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Chapter 2: Language Production and Language Comprehension

I. Aims

In this chapter, we will examine the biological foundations of language and

the organization of language in the brain. We will also inspect theoretical models
of memory systems that try to explain how human beings perceive and process
messages.

II. Development
As we previously seen, Psycholinguistics is the area of linguistics that is
concerned with linguistic performance, that is, how we use our linguistic
competence (“the hidden knowledge” or “the person potential to speak a
language”) in speech (or sign) production and comprehension.
So, what do we “know” when we know a language? In other words, what
are the elements of our linguistic competence? As McManis, Carolyn et al. (1988:
8-11) explain:
- Part of our linguistic competence has to do with phonetics, that is, the
knowledge of the sounds of our language; the knowledge that allow us to
produce those sounds and to identify sounds that do not belong to our
language;
- Part of our linguistic competence has to do with phonology, that is, the
knowledge of how the sounds work together as a system: what sequences
of sounds are possible in different positions, what sound sequences are
possible, what sequences appear at the beginning or end of words;
- Part of our linguistic knowledge has to do with morphology, that is, the
knowledge of smaller parts of words that have a meaning or some other
function and that can be, normally used, to create words as well as the
knowledge of possible combinations of morphemes;

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- Part of our linguistic knowledge has to do with syntax, that is, the
knowledge that allow us to distinguish ungrammatical from grammatical
sentences (well-structured sentences); identify nonsense sentences;
sentences that are syntactically related to each other;
- Part of our linguistic knowledge has to do with semantics, that is, the
ability to determine the meaning(s) of words and sentences; consider
ambiguities; consider that different sentences may mean the same thing;
etc.
- Part of our linguistic knowledge has to do with pragmatics, that is, the
understanding of how the context of sentence or utterance production
influences their meaning;
- Part of our linguistic knowledge has to do with styles of speech, that is,
the understanding of contexts or situations in which different styles of
language may be used.
All this linguistic knowledge or competence is stored in our brain.
Nowadays, it is widely accepted that the human brain can:
- acquire and store the mental grammar (linguistic knowledge);
- access that mental grammar to speak;
- access that mental grammar to understand what is spoken.
This means that, when we speak, we access our grammar to find the
words, construct sentences, and produce the sounds that express the message
we want to convey. When we listen and understand, we access our grammar to
process the utterances to assign the meaning to the sounds we hear

How the speech chain occurs?

The speech chain can be understood as a process that includes several steps
or stages

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Stage 1 - A spoken utterance starts as a message in the brain/mind of a

speaker;
Stage 2 - A spoken utterance is put into linguistic form;
Stage 3 - A spoken utterance is interpreted as articulation commands;
Stage 4 - A spoken utterance emerges as an acoustic signal;
Stage 5 - The acoustic signal is processed by the ear of the listener;
Stage 6 - The acoustic signal is sent to the brain/mind of the listener;
Stage 7 - The acoustic signal is interpreted in the mind of the listener.

See picture on Fromkin, Victoria and Robert Rodman, pag. 362: The Speech
Chain

For the speaker, “speech” involves the control of the movements of the
articulatory organs.
For the listener, “speech” involves searching the acoustic signal for
auditorily significant properties. The human beings do not produce only spoken
language, they also produce written language. They write, read and understand
messages. This means that our visual system may be also be necessary for
language production and understanding.
For the writer, “written language” involves the sweep of the pen across the
page or the finger-pressing of keyboard operation,
For the reader,“written language” involves the control of eye movements
over two-dimensional arrays consisting of contrasts of dark and light

Therefore,
Garman, Michael (1990: 48) writes,
“The language signal is generated, and perceived, by the operation of
some highly specialized biological systems: auditory and visual pathways from

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sensory organs to the brain, and motor pathways from the brain to the vocal tract
and the hand-arm system.”
The human nervous system is, therefore, fundamental in this process. It
includes:
1) The central nervous system – it includes all the neural tissue contained
within the brain and the spinal cord (spinal vertebrae); the connections from the
brain to the body are descending (or efferent)
2) The peripheral nervous system – it consists of all the neural tissue
outside the bony structures, and it connects the central nervous system with the
muscles and sensory organs of the body; the connections from those sensory
organs of the body to the brain are ascending (or afferent)

The signal processing involves brain centers, in the central nervous

system, as well as peripherical sensory-motor structures.

