Transistor Characteristics Theory Support

4.
Transistor Characteristics T he o r y S u ppo r t
Transistor Characteristics
Electronics - Diodes a n d Transistors
Topics covered in this presentation:

 Transistor Construction
 Transistor Operation
 Transistor Characteristics
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4. Transistor Characteristics T he o r y Su pp or t
The Transistor
The transistor is a semiconductor device that revolutionised electronics

in the 1950s and 60s.
Although individual transistors have been replaced in many

applications, transistors are still used in power gain applications.
They can be found in driver circuits where the signal from an input
or a process is not powerful enough to drive the output device.
There are many different types of transistors, but in this assignment we

will examine only the bipolar junction transistor.
Today, transistors are used in integrated devices where several

thousand transistors are formed in a single device.
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4. Transistor Characteristics T he o r y S upp o rt
Bipolar Junction Transistor

The bipolar junction transistor is a semiconductor

device containing two p-n junctions.
To form the two junctions, the

semiconductor material is
arranged in three layers.
This allows two different types

of transistor to be created,
depending on the order of the
n-type and p-type
semiconductor layers.
The two types of bipolar junction

transistors are NPN and PNP,
although only the NPN transistor
will be considered in this module.
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The three layers are called the base, emitter, and collector.
Base (B) - The base is the middle layer

of semiconductor material and controls
the flow of charge carriers between the
emitter and the collector.
Emitter (E) - The emitter region is

heavily doped with charge carriers
that can be emitted into the base.
Collector (C) - The collector is lightly

doped so that it can collect charge
carriers from the base region.
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Each type of bipolar junction

transistor has its own circuit
symbol showing the base,
emitter and collector.
The arrow on the symbol always

appears on the emitter terminal
and points from P to N.
For an NPN transistor, the arrow

on the emitter will point outwards.
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NPN Transistor Biasing

The bipolar junction transistor

contains two pn junctions that
behave exactly like a diode.
Each junction must be correctly
biased to allow electrons to flow
between the emitter and collector.
For this reason, an NPN

transistor cannot be replaced
by a PNP transistor.
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NPN Transistor Biasing

For an NPN transistor, to allow the

electrons in the emitter to move to
the base, the voltage at the base
must typically be 0.6V higher than
the voltage at the emitter.
To allow these electrons to

continue on to the collector, the
collector voltage must be higher
than the base voltage.
Although some of the electrons

will exit the transistor at the base,
the majority of them will continue
onto the collector.
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Transistor Characteristics
When selecting a transistor for an application, there are three

main characteristics that must be taken into account. These
are generally plotted as graphs.
Input Characteristic
• Base current (IB) against base-emitter voltage (VBE)
Output Characteristic
• Collector current (IC) against collector-emitter voltage (VCE)
Transfer Characteristic
• Collector current (IC) against base current (IB)
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Input Characteristic
The input characteristic is a plot of base current (IB) against

base-emitter voltage (VBE) for a fixed collector-emitter voltage.
From this graph you can determine what voltage must be applied
across the base and emitter in order to switch on the transistor.
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The output characteristic is a plot of collector current (IC) against

collector-emitter voltage (VCE) for a range of base currents.
The graph shows a series of plots,

one for each base current value.
From the graph it can be seen

that initially the collector current
varies greatly for small change
to the collector emitter voltage.
At this point the transistor is not
very stable.
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However, above a certain value the collector-emitter voltage has little

effect on the collector current (for a given base current) and the
transistor becomes more stable.
The transistor is generally

operated in this stable region, and
the output characteristic graph
shows what minimum value of
collector-emitter voltage must be
applied to keep it operating in the
stable region.
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Transfer Characteristic
The transfer characteristic shows the collector current against base

current at a fixed value of collector-emitter voltage.
For a given collector-emitter voltage the graph will be approximately

linear, which shows that the base current is almost a constant
fraction of the collector current. The transistor acts as a current
amplifier.
The ratio of collector current to base
current is called the DC current gain (hFE).
Collector current,IC
DC current gain,hFE
Basecurrent,I B
The value of DC current gain varies between transistors

