GOVERNMENT

POLYTECHNIC
LUCKNOW

PROJECT REPORT
SESSION 2019-20
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
(SPECIALIZATION IN PORDUCTION)
PROJECT NAME- DESIGN AND MANUFECTURING OF JIGS AND
FIXTURE
GUIDED BY-

Dr. R.K SINGH

Mr. PRADEEP KUMAR Mr. TUSHAR KIRAN Mr. M.S DOGRA

SUBMITTED BY- MECHANICAL ENGINEERING (PRODUCTION) 3RD YEAR VI SEMESTER

MEMBER’S OF THE PROJECT TEAM--

(1 GYAN PRATAP BHARTI (2) GUDDU PAL

)
(3 GOVIND KORI (4) PEETAM SINGH PANDAV
)
(5 RITIKA (6) SEEMA BHARTI
)
(7 KM SHWETA SINGH (8) SONAM
)
(9 KM REEMA YADAV (10) KM ANJALI MAURYA
)

INDEX
S.NO DESCRIPTION PAGE NO.
.
1. CERTIFICATE 3
2. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 4
3. PREFACE 5
4. INTRODUCTION 6-10
5. MEANING OF PROJECT 11-16
6. PLANT LAYOUT 17-22
7. DESIGN 23-40
8. ESTIMATION & CASTING 41-45
9. BREAK EVEN ANALYSIS 46-51
10. INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION 52-69
11. ENTERPRENEURSHIP 70-79
12. ENVOIRNMENTAL POLLUTION 80-90
13. ADVERTISEMENT 90-95
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that student of Mechanical

Engineering (specialization in PRODUCTION), Final Year; has
completed his project on “DESIGN AND MANUFACTURING OF
GEAR” under our guidance.

He has submitted the project report as per norms specified by the

“BOARD OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION OF UTTAR PRADESH.”

We wish him for a successful and bright future.

Mr. Pradeep Kumar Mr. M.S. Dogra

(H.O.D. Mechanical Dept.) (Lecturer Mechanical)

Mr. Tushar Kiran Dr. R.K Singh

(Lecturer Mechanical) (Principal)
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am very thankful & grateful to honorable Mr. PRADEEP KUMAR

Department in-charge of Mechanical Engg. , Who has contributed my talent
& valuable suggestion for nurturing during the preparation of my project.
I am also thankful to our Mechanical Department lectures Mr M.S Dogra &
Mr. Tushar Kiran for their support in the preparation of this project.
 PREFACE
It is essential for Engineering students to make project in final year as they are directly exposed
to the field they must be familiar with various aspects of field work. In this connection project
report plays a very important role in success of students in partial knowledge related to machine
and various manufacturing processes but they have to be exposed to the actual industrial
development environment and must have the experience and awareness towards a various
problems. Preparation of the Project Report is must. I with my group tried to prepare the project
report according to the instructions and guidance provided by B.T.E.U.P. and my respected
teachers, as it is my first effort, there may be possibility of error in project report.

I highly grateful to DR. R.K SINGH our respected principal, who inspired me to take this project. I
am also thankful to Mr. PRADEEP KUMAR, Departmental In-charge of Mechanical Engineering.
And ALL MECHANICAL ENGINEERING STAFF for there active guidance to prepare the project
report.
INTRODUCTION
 The current age is the age of engineering and
technology. For the present generation of humans , the
engineering and technology isn’t less than a boon. For the
development of science and humans , the continues development
of engineering and technology is needed. For today’s human ,
the depth of oceans and the heights of space aren’t out of reach.

In present time , the number of educated yet

unemployed is increasing day by day. But looking at present
world , if someone has technical education , he can’t sit idle. Not
only he can earn money by estab. Businesses , he can also
provide jobs to other unemployed people.

To establish any business or industry , the primary need

is money and a concept about the business . He cannot get all the
capital needed by himself. Not only he needs capital , he also
needs the basic knowledge about that particular field , the
technical how doings and basic business management .
 That’s why , to satisfy the needs and to get an outline of
the business , we need to prepare a project report .

Today, the biggest the challenge against our county is

unemployment. The best way to solve this is by self-employment
and by providing employment to others. We can get financial
assistance via any bank or agricultural institute. We can provide
different services to other industries or can create a product
manufacturing company.

When the banks conducts the feasibility study on the

given workshop project, the study the project report and try to
find if the project is financially viable and if the company will be
able to repay the money back on time. When the bank / financial
institution is fully convinced that the convinced that the company
will be able to fully repay the loan , they decided to approve the
loan/financial assistance .

The main aim to make a project is to check if the

project is financially viable or not.

Other than these reasons , there are some other

objective which are given below—
(1) This provides a total outlook of the project
workshop.
(2) This helps in quicker approval of loan from the
banks.
(3) This gives an idea about the upcoming possible
problems and challenges .
THREE MAIN COMPONENTS OF
PROJECT REPORT –

The investor makes sure to analyze the sustainability

and the financial feasibility of the business in which he/she is
interested to invest.

This decision usually depends on three main bases and

facts—

(1) Character
(2) Capability
(3) Capital
PROJECT REPORT
 MEANING OF PROJECT REPORT
The main meaning of project is to make a detailed
planning before executing any idea or work. In any technical
work , we look at different technical expects of it before
conducting detailed study and make an end to end report . The
process to conduct the study and making the report is called
making Project.

The word project has seven alphabets which have their

own deep meanings . These are—

P Planning

R Raw materials or Resources

O Organization or Operation

J Joint effort
 E Estimation

C Communication

T Transportation

PLANNING:- This is the representative of the

alphabet in the word PROJECT which is P. It means knowing
about things that will be done and knowing about things that are
bound to be happen while so that there isn’t any hurdle in future
when the project is being executed

RAW MATERIAL :- This represents the second

which represents the raw materials or resources . As we all know
that we need raw materials or starter resources to start any
business or industrial faculty .

ORGANIZATION:- This represents the third alphabet

of the PROJECT word . This means Organization i.e A Unit
without which no planning can be executed properly. So every
business and industrial unit must have an organizational body.
The groups/ panel of selected people is called organization.
 JOINT EFFORT:- It means a combined effort to do
some work . It is really important to have it while doing any
projects. Because the efficient joint effort can lead the project to
right direction with right pace and can make the project more
adaptable to the sudden shocks and can make the work progress
efficient.

ESTIMATION:- It means to estimate anything.

Knowing about the estimations helps us to know about the possible
cost of the project or project work. In estimation , we try to
calculate the total cost in the project and by different types of
expenses like Material , Labour Cost , Factory cost etc.

COMMUNICATION:- The letter C in Project means

communication. Communication means to send and receive
information about different things by different means like Email,
FAX , Letter , Mobile Phone etc.

TRANSPORTATION:- The last letter in of the word

PROJECT is T which means Transportation. The word
Transportation emphasizes on various aspects of logistics but is
mainly focused on transfer of goods to the places where they are
required to be. We must know about the transportation facilities and
infrastructure before choosing a place for any project. We must
know if the available infrastructure will be able to meet the
project’s demand to keep the work going without any hurdles.

