WEEK 1

Learning Outcomes/Objectives:

a. Define world literature.

b. Explain the importance of world literature in the curriculum.
c. Describe world literature in terms of physical abilities, language, speaking, listening, reading and
writing skills.
d. Discuss the different literary genres and its subtypes.

Pre-Assessment

Instruction: Answer the question with at least 300 words.

What is the importance of studying world literature as a student and as a person?

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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO WORLD LITERATURE

Part 1: What is World Literature

DISCUSSION

LITERATURE

- It refers to any “written work”.

- It is derived from the Latin term “litera” which means “letter”.
- It is derived from “literatura” which means writing formed with letters.
- It is the mirror of the society which reflects social norms, culture, tradition, experiences, etc.
Literature goes along with society.

WORLD LITERATURE
 - It is considered in global context. It suggests to the sum of total world’s national literature and
also the circulation of work into the wider world beyond country’s origin.

PERIODS

- Old English Literature (450-1150)

 Three (3) Conquests

a. Different Letters
b. Different Grammar
c. Different Spelling

 The Song of Beowulf

- Middle English Literature (1150-1500)

During this unique period the English language got maturity. Chaucer’s poetry made English as a
perfect medium for literature, this was the beginning of English literature in middle ages.

Some salient features of this age was

 Anonymity- means we don't know the names of those who wrote in this age
example is Beowulf
 Originality was not required for writing story material looked upon as a common
property like it led Geoffrey of Manmouth and even great writer to claim such a
source when none existed. It is not surprising that such an attitude raised translation
to the level of original creation, the reader must be prepared for a less personal
quality in medieval than in modern literature and to find that the original author of a
work is often, for us, without a local habitation or a name.
 Religion-religion was an important element of social life in medieval ages, people
were constantly in fear of hell and its torments were vitally concerned with the
problem of salvation for their souls.that’s why, religion writings form a greater part
of middle English literature.
 Another important characteristic of middle english literature is oral quality, most of
the people of that age listen the stories instead of reading because no printing facility
was available in those days.
 Courtly Love- this is a code that find a relationship between aristocratic love in
western Europe, their were some requirements for courtly love their requirements
were elaborated by the Roman poets. Example of courtly love is A knight show was
in love with a married woman of high rank or high birth required to prove his heroic
deeds as well as presenting love letters to his beloved with disclosing his identity.
 Chivalry-it is a code of conduct associated with a medieval institution of
knighthood developed in the medieval ages.
 Romance- romance is a chivalric narrative written in prose or verse which deals
with a loyalty, on a courtly love and heroic deeds of a knight they were mostly
popular in middle ages.

- The Renaissance (1500-1650)

 Old classics rediscovered

 Sonnet
 Elegy
 Pastoral

- The Restoration and 18th Century (1650-1789)

 Age of Reason
 Age of Enlightenment
  Rise of the novel and journalism
 Age of Satire
 Age of Poetry

- The Romantic Period (1789-1837)

 Use of everyday language

 Imagination essential
 Overflowing emotions common
 Inspired by untamed nature and the exotic far east
 Folk traditions and medieval tales of knights
 Gothic novels

- The Victorian Age (1837-1901)

 Queen Victoria
 Transition period
 Melancholic and political poetry

- Post Modern Age (1901-Present)

 Literature of this period exemplifies the improved crafts of masters. The novel has
flourished and writers have risen not only to popularity but to distinction as well.

Part 2: Valuing the Values of Literature

Process Questions:

 Is literature important at all?

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 Why is it in the curriculum?

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 Why do many students consider it as merely another language requirement?

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DISCUSSION

Since literature is a formulation of man’s inner life, any man who reads literature will learn to
contemplate himself and in the process can control and refine his inward experiences.

He can be in touch with things that are “deeply human”. Today, anything “deeply human” is the
definition for “spirituality,” according to a sharing of Emma Regis.

The avid students of literature can educate his feelings through literature. Education in the arts is
essentially an education of feeligs – an area that is always neglected in the holistic or humanistic concept of
college education.

The ordinary, listless student is prone to ask: “What did the authors do in their writing?” Unfortunately,
many readers are no longer worthy of all the great authors today and of the past.
 In what sense have these readers or non-readers failed men and women who have given themselves to
the business of “turning blood into ink”?

In what sense have these readers, young and old, mentally paralyzed by, bad and empty visual
presentations fail to see, to hear, or to feel the encouragement, the words of counsel, the consolation, the
nightmares, the fears experienced in literature, nor the intense burning visions reflected in metaphors that
literature offers?

QUIZ 1

Instructions: Answer the following questions.

1. Where did the word "Literature" come from?

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2. For you, what is the true value of literature?

