MAEDM 111: Methods of Research

Parts of a Master’s Thesis (UNC Format)

Romeo C. Layones
MASTER’S THESIS CONTENT: UNC FORMAT
TITLE OF THESIS
CHAPTER 1: Introduction
Introduction
Statement of the Problem
Scope and Delimitation
Theoretical Framework
Conceptual Framework
Assumptions
Hypothesis
Definition of Terms
CHAPTER II: Review of Related Literature
Related Literature
Related Studies
State-of-the-Art
CHAPTER III: Research Design
Methodology
Population
Instruments
Statistical Treatment
CHAPTER IV: Analysis and Interpretation
CHAPTER V: Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations
THESIS TITLE

FUNCTIONS: (Sevilla et al., 1992)

1. It draws, in summary form, the content of the entire
investigation.
 one that has the minimum possible number of words
that describe accurately the content of the paper (Day
and Gastel, 2006, as cited by Saunders et al., 2009)
1. It serves as a frame of reference for the whole thesis.
2. It enables the researcher to claim the title as his own.
3. It helps other researchers to refer to the work for
possible survey of theory.
THESIS TITLE
 Title must be clear and specific (Sevilla et al., 1992)
 The title should not claim more for the study than it
actually delivers (Best & Kahn, 2006)
 It should include words which limit the scope of the
research (Walliman, 2011)
 Title must be as short as possible (Blaxter et al., 2006)
and explanatory (Dawson, 2007)
 It should contain all the essential key words (the main
concept/variables and limits to the scope) (Walliman,
2011)
 Relationship among concepts/variables (difference,
association, effect) must be stated. (Sevilla et al.,
1992)
 It should exclude such phrases as ‘an investigation
into’, ‘a study of’, ‘aspects of’, as these are obvious
attributes of a research project (Walliman, 2011)
THESIS TITLE
Notes:
Different authors offers different suggestions as to how
many words the title should have:
 should range from 10 to 12 words (Goodwin, 2010)
 12 words or fewer (Lee, 2015)
 5 to 15 substantive words
(http://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/title)
 Less than 15 words (Leary, 2001)
 not more than 20 substantive words (Baker and Schutz,
1972, as cited by Sevilla et al., 1992)

Note: If a colon is used, it must separate the main and sub-

title.
Main title = catchy phrase, quotation or a clever hook
Sub-title = An informative phrase, including details about
the content, organization, and methods used in your
research (http://umanitoba.ca/student/academiclearning/)
INTRODUCTION

 An introduction is the first passage in a journal article,

dissertation, or scholarly research study. It sets the stage for
the entire study. (Creswell, 2009)

 The introduction is the part of the paper that provides

readers with the background information for the research
reported in the paper. Its purpose is to establish a framework
for the research, so that readers can understand how it is
related to other research. (Wilkinson, 1991, as cited by
Creswell, 2009)
INTRODUCTION

 must immediately grab the reader’s attention, often by

dramatic statement of the problem or issue to be
researched (Greener, 2008)

 should start with a very broad perspective of the main

subject area, before gradually narrowing the focus to the
subject area under study, identifying some of the gaps in the
existing body of knowledge (Kumar, 2011)

is funnel shaped in the sense that it is broad at the

beginning and narrow at the end
INTRODUCTION

should give the reader the rationale for the given

investigation, explaining how it fits in with, and is logical
extension, of prior research:
Why are you undertaking the project?
Why is the research needed? (Dawson, 2007)

 This rationale should be placed within the context of

existing research or within your own experience and/or
observation. You need to demonstrate that you know what
you’re talking about and that you have knowledge of the
literature surrounding this topic (Dawson, 2007)
INTRODUCTION

The deficiencies model of an introduction is a general

template for writing a good introduction. It is a popular
approach used in the social sciences, and once its structure
is elucidated, the reader will find it appearing repeatedly in
many published research studies. It consists of five parts,
and a separate paragraph can be devoted to each part, for
an introduction of about two pages in length:
1. The research problem/dilemma/issue leading to the study
2. Studies that have addressed the problem/dilemma/issue
3. Deficiencies in the studies
4. The significance of the study for particular audiences
5. The purpose statement (the statement of the problem)

