BRILLIANTSVINURAYI M181425

LUKE NYASHANU M181422

DATA COMMUNICATION
PRESANTATIONS

Networking Standards
Networking standards ensure the interoperability of networking technologies by defining the rules of
communication among networked devices. Networking standards exist to help ensure products of
different vendors are able to work together in a network without risk of incompatibility.
From wireless networking standards like 802.11a and Gigabit Wi-Fi to wired networking standards like
Ethernet and Gigabit Ethernet.
The Importance of Standards

 Standards are necessary in almost every business and public service entity. For example, before
1904, fire hose couplings in the United States were not standard, which meant a fire department in
one community could not help in another community. The transmission of electric current was not
standardized until the end of the nineteenth century, so customers had to choose between Thomas
Edison’s direct current (DC) and George Westinghouse’s alternating current (AC).
 The primary reason for standards is to ensure that hardware and software produced by different
vendors can work together. Without networking standards, it would be difficult—if not impossible—
to develop networks that easily share information. Standards also mean that customers are not
locked into one vendor. They can buy hardware and software from any vendor whose equipment
meets the standard. In this way, standards help to promote more competition and hold down prices.
 The use of standards makes it much easier to develop software and hardware that link different
networks because software and hardware can be developed one layer at a time.
 The Standards-Making Process
 There are two types of standards: formal and de facto. A formal standard is developed by an official
industry or government body. For example, there are formal standards for applications such as Web
browsers (e.g., HTTP, HTML), for network layer software (e.g., IP), data link layer software (e.g.,
Ethernet IEEE 802.3), and for physical hardware (e.g., V.90 modems). Formal standards typically
take several years to develop, during which time technology changes, making them less useful.

Common Standards

 There are many different standards used in networking today. Each standard
usually covers one layer in a network. Figure 1.5 outlines some of the most
commonly used standards. At this point, these models are probably just a maze
of strange names and acronyms to you, but by the end of the topic, you will have
a good understanding of each of these. Figure 1.5 provides a brief road map for
some of the important communication technologies we discuss in this topic.

 For now, there is one important message you should understand from Figure 1.5:
For a network to operate, many different standards must be used
simultaneously. The sender of a message must use one standard at the
application layer, another one at the transport layer, another one at the network
layer, another one at the data link layer, and another one at the physical layer.
Each layer and each standard is different, but all must work together to send and
receive messages.

Figure 1.5 Some common data communications standards. HTML = Hypertext Markup
Language; HTTP = Hypertext Transfer Protocol; IMAP = Internet Message Access
Protocol; IP = Internet Protocol; IPX = internetwork package exchange; LAN = local area
network; MPEG = Motion Picture Experts Group; POP = Post Office Protocol; SPX =
sequenced packet exchange; TCP = Transmission Control Protocol

●
Layer ●
Common Standards
●
5. Application layer ●
HTTP, HTML (Web) MPEG, H.323 (audio/video)
SMTP, IMAP, POP (e-mail)
●
4. Transport layer ●
TCP (Internet and LANs) SPX (Novell LANs)
●
3. Network layer ●
IP (Internet and LANs) IPX (Novell LANs)
●
2. Data link layer ●
Ethernet (LAN) Frame relay (WAN) T1 (MAN
and WAN)
●
1. Physical layer ●
RS-232C cable (LAN) Category 5 cable (LAN)
V.92 (56 Kbps modem)
 Ethernet IEEE 802.3)

 Ethernet, IEEE 802.3, is one of the most widely used standards for computer
networking and general data communications. It is widely used in all
forms of data networking from connecting to home Wi-Fi hubs to
business data networks and telecommunications networking.

Ethernet network elements

 The Ethernet IEEE 802.3 LAN can be considered to consist of two main elements:
 Interconnecting media:   The media through which the signals propagate is of great importance
within the Ethernet network system. It governs the majority of the properties that determine the
speed at which the data may be transmitted. There are a number of options that may be used:

 Coaxial cable:   This was one of the first types of interconnecting media to be used for Ethernet. Typically
the characteristic impedance was around 110 ohms and therefore the cables normally used for radio
frequency applications were not applicable. This type of cabling is not widely used for Ethernet these
days as it is expensive and difficult to install.


 Twisted Pair Cables   Type types of twisted pair may be used: Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) or a Shielded
Twisted Pair (STP). Generally the shielded types are better as they limit stray pickup more and
therefore data errors are reduced. A variety of different cable types are available as the standard are
always moving forwards.