- even between transistors of the same type.
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Transistor Datasheet
Some of the criteria, found on the product data sheet,

to consider when selecting a transistor.
• DC current gain
• Collector-emitter breakdown voltage
• Collector-emitter saturation voltage
• Base-emitter ‘on’ voltage
• Package Type
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Transistor as a Switch
If the base-emitter voltage is below

0.6V, the transistor will not conduct,
resulting in no base current and no
collector current.
A base current is required to

obtain a collector current.
By switching the base current on

and off, the collector current can
also be switched on and off.
The transistor can therefore be

used as a switch with the base
current controlling the flow of the
collector current.
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4. Transistor Characteristics T he o r y S u ppo r t
Practical Transistor Switch Circuit

In a practical transistor switch

circuit the load is connected
between the collector and the
positive supply rail.
A resistor is connected between

the base and the power supply.
This is to ensure that the current
through the base-emitter junction
is kept to a safe level, in order to
prevent damage to the transistor.
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4. Bipolar Junction Transistors
4. Bipolar Junction Transistors TLT-8016 Basic Analog Circuits 2005/2007 1

4.1 Basic Operation of the npn Bipolar Junction Transistor
npn BJT consists of thin p-type layer between

two n-type layers;
Layers: emitter, base, collector;
Two interacting pn junctions: emitter-base and
base-collector;
Emitter region is doped very heavily, compared
with the base region
Figure 4.1 The npn BJT.

Basic Operation in the Active region
Figure 4.2 An npn transistor with variable biasing sources

(common-emitter configuration).
Shokley equation for the emitter current

  vBE  
iE  I ES exp  1 (4.1) Figure 4.3 Current flow for an npn BJT in the active region.
  VT   Most of the current is due to electrons moving from the emitter
through the base to the collector. Base current consists of holes
IES = 10-12 .. 10-17A – saturation current crossing from the base into the emitter and of holes that
VT = 26mV – thermalvoltage recombine with electrons in the base.

First - Order Common - Emitter Characteristics
Figure 4.4 Common-emitter characteristics of a typical npn BJT.
Amplification by the BJT Factors Affecting the Current Gain

In Figure 4.4: If iB = 30A, iC = 3mA – 100 times • Doping of the emitter area compared with the
more base area
  iC (4.2) • Base region should be thin;
iB
• Geometry of the device
 - common-emitter current gain.
Typically  = 10 .. 1000
Device Equations
iE  iC  iB (4.3) iB  1  iE (4.8)
  iC (4.4)   vBE  
iE i  1 I exp  1 (4.9)
B ES  
 - common-base current gain. V
  T  
Typically  = 0.9 .. 0.999
  vBE   iC   iB (4.11)
iC  I ES  exp  1 (4.5)
V
  T  
I s  I ES (4.6)   iC   (4.10)
iB 1
Is – scale current

 vBE  
iC  I s exp  (4.7) 1 
 VT 

Solution:
Example 4.1 Using Device Curves to Determine For example:
 and  at vCE=4 V and iB=30 A; iC=3 mA;
Determine the values of  and  for the transistor   iC  3 mA 100

with the characteristics shown in Figure 4.4. iB 30 A
    0.99
 1
Figure 4.4 Common-emitter characteristics of a typical npn BJT.

Secondary Effects
Base - Width Modulation
Base-width modulation: the dependence of the

base width from vCE.
Base-width modulation affects iB and iC.
VA – Early voltage
Collector Breakdown
Avalanche breakdown in the depletion region
of the collector-base junction
Punch-through
Leakage Current
ICO – reverse leakage current. Flows from
collector to the base.
Figure 4.5 Common-emitter characteristics displaying
exaggerated secondary effects.

4.2 Load - Line Analysis of a Common - Emitter Amplifier
Analysis of the Input Current
VBB  vin( t )  RBiB( t )  v BE ( t ) (4.13)
Analysis of the Output Circuit

VCC  RCiC  vCE (4.14)
Figure 4.10 Common-emitter amplifier.
Figure 4.11 Load-line analysis of the amplifier of Figure 4.10.

