Viscosity

Measurement
Department Editor: Scott Jenkins

M
easurement of fluids’ viscosity in Fluid behavior Table 1. Viscosities of common
the chemical process industries Many fluids, like water or materials
(CPI) can represent a useful gasoline, exhibit Newtonian
Material name Temperature Viscosity
“product dimension” for manufacturers. behavior, which is to say that their (°C) (cP)
Understanding a material’s flow charac- viscosity remains constant with
varying shear rates. Viscosity of a Ethanol 20 1.1
teristics is valuable in predicting several
parameters relevant to many CPI pro- Newtonian fluid depends only on Water 0 1.79
cesses, including pumpability, pourability, temperature and pressure, but not Water 20 1.0
performance in a dipping or coating on the forces acting on the mate-
operation, ease of handling or process- rial. For Newtonian fluids, plotting Water 100 0.28

ing. The relationship between rheology
(study of the flow of matter) and other
properties often makes viscosity measure-
ment a sensitive and convenient method
for detecting changes in other product
parameters, such as density, stability,
solids content or molecular weight.
Viscosity Framework
Viscosity is a measure of a fluid’s internal
friction. Caused by intermolecular at-
traction, viscosity can be thought of as
resistance to flow. This friction becomes
apparent when a layer of fluid is made to
move in relation to another layer. More
friction requires more force to effect this
movement, called shear. Shearing occurs
when fluids undergo physical move-
ment or distribution, such as in pouring,
spreading, spraying and mixing.
Flow of layers
Isaac Newton defined viscosity by consid-
ering the model represented in Figure 1.
Two parallel planes of fluid of equal area
A are separated by a distance dx and are
moving in the same direction at different
velocities V1 and V2.
dv
V2 A
F
V1
A dx
Newton assumed that the force required
to maintain this difference in speed
was proportional to the difference in
speed through the liquid, or the velocity
gradient. The velocity gradient, dv/dx,
represents the change in speed at which
the layers move with respect to each
other. It describes the shearing the liquid
experiences, and is thus called shear rate
[1]. Its units are reciprocal seconds (s–1).
The term F/A indicates the force per
unit area required to produce the shear-
ing action (dynes/cm2).
Viscosity is the ratio of shear stress to
shear rate.
shear stress versus shear rate (a Sulfuric acid
rheogram) yields a straight line Motor oil (SAE 30) 20
that passes through the origin. The
Blood
slope is equal to the viscosity.
However, many materials in Corn syrup
the CPI behave in non-Newtonian Milk
ways, so that the rate of shear is
Ethylene glycol
not linearly proportional to the
corresponding stress. For many Acetone
applications in the CPI, expres- Olive oil
sions of viscosity as a single value
Honey
fail to capture the full picture
of the many factors that affect Glycerin
viscosity. Non-Newtonian viscosity Peanut butter
behavior include the following:
Air
• Pseudoplasticity (shear-thinning)
occurs when a fluid’s viscosity Glass
decreases with increasing shear
rate. Many emulsions, polymer melts
and solutions, paints, blood and some
solid suspensions exhibit this property
• Thixotropy is a situation where a fluid’s
viscosity decreases over time under
constant shear stress. Clay suspensions
used as drilling muds, mayonnaise and
some paints and inks behave this way
• Rheopectic behavior is the less-common
opposite of thixotropy — shear stress
increases at constant shear rate. A gyp-
sum suspension in water is an example
• Dilatant (shear-thickening) fluids show
increasing viscosity with increasing
shear rate. Dilatant behavior is ob-
served in starch suspensions in water,
quicksand and in some high molecular-
weight polymers used in drilling muds
Viscosity Measurement
When testing materials that flow, it is
important to think about how the material
will be processed and handled when in
use. Analytical procedures for simulating
the shearing action with an instrument is
the key to predicting flow behavior.
Rotational viscometers are a common
tool, wherein a spindle with a defined
geometry is inserted into the fluid to be
measured. The spindle rotates at various
fixed speeds, shearing the material at con-
stant shear rates. The viscometer measures
the torque resistance experienced by the
spindle at different rotational speeds.
As temperatures increase, most materi-
als exhibit a decrease in viscosity. To en-
25 24.2
~450
37 3–4
25 1,380
20 ~3
25 16.1
20 0.30
20 81
20 10
20 1,420
20 ~250,000
18 0.019
20 1018 – 1021
sure the consistency of results, it is critical
that the temperature be closely defined
when making viscosity measurements.
Rheometers are related, but relatively
more complex, instruments that function
across a very wide range of shear rates,
enabling the simulation of real processes
that occur over vastly different timescales,
such as in sedimentation and spraying.
Yield stress
For many CPI applications, yield stress
is an important parameter to measure.
Yield stress is the force required to cause
a material to begin flowing. For example,
yield stress represents the force that must be
overcome when a pump is switched on. The
startup torque required for a pump must be
calculated to ensure proper sizing.
Controlled stress rheometers are the tools
of choice in measuring yield stress. The
method is to run a “shear ramp,” where
increasing torque is applied to the spindle
until rotation of the instrument is observed.
Such a test can yield a numerical value
that can be used by process engineers to
determine yield stress of the material. This
information can, in turn, be used in pump
sizing calculations for startup torque and
full flow conditions.
References
1. Brookfield engineering educational website,
www.brookfieldengineering.com/education,
2010.
2. McGregor, Robert G., Viscosity: The basics,
Chem. Eng., August 2009, pp. 34–39.
3. ”Perry’s Chemical Engineering Handbook,” 7th
ed. McGraw Hill, 1997.

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