Source: Creswell, 2009

INTRODUCTION
1. The research problem/dilemma/issue leading to the study
TIPS:
o As a general rule, refrain from using quotations, especially
long ones, in the lead sentence.
o Stay away from idiomatic expressions or trite phrases.
o Consider numeric information for impact
o Clearly identify the research problem/dilemma/issue leading
to the study
o Indicate why the problem is important by citing numerous
references that justify the need to study the
problem/dilemma/issue.
o Make sure that the problem/dilemma/issue is framed in a
manner consistent with the approach to research in the
study
o Consider and write about whether there is a single problem
involved in the proposed study or multiple problems that
lead to a need for the study.
INTRODUCTION
2. Studies that have addressed the problem/dilemma/issue
 The purpose of reviewing studies in an introduction is to
justify the importance of the study and to create distinctions
between past studies and the proposed one.
TIPS:
o Refer to the literature by summarizing groups of studies, not
individual ones . The intent should be to establish broad areas
of research.
oTo deemphasize single studies, place the in-text references
at the end of a paragraph or at the end of a summary point
about several studies.
o Review research studies that used quantitative, qualitative,
or mixed methods approaches.
o Find recent literature to summarize, such as that published
in the past 10 years. Cite older studies if they are valuable
because they have been widely referenced by others.
INTRODUCTION
3. Deficiencies in the studies
 Deficiencies in past literature may exist because topics not
have not been explored with a particular group, sample, or
population; the literature may need to be replicated or
repeated to see if the same findings hold, given new samples
of people or new sites for study; or the voice of
underrepresented groups has not been heard in published
literature.
TIPS
Identify specifically the deficiencies of other studies (e.g.,
methodological flaws, variables overlooked).
o Write about areas overlooked by past studies, including
topics, special statistical treatments, significant implications,
and so forth.
o Discuss how a proposed study will remedy these
deficiencies and provide a unique contribution to the scholarly
literature.
INTRODUCTION
4. The significance of the study for particular audiences
 a specific section describing the significance of the study
for select audiences. to convey the importance of the problem
for different groups that may profit from reading and using the
study. By including this section, the writer creates a clear
rationale for the importance of the study.
The introduction must include the following:
o Three or four reasons that the study adds to the scholarly
research and literature in the field
o Three or four reasons about how the study helps improve
practice
o And three or four reasons as to why the study will improve
policy.
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
 state the purpose of the study (main objective and at least
three specific questions)

Good research questions possess the following

characteristics:
 feasible
 clear
 significant
 ethical
SCOPE AND DELIMITATION

 The scope of the investigation defines where and when

the study was conducted and who the respondents were.
 The scope sets the delimitations and establishes the
boundaries of the study.

 A limitation is a phase or aspect of the investigation

which may affect the result adversely but over which the
researcher has no control.
A clear and honest acceptance of the limitation brings
credence to the study.
SCOPE AND DELIMITATION
Limitations are those conditions beyond the control of the
researcher that may place restrictions on the conclusions of
the study and their application to other situations. (Best &
Kahn, 2006)
Example: Administrative policies that preclude using more
than one class in an experiment, a data-gathering instrument
that has not been validated, or the inability to randomly select
and assign subjects to experimental and control groups are
examples of limitations.

Delimitations are the boundaries of the study. (Best & Kahn,

2006)
Example: A study of attitudes toward racial minorities may be
concerned only with middle-class, fifth-grade pupils, and
conclusions are not to be extended beyond this population
sampled.
SCOPE AND DELIMITATION

DELIMITING A PROBLEM (Singh, 2006)

Delimiting a problem is very important. A study should be
delimited by the following aspects:
 A study should be delimited to certain variables that
should be mentioned clearly in the problem
 The study is delimited to the area or level as primary
level, secondary level, college or university level.
 Again study is delimited to size of sample. Considering
the time, energy and money, but it should be a
representative
 Method of Research: A Problem or study may be
conducted by different methods but it is not possible.
Therefore, the best method should be used so that the study
should be delimited to the method only.
SCOPE AND DELIMITATION

DELIMITING A PROBLEM (Singh, 2006)