AIM OF PROJECT:- The main aim of project is to

provide employment to yourself by providing employment to other
unemployed . The main target of any project report is to get
complete knowledge about the Running Cost Layout. This includes
possible profit, Capital , Income , Expenses etc.

MAIN OBJECTIVE OF PROJECT PROPOSALS :-

The main objectives of project proposals are given

below—

(1) By making a project proposal , we can know about

detailed analysis of project beforehand.
(2) It makes capital borrow more easy to be approved.
(3) By making a project report we can get to know
about the financial parameters of any project like the
income and capital borrowing as well as things like
capital expense and starting cost of the project.
(4) By making a proposal , we can plan the project and
its execution .
(5) It provides us a estimate of minimum running cost
for the industry.
(6) The proposal gives us a raw idea about the
difficulties anout running the project.
PLANT LAYOUT
 PLANT LAYOUT

The manufacturing organisations must arrange their

facilities, not only the departments within the factory but also the
plant, stores and services so as to achieve smooth flow of
products. The adequacy of layout affects the efficiency of
subsequent operations. It is an important perquisite for efficient
operations and also has a great deal in common with many of the
problems.

The simplest of situations with comparatively fewer items to

arrange have many alternatives available. Impart the layout
decisions were based merely on intuition, experience, judgement
and some sort of improvisation but with increase in the
complexities of organisations the layout problems are solved
scientifically.
Once a decision about location of the plant has been taken, next
important problem before the management is to plan suitable
layout for the plant. Efficiency and performance of good
machines and sturdy building depend to a great extent on the
layout of a plant.

Plant layout is the method of allocating machines and equipment,

various production processes and other necessary services
involved in transformation process of a product with the available
space of the factory so as to perform various operations in the
most efficient and convenient manner providing output of high
quality and minimum cost.

In the words of James Lundy, “Layout identically involves the

allocation of space and the arrangement of equipment in such
a manner that overall operating costs are minimised.”
Alternately, plant layout is an effort to arrange machines and
equipment, and other services within a predesigned building-
ensuring steady, smooth and economical flow of material.
Planning the layout of a plant is a continuous process as there are
always chances of making improvements over the existing
arrangement specially with shifts in the policies of management
of techniques of production. The disposition of the various parts
of a plant along with all the equipment used is known as Plant
Layout. It should be so designed that the plant functions most
effectively

The decision to manufacture some new or modified product may

necessitate reorganisation of existing plant or provision of
additional facilities. The reasons for changes in product
policy/design can be variations in level of demand, change in the
location of product markets, obsolescence or failure of existing
equipment. Furthermore, the need for cost reduction may require
a reappraisal of layouts.

The various problems responsible for layout considerations

can be:
(i) Enlargement or contraction of existing departments: This may
be required due to increase/decrease in demand, advancement in
technology etc.

(ii) Movement of a department due to change in the design of

product.

(iii) Addition of some new department e.g. computerization.

(iv) Replacement or addition of some new facility/machinery e.g.
lift system, material handling innovations etc.

 Factors Relevant in the Choice of the Layout:

(i) Nature of the Product:
The size, shape, characteristics and many other properties of the
product influence the choice of the layout e.g. products having
sensitive chemical properties need more provision for safety
equipment’s. Some products need air-conditioned plants.
Efficient material handling system can be used for light products.

(ii) Size of Output:

If standardised items are to be produced in bulk then product or
line layout is more suitable. If some specific products are to be
manufactured once in life time, then functional layout will be
more appropriate.

(iii) Nature of Manufacturing System:

For intermittent type of industries functional layout is better and
in the case of continuous manufacturing system one can very well
use product or line layout.
(iv) Localisation of Plant:
Layout is greatly influenced by the size, shape, climatic
conditions and by-laws of the area where plant site is selected.
There will be different transport arrangement if site is located
near the railway line, otherwise the approach will be different. If
floor space is square and too many machines and operations are
involved in the production process then layout can be planned in
shapes

(v) Machines or Equipment:

Heavy machines making too much movement during operations
need stationary type of layout. Layout also depends on the size of
the machines.

(vi) Other Factors:

Climatic conditions, requirement of light, temperature etc., also
play an important role in designing a layout.
DESIGN AND
MECHANISM OF
PRODUCT
The successful running of any mass production depends upon the
interchangeability to facilitate easy assembly and reduction of
unit cost. Mass production methods demand a fast and easy
method of positioning work for accurate operations on it. Jigs and
fixtures are production tools used to accurately manufacture
duplicate and interchangeable parts. Jigs and fixtures are
specially designed so that large numbers of components can be
machined or assembled identically, and to ensure
interchangeability of components.

JIGS
It is a work holding device that holds, supports and locates the
workpiece and guides the cutting tool for a specific operation.
Jigs are usually fitted with hardened steel bushings for guiding or
other cutting tools. a jig is a type of tool used to control the
location and/or motion of another tool.
A jig's primary purpose is to provide repeatability, accuracy, and
interchangeability in the manufacturing of products. A device that
does both functions (holding the work and guiding a tool) is
called a jig. An example of a jig is when a key is duplicated, the
original is used as a jig so the new key can have the same path as
the old one.

FIXTURES
It is a work holding device that holds, supports and locates the
workpiece for a specific operation but does not guide the cutting
tool. It provides only a reference surface or a device. What makes
a fixture unique is that each one is built to fit a particular part or
shape. The main purpose of a fixture is to locate and in some
cases hold a workpiece during either a machining operation or
some other industrial process. A jig differs from a fixture in that a
it guides the tool to its correct position in addition to locating and
supporting the workpiece. Examples: Vises, chucks A VISE-
JAW
 How do jigs and fixtures differ
ZIGS
1. It is a work holding device that holds, supports
and locates the workpiece and guides the cutting
tool for a specific operation
FIXTURES
1. It is a work holding device that holds, supports
and locates the workpiece for a specific operation
but does not guide the cutting tool

2. Jigs are not clamped to the drill press table 2. Fixtures should be securely clamped to the
unless large diameters to be drilled and there is a table of the machine upon which the work is
necessity to move the jig to bring one each bush done.
directly under the drill.

3. The jigs are special tools particularly in 3. Fixtures are specific tools used particularly in
drilling, reaming, tapping and boring operation. milling machine, shapers and slotting machine.

4. Gauge blocks are not necessary. 4. Gauge blocks may be provided for effective
handling.

5. Lighter in construction. 5. Heavier in construction.

Advantages of Jigs and Fixtures

PRODUCTIVITY: Jigs and fixtures increases the productivity
by eliminating the individual marking, positioning and frequent
checking. The operation time is also reduced due to increase in
speed, feed and depth of cut because of high clamping rigidity.
INTERCHANGEABILITY AND QUALITY: Jigs and fixtures
facilitate the production of articles in large quantities with high
degree of accuracy, uniform quality and interchangeability at a
competitive cost .

SKILL REDUCTION: There is no need for skillful setting of

work on tool. Jigs and fixtures makes possible to employ
unskilled or semi skilled machine operator to make savings in
labour cost.