Example 4.2 Graphical Determination of Q-point and Peak Signal Swings
Suppose that the current of Figure 4.10 has VCC=10 V, VBB=1.6 V, RB=40 k and RC=2 k. The input
signal is a 0.4 V peak, 1 kHz sinusoid given by vin(t)=0.4sin(2000t). The common-emitter
characteristics for the transistor are shown in Figure 4.12a and b. Find the maximum, minimum and Q-
point values for vCE.
Solution
Figure 4.12 Load-line analysis for Example 4.2.

Figure 4.13 Voltage waveforms for the amplifier of Figure 4.10. See Example 4.2.
Gain in Example 4.2:

Amplitude at the input: 0.4V
Amplitude at the output
7 – 5 = 2V
2
Av  5
0.4

Distortion
Figure 4.14 Output of the amplifier of Example 4.2 for

vin (t) = 1.2 sin(2000t) showing gross distortion.
Cutoff: vBE < 0.6V and iB 0

Saturation region: iB is large and iC is not Figure 4.15 Amplification occurs in the active region. Clipping
proportional to it. occurs when the instantaneous operating point enters
saturation or cutoff. In saturation, vCE < 0.2 V.
When transistor enters in cutoff or in saturation,
clipping of the output signal occurs.

4.3 The pnp Bipolar Junction Transistor
pnp transistor: thin n type semiconductor layer All relationships between the currents and
between two p type semiconductor layers voltages in a pnp BJT are the same as in npn
Basic charge carriers: holes BJT. There are two basic differences:
• The currents flow in opposite directions;
• The voltages have opposite polarities.
iC   iE (4.15)
iB  1  iE (4.16)
iC   iB (4.17)
iE  iC  iB (4.18)
  vBE  
iE  IES exp  1 (4.19)
  VT  
Figure 4.16 The pnp BJT.

Figure 4.17 Common-emitter characteristics for a pnp BJT. Pay attention that the voltages are negative.

4.4 Large - Signal DC Circuit Models
Figure 4.20 Regions of operation on the characteristics of an npn BJT.
Active region: IB > 0; VCE > 0.2V

Saturation region: IB > 0; IB > IC > 0
Cutoff region: VBE < 0.5V; VBC < 0.5V;
Active - Region Model
Figure 4.19a BJT large-signal models. (Note: Values shown are appropriate for
typical small-signal silicon devices at a temperature of 300K.)

Saturation - Region Model
Figure 4.19b BJT large-signal models. (Note: Values shown are appropriate for typical small-signal
silicon devices at a temperature of 300K.)

Cutoff - Region Model
Figure 4.19c BJT large-signal models. (Note: Values shown are appropriate for typical
small-signal silicon devices at a temperature of 300K.)

Example 4.3 Determination of BJT Operation Region
A given transistor has  =100. Determine the region of operation if
(a) IB = 50A and IC = 3mA; (b) IB = 50A and VCE = 5V;
(c) VBE = -2V and VCE =-1V.
Solution:
(a) IB = 50A > 0 – active or saturation region;
IB = 1005010-6 = 5mA > IC – saturation region.
(b) IB = 50A > 0 – active or saturation region;
VCE = 5V > 0.2V – active region.
(c) VBE = -2V < 0.5V – most probably cutoff;
VCE = -1V < 0.5V – this confirms cutoff region.

4.5 Large - Signal DC Analysis of BJT Circuits
Step 1: Assume an operation region for the BJT and replace it by the
corresponding large signal equivalent circuit.
Step 2: Solve the circuit to find IC, IB, and VCE.
Step 3: Check to see if the values found in Step 2 are consistent with
the assumed operating state. If so the solution is complete;
otherwise return to Step 1.

