, AC-DC converter and DC-AC converter.
The converter operates under high frequency, with grounded
negative terminal to avoid current leakage and corrosion of
transparent conductive oxide in the PV arrays. The output current
of the proposed converter had THD of less than 5%.
According to Wu, et al. [41] the electromagnetic radiation
from the DC side of the PV system was evaluated between 150
kHz and 30 MHz frequencies. The generated DC power in the PV
system will be transferred via DC-DC converter to the grid.
Electromagnetic radiation is an important factor to be monitored
during power conversion in the PV power generation system. The
frame wire installed in the PV system affects the noise radiated
from the PV power generation system. Other than that, the noise
level is dependent on the layout of the frame wire. At low
frequency, the radiation magnetic field is suppressed as the frame
wire is connected to the edge of the PV panel and grounded along
the lines of the DC cable. However, the radiation magnetic field
increases at low frequency when the frame wire is connected to
the edge of the frame of the PV panel and grounded
perpendicularly.
A Real Time Series Resistance Monitoring System (RTSR)
was developed by Deceglie, et al. [42] that helped in monitoring
the PV system during failures of micro inverters or DC power
optimizers. It also provided early notification of some of the most
common reliability issues and posed fire risks, including broken
ribbons, broken solder bonds, and contact problems in the
junction or combiner box. Along with irradiance and module
temperature, two datasets, namely operational dataset of the
current and voltage of the device, were used for the RTSR under
operating load. The authors considered the Voc and operating
point data rather than the full I–V curves for analyzing RTSR for
the PV system. Indeed, the PV system investors benefited from
the RTSR system since the costs associated with hands-on
inspections are reduced.
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11 et al. / Journal of Industrial Information Integration x (20xx) xx–xx

According to Francisco D. Munoz, et al. [43], the

measurement of PV energy is pivotal for the implementation of
renewable energy plants. Therefore, in order to study the PV for
investment, an endogenous assessment needs to be made. This
article proposes a probabilistic capacity expansion model and the
data were compared with the existing deterministic planning
methods. Based on the comparison, a deterministic reserve margin
planning approach is designed and the results replicate the
behavior of a more detailed probabilistic model for different
ranges of solar PV penetrations. Fig. 17. Comparison of EPC Cost and Cable cost in Solar PV project. [27]
Rodriguez, et al. [44] offers very attractive application of
Finite Control Set - Model Predictive Control (MPC) for Power

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Electronics and Drives. Furthermore, this is reviewed various
application of power converter using MPC which is used to cover
the complete grid connected PV system configuration applying

IP
MPPT.

7. Cables

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In PV systems-based power generation, a solar cable is used as
an interconnection between solar panels and other electrical
components in the PV system. It is usually designed as UV- Fig. 18. Copper and Aluminum estimated share in DC cables (String and Main DC
resistant and weather resistant. Being high-temperature tolerant,
these cables are generally laid outside.

7.1. DC cables
US 7.2. AC cables
cable) [27]
AN
DC cables connect modules to inverters which accounts to 2%
in overall solar project cost except those which are pre-connected LT cables are nothing but AC cables that possess high voltage
with modules. These cables impose significant impact on the rated capacity which are usually utilized to connect inverters to
power output. Care should be taken to avoid safety hazards, transformer and transformer to on-site substation. Currently, 1000
V rating cables are used in this purpose which are being replaced
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reduced power output and other performance issues [27] which

may arise due to improper design, poor cable selection etc., by 1,500 V cables slowly.
HT cables are utilized when there is high voltage power
7.1.1. Classified into two types: transmitted from on-site substation to transmission grid
substation. Based on the capacity of the projects, the cables‘
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String DC cables: These cables are utilized to both interconnect
solar modules and connecting the modules with string combiner
boxes or array combiner boxes. Those cables that are used for
interconnecting modules are factory-made. But the cables that are
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voltage rating may vary from 11,000 V to 33,000V.