COST REDUCTION: Higher production, reduction in scrap,

easy assembly and savings in labour cost results in ultimate
reduction in unit cost. Fundamental principles of Jigs and
Fixtures design

LOCATING POINTS: Good facilities should be provided for

locating the work. The article to be machined must be easily
inserted and quickly taken out from the jig so that no time is
wasted in placing the workpiece in position to perform
operations. The position of workpiece should be accurate with
respect to tool guiding in the jig or setting elements in fixture.

FOOL PROOF: The design of jigs and fixtures should be such

that it would not permit the workpiece or the tool to inserted in
any position other than the correct one.
• REDUCTION OF IDLE TIME: Design of Jigs and Fixtures
should be such that the process, loading, clamping and unloading
time of the workpiece takes minimum as far as possible.

• WEIGHT OF JIGS AND FIXTURES: It should be easy to

handle, smaller in size and low cost in regard to amount of
material used without sacrificing rigidity and stiffness.

• JIGS PROVIDED WITH FEET: Jigs sometimes are

provided with feet so that it can be placed on the table of the
machine.

• MATERIALS FOR JIGS AND FIXTURES: Usually made

of hardened materials to avoid frequent damage and to resist
wear. ExampleMS, Cast iron, Diesteel, CS, HSS.

• CLAMPING DEVICE: It should be as simple as possible

without sacrificing effectiveness. The strength of clamp should be
such that not only to hold the workpiece firmly in place but also
to take the strain of the cutting tool without springing when
designing the jigs and fixtures.

Essential features of Jigs and Fixtures

Reduction of idle time

Should enable easy clamping and unloading such that idle time is
minimum

 Cleanliness of machining process – Design must be such that

not much time is wasted in cleaning of scarfs, burrs, chips etc.

 Replaceable part or standardization – The locating and

supporting surfaces as far as possible should be replaceable,
should be standardized so that their interchangeable manufacture
is possible

 Provision for coolant – Provision should be there so that the

tool is cooled and the swarfs and chips are washed away

 Hardened surfaces – All locating and supporting surfaces

should be hardened materials as far as conditions permit so that
they are not quickly worn out and accuracy is retained for a long
time

 Inserts and pads – Should always be riveted to those faces of

the clamps which will come in contact with finished surfaces of
the workpiece so that they are not spoilt
 Fool-proofing – Pins and other devices of simple nature
incorporated in such a position that they will always spoil the
placement of the component or hinder the fitting of the cutting
tool until the latter are in correct pos

 Economic soundness – Equipment should be economically

sound, cost of design and manufacture should be in proportion to
the quantity and price of producer

 Easy manipulation – It should be as light in weight as possible

and easy to handle so that workman is not subjected to fatigue,
should be provided with adequate lift aids

 Initial location – Should be ensured that workpiece is not

located on more than 3 points in anyone plane test to avoid
rocking, spring loading should be done  Position of clamps –
Clamping should occur directly above the points supporting the
workpiece to avoid distortion and springing

 Clearance – Sufficient amount of clearance should be provided

around the work so that operator’s hands can easily enter the
body for placing the workpiece and any variations of work can be
accommodated
 Ejecting devices – Proper ejecting devices should be
incorporated in the body to push the workpiece out after
operation

 Rigidity and stability – It should remain perfectly rigid and

stable during operation. Provision should be made for proper
positioning and rigidly holding the jigs and fixtures

 Safety – The design should assure perfect safety of the operator

General rules for designing Compare the cost of production of
work with present tools with the expected cost of production,
using the tool to be made and see that the cost of buildings is not
in excess of expected gain. Decide upon locating points and
outline clamping arrangement

Make all clamping and binding devices as quick acting as

possible

Make the jig fool proof Make some locating points adjustable
Avoid complicated clamping arrangements

Round all corners Provide handles wherever these will make

handling easy Provide abundant clearance
Provide holes on escapes for chips Locate clamps so that they
will be in best position to resist the pressure of the cutting tool
when at work Place all clamps as nearly as possible opposite
some bearing point of the work to avoid springing action

Before using in the shop, test all jigs as soon as made

MATERIALS USED

 Jigs and Fixtures are made of variety of materials, some of

which can be hardened to resist wear.

 Materials generally used:  High speed Steel: Cutting tools

like drills, reamers and milling cutters.

 Die steels: Used for press tools, contain 1% carbon, 0.5 to 1%

tungsten and less quantities of silicon and manganese.  Carbon
steels: Used for standard cutting tools.

 Collet steels: Spring steels containing 1% carbon, 0.5%

manganese and less of silicon.
5. Non shrinking tool steels: High carbon or high chromium Very
little distortion during heat treatment. Used widely for fine,
intricate press tools.

6. Nickel chrome steels: Used for gears.

7. High tensile steels: Used for fasteners like high tensile screws
8. Mild steel: Used in most part of Jigs and Fixtures Cheapest
material Contains less than 0.3% carbon

9. Cast Iron: Used for odd shapes to some machining and

laborious fabrication CI usage requires a pattern for casting
Contains more than 2% carbon Has self lubricating properties
Can withstand vibrations and suitable for base

10. Nylon and Fiber: Used for soft lining for clamps to damage to
workpiece due to clamping pressure

11. Phospher bronze: used for nuts as have high tensile strength
Used for nuts of the lead screw

Factors to be considered for design of Jigs and Fixtures

1. Component- Design to be studied carefully Ensure work is
performed in a proper sequence Maximum operations should be
performed on a machine in single setting

2. Capacity of the machine- Careful consideration to be

performed on type and capacity of machine.

3. Production requirements- Design to be made on basis of

actual production requirements. Then comes decision on manual
and automatic tooling arrangements.

4. Location- • Location should ensure equal distribution of

forces throughout all sequence of operation.

• Location should be hard resistant, wear resistant and high

degree of accuracy.

• Movement of workpiece should be restricted.

• Should be fool proofed to avoid improper locations of the

workpiece.

• Should facilitate easy and quick loading of workpiece.

• Redundant locators should be avoided.

• Sharp corners must be avoided.

• At least one datum surface should be establised.

5. Loading and Unloading arrangements- There should be

adequate clearance for loading and unloading. Hence process
becomes quick and easy. Size variation must be accepted. It
should be hardened material and non sticky.

6. Clamping arrangements- Quick acting clamps must be used

as far as possible. The clamping should not cause any
deformation to the workpiece It should always be arranged
directly above points supporting the work. Power driven clamps
are favoured as they are quick acting, controllable, reliable and
operated without causing any fatigue to the operators. Features of
clamps: Clamping pressure should be low Should not cause
distortion Simple and fool proof Movement of clamp should be
minimum Case hardened to prevent wear Sufficiently robust to
avoid bending

7. Clearance between Jig and Component- To accommodate

various sizes if work Chips to pass out of the opening between
them
8. Ejectors- To remove work from close fitting locators. Speeds
up unloading of the part from the tool and hence production rate.
9. Base and Body construction- Methods used: Machining,
Forging and machining, Casting, Fabricating, Welding.

10. Tool guiding and cutter setting- By adjusting the machine

or using cutter setting block, the cutter is set relative to the work
in a fixture. The drill bushes fitted on jig plates guides the tools.

11. Rigidity and vibration- Must possess enough rigidity and

robustness. Should not vibrate as it may lead to unwanted
movement of workpiece and tools.