Solution:
Example 4.4 The Fixed - Base Bias Circuit
First assumption: Cutoff. The equivalent circuit is
The DC bias circuit shown in Figure 4.21a has in Figure 4.21(b).
RB=200 k, RC=1 k and VCC=15 V. The IB = 0 – thus the voltage drop across RB is zero.
transistor has  = 100. Solve for IC and VCE. Thus VBE = VCC = 15V > 0.5V.
The assumption is not valid.
Figure 4.21 Bias circuit of Examples 4.4 and 4.5.

Second assumption: Saturation. The equivalent Third assumption: Active region. The equivalent
circuit is in Figure 4.21c. circuit is in Figure 4.21d.
V  0.2 15  0.2 VCC  0.7 15  0.7
IC  CC  14.8mA IB    71.5 µA
RC 1103 RB 200 10 3
I C   I B  7.15mA
V  0.7 15  0.7  71.5 µA
I B  CC  V  V  R I  15  7.15103 1103  7.85V
RB 20010 3 CE CC CC
IB = 10071.510-6 = 7.15mA < IC IB > 0; VCE > 0.2V. The conditions are met.
The assumption is not valid.

Example 4.5 The Fixed - Base Bias Circuit with
Higher Beta One of the requirements for the active region
VCE>0.2 V is not met.
Repeat example 4.4 with =300.
Next we assume that the transistor is in
saturation.
Solution: First, we assume that the circuit V  0.2
operating in the active region. IC  CC 14.8 mA
RC
V  0.7 V  0.7
I B  CC  71.5 A I B  CC  71.5 A
RB RB
IC   I B  21.45 mA
I B  300 71.5106  21.45mA  14.8mA
VCE VCC  RC I C  6.45V  0.2V

Analysis for the Four - Resistor Bias Circuit
1
RB   R1 || R2 (4.21)
1/ R1 1 / R2
R2
VB  VCC (4.22)
R1  R2
VB  R B I B  VBE  R E I E (4.23)
I E    1IB
VB VBE
IB  (4.24)
RB   1RE
VCE  VCC  RC IC  R E I E (4.25)
Figure 4.28 Four-resistor bias circuit.

Discrete Bias - Circuit Design 5. Since IE = (+1)IB  IC
The principal goal of bias circuit design is to RE  VE I E  VE I C
achieve nearly identical operating point for the
BJTs, even though the BJT parameters may vary 6. VB = VE + VBE = VE + 0.7
significantly from unit to unit.
7. R2  VB I 2
In the design usually are given the supply voltage
VCC, the collector current IC in the quiescent point
R1  VCC VB  I B  I 2 
and often VCE in the quiescent point. RC  VCC VC  I C
The design steps are:
1. Choice of VCE, if it is not specified. A good
choice is
V I2+I B R1 RC IC
VCE  CC
3
VC + +
2. Determining of the voltage drop VE across RE IB
VB VCE VCC
and the voltage VCC – VC, which is across RC. A +
-
good choice is VBE - - VE
V VCE
VE  VCC VC  CC I2 R2 RE
2 IE
3. I B  IC 
Four-resistor bias circuit.
4. Choice of the current I2 to be I2 =(10..20)IB.
How the circuit stabilize the quiescent point?
Assume that the emitter current IC is increased, due to
some reason. Then
• Emitter current IE is increased also, since IE IC.
• VE increases since VE =IERE R1 RC
I2+I B IC
•I2 is at least 10 times more than IB. It is the basic part
of the current through R1. Thus the both currents are VC + +
IB
stable and depend very weak on the variation of the VB VCE VCC
currents in the BJT. +
- - V -
•The stable currents through R1 and R2 define a stable VBE E
voltage VB. I2 R2 RE IE
• VBE = VB - VE and the increasing of VE decreases VBE.
•Smaller VBE means smaller base current IB (see the
input characteristic in Figure 4.4). Four-resistor bias circuit.
•IC = IB and the smaller base current returns the
collector current to its initial value.