LT and HT cables are generally preferred in power sector in
both conventional as well as renewable energy power generation
plants. But DC cables are preferred in solar projects [27].

required to interconnect strings and to connect with combiner

boxes need to be procured. String DC cables can carry 10 Ampere 8. Partial Shading
(A) current and to perform this, a small cross section (2.5 sq mm
to 10 sq mm) is sufficient. Usually, continuous or timed shading affect the performance
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of solar PV systems especially when a cloudy sky or any specific

Main DC cables: Main DC cables are utilized to connect
combiner boxes with inverters and usually carry high current of
about 200-600 A in utility scale projects and require larger cross
section (95 sq mm to 400 sq mm) [27].
AC
object hides sunlight from being shed on the solar panels.
However, these scenarios, which may decrease the performance
of PV systems, can be mitigated or avoided through various ways.
In solar PV systems, it is a common scenario that shadow falls on

In the figures 17 and 18, the market share of Cu and Al in DC
cables in Indian solar PV projects is projected. The DC cable,
string DC cable and main DC cable accounts to 2%, 30% and
70% in EPC cost respectively. Likewise, the string DC Cable
made up of 100% copper and main DC cables 10% copper and
90% aluminum [27].
some of its cells. When partial shading occurs, PV characteristics
becomes complex with different peaks.
In 2015, Zapata, et al. [45] inferred that there were a number
of reasons such as seasonal variations, soiling, panel lifetime, and
partial shading that can reduce the output power of PV panels.
This research article focused on the accumulation of dust particles
or otherwise "soiling" onto the panel and its effect on economics.
The study inferred from real time data that when the panels are
clean and well maintained, the output power will be higher when
compared with panels that are rarely cleaned. The program design
was tested and implemented in real time, which then produced
much better results when compared with the standard system.
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In a research conducted by Liu, et al. [46], different
configurations of PV system were analyzed in order to measure
the performance of Building Integrated PVs (BPIV) system. The
results showed that the AC module and PV DC building module
configurations produced good results from non-shadow regions
and anti-mismatch of electrical parameters. The experiments were
conducted with different parameters of irradiance and shades such
as strong irradiance with slight shade, strong irradiance with
severe shade, weak irradiance with slight shade, and finally, weak
irradiance with severe shade.
According to Khoo, et al. [47] the solar irradiation can be
measured at different orientations with various tilt angles in order
to maximize the PV usage in the Singaporean context. With the
help of 12 silicon sensors and for a period of two years, the above
discussed experiments were conducted in order to measure the
global horizontal irradiance and diffuse horizontal irradiance with
three sky models (Liu and Jordan, Klucher, and Perez et al.) for
finding the tilted irradiance. The results inferred that an east
facing tilted angle of 10 degrees provided the expected good
results.
9. Performance Analysis
In 2013, Padmavathi, et al. [48] discussed the performance
analysis of a Karnataka-based Solar PV plant rated at 3 MW, in
accordance to the International Electrotechnical Commission
(IEC) Standard 61724. The 2011 data of the plant from
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normalized technical performance parameters were analyzed.
Losses for two years such as inverter failure losses and grid
failure losses were estimated. At every five minutes interval, the
monitored data of daily and seasonal variations in the PV plant
output are displayed. Figure 19 shows the efficiencies of the PV
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system and inverter. It can be inferred that the efficiency of PV
module varies in the range of 10.1% and 13.25%. During some
period, the PV plant performs higher than expected i.e., good
irradiation months from January to April. From July to November,
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high inverter efficiency of 96% was recorded whereas the highest
system efficiency of 12.3% was found during the month of
February.
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AC
Fig. 19. Monthly average efficiencies: PV module, system, and inverter [48].
