REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Ready, Chen, & Yang (2013) illustrated a novel way of enhancing thermoplastic films

from feathers by alkaline hydrolysis and crosslinking with citric acid. Unlike prior process in

which toxic chemicals is involved, complex and costly method to develop films. In this study,

hydrolyzation of feather was done using different concentration of alkali, once the feather is

already hydrolyzed, compression was used, molded into films using glycerol as plasticizer and

crosslinked with citric acid to develop water stability. Alkali hydrolyzed feathers could be

compression shaped into films with tensile strength of 5.9 MPa and elongation of 31.7% but had

weak wet strength. After feather films was crosslinked with citric acid, values are obtained in

such that tensile strength had 1.9 MPa and elongation of 24.6% after being in 90% humidity at

21 °C for 24 hours. Alkaline hydrolysis and citric acid crosslinking give an opportunity to

improve inexpensive and biodegradable thermoplastics from the inexpensive, renewable and

sustainable poultry feathers.

This analysis of Sorouidi, & Jakubowicz (2013) introduced scientific findings regarding

the recycling of bioplastics, their blends and thermoplastic biocomposites, with special focus on

mechanical recycling of bio-based materials. The study does not incorporate bio-based

commodity plastics such as bio-derived polyolefins that are alike to their petroleum-based

counterparts and that can also be recycled. Recycling of biopolymers and their blends has been

measured using both mechanical and chemical techniques, whereas in biocomposites, the focus

has been on mechanical recycling on these later years. This investigation goes through the

discovery on the recyclability of various materials, the advantages and disadvantages of applied

methods, as well as the possible approach and opportunities for future improvements. There are
still many blends that have not been scrutinized for their recyclability. Details on commercially

available blends which includes bioplastics outlined in the appendix because of the essence of

their possible effects on the typical plastic recycling streams.

Gouveia, Biernacki, Castro, Goncalves, & Souza (2019) reported pectin, an authentic and

renewable polysaccharide (used in the food industry as stabilizer, thickening and encapsulating

agent), is considered a polymer with an exceptional capacity for future improvement. However,

because of the weak mechanical and barrier properties of neat pectin-based films, the approach

in food packaging is extremely limited. In this research, we discuss, for the first time, the

rewarding creation, by thermo-compression molding, of pectin films with natural deep eutectic

solvent (NADES - ChCl:Gly (1:2)) or its individual components (glycerol (Gly) and choline

chloride (ChCl)), as plasticizers. Scrutinization was done on the effect of thermo-compression

molding parameters and the impact of plasticizers on mechanical, optical, water resistance and

morphological properties of the films. The variation of plasticizer, its quantity and the duration

of compression affects the pectin thermoplastic formulations significantly. Films were yellow in

color, visually homogenous, semi-transparent, which do not have pores or cracks. A reduction in

the compression time seemed to lower the roughness of the films. The pectin/glycerol films

showed higher tensile strength values than films containing NADES or ChCl plasticizers. An

escalation of water resistance values in pectin/Gly films was evident upon use of NADES and

ChCl plasticizers.

In this research of Prapruddivongs, & Wongpreedee (2020), the effects of eggshell

powder and citric acid on the properties of thermoplastic starch (TPS) were analyzed. Using an

internal mixer, all parts were dissolved. Citric acid led to the formation of crosslinking structures

(as shown in the FTIR spectra at 1730 cm−1) and resulted to a prompt sample biodegradation
with accelerated hydrolysis. On the contrary, the biodegradation was slowed down due to the

addition of eggshell powder. After keeping the samples for 30 days, CaTPS (Cassava root TPS)

without eggshell powder showed erosion over almost the whole surface, while the surface of

CaTPS containing 20 phr of eggshell powder (CaTPSES20) are still unloaded. The residual TGA

weight at 400 °C and the change in carbonate FTIR intensity peak of CaTPSES20 after the

storage duration given that both quantitative and qualitative evidence that eggshell powder can

be considered a potential hydrolytic retardant for citric-acid-filled TPS.

Several authors (Shi et al., 2007; Wang et al., 2007a, 2009) have reported that citric acid

could form ester bond with starch. The esterification could take place between the carboxyl

groups on citric acid and the hydroxyl groups on starch. Even if no ester bond was formed

between citric acid and starch, it has been reported that citric acid could form strong hydrogen

bond interactions with starch, stronger than glycerol.

