LECTURE NOTES BOOK

Dr. Yassin M. Ahmed

CHAPTER 4
 4.1 Introduction
 METALWORKING consists of deformation
processes in which a metal billet or blank
is shaped by tools or dies.

 The design and control of such processes

depend on an understanding of the
characteristics of the workpiece material
4.2 Classification of Metal forming Processes:
The most common types of metal forming:

4.2.1 Drawing (manufacturing):

Drawing is a metalworking process which uses
tensile forces to stretch metal (Definition).

The metal is drawn (pulled), it stretches thinner,

into a desired shape and thickness.
 Objectives of drawing process:
The drawing process has the following objectives

1- Manufacturing drawn products in the form of

‫دقيق‬
bars or wires to a very specific and precise cross

sectional dimensions.

2- Improving the finished surface and removing

‫قشرة‬
scale(shell) from the rod or bar. Obtaining a smooth

and bright surface.

3- Improving tensile strength and getting specific

mechanical properties in the finished steel

material

4- Providing more consistent round shape to the

finished steel material.

Drawing is classified in two types:
1-Wire, bar (rod), and tube drawing:
For wire, bar, and tube drawing the starting
stock is drawn through a die to reduce its
diameter and increase its length (Definition).
 2-Sheet metal drawing
The specific definition for sheet metal drawing: is
that it involves plastic deformation over a curved
axis (Definition).
 Drawing is usually are classified a cold
working process, however it may be
performed at elevated temperatures to hot
work large wires, rods or hollow sections in
order to reduce forces.
‫يختلف‬
 Drawing differs from rolling in that the
pressure of drawing is not transmitted through
‫في حين أن‬
the turning action of the mill but instead
depends on force applied locally near the area
of compression. This means the amount of
possible drawing force is limited by the tensile
strength of the material, a fact that is
particularly evident when drawing thin wires.
 I. Drawing Equipment
Drawing equipment can be of several designs. These
designs can be classified into two basic types:
1- Draw bench:
 uses a single die ‫سلسلة متحركة‬
 the pulling force is supplied by a chain drive or by
hydraulic means.‫وسائل الهيدروليكية‬
 used for single length drawing of rod or tube with diameter
greater than 20mm.
 Length can be as much as
30 m.
 The drawing speed
attainable on a draw bench
ranges from 5 m/min to 50
m/min.
Figure 4.2: Tube drawing equipment’s.
2- Bull block: bull block wire drawing machine

Figure 4.3: Bull block wire drawing machine

 II. Process of drawing:
The process of drawing has the following three steps:

i. Preliminary operations: The preliminary operations include:

1- initially the surface cleaning of the bar or rod from scales

which are due to the earlier metallurgical processes like rolling
or heat treatment etc., is carried out. The usual method is the
،‫لتنظيف الميكانيكية‬ ‫االتنظيف بالحامض‬ ،‫ الشطف‬، ‫والتجفيف‬
mechanical cleaning, acid pickling, rinsing, and drying.

2- The diameter reduction of the head end is done by

forming or forcing through. End pointing can be done e.g. by
machining, push broaching in a horizontal hydraulic press or
rolling. Pointed ends are cut off after drawing. The
preliminary straightening of bar and rod is then carried out.
ii. Drawing process: Depending on the input material and
deployed equipment the drawing process can be performed –
bar to bar, bar to rod, wire rod to bar or wire rod to wire in a coil.

iii. Finishing operations: Finishing operations include cutting

and cropping, straightening, finishing ends like chamfering,
inspection like NDT etc., anti-corrosion protection, and
‫والتعبئة والتغليف‬ .‫وإيفاد‬
packing and dispatching.
 1- Drawing of rods, wires and tubes:
Rod, tube, and wire drawing all work upon the same
principle: the starting stock drawn through a die to
reduce the diameter and increase the length.
 Steels, copper alloys, and aluminum alloys are common
materials that are drawn.
The fundamentals of rod, tube, and wire drawing can be
summarized through:

1- The operations involve pulling metal through a die by

means of a tensile force applied to the exit side of the die.