12
10. Energy Storage
Off-grid PV systems are installed when there is no grid or
when a need arise to deploy batteries for storing the energy so that
it can be consumed when needed. Blocking diodes are used in
order to prevent the batteries from discharging on modules during
night time. Furthermore, it also helps in protecting the batteries in
the instance of a short circuit and over-current protection of the
strings when multi strings are deployed. The batteries' charging
capacity is controlled by the charge regulators. In off-grid
systems, DC-DC conversion topology is deployed to regulate the
voltage irrespective of variation of irradiance.
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In such a scenario, switch mode DC-DC converters are used in
order to align with the PV generator‘s DC output when there is
variable load. It is possible to use both grid-direct and battery-
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based systems, where, the former one utilizes inverters so that the
PV array is connected to the electric utility grid, while the latter
one is subdivided into two systems namely stand-alone system
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and electric utility backup system. In year 2014, Jan von Appen et
al. conducted a study in Germany in which they noted that the PV
usage was increasing. The increasing local consumption,
decreased feed-in-tariff, and increased electricity cost, provide the
market for storage systems.
Previously, either the standalone PV or the grid-connected PV
systems will discharge the power to their utility or to the grid,
which was changed later, due to the option of storing excess
power generated during day time. This study focused on
formulating a number of strategies to store the generated power in
batteries and to control the local voltage issues in the storage. The
strategies discussed by the authors concluded that low power
factor and big battery size actually resulted in reduced voltage
level and it was challenging to differentiate either the battery was
charged first or the reactive power was provided first. Eventually,
the storage market has increased due to increasing self-
consumption policies [49].
In 2015, Ghiassi-Farrokhfal, et al. [50] listed out the factors
that make the solar farm owners to invest in solar farms. The
factors listed were penalty, variation in price with time, storage,
voltage variation due to irradiance level of power commitment,
solar variations, and so on. This article also came up with a novel
and optimized design for PV farms that yielded similar results
when compared with numerical and practical ones. It should be
noted here that the majority (96%) of the investment went to PV
when compared with other necessities. Furthermore, the life of the
battery used to store the generated power was limited compared to
the lifespan of PV panels. At the same time, when the storage
lifetime was increased, the investment level also increased
automatically.
According to Liu, et al. [51], a predominant issue in electric
vehicles was "battery swapping". Though there were initiatives to
open battery service stations, eventually they failed due to various
reasons. In their study, Liu et al. proposed a novel strategy to
charge the EV when it was integrated with the PV-based grid
system. Initially, the battery charging was setup with constant
current charging and followed by constant voltage charging.
Nowadays, constant power charging methods are widely
implemented. This strategy has various components such as
charging unit for EV, battery storage, monitoring system, and
grid-connected PV system. The battery level in EVs was
constantly monitored by the monitoring system and at the instance
when 80% of batteries were charged, it signaled the storage
system so that the charged battery will be swapped into the EV.
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This methodology enabled one to not only swap their batteries but
also to evaluate self-consumption rates and economic profit
operations. In spite of the large number of methods in forecasting
the EV battery swapping, the authors used the wavelet neural
network method in order to calculate the battery swapping.
11. Simulation Study of Power Systems with Solar PV
It is mandatory and important to have a detailed modelling and
simulation in place so that the PV cell, module, Power
Conditioning Unit (PCU) and power systems network with solar
plant enabled with or without battery can be optimized. Likewise,
other hybrid networks converge at a point where it is implemented
using different software environments. Adding to the above,
economic analyses followed by its optimization were performed
in order to forecast the Return on Investment (ROI). The Energy
and Resources Institute (TERI) [52] and Ministry of New and
Renewable Energy (MNRE)-Government of India jointly
published article about solar PV system components and its IEC
certification and standardization in India. A detailed comparison
regarding the seven simulation softwares (Solar Pro, PVsyst,
Homer Pro, RETscreen, System Advisor Model (SAM), PV F-
Chart and pvPlanner ) that are commonly used to design Solar PV
systems are made. Comparisons of these programs have been
made to ascertain the feasibility of the softwares in design and
simulation of solar PV power systems, taking into consideration
the functions, historical weather data, pricing, module and inverter
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information [52].