12. Safety- Operation should be assured full safety.

13. Cost- Should be simple as possible. Cost incurred should be

optimum.

Design Considerations For Jigs And Fixtures

Jigs and fixtures are manually or partially power operated
devices. To fulfil their basic purposes, jigs and fixtures are
comprised of several elements (as indicated in Fig. 8.1.3)

• base and body or frame with clamping features

• locating elements for proper positioning and orientation of the

blank

• supporting surfaces and base

• clamping elements

• tool guiding frame and bushes (for jig)

• indexing plates or systems, if necessary

• auxiliary elements

Therefore keeping in view increase in productivity, product

quality, repeatability i.e. interchangeability and overall economy
in batch production by machining, the following factors are
essentially considered during design, fabrication and assembly of
jigs and fixtures :

• easy, quick and consistently accurate locating of the blank in the

jig or fixture in reference to the cutting tool

• providing strong, rigid and stable support to the blank

• quick, strong and rigid clamping of the blank in the jig or

fixture without interrupting any other operations

• tool guidance for slender cutting tools like drills and reamers

• easy and quick loading and unloading the job to and from the jig
or fixture

• use of minimum number of parts for making the jig or fixture

• use of standard parts as much as possible

• reasonable amount of flexibility or adjustability, if feasible, to
accommodate slight variation in the job – dimensions

. • prevention of jamming of chips, i.e. wide chips-space and easy

chip disposal

• easy, quick and accurate indexing system if required.

• easy and safe handling and moving the jig or fixture on the
machine table, i.e., their shape, size, weight and sharp edges and
corners

• easy and quick removal and replacement of small parts

• manufacturability i.e. ease of manufacture

• durability and maintainability

• service life and overall expenses

• fastening parts
COST ESTIMATION
 EQUIPMENT COST

COST PER
SR NO EQUIPMENT UNITS UNIT COST
1 RIMMER 10 125/- 1250
2 SAW 10 300/- 3000
3 CHISEL 10 200/- 2000
4 MALLET 10 60/- 600
5 HOLDER 10 1500/- 15000
6 CNC LATHE 1 125000/- 125000/-
THREAD
7 CUTTER 1 12500 12500
8 GRINDER 5 5000/- 25000
DRILLING
9 MACHINE 10 2000/- 20000
TOTAL COST
 
 
  204350/-
 COST OF OFFICE MATERIALS

SR PERTICULAR NO. OF COST TOTAL

NO PERTICULAR PER
UNIT

1 OFFICE TABLE 1 2500 2500

2 SIDE RAKE 1 1600 1600

3 OFFICE CHAIR 1 2000 2000

4 ORD. CHAIR 4 400 1600

5 STATIONARY -- 300 300

TOTAL 80000
 FIXED COST(BLOCK CAPITAL)

SR. EXPENSE COST

NO

1 COM. ELEC. CONNEC. 18000

SECURITY

2 WATER SUPPLY NETWORK 500

3 COST OF MACHINE 51200

4 COST OF OFFICE GOODS 7500

5 COST OF ELECTRIFICATION 15200

TOTAL 92400
 LABOUR COST

DIRECT LABOUR

SR PARTICULAR NO PAYCHECK TOTAL

NO
1 FABRICATOR 1 12000 12000
2 PAINTER 1 10000 10000
3 SKILLED LAB. 2 9000 18000
4 UNSKILLED 3 6000 18000
LAB.
TOTAL 60000

INDIRECT LABOUR
SR. PARTICULAR NO PAYCHECK TOTAL
NO
1 MANAGER 1 SELF
2 WATCHMAN 1 5000 5000
TOTAL 5000

TOTAL MONTHALY WAGE = (60000+5000)

 = 65000/-

BREAK EVEN
ANALYSIS
The break-even analysis (BEA) indicates at what level total costs
and total revenue are in equilibrium. It is an analytical technique
that is used to identify the level of output and sales volume at
which the firm ‘breaks- even’, i.e. the revenues are sufficient to
cover all costs.

BEA establishes the relationship among fixed and

variable costs of production, volume of production, value of
output, sales value and profit. It is, therefore, also known as Cost-
Volume-Project (CVP) analysis. Three approaches are commonly
used to solve the BE problems.

When the BEA is shown graphically, it is shown as the break-

even chart. The ВЕС shows the relationship of production costs
and revenue to the volume of output. This relationship is
determined by a break-even point (ВЕР) on a graph.
The ВЕР is a specific level of output or volume of sales where
total revenue and total costs of a firm are equal. It is the point of
zero profit. This point also known as ‘no-profit, no- loss’ or
‘profit beginning point’. Sales below this point show loss and
above this point show profit.

The fixed cost curve FC is drawn parallel to the horizontal axis.

The variable costs are assumed as constant so that the total cost
curve TC is also linear. The point of equality В of TR and TC
curves is the break-even point.

В is the point of no-profit no-loss at OQ level of output. When

the firm expands its output beyond OQ, it starts making profit.
Thus the area to the right of point В is the profit zone. When the
firm’s output falls below the OQ level, it incurs loss. So the area
to the left of point В is the loss zone.

This type of BEA can be used to calculate the level of

sales which must be attained to avoid loss or to calculate the
margin of safety (MS). MS is the difference between the firm’s
actual level of sales and sales at the BE point, as shown in the
Figure 1. It is expressed as: MS = Actual sales revenue-BE sales.
However, firms calculate the MS in terms of ratio as:
MS Ratio = MS/Actual Sales

The MS is an indicator of the strength of a firm. If the margin is

large, it shows that the firm can make profit even if it has to face
difficulties. On the other hand, if the margin is small, a small
reduction in sales can lead to loss. MS is nil at the BE point
because actual sales volume is equal to the cost.

The same results can be arrived at by the equation method:

Profit = TR – TVC – TFC 

where TR = Price x Quantity

TVC = AVC x Quantity TFC is a constant)

BE point is where profit = 0

And 0 = (Price x Quantity) – (AVC x Quantity) – TFC.

Rearranging the above equation:

BE Quantity = TFC /Price-AVC

Price – AVC in the above equation represents the contribution

margin. Thus the above equation can be written as
BE. Point = TFC/Contribution Margin

Suppose TFC = Rs150

AVC = Rs 12

(Price) P = Rs 15

BE Quantity = 150/15-12=150/3 =50 units

Now TR = P × Q= 15 × 50= Rs 750 TC = TFC + TVC = 150 +

(12×50) = Rs 750 Thus BE point is 50 units where TR (Rs 750) =
TC (Rs 750)

The break-even analysis is based on the following

assumptions:
1. The cost and revenue functions are linear.

2. Total cost is divided into fixed and variable costs.

3. Fixed cost is constant.

4. Variable costs change proportionately with output.

5. The number of units produced and sold of the product is

identical. It means that there is no opening or closing stock.
6. The sale price is constant.

7. Factor prices are constant.

8. Costs are affected only by the quantity produced.

9. There is no change in technology and productivity.

10. There is only one product. In case of multiproduct, the

product-mix remains constant.
ORGANIZATION
 “Organisation”, according to the dictionary, “is the work of
connecting inter-dependent parts so that each has a special
function, act, office or relation to the whole”.

