Science

Lesson 1.1: The Respiratory System

Definition:
The respiratory system consists of the set of organs and tissues involved in the uptake
of oxygen from the atmosphere and the release of carbon dioxide generated during aerobic
respiration. This gas exchange is also called breathing or external respiration.

How does the Respiratory System work?

Organs specialized for breathing usually contain moist structures with large surface
areas to allow the diffusion of gases. They are also adapted to protect the organism from the
invasion of pathogens along those surfaces.
The respiratory system begins in the nose, continues into the pharynx and larynx, leads
to the trachea which branch to create bronchi, and finally down the bronchioles into the
lungs. This respiratory tree ends in puffy structures called alveoli that are made of a single layer
of squamous cells, surrounded by a network of capillaries. Gas exchange occurs within alveoli.
What is Human Respiration?
The human respiration system allows one to obtain oxygen and eliminate carbon
dioxide. Breathing consists of 2 phases, inspiration and expiration.
Inspiration – the process of Expiration – the process of
taking in air (O2) blowing out air (CO2)

Organ Functions
Organ Function
 Openings that pull air from outside your body
Mouth and Nose into your respiratory system.

Hollow areas between the bones in your head

Sinuses that help regulate the temperature and
humidity of the air you inhale.

Tube that delivers air from your mouth and

Pharynx (Throat) nose to the trachea (windpipe).

Trachea Passage connecting your throat and lungs.

Tubes at the bottom of your windpipe that

Bronchi connect into each lung.

Two organs that remove oxygen from the air

Lungs and pass it into your blood.

Muscle that helps your lungs pull in air and

Diaphragm push it out

Small branches of the bronchial tubes that

Bronchioles lead to the alveoli.

Tiny air sacs in the lungs where the exchange

Alveoli of oxygen and carbon dioxide takes place.

Blood vessels in the alveoli walls that move

Capillaries oxygen and carbon dioxide.

Thin sacs that surround each lung lobe and

Pleura separate your lungs from the chest wall.

Tiny hairs that move in a wave-like motion to

Cillia filter dust and other irritants out of your
airways.

Tissue flap at the entrance to the trachea that

Epiglottis closes when you swallow to keep food and
liquids out of your airway.

Hollow organ that allows you to talk and

Larynx (Voicebox) make sounds when air moves in and out.
 Alveoli are tiny balloon like structures with
very thin walls. They have numerous tiny
thin walled blood vessels in direct contact
with them. Inhaled oxygen is able to diffuse
into the capillaries from the alveoli while
carbon dioxide from the blood diffuses in the
opposite direction into the alveoli.

The diaphragm is a dome-shaped muscle that

curves
upwards towards the lungs. When it contracts, it
becomes flattened and therefore increases the
volume of the thoracic cavity. Similarly,
contraction of the external intercostal
muscles moves the ribs upwards and
outwards. This increase in volume leads to a
drop in pressure within the lungs, allowing air to
flow passively into the airways. Gas exchange

But, the diaphragm is not alone. The

intercostal muscles, as seen in the
picture below, provide expansion and
contraction of the rib cage, which
furthers the movement of air in and out
of the lungs.
 Diseases in the
Respiratory System:

Diseases of the respiratory

tract can arise due to obstruction
to the airway, constriction of the
passages, or the loss of the
extensive surface area of
alveoli for gas exchange.
There could also be
difficulties with the
capillaries surrounding
these alveoli, either due to clots
or due to altered cardiac
function. These illnesses could be chronic conditions or temporary infections. They could also
simply be minor changes to the breathing pattern, as seen with hiccups.

Common Cold
The common cold, appropriately named for its ubiquitous nature is caused by a
large number of different viruses, with rhinoviruses being the most varied and common cause
for this complaint. It is usually an infection of the upper respiratory tract, though it can
occasionally spread towards the ears, or the lower respiratory structures as well. The infection is
transmitted through direct contact with the infected person, especially their nasal discharges.