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Fig.20. Summary of the solar PV simulation softwares [52]
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Solar energy conversion into electricity generation by solar PV
system can be considered approximately around 65% as
mentioned in the below figure 21.
AC
Fig.21. Summary of energy generation calculation and losses estimation [52]
A novel PV storage management was proposed by
Stimoniaris, et al. [53] in which the pseudo state of charge was
maintained, which was noninvasive to inverter. The PV-plant was
controlled through a remote control of PV-strings actuations that
were used to enhance the energy storage. A microgrid based smart
distributed system was setup with two PV-inverters of 1.1 kW
each, with six connected PV panels each, five loads of
approximately 2600-W, a 600-Ah-24-V battery bank with its own
inverter, and one wind generator of 1 kWp with its own rectifier-
charger. With the help of a special device called Special Control
Unit (SCU), the DC-AC inverters were connected. This SCU
consisted of a Voltage Transformer (VT), a Current Transformer
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(CT), and one actuator-relay which was in constant
communication with the microgrid-dedicated PC via cables and a
data acquisition card. The real time voltage, frequency, and
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energy storage management was controlled by the control
algorithm. When this algorithm was executed, better results were
obtained as they were in alignment with the practical results.
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Grid-tied PV systems typically have a power circuit consisting
of DC-DC converter and a full-bridge inverter to convert DC to
AC. The Total Harmonic Distortion, which is usually caused by
the inverter, is minimized by a low pass filter in order to ensure
that the systems are within the acceptable limits. For a boost
converter, a feedback control circuit is used to regulate the
converter output voltage. Due to the nature of ever-varying output
voltage from PV systems at load side, the control circuit is
required for a constant output voltage.
According to Weckx, et al. [54], in distribution systems, "load
balancing" is an important task especially in the case of a three-
phase system. Load balancing on each phase is challenging
because when viewed from the customer's point of view, there is
no proper separation of load in each phase. In this research article,
a charger or inverter with six inverter legs is deployed as a
replaceable source of three-phase units for a three-phase load such
as PV or EV units to the distribution network. It is possible to use
this inverter as three single-phase inverters along with a common
DC-bus. Furthermore, it should be noted that the grid conditions
can be improved when the power is absorbed from a phase with a
lower loading and injected into a phase with the highest loading.
Grid conditions can be improved with the application of a simple
local control rule. Two PV inverters, and two off-board EV
chargers which can positively balance the grid in a computational
and communication-intensive coordinated EV charging strategy
was reported.
A 100 kW novel voltage source PV inverter was designed and
implemented by Wei Du et al. [55] for Consortium for Electric
Reliability Technology Solutions (CERTS) Microgrid. Voltage
source PV inverters were packed with challenges such as load
transient, tracking of maximum power during light load that
resulted in oscillation of DC bus, and DC bus voltage collapse.
The above mentioned challenges can be overcome through droop
control. Using the PSCAD simulation, there were two islanding
cases being assessed, where one islanding case referred to micro
grid exporting power, and the other islanding case referred to
micro grid importing power (each of 100 kW) from dual sources
such as PV micro source and CERTS micro grid.
In the study conducted by Mentesidi, et al. [56] in
Mediterranean countries, three elements namely PV, wind mill,
and the Concentrated Solar Power (CSR) were combined in order
to stress the importance of generating non-conventional power. In
this setup, there were three combinations of power plants that
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were experimented such as thermal solar wind, thermo solar
hydro and thermal solar. These novel integrated power plants that
got evaluated in the recent years and forecasted for future years
for various parameters such as frequency, three-phase fault and
system voltage stability. The results concluded that the best
integrated model will be solar, CSR, and wind. In a similar study
conducted by Wandhare, et al. [57], integrated PV and wind
energy system was evaluated and concluded that it provides high
efficiency results. In this experiment, a 340 kVA grid and a 250
kVA rotor side converter were used. The results were found to be
similar in both software and hardware models such that this
integration method actually reduced the separate inverter source
for PV grid. In spite of the numerous techniques available, the
authors deployed Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation (SPWM)
technique for the converters along with the use of Proportional
Integral (PI) and PID controllers due to the reason that they
possess large bandwidth and minimum steady state error. This
study proposed an integration method that was found to be a
promising method to reap the benefits of renewable energy
sources such as wind and solar power.