Hernandez, Gill, & Gheduzzi (2020) studied that finite element (FE) modelling of a

vertebral body (VB) is considered difficult due to the many parameters intricated such as the size

of element, type, and its material properties. Recent researches have revealed how these

parameters affect the mechanical behaviour of a VB model; but most studies just compared

results without any specific statistical tool to quantify their impact. The Taguchi Method (TM)

has been successfully used in manufacturing and biomechanics to investigate process parameters

and to identify optimum set-up conditions. This study wants to know the impact of the main

finite element modelling parameters on the mechanical behavior of a VB model using the

Taguchi Method. A FE model was improved based on a C2 juvenile porcine vertebral body and

three of the most commonly used modelling parameters were assessed using TM in terms of the

change in the predicted stiffness in comparison to experimental values: element size, number of
different material properties for VB (based on grey-scale bins) and calibration factor for grey-

scale to density to Young's Modulus equation. Evaluation was made on the impact of the

combined factors. The three factors are independent based on the Taguchi analysis. The

calibration factor is the main contributor, accounting for 97% of the predicted stiffness, with the

value of 0.03 most closely aligning the numerical and experimental results. Element size

accounted for 2% of the predicted stiffness, with 0.75 mm being the ideal, while the number of

grey-scale bins influenced the outcomes by less than 1%. Our discovery says that the calibration

factor is the main modelling parameter, with the element size and number of bins accounting for

less than 3% of the anticipated stiffness. Therefore, basis of calibration of material properties

should be on many samples to guarantee valid results.

In this paper of Oliaei, Heidari, Davachi, Bahrami, Davoodi, Hejazi, & Seyfi (2016), it is

ventured to give a discernment into the injection processability of three self-prepared polymers

from A to Z. This report depicts material analysis, injection molding simulation, design of

experiments alongside considering all interaction effects of controlling parameters carefully for

green biodegradable polymeric systems, including polylactic acid (PLA), polylactic acid-

thermoplastic polyurethane (PLA-TPU) and polylactic acid-thermoplastic starch (PLA-TPS).

Injection molding simulation software was used to accomplish the experiments. A software was

employed in order to minimize warpage and volumetric shrinkage for each of the mentioned

systems, which is the Autodesk Moldflow®. Evaluation was done by changing five significant

processing parameters, including coolant temperature, packing time, packing pressure, mold

temperature and melt temperature. Taguchi's L27 (35) orthogonal array was chosen as an

efficient method for design of simulations for consideration of the interaction effects of the

parameters and reduce spurious simulations. On the other hand, for pattern recognition and
optimization through modifying the processing conditions, artificial neural network (ANN) was

also conducted. The Taguchi coupled analysis of variance (ANOVA) and ANN analysis resulted

in definition of optimum levels for each factor by two completely different methods. There is a

significant influence on the shrinkage and warpage on the melting temperature, coolant

temperature and packing time, based to the results. The ANN optimal level selection for

minimization of shrinkage and/or warpage is in good agreement with ANOVA optimal level

selection results. This study indicates that PLA-TPU compound exhibits the highest resistance to

warpage and shrinkage defects compared to the other studied compounds.

Zoungranan, Lynda, Dobi-Brice, Tchirioua, Bakary, & Yannick (2020) stated the

extensive usage of petrochemical plastic which has become an actual issue for health and the

environment. This issue can be associated to the non-biodegradable character of an exceptional

majority of these plants and to the existence of particular chemical substances sometimes toxic

within their composition. Alternative to the petroleum plastic are represented by the

improvement of biodegradable and less harmful plastics. Two types of bioplastics were

premeditated from cassava and corn starch. The basic bioplastic was acquired from starch only

while the complex bioplastic were acquired by putting an authentic ingredient extracted from the

species Cola cordifolia to the starch. The biodegradability was evaluated by conducting burial

test in soil and was confirmed through the burial pH measurement. The burials in soil were

carried out, considered the impact of abiotic such as humidity and temperature and biotic which

is enrichment in microorganism factors. The analysis showed that the biodegradability of

bioplastic can be related to the nature of starch used. The degradation of cassava-based bioplastic

is faster that the corn-based bioplastic. The Cola cordifolia significantly enhances the

biodegradability of complex bioplastic compared to simple bioplastic. On the other hand, the
difference on environmental factors can be an advantage or disadvantage to the biodegradability.

Humidity triggers the biodegradability of bioplastics, mainly on composite bioplastics, in a

maximum rate of 15%. Enrichment in microorganisms is disadvantageous beyond 10%

enrichment for simple corn bioplastic and beyond 20% enrichment for composite and simple

cassava-based bioplastics. The burial temperatures above 30 °C lead to a reduction in the

biodegradability of bioplastics.