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3. Explain the statement, "An education in the arts is an education in feelings".

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Part 3: Literary Genres

DISCUSSION

POETRY – is a form of writing that uses not only words, but also form, patterns of sound, imagery, and
figurative language to convey the message.

Types of Narrative Poetry

A. Epic - is a long narrative poem divided into chapters.

Two Kinds of Epic Poem

1. Folk or Popular Epic - does not have a known author but evolved gradually from the people's
ancient traditions. ( ex: Beowulf and Nibelungenlaid)
2. Literary Epics - have distinct authorships. (ex: Paradise Lost by John Milton)
 3. Classical Epics - have standard conventions such as an underlying theme of human problem

B. Metrical Romance - is a long, rambling love story in verse

C. Ballad - is a short narrative poem intended to be sung with folk and literary as its types
D. Metrical Tale - is to poetry what the short story is to prose. It deals with any emotion or phase of
life.

Types of Lyric Poetry

A. Ode - deals with a serious theme such  as immortality. It is said to be most majestic of lyric types. It
expresses noble feeling.
B. Elegy - deals with death as its subject
C. The Song - a short lyric poem intended to be sung

Types of Songs

1. Secular Songs - have non-religious themes and examples are prothalamiums and epithalamiums
(Marriage Songs).
2. Sacred Songs - are songs in praise of God such as oratorios and cantatas.

D. Simple Lyric - is any short poem where the verse is especially musical
E. Sonnet - contains 14 lines with Italian and Shakespearian (English) sonnets as its types
F. Vers de societe - is light verse or occasional complimentary verse which deal in a witty and polished
fashion

  Types of Dramatic Poetry

a. farce - is an exaggerated comedy

b. historical play - is a drama the materials of which are taken from the lives of outstanding figures in
history
c. melodrama - is a play with sensational actions
d. comedy – a humorous drama with a happy ending
e. tragedy – a sad drama with a sad ending

PROSE – makes use of ordinary language

Types of Essay

A. Reflective essays - are serious and dignified and usually employ aphorisms
B. Narrative or Story essay - makes use of an incident to illustrate an idea or a theme
C. Descriptive essay - has some narrative elements as well as color, vividness, and realistic portrayals
D. Biographical essay - sketches life or presents character analysis
E. Nature essay - attempts to picture the world of God's creation and may do so in a graphic, pictorial
vein or a more thoughtful, philosophical manner
F. Critical essay - includes biographical criticism, literary criticism, and book reviews.
G. Periodical essays - are generally published in periodicals, hence, they are also called journalistic
H. Didactic essays - enforce a moral and, therefore, the tone is serious and didactic (instructive).

FICTION - is the literary production of men's imagination finding shape in stories of people or events.

A. Prose Allegory is a prose form in which the characters, ideas, and actions stand for something else for a
system of ideas with meanings implied. Concrete characters are personifications of abstract ideas.

Fiction Subgenres

 Fantasy – a story in a fantasy world

 Folklore – old cultural stories (includes fairytales, fables, myths, legends, and tall tales).

a. Fable - is a short allegorical tsle conveying a moral or principle of behavior; the characters are usually
animals talking like human beings.
b. Myths - are traditional tales common to the members of a tribe, race, or nation usually involving the
supernatural and serving to explain natural phenomena or suggest a religious moral truth.
 c. Legends - are stories of some wonderful events popularly believed to have some historical basis and
passed down through the ages.

 Historical fiction – a fiction story based on real history

 Mystery – a story about a crime
 Realistic fiction – a story that seems real but isn’t real
 Romance – a love story
 Science fiction – a story in the future with advanced technology
 Thriller or suspense – a story that makes readers nervous or excited

B. Prose Romances - are types of stories in which there occur some supernatural or magical events,
fantastic, and unrealistic.
1. Fairy tales - always end happily
2. Folk tales - a story which consists of one or a combination of many folklore themes; sometimes
called "migratory tales".

C. Prose satires - are stories in which human vices and follies are held up to ridicule.
D. Novels - are prose narratives on a large scale (book length) and can be divided into three types,
fantasy, love, and adventure novels.

They are further broken down into such varieties as:

epistolary, picaresque, Gothic, Utopian, Western, detective, science-fiction, naturalistic, psychological,

stream-of-conciousness, religious, sociological, romantic, sentimental, realistic, surrealistic.

E. Short story - is a prose narrative of limited length which can be read in just one sitting.
F. Novelettes - are prose narratives that are intermediate between the short story and the novels. It is
about 50-150 ordinary pages long, but no exact limits can be given as to length. Hemingway's The Old
Man and the Sea  is an example.