Descending and ascending connections may be:

Contralateral – an area of the left side of the brain controls movement in,
or registers sensation from, a portion of the right side of the body and vice versa;
Bilateral – left and right sides of the brain jointly control muscles on both
sides of the face;
Ipsilateral - the same side of the brain and the body are involved.

Principal structures of the brain

Cerebrum includes:
1) cerebral cortex (outer surface of the cerebrum divided into left and right
hemispheres)
It is a thin layer of specialized cells called neurons presenting a grayish
appearance. These neurons are composed of cell bodies and projecting fibres

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They receive input from other neurons via afferent fibres called drendrites
and transmit electrical impulses to other parts of the nervous system via efferent
fibres called axons.
Certain motor and sensory neurons have long axons passing through the
brain between the cortex and relays in the brainstem and spinal cord. Other
neural connections link cells in different parts of the cortex in a very complex
way.

2) Various subcortical elements:

a) The brainstem (upper part), which includes:

- the telencephalon (comprising the two hemispheres) and
internal structures such as the basal ganglia
- the diencephalon, more deeply located, that includes the
thalamus and associated structures and the optic tracts;
- the mesecephalon (midbrain)

Behind the brainstem, we found other subcortical elements:

b) The cerebellum
c) The metencephalon or pons
d) the medulla
e) the spinal cord

Structural Aspects of the Cortex:

Structurally, the cortex presents:
1) a convoluted surface which can be mapped (topographical
approach);

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2) a cross-sectional structure which can be described in terms of its

tissue composition (the histological approach, that is, the
consideration of the various cell types and structures)
The cortex has small and large fissures;
The major fissures are:
- the longitudinal (it divides the two hemispheres);
- the central or Rolandic (it demarks the frontal and parietal
lobes);
- the Sylvian fissure (it separates the temporal lobe from the
frontal and the parietal lobes);
- the superior temporal (it divides the upper surface of the
temporal lobe from the lower)
The temporal and the occipital lobe share a boundary with the occipital lobe
(the posterior portion of the cortex).
The cortex is not uniform over the cerebral hemispheres; it comprises an
envelope of roughly six layers of cells, of varying types, depth and organization; it
has been mapped into distinct and conventionally numbered areas

Functional Aspects of the Cortex

Concerning the fundamental division of the two cerebral hemispheres:
- there is a parallelism of function that may be complementary (in case of
contralateral connections between body and brain) or mutual (in case of
bilateral connections between body and brain)

- there is also an asymmetry of function between the hemispheres: one

hemisphere tends to be dominant for a range of functions, including
handedness and certain aspects of language;

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- within each hemisphere, the occipital lobe is concerned primarily with

vision; the parietal lobe with body-surface senses and spacial orientation;
the temporal lobe with hearing and time relations.

- the left hemisphere tends to be dominant for language; this dominance is

illustrated by several facts:

o the area demarcated by the inferior frontal gyrus and the precentral
gyrus in the left hemisphere (Broca’s area, 44 and 45) is of special
importance for speech output – this area is thought to be involved
in the movement of articulators

o the posterior portion of the superior surface of the temporal lobe in

the left hemisphere (Wernicke’s area, 42 and 22) is though to be
responsible for difficulties in processing spoken language; it is
thought to be centrally involved in the meaning aspect of the
production and comprehension of spoken and written speech; this
area is larger in the left hemisphere than the corresponding region
in the non-dominant hemisphere and it is situated close to the
primary auditory area, to the visual cortex and to the parietal lobe;

o just anterior to Wernicke’s area, 41 and 42, on the upper surface of

the superior temporal gyrus is found the primary auditory cortex;
this area is thought to have some specialized speech-auditory
functions that are not found in the corresponding area of the right
hemisphere;

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o in the occipital lobe, the most posterior region forms the primary
visual cortex, with connections from there to adjacent anterior
regions (18 and 19), from where long connections from there make
connections to other regions of the cortex;

o there is a body of evidence for left hemisphere superiority with

verbal material;

o between the angular gyrus and the supramarginal gyrus there is an

area (39, 40 and part of 22) that is thought to be involved in relating
visual and auditory input to stored meaning representations, where
primary inputs from systems concerned with auditory, visual and
body-spacial processing interconnect. Each sensory representation
(how a word sounds, how it appears on the page, how it feels to
articulate, how it feels to write, et cetera) is interconnected with
each other in a very complex way.