Mohapatra, Prasad, & Sharma (2014) analyzed the declining supply of petroleum across

with the pollution caused by the petroleum-based plastic for its non-biodegradability that has

resulted to expand interest in the field of bioplastics. The primary sections of this research will

begin with the plastic’s history and then about bioplastics. A short economic study of bioplastic

has also been tackled in this report. Other topics such as applications, disadvantages and

advantages were also discussed, for the further understanding of the reader in a different

scenario. The final section of the project ventures to study a novel method in the production of

biopolymers using waste banana peels. The differences in the synthesis parameters like pH,

plasticizer choice and hydrolysis times were extensively checked, and the optimum combination

was acquired. 62 9.1 Stage 1: Varying pH and Hydrolysis Time 9.1.1 Analysis of neutral

sample The tensile strength for neutral sample keeps rising up when the residence times are

increased from 5 minutes to 15 minutes and reaches a maximum of 0.3435N/mm2 at 15 minutes

and then starts decreasing when the time is increased to 20 minutes. It is recommended that

the optimum hydrolysis time is 15 minutes for this sample set. an increase in residence time

for acidic samples should lead to a lower tensile strength because of excessive hydrolysis. On the

other hand, the graph above shows that the values of tensile strength are fluctuating within a

range. This output is a deviation from expected values and needs extensive research.
 According to Asrofi, Sapuan, Ilyas, & Ramesh (2020), composite bioplastic is a

substitute solution to answer the plastic waste issue in the environment. For a reason that a

composite bioplastic is one material that can easily degraded in nature and environmentally

friendly. This study aims to create a complex bioplastic composed of environmentally friendly

materials, which is tapioca starch and sugarcane bagasse fiber or SBF. The addition of SBF into

the tapioca matrix serves as a structural reinforcement of complex bioplastics. Sugarcane bagasse

was added by 1 wt% (from dry weight of starch basis) and kept with the equal measurement for

each different of the sample. The construction of composite bioplastic was obtained by casting

method. The difference in time duration of ultrasonication on complex bioplastic (tapioca starch

and 1 wt% bagasse fiber) includes 0, 5, 10 and 15 min. Tensile testing, observation of fiber

morphology, fracture surface characteristics, moisture absorption rate were conducted through

tensile test, scanning electron microscope (SEM), and moisture absorption test, respectively. The

addition of ultrasonication increases the tensile strength of composite bioplastic samples based

on the results. It is seen that the highest tensile strength value was achieved by a sample with

15 min ultrasonication for 2.5 MPa which can be supported by fracture morphology which shows

a compact structure. Furthermore, the moisture absorption rates also are lessened with

increasing ultrasonication. Preparation and giving ultrasonication on composite bioplastic

samples was highly recommended for enhancing the properties of the sample.

Rosada, Bouroudian, Puyana, Guerrero, & Romero, (2020) stated as the synthetic

plastics creates a negative environmental impact, the growth of biodegradable plastics for both

industrial and commercial applications become important. Researcher have flourished different

starch-based composite for various applications. The current work scrutinizes the corn and rice

starch-based bioplastics for packaging application. A variety of samples of bioplastics are

produced, with various structure of corn and rice starch, glycerol, citric acid, and gelatin. It

enhanced the tensile property after adding rice starch, but water absorption and water solubility

were reduced. Based on these results, the finest sample was examined for thickness testing,

biodegradability properties, SEM, hydrophilicity, thermogravimetric analysis, and sealing

properties of bioplastic. The results display the suitability of rice and corn-based thermoplastic

starch for packaging applications (Marichelvam, Jawaid, & Asim, 2019).

The bioplastics fabricated are still not so developed compared to commercial plastics,

because of to the cost and weak mechanical properties. The objectives of the study is to test a

variety of physical strengthening methods and also to investigate the reinforcement of soy

protein-based bioplastics: mold temperature increase (from 70 °C to 130 °C), as the application

of a dehydrothermal (4 and 24 h at 50 °C) or ultrasound (for 5 and 45 min at 20 kHz) treatment.

In this sense, the crosslinking degree, the mechanical properties, water uptake measurements and

scanning electron micrographs of the diverse bioplastics were compared. It is concluded that

suitable processing conditions and post-treatments could favor some characteristics of bioplastics

(such as maximum stress (∼5 times) or strain at break (∼3 times)), although worsening others

(such as water uptake capacity (∼50%)) based on the results. Specifically, a thermal treatment

enhances the mechanical properties of the structures acquired, whereas the ultrasound treatment

leads to the creation of a structure with smaller pores.

Karua, & Sahoo, (2020) analyzed the harmful impact on environment due to landfill

disposal of non-biodegradable polymer which has to be lessened and preferentially wiped out. It

can be resolve by relying on the usage of biopolymers for packaging, environment and

biomedical applications. In this study, starch and chitosan were used to prepare composites with

PVA (poly vinyl alcohol) as an additive, glycerol as a plasticizer and glutaraldehyde as a

crosslinker. The composites were developed by solution casting technique at optimum

gelatinization temperature. The effect of PVA concentration ranging from 0 to 10 wt% and

glycerol concentration ranging from 0 to 5 wt% were used to prepare composites. This study also

wants to scrutinize and create a comparison on the effect of addition of PVA on behavior of

water absorption and its effect on the tensile properties of synthesized composites. Using

Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) and Fourier Transform

Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), characterization of the prepared samples were carried out, The

validity of the biodegradability test was evident as the composites were found to be degraded by

40–60% after 90 days.