A unique control method was proposed by Xiao, et al. [58]
where a comparatively better voltage profile was obtained than
the novel method of Primary Voltage Control (PVC) and
secondary voltage control. Due to the presence of Wide Area
Management System (WAMS), the voltage can be improved with
the help of Online Supervisory Voltage Control (OSVC).
Nowadays, the PV systems are designed based on the grid-voltage
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regulations. When compared between PVC and LDSVC (Line
Drop Secondary Voltage Control), the latter shows a 7%
improvement in voltage in the grid. However, there seems to be
higher communication in OSVC when WAMS is used. But the
three PV inverters, each with 8 MW operated with this OSVC
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show better response with the reactive power compensation in
response to non-uniform irradiance. If the distributed
compensation units are more, the OSVC can actually minimize
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the loss and supply reactive power to support the local loads [58].
According to Han, et al. [59], PV systems are preferred by
households across the globe due to the increasing cost of
electricity bills and fear of unavailability of renewable energy for
a long period of time. Though the PV systems are getting popular
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nowadays, the energy extraction from the nature is not efficient
due to environmental conditions and non-maintenance of the
system. A user-friendly monitoring system was proposed in this
article for residence-based PV system at a much lesser cost. In
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this system, the PLC was used both as master and slave while the
existing DC supply from the PV system was used as a medium to
connect the Master and Slave PLC. In the above setup, the Slave
PLC was placed near the PV panel whereas the Master PLC was
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placed behind the power inverter. Both PLCs contacted each other
through DC signals and data were stored regularly in the data
logger, which is a storage system for the data obtained from the
PLC. An application from which the user can retrieve the data
irrespective of time and place was also developed. A 10 kW
system was setup to demonstrate better response [59].
Aghaei, et al. [60] opined that the PV systems were being
widely used across the globe in the past two decades. So it
became mandatory to take care of the PV system so that it can
function according to the expectations and meet the energy
demands. For a PV system to perform well, the Operations and
Maintenance (O&M) should be monitored continuously. The
authors proposed an innovative automated control system which
they designed and executed. The control system had Unmanned
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Aerial Vehicle (UAV) with IR visual camera supported by the
ground control station and a controlling unit that was comprised
of an image processing unit, a decision support system, and a
database storage system. Photographs will be taken with the help
of the UAV with IR visual camera which will then be transferred
to the ground control station where image processing will be
performed and the decision support center will conclude whether
the system is working properly or any fault is found in the PV
system. This system was presented with unique methods such as
visual assessment and thermo graphic assessment so that, with the
information retrieved from this innovative control system, better
predictions can be made in terms of spotting faults such as open-
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circuited modules, complete or partial shadowing, internal short
circuits, bypass diode problem, delamination, invisible cracks or
micro-cracks, potential induced degradation, broken cell, and hot
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spots [60].
According to Li, et al. [61], the installation of renewable
energy sources such as PV, small wind mill, and energy storage
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systems has been rising incrementally among the residences due
to the reduced investment cost and increased scarcity of non-
renewable energy resources. Though the installation of these
systems comes as a boon, challenges arise in the form of
ownership and distribution of the generated power. This article
presents a novel aggregator service from the perspective of
residential buildings. This novel aggregator service was compared
with other traditional billing methods such as real time pricing,
better performance achievement, flat rate, and time of use. This
aggregator contains smart remote monitoring with control devices
enabled with Zigbee communication. The ZigBee communication
is preferred due to its less-cost, less power consuming, and
compactness characteristics which can be used to develop a
wireless sensor network that links LANs to the centralized control
platform with the help of fiber optics technology. Through this
aggregator, a consumer can benefit 78.7% of the profit margin
while the payback period reduces to 64.3%.