According to J. M. Gaus, “Organisation is the arrangement of

personnel for facilitating the accomplishment of some agreed
purpose through the allocation of functions and responsibilities. It
is the relating of efforts and capacities of individuals and groups
engaged upon a common task in such a way as to secure the
desired objective with the least friction and the most satisfaction
to those for whom the task is done and those engaged in the
enterprise.”

In the words of Mooney, “Organisation is the form of every

human association for the attainment of a common purpose”.

Some other definitions of organization are as follows:

(i) “Organisation is the arrangement of personnel for facilitating
the accomplishment of some agreed purpose through allocation of
functions and responsibilities”. —L.D. White

(ii) “Organisation structure is a pattern of inter-related posts-

connected by line of delegated authority”. —Milward

(iii) “Organisation consists of the relationship of individual to

individual and of group to groups which are so related as to bring
about an orderly division of labour”. —Pfiffner

(iv) “Organisation refers to the structure developed for carrying

out the tasks entrusted to the chief executive and his
administrative subordinates in government”. —Mark, M.

(v) “Organisation is the formal structure of authority through

which work sub-divisions are arranged, defined and coordinated
for the defined objective.” —Gulick Luther

“Organisation is to determine the activities to accomplish a job

and to arrange the distribution of activities among the people” —
L.F. Urwick
“Organisation is the structural relationship between various
factors in an enterprise.” —Leusbeng and Sprinegal

(vi) “An organization is a combination of the necessary human

beings, materials, tools, equipment, working space and
appurtenances brought together in systematic and effective coor-
dination to accomplish some desired object”. —Schulze, William

(vii) “Organisation is concerned with the pattern of relationships

between persons in an enterprise, so constructed as to fulfill the
enterpriser’s function”. —Gladden

(viii)”By organization we mean a planned system of co-operative

effort in which each participant has a recognized role to play and
duties and tasks to perform”. —Simon

(ix) It embraces the duties of designating the departments and

personnel that are to carry on the work defining the functions and
specifying the relationship that are to exist between departments
and individuals” — Kimbal and Kirmball
(x) “Organisation is a harmonious adjustment of specialized parts
for the accomplishment of some common purpose or purposes”
—L.H. Haney

(xi) “An identifiable group of people contributing efforts towards

the attainment of goals is called organisation” —Mc Parland

The above definitions reveal that some are on the basis of

functions whereas some are on the basis of objectives.

The term organisation is generally used in at least three

different meanings:
(a) The act of designing the administrative structure;

(b) Both designing and building the structure, and

(c) The structure itself Of course, some thinkers believe that

organisation is simply designing the structure and nothing more.

Urwick, for example, restricts the meaning of organisation only

to the designing of the administrative machine. He defines
organisation as “determining what activities are necessary to any
purpose and arranging them in groups which may be assigned to
individuals.” His approach is called structural or traditional
approach.

Others do not accept his structural or engineering approach to the

concept of organization. They believe that organisation is
essentially a network of human relationships and this fact should
not be lost sight of in the study of an organisation.

Dwight Waldo says, “In many ways the classical theory was
crude, presumptuous, incomplete, wrong in some of its
conclusions, naive in its scientific methodology, parochial in its
outlook. In many ways it was the end of a Movement, not the
foundation for a science.” Milward has said, “Organisation by
itself does nothing; it is the staff making up the organisation who
do the work.”

” Similarly, Gaus highlights the importance of human element in

an organisation when he defines organisation as the “relating of
efforts and capacities of individuals and groups engaged upon a
common task in such a way as to secure the desired objective
with the least friction and the most satisfaction for whom the task
is done and those engaged in the enterprise.”
There is no denying the fact that organisation is not merely a
structural framework ; it is both a structure and a network of
social relationships, and as such, any organisational theory must
be basically human.

This fact is vividly brought out by the following observation of

the learned thinkers: “Organisation is the systematic bringing
together of inter-dependent parts to form a unified whole through
which authority, coordination and control may be exercised to
achieve a given purpose. Because the interdependent parts are
made up also of people who must be directed and motivated and
whose work must be coordinated in order to achieve the
objectives of the enterprise, organisation is both structure and
human beings….To try to deal with organisation merely as
framework and without considering the people who make it up
and those for whom Its services are intended would be wholly
unrealistic.” In the words of L.D. White, “an organisation is an
aggregate of positions and incumbents” and its primary elements
are (a) persons, (b) combined efforts, and (c) a common purpose.

In olden days, organisations were simple because human society

was in its primitive stage. It, of course, does not mean that there
never were large-scale organisations of the type we find today. It
only means that the relationship pattern in the old simple
organisations was different from what it is today.

Giving an account of the pre-industrial scale organisations

Pfiffner and Sherwood write:
“They were massively simple groups put together to perform a
tremendous job that was simply the endless repetition of a simple
one. Obedient to the principle that the organisation is conditioned
by the circumstances that give it rise, these groups were
structurally nothing but the innumerable repetition of but one
human relationship—the one—ways authoritarian relation which
in its “pure” form is that between master and slave.”

But, today, the old master-slave relationship is a far cry. There

have been many factors at work which have influenced and added
to the complexity of modern organisations. These factors are just
those which have served to complicate the entire fabric of
society.

They include:
(a) The liberation of the individual in our social philosophy and
policies;

(b) The development of new understandings of the nature of

human co-operation;

(c) The broadening range of organisation goals; and

(d) The movement towards task specialization.

It is important to recognize that organisations are social entities

and as such, they are subject to the same kinds of influences,
pressures, prejudices, and biases as any of the social organisms. It
is, therefore, essential that they must be viewed in their total,
multi-dimensional context, rather than from a narrow, mechanical
point of view.

As James D. Mooney has written, “Organisation, therefore, refers

to more than the frame of the edifice. It refers to the complete
body, with all its correlated functions. It refers to those functions
as they appear in action, the very pulse and heartbeats, the
circulation, and respiration, the vital movement, so to speak of
the organised unit.
It refers to the co-ordination of all these factors as they co-operate
for the common purpose.”

There has been a heavy flow of current literature on the theories

of organisation. Such theories include theories like behavioural
theory, game theory, decision theory, information theory,
communication theory, group theory, concept of informal
organisation, motivational approach, quasi-mathematical
approach, human relations approach, etc., but none among them
can be said to be entirely satisfactory.

It is, perhaps, on account of the fact that the study of organisation

is still in its infancy. On the whole, studies of administrative
organisation have tended to cluster at one or the other of two
poles. At one end is the traditional, mechanistic, engineering
approach to the problem and at the other end is the human
behavioural orientation, in which the sociologists, psychologists,
and antropologists hae been most prominent.

These two theories are quite opposite to each other and their
contrast involves the value systems of each position.
Those who are involved in the disciplines of industrial
management, with its concern for formal structural concepts,
place considerable store by the values of productivity, individual
competition, and the more humanistic attitude towards the actors
in organisation, regarding authority for example, as coming from
within the group rather than from the top down.

Let us study these two theories in detail.

Structural (Mechanistic) Functional (Classical) Theory:

This theory is also known as traditional or mechanistic theory of
organisation and a classical theory of organisation. According to
this theory, organisation is a formal structure of plan, amenable to
creation in accordance with certain accepted principles in the
same way as the plan of a building which can be prepared in
advance by the architect according to some principles.