The auditory system

It is a sensory-neural complex which has general capabilities for
processing a range of sounds and shows some specialization for the sounds
ordinarily used in speech. It has a total frequency range of between 15HZ to
16HZ, but is most sensitive in the 1 kHZ to 4 kHZ range (the linguistically
significant parts of most articulated speech sounds are located within about 600
Hz to 4kHz).
It includes three ear systems (the outer-ear system, the middle-ear
system, the inner-ear system) and several stages:
1. the first stage: the outer and middle-ear system, which collects and
transmits the airborne signal;

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2. the second stage: the inner-ear system, which processes the

mechanical analysis of the signal in the cochlea;
3. the third stage: the mechanical-neural interface in the cochlea;
4. the fourth and fifth stages: the relays of the sensory system, in the
brainstem and subcortical nuclei, and finally up to the auditory
cortex

The visual system

It includes:
- the eye whose main function is the collection and focusing of
light;
- the retina which is responsible for the first three stages of signal
processing;
- the optic nerve, which projects the signal to the midbrain nuclei
which is responsible for the fourth stage of signal processing;
- the visual cortex, in which the last stages of processing take
place.

When we have an idea and find formal means to express it, we realize an
activity of production.
When we perceive speech sounds or letter sequences, we realize an
activity of comprehension.
These two activities are different and involve different parts of the body.
The most striking characteristic of the language signal is its perceptual
invariance, that is, in both speech and writing, the language signal constitutes a
stable and salient form which stands out against its physical environment.

In speech,

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The language signal is produced by human vocal tracts that vary in size
and shape. Some of these variations are linked to genetic factors such as race,
sex, and age; others are more idiosyncratic.
Air is the crucial medium for the transmission of speech.
When the speaker’s articulatory organs move – the lungs, the glottis, the
tongue, the velum, the lips, etc. – air moves. Air particles are set into motion in
the locality of the articulatory gestures. They disturb neighbouring air particles,
which in turn transmit the motion to others, while other articulatory gestures
modify and control the nature of the particle movement that results. Eventually,
the acoustic signal that is so generated acts on the tympanic membrane of the
listeners’ ear. At this moment, the airborne phase of the signal ends.
The language signal is embodied in waves of air turbulence. These waves
are tridimensional; they have amplitude, frequency and intensity.
Amplitude - is the displacement of particles from their position of rest,
either in one direction or the other;
Frequency – is the number of times that the pattern of displacement either
side of the position of rest occurs in a unit of time;
Intensity – it relates to the energy in the sound, and this energy may be
expressed in terms of greater amplitude or frequency.

In writing,
There are two-dimensional contrasts of light and dark, which are
essentially static. The same letter, or word, may be perceived against a range of
physical differences that may derive from the sort of writing implement used, the
type of letter form aimed at (printed vs handwriting), individual styles of
handwriting, imperfections of execution, and so on.

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Memory Systems
Why, as prospective teachers of English, do you need to study memory?
- Memory is central to, and actively engaged in, every cognitive activity.
- Memory plays a very important role on language learning.
- Memory plays a very important role on everyday communication.
Example: It would be extremely difficult to hold a conversation if people were not
able to keep in mind what had just been said.

There are several theoretical models of the memory system; some were
developed on the basis of formal laboratory experiments; others were developed
on the basis of research controlling the behavior of subjects engaged in tasks
that require memory.
All systems of memory attempt to explain how several components of
memory work together to help people acquire, process, retrieve and reuse
information.

There are three important stages of information processing within

memory:
1) Acquisition Processes - people create an internal representation of the
information they gathered through sensory systems; this internal
representation is stored;
2) Retention Processes - people hold/ retain/ keep the information;
3) Retrieval Processes - people access to information stored and reuse it.

The memory system only works efficiently in the three stages work well. If there
is a problem in one of these stages, a person cannot remember things very well
or cannot remember things at all.