In a study conducted by Liu, et al. [62], the active and reactive
power in PV system output can be controlled using a cascaded
modular multilevel converter before integrating with the grid i.e.,
large-scale grid connected PV system can be controlled. This
strategy of controlling the PV system was experimented in two 3
MW, 12 kV PV systems. The simulation is carried out in
MATLAB and PSIM simulation platform. During the
implementation of the strategy discussed above, the authors used
a current-fed dual active bridge DC-DC converter and a cascaded
multi-level inverter. In this strategy, the high-voltage high-
frequency SiC power devices with switching frequency value of 5
kHz for each power device were used. The PV inverter generated
nine level output voltage with phase-shift carrier based Pulse-
Width Modulation (PWM) control. To conclude, active and
reactive power distribution systems were controlled, to enhance
the overall system operation performance.
A unique short-term forecasting model was developed by
Zhifeng, et al. [63] in order to evaluate the PV system output.
When this model was implemented, the results obtained from the
PV system showed that the accuracy was less than 20% in all
weather conditions and less than 10% during sunny condition.
Zhifeng et al. developed this model with the neural networks such
as Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) and Back Propagation
(BP). This algorithm was consciously developed after analyzing
the key factors that impacted the generation capacity such as the
analysis of "historical monitoring data" of power generation,
analysis of the solar radiation intensity impacting power
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15 et al. / Journal of Industrial Information Integration x (20xx) xx–xx
generation, and analysis of the temperature impacting power
generation. From this model, the PV system output was predicted
which helped in the implementation process of PV system even in
remote areas.
The research conducted by Abdelrazek, et al. [64] assessed the
complete active power in PV systems in order to enhance the
Battery Energy Management System (BESS) when PV Capacitor
Firming (PVCF) and the Energy Time Shifting (ETS) were
applied. The algorithm cited in this research proves the successful
performance of the BESS in the above mentioned applications.
The PV Capacitor Firming algorithm is usually dependent on a
four-stage Adaptive Filtering Control (AFC) methodology. There
are three data used of which the first is the development of a
characteristic PV curve that is developed on the basis of daily PV
power, followed by the development of a smooth characteristic
PV curve, and the development of firming power reference that
considers real-time PV station power swing magnitudes, battery
capacity, and targeted SoC at the end of the firming period.
Finally, an intermittency detection algorithm triggers the BESS to
start and stop the firming on the basis of PV station output ramp
rate. Likewise, the ETS algorithm which is designed aims at
achieving the electricity market equivalent of financial arbitrage
for ETS applications.
Mondol, et al. [65] promoted the technique of optimal sizing
of array and inverter for grid-connected PV systems and
optimizing the economic viability of grid-connected PV systems
[66].
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12. Fault Diagnosis
Manual inspection of PV system will be very costly as it
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comprises a lot of components. Among other methods, the new
voltage and current detection method is the most effective. The
conventional current and voltage detection method failed to
distinguish between the environmental factors that cause the
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decrease in power generation capacity. For the safe and reliable
operation of solar PV generation system and the improvement of
power generation efficiency, a new technology that accurately
judges the location of cell array fault is greatly needed. In this
study, the authors proposed a chaotic signal synchronization based
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PV system fault diagnosis. The proposed system is able to
determine the exact fault condition and location. In future, the
proposed fault diagnostor can be implemented by embedding the
system and combining it with the ZigBee wireless network
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module, thus, reducing labor cost and building a completely
portable renewable energy system fault diagnostor.