Tuberculosis
On the other end of the spectrum of infectious diseases of the respiratory tract is
tuberculosis, or TB. It is a bacterial infection caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis and until
the advent of powerful antibiotics, could often lead to death after a painful illness. The infection
spreads by the transmission of live bacteria from the infected person, especially through oral
and nasal discharges. Since the bacterium is hardy and can exist in a desiccated form for many
months, the illness can quickly reach epidemic proportions in regions where population density
is high, or there is a prolonged cold season where people stay indoors and interact closely with
one another

Lung Cancer
Lung cancer is the development of a malignant tumor in the lungs, associated with
uncontrolled cell growth within the tissues and the metastasis of these cells to other organs
within the body. Smoking, especially when begun at an earlier age, is the highest risk factor for
developing lung cancer. Passive smoking is often equally dangerous. In recent history, King
George VI died of complications relating to lung cancer, brought on by years of heavy smoking.
Though tobacco smoking accounts for over 80% of lung cancer cases, any chemical substance
that repeatedly irritates the delicate inner linings of the lung can lead to the formation of a
tumor. These include asbestos, chromium, nickel, radon gas, uranium dust, coal dust. The most
common organ for the metastasis of lung cancer is the bone. Therefore, advanced stages of the
disease also involve pain in the bones.

Allergies
 Inhaling proteins, such as dust, mold, and pollen, can cause respiratory allergies in
some people. These proteins can cause inflammation in your airways.

Asthma:
A chronic (long-term) disorder, asthma causes inflammation in the airways that
can make breathing difficult.

Science
Lesson 1.2: The Circulatory System

Definition:
The system that moves blood throughout the body. The circulatory system
is composed of the heart, arteries, capillaries, and veins. This remarkable system transports
oxygenated blood from the lungs and heart throughout the body via the arteries. The blood goes
through the capillaries which are situated between the arteries and veins. And the blood that has
been depleted of oxygen by the body is then returned to the lungs and heart via the veins.

Deoxygenated blood will pass through the

superior or inferior vena cava and into the
right atrium. RA will contact making the
blood pass through the Tricuspid valve.
From there, blood will go to the right
ventricle. RV will contract pumping the
blood through the pulmonary valve and into
the pulmonary artery straight to the lungs for
gas exchange to happen producing
oxygenated blood. Oxygen rich blood will
pass through the pulmonary veins and into
the left atrium. LA will contract pumping
 The circulatory system, also known as the cardiovascular system, is a vast network
of organs and blood vessels that acts both as a delivery and waste removal system for the body.
Nutrients, oxygen and hormones are delivered to every cell and as these necessities are
provided, waste products such as carbon dioxide are removed.
Not only does the circulatory system keep our cells healthy, but it also keeps us
alive. The heart constantly receives signals from the rest of the body that direct how hard it
needs to pump to properly supply the body with what it needs. For example, when asleep, the
body sends electrical signals to the heart that tell it to slow down. When participating in heavy
exercise, the heart receives the message to pump harder to deliver extra oxygen to the muscles.
 The Circulatory System consists of 3 independent systems that work together; the
Heart (cardiovascular), the lungs (pulmonary), arteries, veins, coronary, and portal vessels
(systemic), The system is responsible for the flow of blood, oxygen, nutrients and other gases,
ad well as hormones to and from the cells.

An average adult has 5-6 quarts

(4.7 – 5.6 liters) of blood which is
made up of red blood cells, white
blood cells, plasma. and platelets.

The system of blood vessels in the

human body is measured about 60,000
miles or 96,560 kilometers.

Science
Lesson 2: Genetic Information – DNA, Genes, & Chromosomes

Gregor Mendel

- Known as the father of Modern

Genetics.
- Was born in Austria in 1822.
- Mendel discovered the basic principles
of Heredity through experiments in his
monastery’s garden. His experiments
showed that the inheritance of certain
traits in pea plants follow particular
 Mendel chose to use pea plants for his experiments due to their many distinct varieties, and
because offspring could be quickly and easily produced. He cross fertilized pea plants that had
clearly opposite characteristics-tall with short, smooth with wrinkled, those containing green
seeds with those containing yellow seeds, etc. After analyzing his results, reached two of his
most important conclusions:

Law of Segregation which established that there are dominant and

recessive traits passed on randomly from parents to offspring (and
provided an alternative to blending inheritance, the dominant theory
of that time),

Law of Independent Assortment which established that traits were

passed on independently of other traits from parent to offspring. He
also proposed that this heredity followed basic statistical laws.
Though Mendel’s experiments have been conducted with pea plants,
he put forth his theory that all living things had such traits.