PROSE DRAMA - written in dialogue and intended for presentation by actors.

Special Types of Drama

1. Closet drama - is intended for private reading rather than stage performance.
2. Tragicomedy - is a combination of the elements of a tragedy and comedy.
3. Problem plays - are neither comedies nor tragedies but deal with middle-class life and problems.
4. Comedy of manners - is a type of play which satirizes the extremes of fashion and manners - they
acquired follies of a highly sophisticated society.

Non-Fiction Subgenres

1. Biography – a story of a person’s life

2. Autobiography – a story the author writes about himself or herself
3. Narrative Non-Fiction – a story (or narrative) that happened in real life
4. Periodicals – magazines, newspapers, and journals that are written regularly
5. Reference Materials – books with facts in alphabetical order (dictionary, thesaurus, and
encyclopedia)

QUIZ 2A

Instructions: Choose the letter that corresponds to the correct answer by encircling the letter.

1. A classification of poetry that tells a story in richly imaginative and rhythmical language.
a. Dramatic Poetry
b. Narrative Poetry
 c. Lyric Poetry
2. Portrays life and character through action in powerful, emotion-packed lines such as those in
Shakespeare’s plays.
a. Dramatic Poetry
b. Narrative Poetry
c. Lyric Poetry
3. A narrative poem divided into distinct parts and episodes bound together by a common relationship to
some great hero, action, and time.
a. Epic
b. Ballad
c. Metrical Romance
4. A type or category of literature
a. Literary type
b. Literary category
c. Literary genre
5. A story which is far from reality
a. Fiction
b. Non-fiction
c. Factual
6. Writing that actually happened
a. Fiction
b. Non-fiction
c. Non-factual
7. Aims primarily to amuse and which ends happily
a. Melodrama
b. Tragedy
c. Comedy
8. A type of drama in which the chief character undergoes a morally significant struggle which ends
disastrously
a. Melodrama
b. Tragedy
c. Comedy
9. An example of this sub-genre of fiction is the story titled “Gone With the Wind” by Margaret Mitchell
a. Tragedy
b. Realistic Fiction
c. Historical Fiction
10. A story that seems real but isn’t real
a. Fantasy
b. Realistic fiction
c. Historical fiction
11. A story about crime
a. Fantasy
b. Mystery
c. Thriller or suspense
12. A story that makes readers nervous or excited
a. Fantasy
b. Mystery
c. Thriller or suspense
13. A story written by an author about himself
a. Autobiography
b. Biography
c. Periodical
14. A story about a person’s life written by another person
a. Autobiography
 b. Biography
c. Periodical
15. Expresses personal thoughts and feelings
a. Lyric Poetry
b. Narrative Poetry
c. Dramatic Poetry
16. It is a poetic play which is based on broadly humorous situations.
a. Comedy
b. Farce
c. Tragicomedy
17. Has some narrative elements as well as color, vividness, and realistic portrayals.
a. Reflective Essay
b. Narrative Essay
c. Descriptive Essay
18. Also called story essay
a. Reflective Essay
b. Narrative Essay
c. Descriptive Essay
19. Includes biographical criticism
a. Biographical Essay
b. Critical Essay
c. Periodical Essay
20. It is about 50-150 pages.
a. Novellettes
b. Short story
c. Novel

QUIZ 2B

Instructions: Using a Venn Diagram, compare and contrast the following ideas in items 1 and 2.
(10 pts. each)

1. FICTION and NON-FICTION

 2. POETRY and PROSE

3. Instruction: Enumerate the characteristic of poetry and explain each. (20 pts.)

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WEEK 2

Learning Outcomes/Objectives:

a. Discuss the different aids in studying literature that include the studies of fiction, techniques for reading
poetry, and techniques for reading drama.
b. Identify the factors which determine the development of a literary piece over the horizon.
c. Introduce the history of greek literature.

Part 4: Aids to the Study of Literature

A. Study of Fiction and Non-fiction

 Discussion

Characteristics of Fiction

 Features
 Imaginary
 Characters – people, animals, objects
 Plot – setting, conflict, resolution
 Theme
 Perspective
 Narrator
 Character
 Format
 Short story
 Novel
 Fairy tale
 Fable
 Purpose
 Entertain
 Change the reader’s mind

Characteristics of Non-Fiction

 Features
 Real – people, events, ideas
 Fact
 Organization
 Style
 Mood
 Tone
 Perspective
 Author
 Format
 Speech
 Essay
 News article
 Biography
 Purpose
 Entertain
 Inform

B. Techniques for Reading Poetry

Discussion

Poetry is a branch of the humanities that renders artistically, imaginatively the best of man's thoughts
and feelings. It is metaphorical communication, "the highest form of talk" (Engle). It is, according to Clardi, a
formal structure in which elements operate simultaneously. We know poetry as a statement of human
experience and its two outstanding qualities are the formal structure and intensity of language.