2- The operations involve reducing the diameter of a rod or

wire by passing through a series of drawing dies or plates.
3- The operations involve reducing the diameter through
plastic deformation while the volume remains the same.
4- The materials should have high ductility and good
tensile strength.
5- The operations are usually "cold work" or carried out at
room temperature, except for large deformation, which
leads to considerable rise in temperature during drawing.
‫التماثل الدائري‬
6- The metal usually has a circular symmetry (but not
always, depending on requirements).
7- Same principles for drawing bars, rods, and wire but
equipment are different in sizes depending on products.
 1- Wire drawing
Wire drawing is a metalworking process used to reduce the
cross-section of a wire by pulling the wire through a single,
or series of, drawing die(s). The subsequent drawing die
‫يجب ان يكون القالب االحق ذات تجويف أصغر من القالب السابق‬
must have smaller bore diameter than the previous drawing
die (Fig. 4.4).

Wire drawing Process Figure 4.4: Continuous drawing of wire

 There are many applications for wire drawing,

There are many applications for wire drawing,

including:
1- electrical wiring.
2-cables.
3-tension-loaded structural components.
4-springs.
5- paper clips.
6- spokes for wheels.
7- stringed musical instruments.
 Comparison between the wire drawing and extrusion:

The comparison between the drawing and extrusion can

summarize through:

Drawing Extrusion
similar in process similar in process
in drawing the wire is pulled In extrusion the materials are pushed
through the die
Drawing is usually performed at room Extrusion are usually classified as a
temperature, thus classified as a cold hot working process
working process, but it may be performed at
elevated temperatures for large wires to
reduce forces.

Drawing is usually performed to metals. Extrusion usually performed to

metals, and nonmetals like plastic,
polymers.
 Wire drawing die:
 Wire drawing dies are typically made of tool steel,
tungsten carbide, or diamond, with tungsten carbide and
manufactured diamond being the most common.
 For drawing very fine wire a single crystal diamond die
is used.

 For hot drawing, cast-steel dies are used.

 For steel wire drawing, a tungsten carbide die is used.

 The dies are placed in a steel casing, which backs the

die and allow for easy die changes.

 Die angles usually range from 6–15 ° and each die has
at least 2 different angles: the entering angle and
approach angle.
Figure 4.5: Diagram of a carbide wire drawing die
The effect of die angle:
 it's very important during wire drawing processes. The
required tensile force, friction, and total energy during
the process depend upon it. Ideal work of plastic
deformation “UP” independent of die angle
1- Increasing the die angle leads to decreasing the friction
that mea "Work to overcome friction Uf“.

2- Increasing the die angle leads to increasing the total

energy during the process that required "Redundant work
Ur".

3- Adjust of die angles leads to obtain soft surface

products.
Figure 4.7: The effect of die angles.
 Lubrication
‫أساسي‬
 Lubrication in the drawing process is essential for
‫للحفاظ على‬
maintaining good surface finish and long die life.
 The following are different methods of lubrication:
‫السحب الرطب‬ 1 & 2
1. Wet drawing: the dies and wire or rod are completely
‫مغمورة تماما‬
immersed in lubricant.
‫وعاء‬
‫السحب الجاف‬ ‫يمر عبر‬
2. Dry drawing: the wire or rod passes through a container
of lubricant which coats the surface of the wire or rod.
 ‫طالء المعادن‬
‫مغلفة‬
3. Metal coating: the wire or rod is coated with a soft
‫تعمل‬
metal which acts as a solid lubricant.
.‫ األسالك أو قضيب والمغلفة مع المعادن الناعمة التي تعمل بمثابة مواد التشحيم الصلبة‬:‫طالء المعادن‬

4. Ultrasonic vibration: the dies and mandrels are

‫تخفيض‬
vibrated, which helps to reduce forces and allow larger
reductions per pass.

Metal coating
 5. Rollers die Drawing (also referred as Roll drawing):
‫بدال من‬
roller dies are used instead of fixed dies to convert shear
‫خفض كبير‬
friction to rolling friction with dramatic reduction in the
drawing forces. When roller dies are adopted, the drawing
stages are composed by 2-4(or more) idle rolls and he wire
or (Plate) is pulled within the rolls clearance. This type of
solution can be easily adopted also to produce flat or
profiled drawn wires.

profiled drawn wires

 ‫مواد التشحيم المختلفة‬ ‫يعمل‬
6. Various lubricants, such as oil, are employed.
Another lubrication method is to immerse the wire in a
‫محلول كبريتات النحاس‬
copper sulfate solution, such that a film of copper is
deposited which forms a kind of lubricant. In some
classes of wire the copper is left after the final drawing
‫كعامل وقائي‬ ‫الصدأ‬
to serve as a preventive of rust or to allow easy
soldering. The best example of copper coated wire is in
MIG wire used in welding.