Measuring Instrument: In behavioural science number of
instruments are available but all tools can not be used to
measure Thus the best available tool will be used for
measuring the variable.
 Techniques of Research: A number of techniques can be
used for analysing data but most appropriate techniques
should be used.
 The other limitation should vary from problem to problem
as every problem has its own delimitations. These
delimitations may help the researcher for conducting the
study and the findings of studies also confine to these
delimitations.
ASSUMPTION
 statements of what the researcher believes to be facts but
cannot verify (Best & Kahn, 2006)
 does not need testing or confirmation
Examples:
1. That the interviewee answered the interview questions
accurately.
2. That the respondents rated some situations truthfully.
3. That the attitude of a group of respondents are stable.
4. That perceptions can be quantified and therefore be
measured.
5. That the respondents of the study all belong to the low
socio-economic status group.
6. that the participant observers in the classroom, after a
period of three days, will establish rapport with the
students and will not have a reactive effect on the
behavior to be observed.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
 For clarity, important terms (concepts/variables) used in
the statement of the problem must be defined conceptually
and operationally.
 A definition is a statement of intention to use a concept
in a particularly.

Note: Only the terms used in the statement of the problem

must be defined

CONCEPTUAL DEFINITION
also called constitutive, theoretical, nominal or rational
definition
 definition that is given in the dictionary (Leary, 2001)
definition that states what a concept means by defining it
with one or more other concepts
DEFINITION OF TERMS

OPERATIONAL DEFINITION
 also called functional or epistemic definition
 definition that provides the concept with empirical
meaning by defining it in terms of observable data, such as
activities necessary to measure the concept or to
manipulate it.
measurement-oriented interpretation of constitutive
definition.
stipulates the operation by which a concept can be
observed and measured. (Best & Kahn, 2006)
 defines a concept by specifying precisely how the
concept is measured or manipulated in a particular study
(Leary. 2001)
CONCEPT, CONSTRUCT AND VARIABLE
CONCEPT
 a mental image or perception
 their meanings vary markedly from individual to individua
 subjective impressions; their understanding may differ from
person to person, which if measured, would cause problems in
comparing responses (Kumar, 2011)
 expresses an abstraction formed by generalization from
particulars which could either be abstract (e.g. social equity, rural
poverty, etc.) or concrete (e.g. chair, table, etc.)

CONSTRUCT
 a concept that is deliberately and consciously invented or
adopted for a special scientific purpose
 an attribute or characteristic expressed in an abstract, general
way (Creswell, 2012)

Example: Intelligence, Student Achievement

CONCEPT, CONSTRUCT AND VARIABLE

VARIABLE
 an image, perception or concept that is capable of
measurement, that is, capable of taking on different values
 a concept that can be measured (Kumar, 2011)
 a construct that can take on two or more values
 attribute or characteristic stated in a specific, applied way
(Creswell, 2012)

Example: IQ score, grade point average

Notes:
Measurability is the main difference between a concept and
a variable.
 Research topic statement and hypotheses are usually
stated in terms of variables.
CONCEPTS, INDICATORS, AND VARIABLES

 If a concept is used in the study, the researcher must

consider its operationalization, that is, how it will be
measured.
To operationalize a concept, the researcher must identify its
indicators – a set of criteria reflective of the concept – which
can then be converted into variables

Note:
The operationalization of some concepts, such as the
“effectiveness” or “impact” of a program, may prove more
difficult.
CONCEPTS, INDICATORS, AND VARIABLES
CONCEPT INDICATORS VARIABLES DECISION
LEVEL
(WORKING
DEFINITION)
Rich Income Income per If income is
year greater than
P600,000
Assets Total value of If total value of
house/s; assets is greater
investments than P1,000,000
CONCEPTS, INDICATORS, AND VARIABLES
CONCEPT INDICATORS VARIABLES DECISION
LEVEL
(WORKING
DEFINITION)
High Average Percentage If mark obtained
academic marks in of Marks is greater than
achieve- examinations 75%
ment
Average Percentage If mark obtained
marks in of Marks is greater than
practical work 75%
TYPES OF VARIABLES

 according to the causal relationship

Independent variable
Extraneous variable
Confounding variable
Dependent variable
Intervening variable
 according to the study design
Active variable
Attribute variable
Moderator Variable
 according to the unit of measurement
Categorical/qualitative
Continuous/quantitative
TYPES OF VARIABLES (according to the causal relationship)