Problem D4.39. Four-resistor bias circuit
design. RE  VE I E  7.5 510 3  1500
Suppose that V CC = 20V, R C = 1k, and a R2  VB I 2  8.2 110 3  8.2kΩ
quiescent point of ICQ = 5mA is desired. The R1  VCC VB  I 2  I B 
transistor has  ranging from 50 to 150. Design a
four resistor bias circuit. Use standard 5%-  20  8.2 110 3 10010 6  10.7kΩ
tolerance resistors. The 5%-tolerance standard values for the resistors
Solution: are RE = 1.5k, R1 = 8.2k, R2 = 11k.
Since RC is specified we can determine the voltage
drop across it and the voltage VC
V V  I R  5103 1103  5V
CC C CQ C I2+IB R1 RC IC
VC  20  5  15V
VC + +
VE  VCE  VC 2  15 2  7.5V IB
VB VCE VCC
VB  VE VBE  7.5  0.7  8.2V +
- - V -
To determine IB, we take the smallest value of . VBE E
In this way we will determine the largest value of I2
IB and the largest value of I2. If  is higher, the R2 RE IE
condition for I2 will be also satisfied.
I B  I C   510 3 50 100µA
Four-resistor bias circuit.
I  10I  10100106  1mA
2 B
4.6 Small - Signal Equivalent Circuits
Small - Signal Current - Voltage Relationship
 v    v t
iB  1  IES exp BE  1 (4.28) I BQ  ib t   I BQ 1 be  (4.34)
 VT 
  VT  
v t 
VBEQ  vbe(t ) ib t  be (4.35)
IBQ  ib( t )  1  IES exp   (4.29) r
 VT 
VT
r  (4.36)
VBEQ   v ( t ) IBQ
IBQ  ib( t )  1  IES exp  exp be  (4.30)
 VT   VT  V
r T (4.37)
ICQ
VBEQ 
IBQ  1  IES exp   (4.31)
 VT  iC t    iB t  (4.38)
 v t
I BQ  ib ( t )  I BQ exp be  (4.32) ICQ  ic t    IBQ   ibt (4.39)
 VT 
expx  1 x (4.33) ic t    ib t  (4.40)

Small - Signal Equivalent Circuit for the
BJT
ic t  
 v t 
be
r
gm 
 (4.41)
r
ICQ
gm  (4.42)
VT
vbe t  r ib t and ic t  gmvbe t
Exercise 4.19 At room temperature, a certain

Figure 4.33 Small-signal equivalent circuits for the BJT.
transistor has =100. Compute the values of gm and
r for ICQ=10 mA. Repeat for ICQ=1 mA
Solution:
VT  100  0.026  260;   100  385mS
At IC  10mA : r  g m 
I CQ 10103 r 260
VT  100  0.026  2600;   100  38.5mS
At IC  1mA : r  3
g m 
I CQ 110 r 2600
4.7 The Common - Emitter Amplifier
R1, R2, RC and RE1+RE2 form the four

resistor biasing circuit;
C1 and C2 are coupling capacitors;
CE is bypass capacitor.
For ac signal the supply voltage is short
circuit.
If RE1 = 0 the input signal is between the
base and the emitter (ground); the output
signal is between collector and the emitter
Figure 4.34 Common-emitter amplifier. (+VCC, which is ground for ac signal) –
common-emitter amplifier.

The Small - Signal Equivalent Circuit
Rs Rs
+ +
C2
+ C1 +
+ RE1 RC RL + RE1 RC RL
vo vo
vs vin R1 R2 vs vin R1 R2
- -
RE2 CE
- - - -
The first step in creating the small-signal equivalent circuit: the The second step in creating the small-signal equivalent circuit
dc voltage sources are replaced by short circuits for mid-band region: the coupling capacitors and the bypass
capacitors are replaced by short circuits
Figure 4.34 Common-emitter amplifier. (b) Final small-signal mid-band equivalent circuit.
Voltage Gain
vin  vbe  ie RE1
(4.45)
 r ib  RE1  1ib
vo  R'L i b (4.46)
vo R'L
Av    (4.47)
vin r   1RE1
R

'
If RE1 = 0: Av   L
r
If (+1)R E1 >> r: Av   RL'
RL'