MIG wire welding Various lubricants

 Heat treatment in wire drawing process
‫مجموعة‬
 Heat treatment is an operation or combination of
operations involving heating at a specific rate, soaking
at a temperature for a period of time and cooling at
‫مرغوب‬
some specified rate. The aim is to obtain a desired
microstructure to achieve certain predetermined
properties (physical, mechanical, magnetic or electrical).
٪50 ‫تخفيض في المساحة أكبر من‬
 In wire drawing process, if the reduction in area is
greater than 50%, the process may require an
‫خطوة وسيطة‬ ‫اعادة السحب‬
intermediate step of annealing before it can be redrawn.
 Uses: Make for drawing wires smoothly in wire drawing
process, or to obtain the special products required by
‫التي يطلبها العمالء‬
clients:

1. Remove work-hardening after wire cold-drawing to

make for the next wire cold-drawing process smoothly.
2. Make hot-finished steel wire rod have appropriate
organizations to ensure the drawing can be carried out
normally.
3. Make steel wire have a special organization.
4. Make steel wire after cold-drawing have good
‫األداء الجيد‬
performance.
 5. Make finished steel wire have special organizations
and performance required by customers.

 Main process of common Steel wire Heat Treatment

continuous Production line (Be mainly used for heat
treatment before steel wire drawing and the surface
treatment.): The maps of process
Pay-off → Hot water washing → Heat treatment furnace
(annealing furnace) → Lead quenching bath → Take-up or
Ultrasonic cleaning (or traditional acid washing) → phosphor
zing (Boron zing) →Take up.

Figure 4.8: Main process of common Steel wire Heat Treatment.

Drawing equipment and use of drawn wires:
There are several types of drawing machines. These have
been grouped as follows.

1. Drawing frames
2. Bull blocks and motor block
Multiple drawing machines
3. Multiple drawing machines
‫آالت األسالك التشكيلية‬
4. Fine wire machines
5. Turk’s head shaped wire drawing machines
6. Draw benches.
 2-Bull blocks and motor block

4. Fine wire machines

5. Turk’s head shaped wire drawing machines 6. Draw benches.

 ‫المعدات المساعدة‬
7. The auxiliary equipment’s to be attached with
wire drawing machines consist of pay off reels,
safety stop, welders, pointer, straightening and
cutting machines, rotary straighteners, and roll
straighteners etc.

pay off reels

rotary straighteners,
straightening

safety stop
2- Rod or (bar) drawing process:
‫تعمل بناء على‬
Rod or (Bar) drawing work upon the same
principals for drawing bars, rods, and wire but
equipment is different in sizes depending on
products. the starting stock drawn through a die
to reduce the diameter or (the dimensions) and
increase the length.
Figure 4.9: Illustrate diagram of rod drawing process
Heat treatment in rod drawing process
Annealing: This is a thermal treatment generally
used to soften the material being drawn, to modify
the microstructure, the mechanical properties and
the machining characteristics of the steel and/or to
remove internal stresses in the product. Depending
on the desired characteristics of the finished
product, annealing may be used before, during
(between passes) or after the cold drawing
operation, depending on material requirements.
To achieve a certain size or shape multiple passes
‫تدريجيا‬
through progressively smaller dies or intermediate
‫اللتخمير الوسطي قد يكون مطلوبا‬
anneals may be required.
2- Rod or Bar drawing processes:
Bars or rods that are drawn cannot be coiled therefore
straight-pull draw benches are used. Chain drives are
used to draw workpieces up to 30 m (98 ft.). Hydraulic
cylinders are used for shorter length workpieces.

straight-pull draw benches

Figure 4.10: drawing bench and chain drives.
 The main operations of cold drawing process for steel bars and
wire with carbide die cross section:
‫المعدن الخام‬
1- Raw Stock: Hot rolled steel bar or rod coils are used as raw
material.
‫الطبقة الجالخة‬
2- Cleaning: Abrasive scale (iron oxide) on the surface of the
hot rolled rough stock is removed.
3- Coating: The surface of the bar or coil is coated with a drawing
lubricant to aid cold drawing.
4- Pointing: Several inches of the lead ends of the bar or coil are
reduced in size by swaging or extruding so that it can pass freely
through the drawing die. Note: This is done because the die opening is
always smaller than the original bar or coil section size.