In fact, there are ‘organisation engineers’ in the United States,

who have taken to drawing of organisational charts as their
profession. The whole concept of this theory is based on two
assumptions.
Firstly, the theory assumes that there are certain fundamental
principles in accordance with which an organisation can be built
up to meet the requirements of the contemplated purpose or
activity, and secondly, that the job is independent of its
incumbent. By now, it is obvious that this theory regards
organisation as a machine wherein the human beings are made to
fit like cogs.

The scientific management movement which originated in the

opening decades of the twentieth century under Frederick
Winslow Taylor had as its principal objective the division of
work into its component parts. The movement ignored the human
behaviour in its attempt to fix a fair day’s work for the workers,
and suffered as a consequence of it.

The traditional theory, according to Pfiffner and Sherwood, is

“derived philosophically from a combination of absolutism,
laissez-faire economics, rationalism and in interpretation of
human behaviour based upon the automation.”

It originated in the pre-democratic climate of the nineteenth

century industrial institutions and the validity of this observation
is attested by its metamorphosis command, control, direction, and
communication through channels.

It believes that personalities in the jobs do not count. People must

adapt themselves to organisational needs and that those who are
unable to meet job demands should be discarded. It further as-
sumes that workers are always motivated by rational choice
which make them to behave like an economic man when faced
with alternative choices.

In the words of L.D. White, “it is a formal declared pattern of

relationships established in government by law and by top
management, it is based on the nature and volume of work to be
done and is dictated by the requirements of efficiency in the sense
of securing the most effective use of men and materials and by
the need for responsibility. This organisation is established and
supported by authority and can be set out, although imperfectly,
on a chart or diagram. It is normally the dominant set of work
relationships.”

Briefly summarized the underlying ideas of the traditional

theory are:
(i) It takes an administrative view of human relationship;

(ii) It considers human behaviour to be completely rational and

ignores the irrational or non-rational elements in human nature;

(iii) It considers the economic incentives to be the sole motivating

factor in human life and does not take any note of the
psychological factors;

(iv) It assumes that individuals are immune from the control of

groups and other social factors;

(v) It takes a mechanistic view of organization and ignores the

dynamics of organizational behaviour;

(vi) It takes into account only the formal relationships in an

organization and ignores the informal relationships.

This approach “bears the stamp of the engineer seeking scientific

precision, logical structure, and the one best way of performing
each step and of relating the parts to a unified whole.”

Social-Psychological Theory:
The late 1930’s marked the emergence of a revolt against
traditionalism in organisation theory. This revolt came from a
number of sources, movements and schools which were critical of
the narrow and limited concept of organisation held by the
traditionalists. It was a revolt against the dehumanization of
organisation and against the belief of regarding human beings as
cogs in the machine.

The main elements of the new approach are:

(i) An explicit recognition of the place of values,

(ii) Emphasis on questions of methodology;

(iii) a changed conception of jobs or positions;

(iv) An acceptance of the fact that the government employees are

human beings who work as members of a group;

(v) An organization is a social institution.

In the words of Etzioni “organisations are social units (on human

groupings) deliberately constructed and reconstructed to seek
specific goals”. Herbert A. Simon blasted the so-called principles
of organisation stating that they were merely proverbs which had
never been scientifically tested.

This ideological revolution in the organisation theory came as a

consequence of the Hawthorne experiment conducted during the
1920’s though the results of the principal researches were not
published until a decade later. Elton Mayo and his colleagues
who conducted the experiment made two significant
contributions in organisation and management.

These were:
(i) A challenge to the physical or engineering approach to
motivation.

(ii) The first real assault on the purely structural, hierarchical

approach to organisation.

The experiment proved that people do not respond in any

predictable fashion when physical or environmental incentives
are applied. In other words, motivation cannot be engineered.
Organisation is a social institution and the persons working
therein are social beings.
They can work most efficiently if they are provided with humane
conditions of work. In the words of Roethlisberger, “Too often
we try to solve human problems with non-human tools and in
terms of non-human data. It is my simple thesis that a human
problem requires a human solution…. A human problem to
be brought to a human solution requires human data and
human tools.”
As Henri Fayol has admirably stated “If we could eliminate the
human factor, it would be easy enough to build up an
organization; any one could do it if they had some idea of the
current practice and had the necessary capital. But we cannot
build up an effective organisation simply by dividing men into
groups and giving them functions; we must know how to adapt
the organisation to the requirement of the case and how to find
the necessary men and put each one in the place where he can be
of most service ….”

The essence of this theory lies in its dominant emphasis on

people, on human motivation and on informal group functioning.
The theory rejects institutionalization. It lays more emphasis on
the day to day informal functioning of the structure. It considers it
more important and indicative than the charts and maps.

As such for analysis and solution of the organisational problem it

is imperative to comprehend the multi-dimensional nature of
man. Pfiffner and Sherwood have depicted the changing trends in
organisation theory most comprehensively in their book
‘Administrative Organisation’.
ENTERPRENURSHIP
The Entrepreneur:
In a modern organisation it is not possible to identify an
entrepreneur because he(she) is not a single person. The
entrepreneur is no doubt the creator and manager of a business.
But he is not to be treated as a specific type of individual.

Rather, as Donnally has rightly suggested, “entrepreneurship

can be considered a behaviour, encompassing an individual’s
pursuit of opportunity without regard to the resources the
entrepreneur currently controls”.
Risk-Taking:
Entrepreneurs assure significance in the context of small
business, or at least during the early stages of the enterprise.

We use the term ‘small business’ to refer to the organisation that

is privately owned (usually by top management), is not dominant
in its market, maintains local operations (though it may serve a
much wider market — domestic and international) and employs
fewer than 100 people. Most small businesses in India employ 10
or less people.
The entrepreneur has to face different types of risk. Firstly, in
launching a small business, the owner entrepreneur has to face
substantial business risk in the sense that the failure rate of small
companies is quite high.

Secondly, entrepreneurs have to face a high degree of financial

risk simply because they invest most, if not all, of their personal
finance in their own business. They do not normally get seed
(venture) capital from external sources.

Thirdly, they take a career risk in the sense that they leave a
secure job for a venture with highly uncertain future.

Fourthly, they incur family and social risks because the demands
of starting and running a young business take away a major
portion of their time. So, they are left with little time for attention
to family and friends.

Finally, they assume a psychological risk — the risk of a deep

sense of personal failure should the business fail. The personal
risks of the entrepreneurship may be summed up by describing
the emotions of launching a business as “entrepreneurial
terror”.
What about the future of entrepreneurship? It appears that the
present trend toward creation of small business will continue and
gain momentum during the next century as more and more people
assume the risks to achieve the personal and professional rewards
of running of small business.

Success requires this ability to effectively implement important

principles and functions of management —at least in the early
stages of a new venture when various mistakes are likely to be
made. The costs of such mistakes are likely to be high. Successful
entrepreneurs are those who learn from the mistakes of others and
try to avoid such mistakes.