Simplifications:   1RE1 RE1
and the voltage gain doesn’t depend on
1 BJT parameters.
RB  R1 || R2  (4.43)
1/ R1 1 / R2
Open circuit voltage gain (when RL = )
R'  RL || RC 1 (4.44)
L 1/ RL 1 / RC v RC
Avo  o   (4.48)
vin r   1R E1

Input Impedance
Current Gain and Power Gain
i Z
Ai  o  Av in (4.51)
iin RL
G  Ai Av (4.52)
v
Zit  in  r   1RE1 (4.49)
ib
v 1
Zin  in  (4.50)
iin 1/ RB 1 / Zit

Output Impedance
ib = 0 and ib = 0. Thus there is an open circuit between C and E.
Zo  RC (4.53)

Summary
v
VT Zit  in  r   1RE1 (4.49)
r  ib
I CQ
v 1
Zin  in  (4.50)
1 iin 1/ RB 1 / Zit
RB  R1 || R2  (4.43)
1/ R1 1 / R2
R'  RL || RC 1 (4.44)

L 1/ RL 1 / RC Current Gain and Power Gain
R'L i Z
Av 
vo
 Ai  o  Av in (4.51)
(4.47) iin RL
vin r   1RE1
G  Ai Av (4.52)
Open circuit voltage gain (when RL = )
v RC
Avo  o   (4.48) Zo  RC (4.53)
vin r   1R E1

Example 4.9 Calculation of Common - Emitter
Amplifier Performance
a)Find Av , Avo , Zin , Ai , G, and Zo for the
amplifier shown in Figure 4.35.
b)Repeat part (a) if the emitter resistor RE is

split in into RE1=100  and RE2=900 , with
bypass capacitor in the parallel with RE2.
 of the BJT is 100 and from dc analysis is

found that the quiescent point is I = 4.12 mA
CQ
and VCE = 6.72V. Figure 4.35 Common-emitter amplifier of Example 4.9.

Example 4.9 Calculation of Common - Emitter
Amplifier Performance
a)Find Av , Avo , Zin , Ai , G, and Zo for the
amplifier shown in Figure 4.35.
b)Repeat part (a) if the emitter resistor RE is
split in into RE1=100  and RE2=900 , with Solution:
bypass capacitor in the parallel with RE2.
 of the BJT is 100 and from dc analysis is VT  100  0.026  631
r 
found that the quiescent point is I CQ = 4.12mA I CQ 3
4.1210
and VCE = 6.72V.
1 1
RB 
1/ R1 1/ R 2

  
1 10 103 1 5103  3.33 k
1 1
R 'L    667 
1/ RL 1/ RC 1 210 1 110
3

3
  
Figure 4.35 Common-emitter amplifier of Example 4.9.

b) v RL'
Av   
o
a) vin r  1R E1

100  667
  6.21
vo RL'   100 667  106 631 100 1100
Av  
vin r 631 vo RC
Avo  
vo R 1001103 vin r   1R E1
Avo  
 C
 158
vin r 631  1001103  9.31
631 100 1100
Zit  r 631
vin
Z it   r   1R E1  631 1001100  10.7 k
v 1 ib
Zin  in 
iin 1/ RB 1/ Zit
1  1  2.54 k
Zin 
 1  531   
1/ RB 1/ Z it 1 3.33103 1 10.7 103 
1 3.3310 1 631
3
i Z 2.54103
io Z 531 Ai  o  Av in  6.21  7.89
Ai   A v in  106  28.1 iin RL 210 3
iin RL 2103
G  Ai Av   7.89 6.21  49.0
v  28.1106  2980
G  Ai A 
Z o  RC  1k
Zo  RC 1kΩ
4.8 The Emitter Follower
R1, R2, and RE are from the four resistor biasing

circuit.
C1 and C2 are coupling capacitors.
The input signal is between the base and the
ground (the collector, since the supply voltage is
short circuit for the ac signal); the output signal is
between the emitter and the ground (the collector)
– common-collector amplifier.
vin  vbe  vo
Thus vin > vo and Av < 1. Usually Av  1 – emitter

follower.
Figure 4.36 Emitter follower.
Typical application as a buffer amplifier, since it
has high input impedance and small output
impedance.