5- Drawing:
 6- Finished Product: The drawn product, which is referred
to as Cold Drawn or Cold Finished, exhibits a bright and/or
polished finish, increased mechanical properties, improved
machining characteristics and precise and uniform
dimensional tolerances.
7- Multi-Pass Drawing: The cold drawing of complex
shapes/profiles may require that each bar/coil be drawn several
times in order to produce the desired shape and tolerances

Material is generally annealed between each drawing pass

to remove cold work and to increase ductility.
8- Annealing: This is a thermal treatment generally used to
soften the material being drawn, to modify the microstructure,
the mechanical properties and the machining characteristics of
the steel and/or to remove internal stresses in the product.
 Figure 4.11: Example of carbide die cross section.

Figure 4.12: Wire, and rod drawing: A Draw Bench

Standard sizes throughout a supply chain:
Manufacture every size of rod possible size. Depending on
American standard “ASM Handbook Vol.14” the standard size
of bars about 32 mm (1.25 in.)
‫التمييز بين‬ ‫اعتباطي‬
The distinction between wire and rod (or bar) is somewhat arbitrary.
The term wire generally refers to smaller-diameter products (<5 mm,
or 0.2 in.) that can be rapidly drawn on multiple-die machines.

Figure 4.13: Different size of rod or bar drawing.

Defects in rod and wiredrawing:
In the process of drawing wire or rod there are ranges of die angle
and percent area reduction that should be used as guidelines.
‫االبتعاد عن هذة الحدود يؤدي الى ضهور العيوب‬
Straying from these ranges can cause defects in the workpiece. In a
range known as the "danger zone" a defect known as a central burst
can form (also called chevroning or cup-and-cone fracture). This
‫الفراغات‬
kind of defect occurs when voids form in the center of the workpiece.
‫ألنه ليس واضحا‬
Since it isn't apparent, 'from the surface of the wire central bursts can
‫رقاقة‬ ‫منطقة تشكيل ميتة‬
be the cause of catastrophic failure in the field. Chip and dead zone
formation can also occur when operational stress and area reduction is
improperly prescribed. The graph in Figure 14.15 displays the safe
and unsafe ranges in conventional drawing.
 𝝈𝒙𝒇

𝒓%

𝒓𝝈𝟏 𝒓𝝈𝟐

Figure 4.14: Safe and unsafe

ranges in wire drawing.
 ،‫طبقات‬ ‫شظايا‬
1- Defects in the starting rod (seams, slivers and pipe): This
defect will occur for low die angles at low reductions.

2- Defects from the deformation process, i.e., center burst or

‫تشقق شيفرون‬ ‫الحجامة‬
chevron cracking (cupping): For a given reduction and die
angle, the critical reduction to prevent fracture increases with
the friction.

Figure 4.15: Centre burst or chevron cracks

3- Tube-drawing processes
 3- Tube-drawing processes
Tube drawing is very similar to bar drawing, except the
beginning stock is a tube. It is used to decrease the diameter,
improve surface finish and improve dimensional accuracy(Def.).
The process of tube drawing shown in Figure 4.2 is similar to
wire or rod drawing except that it usually requires a mandrel of
the requisite diameter to form the internal hole.

Tube-drawing processes Figure 4.2: Tube drawing equipment’s.

 The reasons for the difference between the tube drawing
and hot rolling:
Production of‫كبيرة‬tube
‫نسبة‬
is far beyond the reach of the hot rolling, and
so a substantial proportion of tubing is still cold drawn for the
following reasons.
.‫إلنتاج األنابيب مع الجدران أنحف مما يمكن المدلفن على الساخن‬
1-To produce tubes with thinner walls than can be hot rolled.
.‫إلنتاج أنابيب بأقطار صغيرة‬
2-To produce tubes with smaller diameters.
.‫إلنتاج أنابيب أطول مما يمكن المدرفلة على الساخن في أحجام معينة‬
3-To produce tubes longer than can be hot rolled in certain
sizes.
.‫لتأمين التشطيبات السطحية أفضل‬
4-To secure better surface finishes.
5-To obtain closer dimensional tolerances.
6-To increase certain mechanical properties,
such as tensile strength.
.‫إلنتاج األشكال األخرى غير المستديرة‬
7-To produce shapes other than round.
.‫إلنتاج أنابيب بأقطار وسمك الجدار متفاوتة من اقصاه الى اقصاه‬
8-To produce tubes with varying diameters
and wall thicknesses from end to end.
‫بأحجام غريبة‬
9-To make small lots of tubing of odd sizes
and gages those do not justify a hot mill run.
Tube Drawing Processes and Classification of tube
drawing processes:
There are three basic types of tube-drawing:

1-Sinking.
2-Plug drawing.
2.1 Fixed plug.
Figure 4.16: Tube drawing processes.
2.2 Floating plug.
3- Mandrel drawing processes.
1- Sinking:
If it is not necessary to make a reduction in the wall
thickness, or if the dimensions and surface of the inside are
not important (the mandrel may be omitted). The process to
draw a pipe without any mandrel is known as tube sinking.
 The tube, while passing through the die, shrinks in outer
radius from the original radius Ro to a final radius Rof.

Figure 4.17: Tube sinking processes.

characteristics of tube Sinking method :
Some characteristics of this method can be summarized as
follows:
1- No internal tooling (internal wall is not supported), the
wall then thicken slightly.
‫السطح الداخلي متفاوت‬
2- Uneven internal surface.
1
3- The final thickness of the tube depends on original
2 3
diameter of the tube, the die diameter and friction between
tube and die.
‫أقل والحد من تشوه‬
4- Lower and limiting deformation.
 2- Plug drawing:
When a hollow tube is drawn through a die, generally a mandrel or
plug is used to support the inside diameter of the tube, this process
is called tube drawing.

 The function of the plug is to effect wall reduction and to

control the size of the hole.

2-1 Fixed plug:

‫المغزل الثابت‬
In drawing tubes over a stationary mandrel (Fixed), the
maximum practical sectional area reduction does not exceed 40 per
cent per pass the increased friction from the mandrel.
The characteristics of this method as showing below:

1-Use cylindrical / conical plug to control size/shape

of inside diameter.
2-Use higher drawing loads than floating plug
drawing.
3-Greater dimensional accuracy than tube sinking.
4-Increased friction from the plug limits the reduction
in area (seldom > 30%).
5-Can draw and coil long lengths of tubing.
Figure 4.18: Fixed Plug
drawing processes.
 2-2 Floating plug drawing:

If a carefully matched mandrel floats in the die

throat of the die, it is possible to achieve a reduction
in area of 45 percent, and for the same reduction the
drawing loads are lower than for drawing with a
fixed plug. This style is called the drawing with
floating plug.
 The characteristics of floating plug:
1-A tapered plug is placed inside the tube.
2-As the tube is drawn the plug and the die act
together to reduce both the outside/inside diameters of
the tube.
3-Improved reduction in area than tube sinking (~
45%).
4-Lower drawing load than fixed plug drawing.
5-Long lengths of tubing are possible.
6-Tool design and lubrication can be very critical.
Figure 4.19: Floating Plug drawing processes.
 3-Mandrel drawing processes:
The characteristics of moving mandrel drawing processes:

1- Draw force is transmitted to the metal by the pull on the exit

section and by the friction forces acting along the tube –
mandrel interface.
2- Minimized friction.
3- Volume of mandrel equal to the volume of tube.
Vmandrel = Vtube
4- The mandrel also imparts a smooth inside finish surface of the
tube.
5- Mandrel removal disturbs dimensional tolerance.
Figure 4.20: Moving mandrel drawing processes.
Figure 4.21: Tube drawing chamber.
Defects in tubes drawing:

The defects of cold drawn tubes inherited from the

tube rod may be divided into two groups:
1- those due to metallurgical processes;
2- those due to rolling.
The first group is formed in steel smelting and
casting; the second is formed in heating and
deformation in the course of rolling.
 Defects in cold drawn products:
Defects are flaws which due to their nature, size, position
inside a piece are considered by the standard or by the
applicable inspection specification to be detrimental to the
‫ضارة‬
material use. (Def.)
Because most of the wire, rod and pipes similar principal,
defects in cold drawn products can be summarized as
follows:
‫الخدوش الطولية‬
1- Longitudinal scratches (scored die, poor lubrication, or
abrasive particles).
‫الشظايا‬
2-Slivers (swarf drawn into the surface).
‫الشقوق الداخلية‬
3- Internal cracks (pre-existing defects in starting material or
ruptures in the centre due to overdrawn).
4- Corrosion induced cracking due to internal residual stresses.
.‫التآكل الناجم عن تكسير بسبب الضغوط المتبقية الداخلية‬