Though Mendel’s work failed to discuss thoroughly the “factors” or genes he mentioned in
his laws of inheritance, his findings prompted other scientists to probe further into the mystery
of heredity. Several researches were conducted after the rediscovery of Mendel’s work.
Relationship between DNA, Genes, and Chromosomes

DNA is composed of nitrogen bases;

Adenine, Thymine, Guanine, Cytosine
and a Phosphate-Sugar backbone.
Portions of DNA make up genes and in
order to store all these genetic
information, DNA is tightly wrapped
around a protein called Histone to form
Chromatin which condenses during cell
division and then called Chromosomes.
- DNA is often called “The Blueprint of Life.”
- Gene is a unit of heredity that is transferred from a parent to offspring.
- Chromosome is a thread-like structure of nucleic acids and protein found in the nucleus of
most living cells, carrying genetic information.
- DNA is made of nucleotides.
- DNA is found in the cell’s nucleus.

Answer the given question below:

The structure of DNA is actually in a double helix
arrangement. The nitrogen bases in each of chain
can only pair with specific bases like adenine pairs
only with thymine and cytosine pairs only with
guanine. If the left chain of a DNA molecule has the
nucleotide sequence CCGTAGGCC, what is
sequence of the right chain of the DNA molecule?
GGCATCCGG is the sequence of bases on the right

Components of DNA:
The function of DNA is associated with its
structure. Deoxyribonucleic Acid is a
chemical molecule formed from a smaller
biomolecule called nucleotides. Nucleotides
are composed of nitrogenous bases,
deoxyribose sugar, and a phosphate group.
DNA has 4 different types of nucleotides by
the basis of specific nitrogenous bases such

Non-Mendelian Inheritance
Incomplete Dominance
Incomplete Dominance is a form of intermediate inheritance in which one allele for a
specific trait is not completely dominant over the other allele. The result in a third phenotype in
which the expressed physical trait is a combination of the dominant and recessive phenotypes.
Codominance
In Codominance, both alleles are expressed equally in the phenotype of the
heterozygote. For example, red cows crossed with white cows will have offsprings that are roan
cows. Roan refers to cows with red hair and white white blotches.

This principle states that a cross between homozygous dominant genes will result to
a progeny of heterozygous genes determining a phenotype where both the dominant trait and
recessive trait are expressed.
Multiple Alleles
In humans, there are four blood types (phenotypes): A. B, AB, and O. Blood type ic
controlled by three alleles: A, B, and O.
O is recessive, two O must be present for a person to have type O blood. A and B are
codominant. If a person receives an A allele and a B allele, their blood type is type AB.
The ABO system is an example of a character governed by multiple alleles. Three alleles
are responsible for this blood system: IA, IB, and i. The ABO blood type is determined by the
presence or absence of two antigens, A and B. Allele does not code for an antigen.
The IA and IB alleles are dominant over i allele, which is always recessive. However,
when the IA and IB alleles are inherited together, both alleles are expressed equally. This also
makes IA and IB codominant of each other.

Sex Chromosome and Sex Determination

Males have 44 body chromosomes and 2 sex chromosomes X and Y. The males
determine the sex of their children. Femailes have 44 body chromosomes and 2 sex
chromosomes, both X. The total number of chromosomes in each cell of an individual is 46.
These chromosomes contain the genes which are the factors of heredity.

Sex-linked traits and Sex-influenced traits

Sex-linked traits are those that are expressed exclusively in one sex.
Examples: Beard growth in men, milk production in mammals.
 Sex-influenced traits are expressed in both sexes but more frequently in one than the
other sex.
Example: Baldness