Azeredo, Kontou-Vrettou, Moates, Wellner, Cross, Pereira, & Waldron (2015) studied a

wheat straw with an alkaline peroxide solution, hemicelluloses that have been extricated.

Hemicelluloses which can be a component for the production of biodegradable films that is used

for food packaging was mixed with glycerol and various concentrations of citric acid that serves

as a crosslinking agent with or without sodium hypophosphite which can be the catalyst to a

crosslinking reaction. Curing treatment was done in a dried film at 150 °C, in order to boost the

formation of ester bonds between citric acid and hemicelluloses. Water resistance and water

vapor barrier properties of the films are enhanced through crosslinking reaction which can be

seen in FTIR spectra. Meanwhile, the citric acid effects on film tensile properties were more

uniform with those of a plasticizer than of a crosslinker, which might be attributed to a flexible

crosslinking. The properties of crosslinked films were not affected by Sodium hypophosphite

(SHP). FTIR spectra say that some crosslinking reaction takes place even in a non-cured film.

Spice, & Polizzi (2020) reported to enhance the absorption of textile dye effluent onto

Gracilaria edulis, statistical optimization models were used. Significant factors responsible for
adsorption were identified using Plackett-Burman design (PBD) and were time, pH, and dye

concentration. For optimization, Box-Behnken (BB) design was done. The speculated and the

experimental values were seen to be in fine agreement, the coefficient of determination value

0.9935 and modified coefficient of determination value 0.9818 showed that the model was

significant. The results of speculated response optimization displayed that maximum

decolorization could be achieved with time 131.51 min, pH 7.48, and dye concentration 23.13%.

The model was established experimentally with 92.65% decolorization efficiency. The

experiment was approved using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), high-resolution

scanning electron microscope coupled with energy dispersive X-ray analysis (HR-SEM-EDX),

X-ray diffraction spectrometry (XRD) and Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) surface area and pore

size analysis techniques. Desorption studies at various pH (2–14) were performed and a

maximum of 23% of the dye was recovered from the adsorbed biomass (Venkataraghavan, &

Sharmila, 2020). Meanwhile, illustrates a further improvement of a Pichia pastoris cell-free

platform, a commonly used expression host in both academia and the biopharmaceutical

industry. Using a minimized Design of Experiments (DOE) manner, we were able to expand the

productivity of the system by enhancing the composition of the complex reaction mixture. This

was attained in a minimal number of experimental runs, within the restriction of the design and

without the need for liquid-handling robots. In doing so, we were able to evaluate the main

effects impacting productivity in the system and increased the protein synthesis of firefly

luciferase and the biopharmaceutical HSA by 4.8-fold and 3.5-fold, respectively. This paper

highlights the P. pastoris-based cell-free system as a highly productive eukaryotic platform and

displays the value of minimized DOE designs.

 This analysis of McCann, Bagga, Duaux, Stalcup, Vasquez, & Brabazon (2018)

illustrated the development of a model for Nd:YAG laser ablation of cyclic olefin polymer

(COP) films. Two Taguchi orthogonal array experimental designs were conducted to fabricate a

model for the prediction of microchannel depth and width produced on ZeonorFilm® ZF14 and

ZF16 polymer films via laser ablation. The width and depth of the created microchannels were

measured using 3D optical profilometry. Microchannels produced were identified to range in

depth of up to 50 µm, and widths of 112 µm via single-pass laser depending on the grade of

COP, with feature size expanding as the number of laser passes increased. The models are

considered in terms of adjusted coefficient of determination, signal to noise ratio and model

significance. The effect of the process parameters used such as fluence and scan speed on three

different grades of COP was scrutinized with an aim to make a simple model suitable for

predictive control of surface microstructuring of COP. Also, the experimental design chosen for

the study of laser ablation of ZF14 was a Taguchi orthogonal array L16 (with three factors at

four levels,) and was produced and analysed using the Design-Expert 7 (Stat-Ease Inc., USA)

and Minitab 17 (Minitab Inc., USA) software packages. The minimum fluence level of the

design was chosen to be above the threshold fluence for ablation. Previous work by our group

determined a threshold fluence for ZF14-188 of 0.32 J/cm2 for a single laser pass and a beam

scan speed of 1.2 mm/s. A reduced quadratic model was developed using a backwards

elimination to remove insignificant terms and increase model simplicity while maximizing the

adjusted coefficient of determination.