Effects of Poetry
 its interpretive power
  awakening
 enhancing our awareness of things
    - Here, words mean more, suggest more, a story, a world of ideas, emotions and moods.

What is a poet?

One who "hangs around words," a juggler of words, a man who improvises verbal restrictions (rules of form) or
who evolves his own form as a poet writing free verse, one of encyclopedic mind with a flair of sounds, shapes,
colors, and etc.

General Themes of Poetry

Personal themes - love, death, loneliness, frustration, nature as destroyer or as an aspect of the Divine, art and
life, faith in man, faith in God.

Social themes - injustice, human suffering, man's inhumanity to man, failure of tradition, of the family,
materialism, etc.

Characteristics of Poetry

 metaphorical - poetry makes use of sophisticated language

 rhythmycal or cadenced - poetry has beats and pace which helps strengthen the meaning of
words and ideas
 connotative - has meaning other than the dictionary meaning
 figurative - makes used of the different figures of speech
 condensed - words paint a picture to communicate an idea
 imaginative - opens one's imagination 
 emotional - expresses the thoughts and feelings of the author
 dramatic - highly emotional
 indirect - makes use of words with figurative meaning
 mysterious - words cannot be easily comprehended
 vivid - clear and detailed
 descriptive - deep depiction of the poem
 concrete - visual presentations to enhance the effect of the poem on the reader
 paradoxical -  in most poems normally strives to create feelings of intrigue and interest in
readers' minds, to make them think deeper and harder to enjoy the real meaning of the poem

Elements of Poetry

1. Alliteration is a repetition of the same consonant sounds in a sequence of words, usually at the
beginning of a word or stressed syllable: “descending dew drops;” “luscious lemons.”
Alliteration is based on the sounds of letters, rather than the spelling of words; for example,
“keen” and “car” alliterate, but “car” and “cite” do not.
2. Assonance is the repetition of similar internal vowel sounds in a sentence or a line of poetry, as
in “I rose and told him of my woe.”
3. Figurative language is a form of language use in which the writers and speakers mean
something other than the literal meaning of their words. Two figures of speech that are
particularly important for poetry are simile and metaphor. A simile involves a comparison
between unlike things using like or as. For instance, “My love is like a red, red rose.” A
metaphor is a comparison between essentially unlike things without a word such as like or as.
For example, “My love is a red, red rose.” Synecdoche is a type of metaphor in which part of
something is used to signify the whole, as when a gossip is called a “wagging tongue.”
Metonymy is a type of metaphor in which something closely associated with a subject is
substituted for it, such as saying the “silver screen” to mean motion pictures.
4. Imagery is the concrete representation of a sense impression, feeling, or idea that triggers our
imaginative ere-enactment of a sensory experience. Images may be visual (something seen),
aural (something heard), tactile (something felt), olfactory (something smelled), or gustatory
(something tasted). Imagery may also refer to a pattern of related details in a poem.
5. Rhyme is the repetition of identical or similar concluding syllables in different words, most
often at the ends of lines. Rhyme is predominantly a function of sound rather than spelling; thus,
 words that end with the same vowel sounds rhyme, for instance, day, prey, bouquet, weigh, and
words with the same consonant ending rhyme, for instance vain, rein, lane. The rhyme scheme of
a poem, describes the pattern of end rhymes. Rhyme schemes are mapped out by noting patterns
of rhyme with small letters: the first rhyme sound is designated a, the second becomes b, the
third c, and so on.
6. Rhythm is the term used to refer to the recurrence of stressed and unstressed sounds in poetry.
Poets rely heavily on rhythm to express meaning and convey feeling. Caesura is a strong pause
within a line of poetry that contributes to the rhythm of the line. When a line has a pause at its
end, it is called an end-stopped line. Such pauses reflect normal speech patterns and are often
marked by punctuation. A line that ends without a pause and continues into the next line for its
meaning is called a run-on line or enjambment.
7. Stanza is a grouping of lines, set off by a space, which usually has a set pattern of meter and
rhyme.
8. Tone conveys the speaker’s implied attitude toward the poem’s subject. Tone is an abstraction
we make from the details of a poem’s language: the use of meter and rhyme (or lack of them);
the inclusion of certain kinds of details and exclusion of other kinds; particular choices of words
and sentence pattern, or imagery and figurative language (diction). Another important element of
tone is the order of words in sentences, phrases, or clauses (syntax).