Small - Signal Equivalent Circuit
Rs Rs
+ +
C2
+ C1 +
+ RE RL + RE RL
vo vo
vs vin R1 R2 vs vin R1 R2
- -
- - - -
The first step in creating the small-signal equivalent circuit: the The second step in creating the small-signal equivalent circuit
dc voltage sources are replaced by short circuits for mid-band region: the the coupling capacitors and the bypass
capacitors are replaced by short circuits
Figure 4.36 Emitter follower. (b) Final small-signal mid-band

equivalent circuit.

Voltage Gain
vo  1  R'Li B (4.56)

Simplifications:
vin  r ib  1   iBR'L (4.57)
1
RB  R1 || R2  (4.54)
1/ R1 1 / R2
Av 
1  RL' 1 (4.58)
r 1  R L'
1
R'L  R L || RE  (4.55)
1/ RL 1/ R E Since usually (1+)RL >> r Av  1.

Input Impedance
For small power BJT RL is in the range of kOhms

1
Zin  (4.59) and  ~ 100. Thus the range of Zit is hundreds of
1/ RB 1 / Zit kOhms.
v
Z it  in  r  1  RL' (4.60)
ib

Output Impedance

v 1
v Zo   (4.65)
Zo  x (4.61) x
ix ix 1  / R's r  1/ RE 
v Rs'  r
ib   ib  ix  x (4.62) Z ot  (4.66)
RE 1  
r 1
1 If R s  0 Z ot  
Rs'  (4.63) 1   g m
1/ Rs 1/ R1 1/ R2
v  r i  R' i  0 For small power BJT gm ~ 102..103mS. Thus the

 b
(4.64)
x s b range of Zot is Ohms or tens of Ohms.

Example 4.10 Calculation of Emitter Follower 1 1
R'    667 
Performance. Compute the voltage gain, input L

1/ RL 1/ R E 1 1103 1 2103   
impedance, current gain, power gain, and output
impedance of the emitter-follower amplifier 1  RL' 1 200667
displayed in Figure 4.37a. Av    0.991
r 1  R L' 1260  1 200667
The dc analysis gives the following quiescent
point: ICQ = 4.12mA and VCE =11.7V.
Zit  r 1   RL'  1260  1 200 667  135 k
1 1
Z in    36.5 k
  
1/ RB 1/ Z it 1 50 10 3 1 13510 
3
1
Rs' 
1/ Rs 1/ R1 1/ R2
1
3  8.33k

    
1 10 10 3 1 100 10 3 1 10010 
1
Zo 
Figure 4.37 Emitter follower of Example 4.10. 1  /R' sr   1/ RE 
Solution 1
  46.6 
r 
VT
200 0.026
  1260 1 200 8.33103 12601 2103 
I CQ 4.12 10 -3
1 1 Zi 36.5103
RB    50kΩ
1/ R1 1/ R2 1 100 10 1 100 10 
3 3 Ai  Av  0.991 3
 36.2; G  Av Ai  38.8
RL 110
4.9 The BJT as a Digital Logic Switch
The circuit in Fig. 4.41 is a modification of
common-emitter amplifier intended for operation
in saturation and in cut-off region only.
Cut-off state: Vin < 0.5 (logical zero). BJT is in
cut-off and IC = 0. There is no voltage drop across
RC and Vo = +VCC (logical one).
Saturation state: Vin is high (logical one), usually
Figure 4.41 RTL inverter. Vin  +VCC.
V  0.7
iB  in
RB
In saturation VCE < 0.2V. This Vo = VCE < 0.2V
(logical zero).
V  0.7
iC  CC
RC
To have saturation region, RB and RC must be
designed in such a way that iB > iC.
The output has logically opposite voltage to the
input (zero-one; one-zero). The circuit is called
Figure 4.42b Load-line analysis of RTL inverter under no- logical inverter.
load conditions.
RTL NOR Gate
When at the three inputs are applied low voltages

(logical zeros) all BJT are in cutoff, no current
flows through RC and Vo = +VCC (logical one).
When a high voltage is presenting at one or more
of the inputs (logical ones at these inputs) the
corresponding BJTs are in saturation and Vo <
0.2V (logical zero).
Figure 4.45 Three-input RTL NOR gate.