In the ultimate analysis, it seems that successful entrepreneurship

requires a keen understanding of personal assets and limitations
and a strong commitment to the challenges ahead. Anyone
contemplating launching a new venture has to know himself
(herself), first.

One should thoroughly exercise one’s motivations for

starting a business, as also his personal strengths and weaknesses
which are quite relevant to the business. There is no alternative to
self-understanding and self-assessment which greatly improve the
demands of building a highly productive organisation and reaping
the potential rewards of entrepreneurship.

Entrepreneurship is the name given to the factor of production

which performs the functions of Enterprise. In economics, Land,
Labour, Capital, Organisation and Enterprise are the five factors
which are thought to be the basis of all the production activities.

Entrepreneurship in a broader sense can be considered as a

process of action undertaken by an entrepreneur (Person) to
establish his enterprise. It is a creative and innovative response to
the environment.

Entrepreneurship can be described as a creative and innovative

response to the environment. Such responses may take place in
any field of social endeavour may be business, agriculture, social
work and education etc.

For the entrepreneur it is important to have knowledge about the

economic and political environment, more particularly about the
economic policies of the government and the financial as well as
commercial institutions.
Thus a simple definition of entrepreneurship is doing new things
or doing things which are already being done in a new way.

According to Dr. J.E. Stepenek, “Entrepreneurship” is the

capacity to take risk; ability to organise and desire to diversify
and make innovations in the enterprise.

According to Higgins, Entrepreneurship is meant for the function

of seeing investment and production opportunity, organising in
enterprise to undertake a new production process, raising capital,
hiring labour, arranging the supply of raw materials, finding site,
introducing new techniques and commodities, discovering new
sources of raw materials and selecting top managers for day to
day operation of the enterprise.

It may be concluded that entrepreneurship is a composite skill,

the resultant of many qualities and traits. These include,
imagination ready to take risk, ability to bring together and utilize
other factors of production such as capital, land and labour along
with intangible factors such as capability to mobilise scientific
and technological developments.
Entrepreneurship thus involves taking risk and making essential
investments under conditions of uncertainty. At the same time it
is connected with innovation, planning and taking decisions so as
to increase productivity in industry, business and agriculture etc.
It thus plays a key role in the process of economic development.

Entrepreneurship is a process of action an entrepreneur

undertakes to establish his enterprise. Entrepreneurship is a re-
sultant mix of many qualities and traits of an entrepreneur.

Entrepreneurship can be defined as a process undertaken by

entrepreneur to augment his business interests. It is an exercise
involving innovation and creativity that will go towards
establishing his/her enterprise.

Entrepreneurship is the inclination of mind to take calculated

risks with confidence to achieve a predetermined business or
industrial objectives.
Entrepreneurship has opened avenues of great scope in the Indian
economy. Our national economy is most suited to the growth of
small business enterprise. Small business units offer a more
convenient means of nurturing and developing entrepreneurship
by providing the means of entry into business for new
entrepreneurship talents. Small-scale industries are labour-in-
tensive and can play an important role in solving the problem of
unemployment.

Success of Entrepreneurship:
Following aspects are necessary for the successful
entrepreneurship:
1. Regular inflow of information related to buyers, consumers,
distributors, dealers, retailers, transporters etc., about raw
material, quality aspects, government organisations, employees
and competitors.

2. Satisfying the needs of customers.

3. Generation of adequate cash flow.

4. Regular objective assessment of the enterprise.

5. Improving productivity.

ADVERTISEMENTS:

6. Maintenance of quality.

7. Use of technology of the time.

8. Be innovative.
9. Keep employees motivated.

10. Scrap or waste material be utilised properly.

11. Time management.

ENVIROMENTAL ENGINEERING
Pollution as defined by the dictionary is the introduction or
presence in of a substance that is harmful or has poisonous effects
on the environment. Pollution is further explained as the
introduction into the natural environment contaminants that can
cause an adverse change. To be basic, environmental pollution
causes harm to the environment and which in turn brings harm to
people in the environment.

Occurrence of Environmental Pollution:

The occurrence of environmental pollution is when the
surrounding is contaminated by pollutants; this brings about some
changes that adversely affect our regular lifestyles. The key
components or elements of pollution are pollutants and they are
majorly waste materials of very different forms. Pollution brings
about a disturbance in the balance of the environment and the
ecosystem. Development and modernisation have brought with
them a sharp increase in pollution and this has given rise to
various human illnesses and most importantly global warming.

Forms of Environmental Pollution:

There are many various forms of environmental pollution
including water, air, radioactive, soil, heat, noise and light. For
every form of pollution, there are two sources of pollution; the
non point and the point sources. It is very easy to monitor,
indentify and control the point sources of pollution while the non-
point pollution sources are quite difficult and hard to control.

Causes and Sources of Environmental Pollution:

The sources and causes of environmental pollution consist of
the following:
i. Industrial Activities:
Industries from all around the world even though they have
brought affluence and prosperity have continually disturbed
ecological balances and have probed the biosphere. The fall-outs
of experiments, pall of smoke, industrial effluents and the
swirling gases are a constant hazard to health, contaminating and
polluting both water and air. The inappropriate disposal of
industrial wastes has become a source of both water and soil
pollution. The chemical wastes from the various industries can
cause pollution to rivers, lakes, seas and also to soil and air
through the release of fumes.

ii. Solid Waste Dumping:

Commercial and household wastes are sources of environmental
pollution when the wastes are not disposed of properly.

iii. Vehicles:
Vehicles that use diesel and petrol emit smoke and also the
smoke that is emitted by cooking coal pollutes our environment.
The exponential growth in the number of vehicles on the roads
has only aided the emission of smoke that when released spreads
and eventually mixes with the air that we breathe. The smoke of
these various vehicles is quite harmful and is the primary cause of
air pollution. There is also the risk of sounds from these vehicles
producing noise pollution.

iv. Rapid Industrialisation and Urbanisation:

The rapid rate of urbanisation and also industrialisation are major
causes of environmental pollution because of the harm and death
they bring to plant which causes harm to animals, humans and the
ecosystem.

v. Population Overgrowth:
The rapid population increase especially in developing nations,
the demand for occupation, basic food and shelter has been on the
rise. Due to the high demand, deforestation has become rampant
to help meet the growing demand of the population.

vi. Fossil Fuel Combustion:

The continual combustion of fuels of fossils is as source of
pollution to the soil, the air and water through toxic gases like
Carbon monoxide.

vii. Agricultural Wastes:

Pesticides and fertilizers that are used during agriculture are
major sources of environmental pollution.

Types of Environmental Pollution:

Air Pollution:
This is probably the most dangerous and common form of
environmental pollution and it has been seen to be synonymous
with urbanisation. The primary reason for this is the high rate of
fuel combustion. Fuel combustion is now a very basic
requirement for transport, cooking and some other activities both
domestically and industrially. All these activities release a large
number of toxic chemicals into the atmosphere and are not
removed from the air, affecting and threatening our existence.
Sulphur oxide is released into the air by the smoke and this makes
the air very toxic. This is primary caused by smoke from factory
stacks, chimneys, vehicles or even something very common like
the burning of a log of wood. The emission of sulphur oxide and
many other gases into the atmosphere leads to global warming
with the capacity to lead to an acid rain. The emission of these
greenhouse gases and the global warming it causes has led to
droughts, erratic rains and increased temperatures worldwide.
Conditions and ailments like Bronchitis, Asthma and the
extremely dangerous case of lung cancer and this occurs majorly
in the cities.