INDEPENDENT VARIABLE
the cause supposed to be responsible for bringing about
change(s) in a phenomenon or situation

DEPENDENT VARIABLE
 the outcome or change(s) brought about by introduction of an
independent variable

EXTRANEOUS VARIABLE
 independent variable that has not been controlled (Fraenkel &
Wallen, 2007)
variable that is not of interest to the researcher but which might
influence the behavior being studied if they are not controlled
properly (Goodwin, 2010)
TYPES OF VARIABLES (according to the causal relationship)

CONFOUND VARIABLE (SPURIOUS VARIABLE)

 any uncontrolled extraneous variable that ‘‘covaries’’ with the
independent variable and could provide an alternative explanation
of the results (Goodwin, 2010)
 attribute or characteristics that the researcher cannot directly
measure because its effect cannot be easily separated from other
variables, even though it may influence the relation between the
independent and the dependent variable (Creswell, 2012)

INTERVENING VARIABLE (MEDIATING VARIABLE)

 an attribute or characteristic that “stands between” the
independent and dependent variables and exercises an influence
on the dependent variable apart from the independent variable
 transmits (or mediates) the effects of the independent variable on
the dependent variable
EXAMPLE 1: Relationship between smoking and cancer

SMOKING CANCER

(Assumed (Assumed
cause) effect)
(Independent (Dependent
Affect the relationship
variable) variable)

The age of the person

The gender of the person
The duration of smoking
The extent of daily exercise

(Extraneous variables)
EXAMPLE 2: Effects of a marriage counseling service on marital
problems

COUNSELLING MARRIAGE
SERVICE PROBLEMS

(Assumed (Assumed
cause) effect)
(Independent (Dependent
Affect the relationship
variable) variable)

An improvement in the couple’s economic situation

The birth of a child
Pressure from friends and relatives
Self-realization
Another person in the relationship
The extent of communication between the couple
The competence of the counselor
(Extraneous variables)
TYPES OF VARIABLES (according to the study design)
An independent variable (in experimental research may either be
manipulable or nonmanipulable (Gay, 1976, as cited by Sevilla et
al., 1992)

ACTIVE VARIABLES (EXPERIMENTAL OR TREATMENT)

 those variables that can be manipulated, changed, or controlled
Examples:
different teaching models, experimental intervention,
program service, etc.

ATTRIBUTE VARIABLES (ORGANISMIC, CLASSIFICATORY,

ASSIGNED)
 those that cannot be manipulated, changed or controlled, and
reflect the characteristics of the study population
Examples:
Age, gender, level of education, religion etc.
TYPES OF VARIABLES (according to the study design)

MODERATING VARIABLE
 secondary independent variable that has been selected for the
study in order to determine if it affects or modifies the basic
relationship between the primary independent variable and the
dependent variable (Fraenkel & Wallen, 2007)
new variable constructed by the researcher by taking one variable
times another to determine the joint impact (interaction effect) of
both variables together (Creswell, 2012)
TYPES OF MEASUREMENT SCALES
Stevens’ classification (1946) as cited by Kumar (2011)
NOMINAL OR CLASSIFICATORY SCALE
 a nominal scale enables the classification of individuals, objects
or responses based on a common/shared property or characteristic
Example: Gender
ORDINAL OR RANKING SCALE
 an ordinal scale has all the properties of a nominal scale plus one
of its own: it ranks the subgroups in a certain order
Example: Socioeconomic status
INTERVAL SCALE
 an interval scale has all the characteristics of the ordinal scale
plus one of its own: it uses a unit of measurement that enables
individuals or responses to be placed at equally spaced intervals
Example: Temperature
RATIO SCALE
 a ratio scale has all the characteristics of the interval scales plus
its own property: the zero point of the ratio scale is fixed
Example: Weight
TYPES OF VARIABLES (according to the unit of measurement)

QUALITATIVE VARIABLES
 those variables measured in nominal or ordinal scales (Kumar,
2011)
 variables that vary in kind (Christensen, 2001, as cited by
Marcyzk et al., 2005)
Examples:
different teaching models
experimental intervention

QUANTITATIVE VARIABLES
 those variables measured in interval and ratio scales (Kumar,
2011)
 variables that vary in amount (Christensen, 2001, as cited by
Marcyzk et al., 2005)
Examples:
age
number of children
TYPES OF VARIABLES (according to the unit of measurement)

CATEGORICAL VARIABLES
 variables that can take on specific values only within a defined
range of values (Marcyzk et al., 2005)
 variables consisting of discrete, mutually exclusive categories
Example: gender, level of satisfaction, etc.