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The multi-store model of memory

It was proposed by Richard C. Atkinson and Richard M. Shiffrin (1968,
1971);
It included three kinds of memory store:
Sensory registers: specific stores for visual and auditory information;
they hold information in a relatively uninterpreted form for very short
periods of time (just a few seconds); only a small fraction of information
that bombards these registers is attended to and selected for further
processing

Short-term memory (short term store): it has a very limited capacity; it

receives the information that is transferred from the sensory registers;
processes this information and, if necessary, transfers it to long-term
memory; in this memory, the storage is easily disrupted (approximately
only seven chunks of information can be stored here at any one time);
this capacity is limited by processing constraints (the allocation of
attention); this store also receives information from the long term
memory.

Long-term memory (long term store): it has potentially large capacity; it

receives the information that is transferred from the short-term me, and
it also sends information to the short term store.

Information flow through the memory system begins with the processing of
environmental inputs in sensory registers (receptors plus internal elements) and
entry into the short-term store. While it remains in this store, the information may
be copied into the long-term store. Indeed, associated information that is in the
long term store may be activated and entered into the short-term store. Control

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processes in the short term store affect transfers of information into and out of
the long-term store and govern learning, retrieval of information and forgetting.

Working Memory (It replaces the concept of short term memory as an unitary
short-term store)
It was proposed by Baddeley (1990). This author argued that the short
term memory could not be seen as a passive repository of incoming information.
In this store, the information is actively selected and manipulated. Thus, working
memory has a functional role in a wide range of cognitive tasks and it includes
three components:

1) Central Executive (modality free): it has a very limited capacity;

it is a controlling attentional system because it allocates attention to
inputs; therefore, it is involved in all tasks that require attention; it can
process the information in any sensory modality; it monitors and
coordinates the operation of the other systems;

2) The Phonological Loop: it is divided into two separate systems,

which are:

a) The Articulatory Control System (it can be thought as a “inner

voice”) – It holds information by articulating it subvocally (we use this
system when we try to remember a phone number by muttering it to
ourselves); it is also used to hold the words we are preparing to speak
aloud just before we actually say them; it organizes information in a
temporal and serial fashion;

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b) The Phonological Store (it can be thought as a “inner ear”) – it

holds speech-based information in a phonological form.
The articulatory control system and the phonological store work
together in several tasks. For example, memory traces held in the
phonological store decay in about 11/2 – 2 seconds, but can be
maintained by recycling items through the articulatory control system.
When people read, the articulatory system converts the written
material into a phonological code before registering it in the
phonological store.

1) The Visuospatial Sketchpad (it can be thought as a “inner eye”) - It deals

with visual and spatial information; it receive inputs either directly from
visual perception (via visual sensory register) or by retrieving information
from long-term memory in the form of images (we use it when we
recognize
students’ handwriting).

According to this model, if two tasks are performed at the same time, they
should not interfere with each other if they make use of different components of
the system. However, if they both use one or more components in common they
would interfere with one another. The involvement of different components of the
working memory system depends on the exact nature of the task.

Endel Tulving (1984) proposed another model of memory which consists

of a number of systems, each one serving somewhat different purposes and
operating according to somewhat different principles. (See image)

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According to Tulving, there are three different systems of memory,

organized in a monohierarchical arrangement: procedural memory (at the lowest
level), semantic memory, and episodic memory (at the highest level).

Procedural Memory – enables organisms to retain learned connections

between stimuli and responses, including those involving complex stimulus
patterns and response chains, and to respond adaptively to the environment; it
can operate completely independently from of the other systems.

Semantic Memory – enables organisms to construct mental models of the

world, some of whom can be manipulated and operated on covertly,
independently of any overt behavior; it can function independently of episodic
memory, but it depends on procedural memory.

Episodic Memory – enables organisms to have an additional capability of

acquisition and retention of knowledge about personally experienced events and
their temporal relations in subjective time and the ability to mentally “travel back”
in time; it depends on procedural and semantic memory; but it possesses its own
unique capabilities.

Each system differs in its methods of acquisition, representation, and

expression of knowledge; they also differ in the kind of conscious awareness that
characterizes their operations.
Acquisition in the procedural memory requires overt behavioral
responding. The representation of acquired information in this system is
prescriptive; it provides blueprint for future action without containing information
about the past. Procedural memory is associated with anoetic (nonknowing)
consciousness.