C. Techniques for Reading Drama

Essential Questions:

• How is drama different from prose or poetry?

• How is drama different from television?

Discussion

Drama

• Comes from the Greek Word, “Dran”

• Means “To do” or “To Act”
• The Doing/Acting Makes Drama

What is Drama?

“Drama is life with the dull bits cut.” -Alfred Hitchcock

What Makes Drama Unique?

Drama has one characteristic peculiar to itself—it is written primarily to be performed, not
read.

Drama is a Presentation of Action… …through actors (the impact is direct and immediate)

Drama is a Presentation of Action… …on a stage (for a captive audience)

Drama is a Presentation of Action… …before an audience (suggesting a communal

experience).
 Elements of Drama

Audience Etiquette

• No unnecessary movement or noises

• No cell phones, talking, standing, walking, etc.

Why?
• Shows respect for the actors, the playwright, and the play
• Allows actors to concentrate and perform their best

 Playwright-the author of a play (script)

 Actors-the people who perform
 Script- the written pages of a play. Scripts are divided into Acts and Scenes. Scripts for stage
and screen have strict but very different formats.
 Acts- long sections of a play, made up of multiple scenes, usually designed to separate the play
into its main parts and to give the audience a “break” from the performance.
 Scenes- shorter sections of a play, usually each scene occurs in one location at a specific time.
Multiple scenes make up an act.
 Set - Construction on the stage that shows time/place.
 Props - Items used onstage by actors
 Dramatic Speech
• Dialogue- two or more people talking
• Monologue- one person talking
• Soliloquy - one person speaking their thoughts out loud for the audience
 Stage Directions
• Found in brackets [ ] or parenthesis ( )
• Describe scenery, action, and how characters speak
 Conflict
• The internal or external struggle that creates dramatic tension.
 Characterization
• Is the playwright’s technique for revealing the PERSONALITY of a character.
 Narrative - a story with a beginning, middle and end
 Plot - The series of events that make up the story

QUIZ 3

Instructions: Read and analyze the poem and answer the questions that follow. (50 pts.)

Do not go gentle into that good night

Dylan Thomas

Do not go gentle into that good night,

Old age should burn and rave at close of day;
Rage, rage against the dying of the light.

Though wise men at their end know dark is right,

Because their words had forked no lightning they
Do not go gentle into that good night.
 Good men, the last wave by, crying how bright
Their frail deeds might have danced in a green bay,
Rage, rage against the dying of the light.

Wild men who caught and sang the sun in flight,

And learn, too late, they grieved it on its way,
Do not go gentle into that good night.

Grave men, near death, who see with blinding sight

Blind eyes could blaze like meteors and be gay,
Rage, rage against the dying of the light.

And you, my father, there on the sad height,

Curse, bless, me now with your fierce tears, I pray.
Do not go gentle into that good night.
Rage, rage against the dying of the light.

1. Who is speaking in the poem? To whom is he speaking? What is he pleading for? Why?

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2. What is reason or argument has the speaker put forth here in order to rouse his father to take up
the challenges of a forthcoming life’s end?

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3. What is the “good night” in the life of all men? Why must all men “rage and rage against the
dying of the light”? How do stanzas 3, 4, and 5 support the plea for living and not dying?

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4. Does the poet wish his father to put up the last fight before he succumbs to death?

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5. Comment on the urging pleas of the speaker to the dying man. Do you think his pleas are valid?
Give your reasons for or against.

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CHAPTER 2: CLASSICAL LITERATURE

Part 1: Greek Literature

Discussion

The Greeks Beliefs and Philosophy

What did the greeks believe?

- Sought to know basic truths about human nature.

- Believed in the pursuit of excellence in all aspects of life.
- Wanted to understand themselves and the people around them.
- Intense love of intellectualism and rational thought.

The Heroic age 1500-1200 B.C.E.

Greek civilization
• Began in Crete
• Minoan (2000 B.C.):
• Developed sixty miles south of mainland Greece
• A peaceful people • Named for King Minos of Crete- sacrificed twelve young men and women each
year to feed a half-man, half-bull monster called the Minotaur (Theseus myth)
 • Minoan civilization directly influenced the rise of the Mycenaean (1500 and 1200 B. C.) on the Greek
mainland:
• Enterprising and aggressive
• King Agamémnon led an expedition against the city of Troy in Asia Minor.
• Homer immortalizes heroes of this “Trojan War” four centuries later in The Iliad. The Greeks
of this time called the Mycenaean era The Heroic Age.

