RIVERS:

RAPIDLY VARIED FLOW

Benoit Cushman-Roisin

Equations governing 1D hydraulics:

1. Mass conservation:
A 
 ( Au )  0
t x
2. Momentum budget:
u u h u2
u  g  gS  C D
t x x R
where
h  water depth, A(h)  cross - sectional area, u  velocity
S  slope, R  hydraulic radius  area/wetted perimeter

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 Restrict attention to steady states.

Equations reduce to:

1. Mass conservation
d
 Au   0  Au  Q  constant
dx

2. Momentum budget

du dh u2
u g  gS  C D
dx dx R

Two categories of steady flows:

1. Rapidly varied flow

when channel slope changes quite abruptly

no time for friction  assume no friction

2. Gradually varied flow

when changes in slope occur over long distances

friction has time to act  friction must be retained

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 Rapidly varied flows

Neglect friction  take CD  0

Momentum equation becomes:
du dh
u g  gS
dx dx
db
Denote S   , with b( x)  bottom elevation (above sea level)
dx

d  u2  u2
   gh  gb   0   gh  gb  constant
dx  2  2
Q2 Q
Bernoulli principle: 2
 gh  gb  B with u 
2 A ( h) A(h)

For a rectangular channel, A  Wh

Q2
 gh  gb  B, a constant
2W 2 h 2

Or, as civil engineers prefer to have it :

Q2 B
2 2
 h  b   H , called head
2 gW h g
 
decreases increases

with h with h

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 Q2
Specific energy: E   h (  H  b)
2 gW 2 h 2
1
1 hc3  Q2 3
E  h with hc   2 
2 h2  gW 

Flow over a moderate bump :

E  b  H  constant

So, as b  on approach, E 
And, as b  on other side, E 

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 Flow over a high bump :

E  b  H  constant

b is too high, and the flow

needs to pile up to raise its H .

Once H is large enough,

the b reduction leads to
criticality ( Fr  1) at the crest
and the flow is supercritical
( Fr  1) downstream.

Spillway in Quechee, Vermont

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 Flow of a cloudy air mass over
the Presidential Range in New Hampshire, USA

Flow through moderate narrows :

E  H  b  constant
Q2
E h
2 gW 2 h 2

So, as W  on approach, h 
And, as W  on other side, h 

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 Flow through strong narrows :

E  H  b  constant
Q2
E h
2 gW 2 h 2

W gets too small, and the flow

needs to pile up to raise its H .

Once H is large enough,

the W reduction leads to
criticality ( Fr  1) at the
narrowest point, and
the flow is supercritical
( Fr  1) downstream.

Non - rectangular channels :

A(h)  Wh but more complicated function of h

Q2 dE 1 dA g
E h 0  
2 gA2 (h) dh A3 dh Q 2
dA A3 Q 2
since W  
dh W g
A Q2
Define average depth h   A h
2

W g

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 At the E minimum :

u Q/A Q2
Fr    1
gh gh gA2 h

So, h in a non - rectangular channel

plays the role of h in the rectangular channel.

Flow continues to be critical at the E minimum.

Example : Channel with floodplain

Q Q2
Non - flooding situation (h  H ) : A  Wh, u  , E h
Wh 2 gW 2 h 2

Q
Flooding situation (h  H ) : A  WH  W ' ( h  H ), u  ,
W ' h  (W 'W ) H
Q2
E h
2 g W ' h  (W 'W ) H 
2

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Extrema of E occur at :
1
 Q2 3
hc1    for h  H
2 
 gW 
h>H
1
flooding
 Q 2  3 W'-W
hc 2    
2 
H for h  H
 gW '  W' h<H
not flooding

One or both solutions can exist,

depending on the discharge Q.

jump


Example of a hydraulic jump

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 Hydraulic jump in Outaquechee River, Vermont

Passage from supercritical to subcritical state:

The hydraulic jump

Mass conservation : h1u1  h2u2

gh12 gh22
Momentum budget : h1u12   h2u22 
2 2
and solve for h2 , u2 which are not equal to h1 , u1
Solution :
2
u1 h2  Fr1  3 1  8 Fr12  1
     1
u2 h1  Fr2  2

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Energy loss in a hydraulic jump

E  E1  E2 
h2  h1 3  0
4h1h2

Other hydraulic jumps

in the kitchen sink

in the atmosphere

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