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Acquisition in semantic and episodic memory requires only covert

responses, such as cognitive activity or mere observation. The representation of
information in these two systems is isomorphic with the information they
represent. In the episodic memory, representations carry information about the
relations of represented events to the individuals’ identity as it exits in subjective
time and space. Semantic memory is associated with noetic (knowing)
consciousness, and episodic memory with autonoetic (self-knowing)
consciousness.

III. Summary
In this chapter, we examined the biological foundations of language as
well as the organisation of language in the brain. Specifically, we described the
process of a speech chain. We described the structure and functions of the
human nervous system in the processing of the language signal. We examined
the principal structures of the human brain, examined the main structures of the
cerebral cortex as well its main functional aspects. In relation to the functional
aspects of the cortex, we clarified the functions of the main lobes and areas of
the two cerebral hemispheres. Finally, we inspected three theoretical models of
Memory Systems, explaining how human beings perceive and process language.

IV. References

Atkinson, Richard C. and Richard M. Shiffrin. “The Control of Short-Term

Memory.” Scientific Memory. 225. (1971): 82-90.
Kulleseid, Eleanor R. “Extending the Research Base: Schema Theory, Cognitive
Styles, and Types of Intelligence: Summary of Research in Reading and
Developmental Psychology and the Implications for Practice.” School
Library Media Quarterly. 15.1. (1986): 41-48.

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McManis, Carolyn, et al. (Comp.) “What do you know when you know a
language?” Language Files: Materials for an Introduction to Language.
Reynolsburg: Advocate Pub. Group,
Tulving, Endel. “How Many Memory Systems Are There?” American
Psychologist. 40.4. (1985): 385-398.1988. 8-11.
“Characteristics of the Language Signal” Garman, Michael. Psycholinguistics:
Cambridge: Cambridge Textbooks in Linguistics, 1990, 3-45.
“The Biological Foundations of Language” Garman, Michael. Psycholinguistics:
Cambridge: Cambridge Textbooks in Linguistics, 1990, 48-104.
“Processing the Language Signal” in Garman, Michael. Psycholinguistics:
Cambridge: Cambridge Textbooks in Linguistics, 1990, 181-236.
“Memory Systems: The Experimental Approach.” Cohen, Gillian, Kiss, George,
and Martin Le Voi. Memory: Current Issues. Buckingham: Open University
Press, 65-90.

V. Questions and Activities

1. Give a list of the principal structures of the brain.

2. As pointed out by Fromkin and Rodman (1998: 362) “a spoken utterance starts
as a message in the brain/mind of the speaker. […] The signal is processed by
the ear of the listener and sent to the brain/ mind where it is interpreted.”
- What types of connections exist between the brain centers and the sensory
organs of the body?

3. In the statements listed bellow, identify the false ones and correct them:
a) The cortex is a thin layer of neurons which are composed by cell bodies
and fibres.

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b) The cell bodies receive input via electrical impulses.

c) There are different types of fibres linking structures in the brain.
d) The subcortical elements of the brain are the cortex and the cerebrum.

4. Human beings only need the left hemisphere to speak a language.

-Discuss this statement.

5. The cortex surface presents some fissures.

- What are the most important ones?
- What are their functions?

6. Read carefully Michael Garman´s chapter on biological foundations of

language.
a) Describe the three stages of the organization of the auditory system.
b) “The month and the ear work within compatible limits of comfortable
operation.” (Garman: 1990: 52).
- What does this mean?
c) Indicate the functions of the following elements of the visual system: eye,
retina, optic nerve, visual cortex.

7. According to Tulving (1984) there are three different memory systems:

procedural memory, semantic memory and episodic memory.
a) How those three memories work together?
b) How would you apply Tulving´s model to English lessons focused on
reading?

8. “Schemas are packets of information stored in memory representing general

knowledge about subjects, situations, events, or actions.”

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a) What is a schema?
b) How schemas help people/ readers to acquire and store new information
and process meaning?
c) How people may reject information based on their previous schemas?

9. Richard C. Atkinson and Richard M. Shiffrin (1968, 1971) proposed a model

of memory that included three stores: sensory registers, short-term memory,
and long-term memory. What is the role of each of these stores during the
language processing?

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