The Dark Age

Mysterious Decline

• Mysterious decline of Mycenaean culture less than fifty years after the Trojan War
• 1100 B.C.- Dorians invade the Greek peninsula:
• Burned Mycenaean palace centers
• “Dark Age” lasts several centuries
• Writing falls out of use
• No record of cultural development

The Epic Age

The Iliad and The Odyssey

• Earliest surviving works of Greek poetry are epics: The Iliad and The Odyssey (c. 750 B.C.)
• Greeks develop a script for their language based on a system borrowed from the Phaiákians:
• We know this as the alphabet.
• Named for its two initial letters, alpha and beta
• Theories: its purpose was to aid commercial dealings and/or to record Homer’s epics for posterity.

The Rise of the City States

700-500 B.C.E.

• Between 700 and 500 B.C.E.:

• Greek life was more organized and institutional.
• Fragmented settlements banded together to form communities.
• Polis (politics)- city-state; ruled by a king
• Despite city-states, Greeks did not think of themselves as a single nation.
• Hellenes- belief that all Greeks were direct descendents of Helen, the son of Deukaliôn, who according to
Greek myth, was the sole survivor of a great flood and thus the ancestor of all Greeks; this belief created
common cultural bonds.
• Cultural identity:
• Set Greeks apart from “barbarian” neighbors
• Unity resulted in social and religious institutions :
• Olympics: brought city-states together; fostered Greek identity; held every four years at Mt. Olympus in honor
of Zeus
• Religious shrines: universal centers of worship; Oracle at Delphi (god Apollo)

Greek Gods and goddesses Ageless and Immortal

• First glimpse of Greek religion is in Homer’s epics.

• Ancient Greeks saw gods as being “human”, i.e. being able to interact with humans.
• Gods possessed the worst traits of humans: jealously, irrational anger, and pettiness.
• Greeks believed that everyone had his or her own destiny or fate (moira); gods do not control human beings.
• A god can help or hinder a human being, depending on the human’s relationship with the god, their character
and talents, and the trouble and effort the person took with offerings.
• Two differences that distinguish gods from humans:
• Gods and goddesses are ageless and immortal.
 • Gods and goddesses are immensely more powerful than humans.

The Lyric age

7th-5th century B.C.E.

• C. 7th-5th centuries B.C.E.:

• Lyric poetry: • derived from the word lyre—a stringed instrument used to accompany poets : Listen to a Greek
Lyre
• Speaker is not always the poet but a persona—a character whose voice and concerns do not necessarily
reflect those of the poet.
• The poet used relatively few lines to express the personal emotions of a single speaker.
• intimate themes • Only small fraction of this poetry has survived. .
• Pindar- wrote odes that celebrated victors in major athletic contests.
• Sappho- composed some of the finest and honest love poems ever written.
• The power of lyric poetry lies in its immediacy and its ability to quickly and fully describe a strong
emotion. This is done through the first-person speaker, the “I” telling the poem, and through the use of sensory
imagery—images that appeal to the senses and trigger memories and emotional responses.

Sparta and Athens

5th century B.C.E.

• Start of 5th century B.C.:

• Bitter rivalry that formed out of conflicts
• Most powerful city-states in Greece
• Sparta- militaristic and conservative; boys and girls underwent years of rigorous physical training and frail
infants were exposed, or left on mountaintops to die (legend).
• Athens- played a leading role in the Persian Wars.

The Golden Age of Athens

Pericles and Democracy
• Athens:
• Main beneficiary of the Persian Wars
• Victories: Marathon, Salamis—Athens as wartime leader of all city-states and chief naval power of
Greece
• Established a democratic government (free adult males; women and slaves could not vote); influenced
both the Roman Republic and democracy in the United States.
• Late 460s B.C.—Athenian “Golden Age”
• Pericles:
• Great general and statesman
• Guided the fortunes of Athens for over three decades
• Skillful politician who walked the line between extremists views in the democratic assembly
• Patron of literature, philosophy, and the arts
• Organized campaign to build the Parthenon (dedicated to Athena)

The Rise of Greek Drama

Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides

• 5 th century B.C.:
• Authors of tragedy: Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides
• Plays posed profound questions about the limits of knowledge, individual free will, moral
responsibility, and human suffering.
• Sophocles was the most admired playwright; general and friend to Pericles.
• Aristophanes: author of comedies; used farce and satire to deal with serious issues as education and
war.
The Historians Herodotus and Thucydides

• Herodotus (c. 485-c. 425 B.C.):

• considered, in the West, to be the first historian
• wrote a chronicle of the Persian War
• reported on many foreign lands and customs of people he met during his travels
• filled his narrative with colorful character sketches and interesting digressions
• thought of his role as that of a moral teacher
• Thucydides (c. 460-401 B.C.):
• He analyzed the Athenian rise to power and the conflict with Sparta in his History of the
Peloponnesian War.
• His work stressed rigorous research and objective reporting.
• He thought of his role as that of a moral teacher.