Ethernet network topologies

 There are several network topologies that can be used for Ethernet communications. The actual form
used will depend upon the requirements.
 Point to point:   This is the simplest configuration as only two network units are used. In this simple
structure the cable is known as the network link. Links of this nature are used to transport data
from one place to another and where it is convenient to use Ethernet as the transport
mechanism.
 Coaxial bus:   This type of Ethernet network is rarely used these days. The systems used a
coaxial cable where the network units were located along the length of the cable. The
segment lengths were limited to a maximum of 500 metres, and it was possible to place up
to 1024 DTEs along its length. Although this form of network topology is not installed these
days, a very very few legacy systems might just still be in use. In view of the way in which it
operates, with several nodes on the same leg, the CSMA/CD anti-collision is scheme
 Star network:   This type of Ethernet network has been the dominant topology since the
early 1990s. It consists of a central network unit, which may be what is termed a
multi-port repeater or hub, or a network switch.
Wireless Data Communication

 Wireless Data Communication is a form of communication that uses the radio spectrum
rather than a physical medium. It may carry analog or digital signals and may be used on
LANs or WANs in one- or two-way networks.


 Wireless communication generally works through electromagnetic signals that
are broadcast by an enabled device within the air, physical environment or
atmosphere. The sending device can be a sender or an intermediate device
with the ability to propagate wireless signals. The communication between
two devices occurs when the destination or receiving intermediate device
captures these signals, creating a wireless communication bridge between
the sender and receiver device. Wireless communication has various forms,
technology and delivery methods including:



 satellite communication
 Mobile communication
 Wireless network communication
 Infrared communication
 Bluetooth communication
 Although all of these communication technologies have different
underlying architecture, they all lack a physical or wired connection
between their respective devices to initiate and execute communication.
Types of wireless network communication

Satellite Communication
 Satellite communication is one type of self contained wireless communication
technology, it is widely spread all over the world to allow users to stay
connected almost anywhere on the earth. When the signal (a beam of
modulated microwave) is sent near the satellite then, satellite amplifies the
signal and sent it back to the antenna  receiver which is located on the
surface of the earth. Satellite communication contains two main
components like the space segment and the ground segment.The ground
segment consists of  fixed or mobile transmission, reception and ancillary
equipment and the space segment, which mainly is the  satellite itself.

Infrared Communication
 Infraredwireless communication communicates information in a device or
systems through IR radiation . IR is electromagnetic energy at a
wavelength that is longer than that of red light. It is used for security
control, TV remote control and short range communications. In the
electromagnetic spectrum, IR radiation lies between microwaves and
visible light. So, they can be used as a source of communication.
 For a successful infrared communication, a photo LED transmitter and a photo
diode receptor are required. The LED transmitter transmits the IR signal in
the form of non visible light, that is captured and saved by the
photoreceptor. So the information between  the source and the target is
transferred in this way. The source and destination can be mobile phones,
TVs, security systems, laptops etc supports wireless communication.
Broadcast Radio

 The first wireless communication technology is the open radio communication to seek out
widespread use, and it still serves a purpose nowadays. Handy multichannel radios
permit a user to speak over short distances, whereas citizen’s band and maritime radios
offer communication services for sailors. Ham radio enthusiasts share data and function
emergency communication aids throughout disasters with their powerful broadcasting
gear, and can even communicate digital information over the radio frequency spectrum.
 Mostly an audio broadcasting service, radio broadcasts sound through the air as radio waves.
Radio uses a transmitter which is used to transmit the data in the form of radio waves  to
a receiving antenna(Different Types of Antennas). To broadcast common programming,
stations are associated  with  the radio N/W’s. The broadcast happens either in simulcast
or syndication or both. Radio broadcasting may be done via cable FM, the net and
satellites. A broadcast sends information over long distances at up to two megabits/Sec
(AM/FM Radio).
 Radio waves are electromagnetic signals, that are transmitted by an antenna.These waves
have completely different frequency segments, and you will be ready to obtain an audio
signal by changing into a frequency segment.

 Microwave Communication
 Microwave wireless communication is an effective type of communication, mainly this
transmission uses radio waves, and the wavelengths of radio waves are measured in
centimeters. In this communication, the data or information can be transfers using two
methods. One is satellite method and another one is terrestrial method.

 Wherein satellite method, the data can be transmitted though a satellite, that orbit 22,300
miles above the earth. Stations on the earth send and receive data signals from the
satellite with a frequency ranging from 11GHz-14GHz and with a transmission speed of
1Mbps to 10Mbps. In terrestrial method, in which two microwave towers with a clear
line of sight between them are used, ensuring no obstacles to disrupt the line of sight. So
it is used often for the purpose of privacy. The frequency range of the terrestrial system
is typically 4GHz-6GHz and with a transmission speed is usually 1Mbps to 10Mbps.
 The main disadvantage of microwave signals is, they can be affected by bad weather,
especially rain.