According to a study by Platon, et al. [67], in order to detect
a fault in PV, a neural network-based model was developed. The
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AC power produced was calculated by analyzing the irradiance
level and temperature of the panel. The results were taken every
10 minutes, then they were averaged to one hour. The obtained
values were 90% accurate despite being measured for only 10
minutes. The performance ratio was evaluated by comparing the
efficiency of the PV under standard test conditions of 1000 W/m2
solar irradiance and 25◦C PV module temperature for real
performance to the ideal performance. The setup was tested for a
120 kW PV system located in Toronto, Canada.
13. Information and Communication Technologies
Electrical network has been conventional and unchanged in
the past decade. Although, the solar energy and wind energy
systems contribute significant amount of electrical energy, the
complexity of electrical network system is still a challenge to
smart grid. A smart grid is developed by using smart apparatus,
equipment, components and elements. The smart grid behavior
and performance need to be monitored to measure every change.
The smart grid ensures the development of electrical network in
terms of reliability, flexibility, automation, efficiency, scalability,
quality-of-service, security and economics. All the measured data
and real time information are necessary to be exchanged in the
new grid infrastructure. Information and Communication
Technologies (ICT) are playing an imperative role in smart grid,
particularly with renewable energy. Gungor, et al. [68] defined the
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smart grid with ICT concepts for energy framework in end to end
system. Güngör, et al. [69] deliberated about smart grid standards
in all aspects of renovation of smart grid. In Güngör, et al. [69],
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smart grid standards were discussed by considering equipment
failures, remote sensing, timely gathering, capacity limitations
and natural accidents. These are extremely critical for ensuring
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proactive, real-time and reliable diagnoses of possible failures in
the smart grid. These types of remote sensing technologies are
vital and profitable methods for safe, seamless, and efficient
power delivery. Palensky, et al. [70] discussed the Demand Side
Management (DSM). Also, this investigation was conducted on
numerous DSM methods, and offered an interpretation on the
recent spectacle outlines in this field. Soham Adhya et al (2016)
have expedited real time remote monitoring and supervisory
control and data acquisition (SCADA) using the Internet of
Things (IoT) of protective operations in terms of all aspects of
solar PV plant [71].
14. Environmental impact of Solar PV System
―Energy is neither created nor destroyed; energy can only be
transferred or changed from one form to another” by Albert
Einstein could be adapted in the conversion of solar energy into
electricity using Solar PV system too. Solar PV system consist of
single module to millions of modules depending upon the system
size. Millions of modules around the globe have been installed
and integrated by individual and project developers. Solar energy
PV project farm/park development requires huge landscape while
the solar PV systems are beneficial to the society and at the same
time, its adverse effects are not to be ignored. One such effect is
on the ecosystem and the other prominent effect is the generation
of solar module e-waste. With a lifetime between 20 to 30 years
or even longer, the industry has given little thought on what to do
with the waste, once the modules reach their end of lifetime.
Recycling the end-of-life PV modules is not an extremely popular
topic in the current economic difficult times for the PV industry.
International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) and the
International Energy Agency Photovoltaic Power Systems (IEA-
PVPS) have initiated explorations about end-of-life solar PV
modules [72].
15. Interpretations and Recommendations
Studies related to solar PV energy development from which
we can infer as following:
1. IIIE concepts enhance the awareness towards sustainability
and explore the area.
2. The optimization of the grid-connected PV systems towards
economic viability.
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3. Inverter failure is relatively more frequent due to disturbance
from grid, reclosing and other interconnecting issues.
4. The passive methods which are used to detect the islanding
condition, usually observe the specified parameters such as
voltage and frequency and/or their characteristics. These
methods cease the inverter from converting power during the
instance when sufficient transition from normal specified
conditions is available. The active methods are used in order
to detect the island which actually introduces deliberate
changes or disturbances in the connected circuit. These
methods usually monitor the response to determine whether
the utility grid is connected or not with its stable frequency,
voltage, and impedance.