Field Effect Transistors (FET)
FET Connection Names
FET Construction & Symbols
Operation of a JFET with various
Gate Bias Potentials
Operation of JFET a Various Gate
Bias Potentials
The nonconductive depletion region becomes broader with increased

reverse bias.
Note: The two gate regions of each FET are connected to each other.
Field Effect Transistor
Transfer & Output Characteristics
∆𝐼 𝐷
Transconductance 𝑚 ∆𝑉 𝐺𝑆
MOSFET –
Metal Oxide Semiconductor FET
MOSFET – Symbols
Transistor Property Comparison
Property BJT (CE) JUGFET MOSFET
hFE 10 to 1000 - -
gm - 1 to 10 mS 1 to 10 mS
1 to 5 kΩ >109 Ω >1012 Ω
ri
(medium) (very high) (extremely high)
10 to 50 kΩ 50 kΩ to 1 MΩ 10 to 50 kΩ
ro
(medium) (high) (medium)
Additional Reading
For more information on FETs go to
http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/category/transistor

Transistor Characteristics Theory Support

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4.

Transistor Characteristics T he o r y S u ppo r t

Topics covered in this presentation:

The transistor is a semiconductor device that revolutionised electronics

Although individual transistors have been replaced in many

There are many different types of transistors, but in this assignment we

Today, transistors are used in integrated devices where several

Bipolar Junction Transistor

The bipolar junction transistor is a semiconductor

To form the two junctions, the

This allows two different types

The two types of bipolar junction

Bipolar Junction Transistor

Base (B) - The base is the middle layer

Emitter (E) - The emitter region is

Collector (C) - The collector is lightly

Bipolar Junction Transistor

Each type of bipolar junction

The arrow on the symbol always

For an NPN transistor, the arrow

NPN Transistor Biasing

The bipolar junction transistor

For this reason, an NPN

NPN Transistor Biasing

For an NPN transistor, to allow the

To allow these electrons to

Although some of the electrons

When selecting a transistor for an application, there are three

The input characteristic is a plot of base current (IB) against

The output characteristic is a plot of collector current (IC) against

The graph shows a series of plots,

From the graph it can be seen

However, above a certain value the collector-emitter voltage has little

The transistor is generally

The transfer characteristic shows the collector current against base

For a given collector-emitter voltage the graph will be approximately

The value of DC current gain varies between transistors

Some of the criteria, found on the product data sheet,

If the base-emitter voltage is below

A base current is required to

By switching the base current on

The transistor can therefore be

Practical Transistor Switch Circuit

In a practical transistor switch

A resistor is connected between

4. Bipolar Junction Transistors TLT-8016 Basic Analog Circuits 2005/2007 1

npn BJT consists of thin p-type layer between

Figure 4.1 The npn BJT.

4. Bipolar Junction Transistors TLT-8016 Basic Analog Circuits 2005/2007 2

Figure 4.2 An npn transistor with variable biasing sources

Shokley equation for the emitter current

4. Bipolar Junction Transistors TLT-8016 Basic Analog Circuits 2005/2007 3

Figure 4.4 Common-emitter characteristics of a typical npn BJT.

Amplification by the BJT Factors Affecting the Current Gain

4. Bipolar Junction Transistors TLT-8016 Basic Analog Circuits 2005/2007 5

Determine the values of  and  for the transistor   iC  3 mA 100

Figure 4.4 Common-emitter characteristics of a typical npn BJT.

4. Bipolar Junction Transistors TLT-8016 Basic Analog Circuits 2005/2007 6

Base - Width Modulation

Base-width modulation: the dependence of the

4. Bipolar Junction Transistors TLT-8016 Basic Analog Circuits 2005/2007 7

Analysis of the Output Circuit

Figure 4.11 Load-line analysis of the amplifier of Figure 4.10.