Wi-Fi

 Wi-Fiis a low power wireless communication, that is used by various electronic devices like
smart phones, laptops, etc.In  this setup, a router works  as a communication hub
wirelessly. These networks allow users to connect only within close proximity to a
router. WiFi is very common in networking applications which affords portability
wirelessly. These networks need to be protected with passwords for the purpose of
security, otherwise it will access by others
 Mobile Communication Systems
 The advancement of mobile networks is enumerated by generations. Many  users
communicate across a single frequency band through mobile phones. Cellular and
cordless phones are two  examples of devices which make use of wireless signals.
Typically, cell phones have a larger range of networks to provide a coverage.But,
Cordless phones have a limited range. Similar to GPS devices, some phones make use of
signals from satellites to communicate.

Bluetooth Technology

 The main function of the Bluetooth technology is that permits you to connect a various
electronic devices wirelessly to a system for the transferring of data. Cell phones
are connected to hands free earphones, mouse, wireless keyboard. By using
Bluetooth device the information from one device to another device. This
technology has various functions and it is used commonly in the wireless
communication market.

 Advantages of Wireless Communication
 Any data or information can be transmitted faster and with a high speed
 Maintenance and installation is less cost for these networks.
 The internet can be accessed from anywhere wirelessly
 It is very helpful for workers, doctors working in remote areas as they can  be in touch with medical
centers.
 Disadvantages of Wireless Communication
 An unauthorized person can easily capture the wireless signals which  spread through the air.
 It is very important to secure the wireless network so that the information cannot be misused by
unauthorized users
 Applications of Wireless Communication
 Applications of wireless communication involve security systems, television remote control, Wi-Fi, Cell
phones, wireless power transfer, computer interface devices and various wireless 
communication based projects.

token ring
 A token ring network is a local area network (LAN) in which all computers are
connected in a ring or star topology and pass one or more logical tokens
from host to host. Only a host that holds a token can send data, and
tokens are released when receipt of the data is confirmed. Token ring
networks prevent data packets from colliding on a network segment
because data can only be sent by a token holder and the number of tokens
available is controlled.
 The most broadly deployed token ring protocols were IBM's, released in the
mid-1980s, and the standardized version of it known as IEEE 802.5, which
appeared in the late 1980s. The IEEE standard version provides for data
transfer rates of 4, 16 or 100 Mbps.
 Token ring was once widely used on LANs, but has been nearly entirely
displaced by Ethernet thanks to pricing -- token ring products tended to be
more expensive than Ethernet at similar speeds -- and thanks to the
development of Ethernet switching and full-duplex links, which eliminated
collisions as a practical concern in most situations.

HOW A TOKEN RING WORKS

 1. Systems in the LAN are arranged in a logical ring; each system receives data frames from its logical predecessor on
the ring and sends them to its logical successor. The network may be an actual ring, with cabling connecting each
node directly to its neighbors, but more often is a star, with the ring existing only logically in the wiring closet within
the "multiaccess unit" to which all the hosts connect.
 2. Empty information frames are continuously circulated on the ring, along with frames containing actual data; any  node
 receiving an empty frame and having nothing to send simply forwards the empty frame.
 3. When a computer has a message to send, it waits for an empty frame. When it has one, it does the following:
 a) Inserts a token indicating that it is sending data in the frame -- this may be as simple as changing a zero to a one in
the token section of the frame, although other schemes are possible, and is said to "hold the token" for that frame.
 b) Inserts the data it wants to transmit into the payload section of the frame.
 c) Sets a destination identifier on the frame.
 4. When a computer receives a frame containing data (indicated by the token) it knows it cannot transmit data of its
own and so it does the following:
 a) If it is not the sender or the destination, it simply retransmits the frame, sending it to the next host in the ring.
 b) If it is the destination for the message, it copies the message from the frame and clears the token to indicate receipt.
 c) If it is the sender (and assuming the destination node has indicated receipt of the frame by clearing the token) it sees
that the message has been received, removes the message payload from the frame (restoring it to "empty" status)
and sends the empty frame around the ring.

NETWORK PROTOCOLS

 Network protocols are formal standards and policies comprised of rules,

procedures and formats that define communication between two or more
devices over a network. Network protocols govern the end-to-end processes
of timely, secure and managed data or network communication.

 GENERAL INFORMATION
 Network protocols incorporate all the processes, requirements and constraints
of initiating and accomplishing communication between computers, servers,
routers and other network-enabled devices. Network protocols must be
confirmed and installed by the sender and receiver to ensure network/data
communication and apply to software and hardware nodes that
communicate on a network.