CONTINUOUS VARIABLE
 variables that can theoretically take on any value along a
continuum (Marcyzk et al., 2005)
Example: age, income

Note:
 Researchers may convert some continuous variables into
categorical variables.
The benefit of using continuous variables is that they can be
measured with a higher degree of precision.
MAEDM 111: Methods of Research
Variables and Hypotheses

Romeo C. Layones
LINKING VARIABLES (CAUSAL RELATIONSHIP)
Basic Rule: Arrows go from cause to effect.
a) X and Z cause Y and both are necessary
X
Y
Z
b) X and Z cause Y and either can
X
Y
Z

c) X causes Z and Z causes Y but not X

X
Y
Z
LINKING VARIABLES (CAUSAL RELATIONSHIP)
Rules of Thumb
(Davis, 1985, as cited by Balnaves & Caputi, 2001)

1. Run the arrow form X to Y if Y starts as X freezes.

Example: Childhood schooling and adult income
Childhood Adult
Schooling income

2. Run the arrow from X to Y if X is linked to an earlier

step in a well known sequence
Example: Output, Process, and Input

Input Process Output

LINKING VARIABLES (CAUSAL RELATIONSHIP)
Rules of Thumb
(Davis, 1985, as cited by Balnaves & Caputi, 2001)

3. Run arrow from X to Y if X never changes and Y

sometimes changes.
Example: IQ and Gender

Gender IQ

4. Run the arrow from X to Y if X is more stable, harder

to change, or more “fertile” (have a lot of effects)
Example: IQ and stands on political issues

Stands on
IQ
Political issues
HYPOTHESIS

 a conjectural statement of the relationship between two or more

variables (Kerlinger, 1986, as cited by Kumar, 2011)
 a prediction of the possible outcomes of a study (Fraenkel &
Wallen, 2007; Goodwin, 2010)
an educated guess or hunch, generally based on prior research
and/or theory, to be subjected to the process of verification or
disconfirmation (Best & Kahn, 2006)
a tentative explanation that accounts for a set of facts and can be
tested by further investigation (Muijs, 2004)

Note:
 Hypotheses bring clarity, specificity, and focus to a research
problem, but are not essential for a study. (Research may be
conducted even without a hypothesis.)
CRITERIA FOR RESEARCH OR SCIENTIFIC HYPOTHESIS
(Best & Kahn, 2006; Balnaves & Caputi, 2001; Heiman, 1999)

1. A hypothesis must be testable.

 It is possible to devise a test of a hypothesis.

2. A hypothesis must be falsifiable.

 The test can show that the hypothesis is incorrect.

3. A hypothesis must be precise.

 The hypothesis contains terms that are clearly defined.

4. A hypothesis must be rational.

 It fits with what is already known
 It must be consistent with known facts or theories.

5. A hypothesis must be parsimonious.

 The hypothesis is as simple as possible.
GUIDELINES IN FORMULATING RESEARCH
HYPOTHESES
(Creswell, 2012)
State the variables in this order: independent (first position),
dependent (second position), and control (third position).
 If you compare groups in your hypothesis, explicitly state
the groups; if variables are related, specify the relationship
among the variables.
Make a prediction about changes you expect in your
groups, such as less or more favorable or no changes (e.g.,
no difference). You will then test this prediction using
statistical procedures.
You may state information about the participants and the
site of the study, but this information may not be necessary if
it repeats information stated in your purpose statement
(statement of the problem).
TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS

HYPOTHESIS

NULL ALTERNATIVE
HYPOTHESIS HYPOTHESIS

NONDIRECTIONAL DIRECTIONAL
TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS

NULL HYPOTHESIS
 a hypothesis of no difference (in case of two or more independent
variables/groups are compared in terms of a given
criterion/dependent variable) or a hypothesis of no
association/relationship (between/among variables)

ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS
 a hypothesis that claims a difference between/among groups or a
hypothesis that claims an association/relationship between/among
variables
 research hypothesis

Note:
The research hypothesis is a formal affirmative statement predicting
a single research outcome, a tentative explanation of the
relationship between two or more variables (Best & Kahn, 2006)
NULL HYPOTHESIS

TEMPLATE/SCRIPT 1
There is no significant difference between (independent variable,
group 1) and (independent variable, group 2) in terms of
(dependent variable) for (participants) at (research site).

EXAMPLE:
There is no significant difference between at-risk and non-at-risk
students in terms of student achievement on math test scores for
third-grade students in a Midwest school district.

Independent variable: at-risk students (members and nonmembers)

Dependent variable: student achievement test scores
Participants: third-grade students
Site: X school district
Form and language: null indicating no difference
NULL HYPOTHESIS

TEMPLATE/SCRIPT 2
There is no significant association between two variables (one of
which is measured in nominal scale).

EXAMPLE:
There is no significant association between gender and course
preference.

TEMPLATE/SCRIPT 3
There is no significant relationship between two variables (both of
which are measured in interval/ratio scale).

EXAMPLE:
There is no significant relationship between attitude towards
mathematics and performance in Algebra.
DIRECTIONAL ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS

 research hypothesis that indicates the specific direction

(such as higher, lower, more, or less) that a researcher
expects to emerge in a relationship (Fraenkel & Wallen, 2007)

 a research hypothesis states the kind or direction of

difference or relationship between two conditions or two
groups of participants (e.g. students’ performance increases
when they are intrinsically motivated) (Cohen et al., 2007)

are often used when past research, predictions, or theory

suggest that the findings may go in a particular direction
(Cohen et al., 2007)
DIRECTIONAL ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS

TEMPLATE/SCRIPT 1
(group 1, independent variable) at (research site) will have
(some difference, such as higher, lower, greater, lesser) on
(dependent variable) than (group 2 of independent variable).

EXAMPLE:
Students who participate in direct learning in four elementary
schools will have higher achievement scores than students
who participate in whole-language learning.

Independent variable: learning (direct and whole language)

Dependent variable: achievement test scores
Participants: third-grade students
Research site: four elementary schools
Key indicator: directional, a prediction is implied
NONDIRECTIONAL ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS

 research hypothesis that does not make a specific

prediction about what direction the outcome of a study will
take (Fraenkel & Wallen, 2007)

 research hypothesis that simply predicts that there will be a

difference or relationship between two conditions or two
groups of participants (e.g. there is a difference in students’
performance according to their level of intrinsic motivation),
without stating whether the difference, for example, is an
increase or a decrease). (Cohen et al., 2007)

 used when past research or theory is unclear or

contradictory or where prediction is not possible, i.e. where
the results are more open-ended. (Cohen et al., 2007)
NONDIRECTIONAL ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS

TEMPLATE/SCRIPT
There is a significant difference between (group 1,
independent variable) and (group 2, independent variable) in
terms of (dependent variable).

EXAMPLE:
There is a significant difference between varsity athletes in
high school who smoke and those who do not smoke in terms
of athletic accomplishments.

Independent variable: use of tobacco (smokers and nonsmokers)

Dependent variable: athletic accomplishments
Participants: varsity athletes
Sites: high schools
Key indicator: the words “a difference,” but the direction is not
specified
Classify the following as null hypothesis (NH), nondirectional
alternative hypothesis (NAH), or directional alternative
hypothesis (DAH)

_____1. The mean IQ of men and women are equal.

_____2. There is no significant difference in the mean scores of
students taught by the whole class instruction and those taught
by differentiated instruction.
_____3. Height significantly correlates with weight.
_____4. Brand A phones outsell Brand B phones.
_____5. There is no significant association between religiosity
and kindness.
_____6. Men are more intelligent than women.
_____7. First-, second-, and third-graders will feel differently
toward school.
_____8. Students with academic disabilities will have more
negative attitudes about themselves if they are placed in special
classes than if they are placed in regular classes.