5. Further investigation is required on the effects of harmonics
in case of multiple PV systems operation.
6. PV inverters operate at unity power which is highly
recommended and at the same time, it is not advisable to use
PV inverters with a variable power factor. This is because at
high penetration levels, it might outnumber the balanced
conditions and subsequently proliferate the probability of
islanding, which is dangerous.
7. There is a rising need for research and development of new
regulation concepts so that they can be embedded in
inverters, controllers, and dedicated voltage conditioner
technologies integrated with power system. This will enable
voltage regulation to mitigate flicker and voltage fluctuations
caused by local PV fluctuations.
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8. There is a need to develop advanced communications and
control concepts which can be integrated with solar energy
grid integration systems for better management of the
systems so as to provide a precise and sophisticated micro
grid operation that maximizes the efficiency, power quality,
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and reliability.
9. In order to enhance the competitiveness of distributed
generation in economic perspective, the inverter-tied storage
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systems are to be identified so that it can be integrated with
distributed PV generation to allow intentional islanding
(micro grids) and system optimization functions (ancillary
services).
10. There is a very rare possibility of balanced conditions to
PT
occur in low, medium, and high penetration levels of PV
systems. There is a zero probability for the balanced
conditions to be present at the power network and the power
network being disconnected at the same time.
CE
11. It can be inferred that islanding is not a technical barrier for
the large-scale deployment of PV systems in residential
areas.
12. The PV systems‘ penetration level does not impact the
AC
balanced conditions that occur between the load and PV
systems. The balanced conditions between active and
reactive power and the power generated by the PV systems
do occur very rarely for low, medium, and even high
penetration levels of PV systems.
13. There is a rising need to improve the service lifetime, power
conversion efficiency, fielded energy output, and
manufacturability of commercial and emerging PV
technologies.
14. Future investigations need to focus on reliable software to
forecast the solar radiation, Data analysis Monitoring,
Performance Ratio (PR) findings, Investment and Return
analysis, modeling, and loss analysis. In order to upgrade the
detection technology in islanding issues in the grid connected
16
system for residential use, future investigation is required.
Furthermore, the investigation is also required to find reliable
hybrid technology that can convert solar energy into
electricity storage when there is a blackout.
15. To explore innovative and optimal structural design and
tracking system for the solar power plant for all types such as
roof top, ground mounted, and Building Integrated PVs
(BIPV) system.
16. There is a need for good battery storage that is cost effective
than lithium-ion batteries.
17. Rise of new types of application-oriented requirements i.e.,
the need for electrical vehicle with solar PV panel product
T
development.
18. This review covers the main challenges for DSM in terms of
ICT.
IP
19. Future developments in the areas of micro grid and smart
grid that are associated with solar energy need to be focused.
20. Research developments should be carried out in the areas of
CR
interdisciplinary aspects such as Social, Technological,
Economical, Environmental, and Political fields (STEEP).
16. Conclusion
The current study has highlighted the emerging areas of solar
PV energy system from technological perspective as below:
i. IIIE concepts towards solar PV energy integration.
ii. Improving the efficiency of Solar PV cells and modules are
one of the high priority areas for advancement.
iii. Improved models of solar PV allows accurate analysis of
the power generated and impact to the grid.
iv. The connection topologies of PV modules have an effect on
the power generated during partial shading.
v. Power electronics is another core area of research and
elucidates elements such as inverters, maximum power
point tracker and DC-DC converter.
vi. Improved fault diagnostic technique allows location of
faults in PV arrays
vii. Modelling and experimental validation have highlighted the
areas to improve the efficiency in a Solar PV system.
viii. Significance of smart grid, ICT and energy management
system.
ix. The use of energy storage is becoming prominent in Solar
PV systems.
The paper also shed insights on the gaps in research and areas
to further enhance research, in the context of global wellness.
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