An example of one of the many sad examples of the calamities

that can rise due to air pollution is the 1984 gas tragedy of
Bhopal. The gas tragedy was a result of the release of a gas
(methyl isocyanate) at a gas plant. About 2,000 people lost their
lives in the tragedy and more than 200,000 people suffered from
extensive respiratory problems. Respiratory illnesses, increase in
asthma and cardiovascular diseases can be caused by an irritant
(for example, particulates that are below 10 micrometers in size).
Till this very moment, there are still birth defects in babies born
and this has been attributed to the Bhopal Tragedy.

Water Pollution:
Water is essential for life; every living creature or being depends
on water for survival. About 60% of all species live in water; this
means that the pollution of water is a very important pollution
type that has to be controlled. There are a lot of factors that
contribute to water pollution, one very major contributing factor
is industrial effluent disposed into rivers and seas and causing a
large imbalance in the properties of water and this makes the
bodies of water unfit for live. There are also a lot of diseases that
are caused by water pollution and these diseases affect both non-
aquatic and aquatic species.

Pesticides and insecticides that are sprayed on different plants is a

source of pollution to the groundwater and also, oil spills in
oceans have led to severe irreversible damage to the bodies of
water. Another source of water pollution is eutrophication and it
happens due to activities like the washing of utensils, clothes near
rivers, ponds or lakes; the washing detergent moves into the
water and inadvertently blocks the penetration of sunlight and
this reduces the oxygen content of the water and makes it
inhabitable.

The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)

put forward that about 80% of marine environment pollution
originates from sources like runoff. The pollution of water can
have devastating effect on marine life. Citing an example,
pathogens grow well with sewage, while inorganic and organic
compounds that are in water can make the composition of water
to change. If the level of dissolved oxygen is low, the water is
considered to be polluted; dissolved oxygen is from the
decomposition carried out on organic materials like sewage that
are added to the water.

By harming aquatic creatures, water pollution contaminates the

whole food chain by seriously causing harm to the humans that
are dependent on the aquatic creatures. There has been a sharp
increase in the number of diarrhoea and cholera cases
everywhere.

Soil Pollution:
This is also called land pollution and it happens due to addition of
chemicals that are not wanted to the soil caused by human
activities. The use of pesticides and insecticides removes all the
compounds of nitrogen from the soil thus making it highly unfit
for the plants to get nutrients from. Deforestation, mining and
waste release from industries also depletes the soil and this will
inhibit the growth of plants and the soil will end up being eroded.

A significant part of solid waste is the industrial or commercial

waste. Hazardous waste can be said to mean any solid, liquid or
sludge form of waste that has properties which are dangerous or
are potentially dangerous to the environment or human health.
Hazardous wastes are generated in industries from pesticide
manufacturing, petroleum refining, mining and a whole lot of
other productions involving chemicals. Hazardous wastes are not
solely generated by industries; households also generate waste
that are hazardous like fluorescent lights, paints and solvents,
aerosol cans, motor oil and ammunition.

Noise Pollution:
This is caused anytime there is a noise that has intensity higher
than 85db and it reaches the bare ears. Noise pollution causes
different psychological problems (e.g. hypertension and stress). It
sometimes also causes a permanent impairment of hearing which
is a very devastating thing. Noise pollution is largely caused by
loud compressors and pumps in industries.

Radioactive Pollution:
This is believed to be one of the highly dangerous types of
pollution because the effects are permanent. Nuclear waste
disposed carelessly, accidents in nuclear plants, etc are all
examples of radioactive pollution. Radioactive pollution can
cause infertility as a result of exposure, cancer (blood and skin),
blindness and various birth defects. It can also permanently alter
the air, soil and water – which are the major life sources. It has
been found to cause serious mutation in some species that can for
ages propagate.
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 An advertisement is a short feature, usually used in
media for launching and promoting a product or a service. It is a
way to bring the attention of the people as often as possible to the
product or a service that is intended to be sold.

The more often people notice an advertisement, either

by seeing it or hearing about it, the stronger the correlation of the
product becomes for the brain. This affects the buying decisions
for people.

n fact, advertisement and promotion are influencing the

purchasing decisions of the customers and so the biggest
determinants for sales.

Ways to advertise

1. Word of mouth: Like the dominoes effects,

word of mouth promotion is a very effective advertisement
strategy. People trust a person’s testimony more than any
other medium.
 2. Banners, flyers and brochures: These are
effective ways to make people aware of the products since it
catches their attention even for a few seconds.
3. Radio: Catchy jingles or attractive phrases
are used to get attention.
4. Newspapers, magazines: Advertisements
consume a substantial amount of space. Eye-catching
colours, attractive visuals, models appeal to the senses.
5. TV, Film: popular or primetime programmes
attract the most advertisements for exposure to maximum
audience. Again, using persuasive language in the feature,
high entertainment value and appealing visual is the
methodology used, often accompanied by catchy jingles.
6. Internet: frequently visited webpages make a
popular space for advertisements, especially along the
margins.

What attracts attention?

1. Repetition: The more often one sees an

advertisement, the higher likelihood it has of becoming a
familiar brand name or product.
 2. Attractiveness in terms of visuals, tunes:
Advertisements that appeal to a person’s senses are likely to
stay in his memory longer and recalled faster.
3. Persuasive language: Advertisements use
persuasive language to influence the target customers by
making them feel the need to experience the product or the
service.
4. Solution or goal: If an ideal solution or goal
is portrayed, it is bound to catch the eye and remain in the
mind for a long time.

Advertisement is an essential part of sales and more the

advertisement more is the likelihood of influencing the customers
to buy your product or service.

Advertisement is the act of promoting a business, brand,

product, or even services. It requires a necessary scheme and
strategy so that the purpose of carrying out
the advertisement would be achieved up to the maximum level.

Several Ways of Advertising your product

 1. You can make use of the newspaper. There are lots of pages
that are reserved for advertisements,  you can do well to buy
a slot and make your product known.
2. Advertisement can also be achieved by buying little time on
TV programs or radio programs. Advertising on TV adds
visuals and audio to your product.
3. You can also advertise digitally. This is also called digital
marketing. It is the most used form of marketing presently
involving making use of the internet to advertise.
4. Another way of advertising is by distributing printed banners
about your product to people on the street.
5. You can also have your product displayed on billboards.
This type especially makes road users be aware of your
product as billboards are always erected on the highways.
6. You can advertise your product or service by rendering the
best service or selling the best product.
7. You can advertise your product by solving a general
problem in a society where your company is located.

Benefits of advertisement

1. It puts your company at the frontline.

 2. Your product attracts more customers.
3. Constant awareness of the existence of your product in
society, city, or country.
4. It creates value for your business.
5. More edge over competitors.
6. Advertisement calls for partnership.
7. It brings more profit in return

Conclusion

Advertisement is no doubt a must do activity if you want your

company to grow. Carefully study the forms of advertisement and
select the best fit for your company or product.