Greek philosophers Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle

• Philosopher: a Greek word meaning “lover of wisdom.”

• Socrates (469-399 B.C.):
• “Wisdom begins in wonder.”
• Method of questioning through dialogue
• Left no writings of his own
• Eccentric—pretending to be ignorant, he wandered the streets of Athens, a shabby and
unkempt figure who questioned people about concepts such as virtue, truth, and wisdom.
• Never preached or offered his own solutions
• Demonstrated that no argument was infallible
• His technique of questioning is known as the Socratic Method.
• Pointed criticism at official authorities earned him a reputation as a public nuisance.
• Persecuted for his teaching methods and his belief that an “unexamined life is not worth
living”
• 399 B.C.: tried and executed on false charges of corrupting the minds of his young
students
• Plato (c. 429-c. 347 B.C.):
• Socrates’ pupil
• Preserved Socrates’ method of questioning in a series of dialogues in which the
“character” Socrates poses and answers philosophical questions for/with two or more
other characters.
• Used dialogues as a vehicle to present a comprehensive philosophical system known as
Platonism.
• Platonic system: ideas are the only reality, and people should rely on reason, not on
their senses, to comprehend the world.
• His writings examined concepts such as freedom of conscience, the nature of reality, the
existence of the soul, ideal government, and how to lead a virtuous and happy life.
• 387 B.C.: founded a school called the Academy—a center of philosophical learning.
• The Republic: sets forth in brilliant detail his theory of an ideal state ruled by
philosopher-kings.
• At the age of sixty, during a sea voyage, his ships was raided by pirates, and he was
sold as a slave to a former student, who helped him return to Athens. He never left
Athens again.

• Aristotle (384-322 B.C.):

• Plato’s greatest pupil
• Studied in Athens and later became tutor to a young Alexander the Great
• Wrote numerous treatises on logic, ethics, political theory, rhetoric, and biology
 • Poetics- one of Aristotle’s most influential works—sets forth the principles of Greek
tragic drama.
• His systematic inquiry into numerous branches of knowledge impacted the development
of Western philosophy.
• Modern students of philosophy and literature must acquaint themselves with the work
of Plato and Aristotle (influenced literary theory).
• Aristotle’s theory of rhetoric:
• Rhetoric: the art of persuasion
• Ethos- credibility (ethics)
• Logos- logic of the argument (even if it isn’ t factual)
• Pathos- appeal to emotion

The Decline of Athens Athens vs. Sparta

• Envy and resentment toward Athenian expansions led to clashes and then full-scale war between Athens and
Sparta:
• The Peloponnesian War (431-404 B.C.):
• Involved other city-states on each side
• Sparta was victorious • Athens spiraled into decline from which it never recovered.
• Macedon (middle of 4th century B.C.):
• Ruled first by Philip and then by his son, Alexander the Great
• Emerged as the most powerful state in the Greek-speaking world
• Alexander conquered lands from Egypt to India.
• By the time of Alexander’s death in 323 B.C.:
• Greek language and culture had spread through the Mediterranean, North Africa, and western Asia.
• Continuation of Greek culture by Alexander, and later by the Romans who would conquer the
Macedonians in 197 B.C., is called the Hellenistic Age.
• Hellenistic Age:
• Emulated the Hellenic Age, the age of the Greeks
• The Romans would be greatly responsible for the preservation and spread of Greek knowledge in the
West.

ASSIGNMENT:

Instructions: Browse the internet and search for the different works of authors of Greece. (3
works/author)

1. Homer

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2. Aeschylus

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3. Sophocles
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4. Euripides

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5. Socrates

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6. Aristotle

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7. Plato

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WEEK 3

Learning Outcomes/Objectives:

a. Analyze the epic poem by identifying the elements found in its prologue and epilogue.
b. Watch the movie adaptation of the epic poem on youtube.
c. Discuss about the inspiration of the author in writing the epic poem.

Part 1A: Prologue of Iliad

 Discussion

Homer
- the author of the epic poems “The Iliad” and “The Odyssey”
- revered as the greatest ancient Greek epic poet
Iliad
- called “Ilium”

Characters

The Achaeans (also called the “Argives” or “Danaans”)

 Achilles
The son of the military man Peleus and the sea-nymph Thetis. The most powerful warrior in The Iliad,  Achilles
commands the Myrmidons, soldiers from his homeland of Phthia in Greece. Proud and headstrong, he takes
offense easily and reacts with blistering indignation when he perceives that his honor has been slighted.
Achilles’ wrath at Agamemnon for taking his war prize, the maiden Briseis, forms the main subject of The Iliad.

 Agamemnon (also called “Atrides”)

King of Mycenae and leader of the Achaean army; brother of King Menelaus of Sparta. Arrogant and often
selfish, Agamemnon provides the Achaeans with strong but sometimes reckless and self-serving leadership.
Like Achilles, he lacks consideration and forethought. Most saliently, his tactless appropriation of Achilles’ war
prize, the maiden Briseis, creates a crisis for the Achaeans, when Achilles, insulted, withdraws from the war.

 Patroclus
Achilles’ beloved friend, companion, and advisor, Patroclus grew up alongside the great warrior in Phthia,
under the guardianship of Peleus. Devoted to both Achilles and the Achaean cause, Patroclus stands by the
enraged Achilles but also dons Achilles’ terrifying armor in an attempt to hold the Trojans back.

 Odysseus
A fine warrior and the cleverest of the Achaean commanders. Along with Nestor, Odysseus is one of the
Achaeans’ two best public speakers. He helps mediate between Agamemnon and Achilles during their quarrel
and often prevents them from making rash decisions.

 Diomedes (also called “Tydides”)

The youngest of the Achaean commanders, Diomedes is bold and sometimes proves impetuous. After Achilles
withdraws from combat, Athena inspires Diomedes with such courage that he actually wounds two gods,
Aphrodite and Ares.

 Great Ajax
An Achaean commander, Great Ajax (sometimes called “Telamonian Ajax” or simply “Ajax”) is the second
mightiest Achaean warrior after Achilles. His extraordinary size and strength help him to wound Hector twice
by hitting him with boulders. He often fights alongside Little Ajax, and the pair is frequently referred to as the
“Aeantes.”

 Little Ajax
An Achaean commander, Little Ajax is the son of Oileus (to be distinguished from Great Ajax, the son of
Telamon). He often fights alongside Great Ajax, whose stature and strength complement Little Ajax’s small
size and swift speed. The two together are sometimes called the “Aeantes.”

 Nestor
King of Pylos and the oldest Achaean commander. Although age has taken much of Nestor’s physical strength,
it has left him with great wisdom. He often acts as an advisor to the military commanders, especially
 Agamemnon. Nestor and Odysseus are the Achaeans’ most deft and persuasive orators, although Nestor’s
speeches are sometimes long-winded.

 Menelaus
King of Sparta; the younger brother of Agamemnon. While it is the abduction of his wife, Helen, by the Trojan
prince Paris that sparks the Trojan War, Menelaus proves quieter, less imposing, and less arrogant than
Agamemnon. Though he has a stout heart, Menelaus is not among the mightiest Achaean warriors.

 Idomeneus
King of Crete and a respected commander. Idomeneus leads a charge against the Trojans in Book 13.
 Machaon
A healer. Machaon is wounded by Paris in Book 11.
 Calchas
An important soothsayer. Calchas’s identification of the cause of the plague ravaging the Achaean army in
Book 1 leads inadvertently to the rift between Agamemnon and Achilles that occupies the first nineteen books
of The Iliad.
 Peleus
Achilles’ father and the grandson of Zeus. Although his name often appears in the epic, Peleus never appears in
person. Priam powerfully invokes the memory of Peleus when he convinces Achilles to return Hector’s corpse
to the Trojans in Book 24.
 Phoenix
A kindly old warrior, Phoenix helped raise Achilles while he himself was still a young man. Achilles deeply
loves and trusts Phoenix, and Phoenix mediates between him and Agamemnon during their quarrel.

 The Myrmidons
The soldiers under Achilles’ command, hailing from Achilles’ homeland, Phthia.

The Trojans

 Hector
A son of King Priam and Queen Hecuba, Hector is the mightiest warrior in the Trojan army. He mirrors
Achilles in some of his flaws, but his bloodlust is not so great as that of Achilles. He is devoted to his wife,
Andromache, and son, Astyanax, but resents his brother Paris for bringing war upon their family and city.

 Priam
King of Troy and husband of Hecuba, Priam is the father of fifty Trojan warriors, including Hector and Paris.
Though too old to fight, he has earned the respect of both the Trojans and the Achaeans by virtue of his level-
headed, wise, and benevolent rule. He treats Helen kindly, though he laments the war that her beauty has
sparked.

 Hecuba
Queen of Troy, wife of Priam, and mother of Hector and Paris.

 Paris (also known as “Alexander”)

A son of Priam and Hecuba and brother of Hector. Paris’s abduction of the beautiful Helen, wife of Menelaus,
sparked the Trojan War. Paris is self-centered and often unmanly. He fights effectively with a bow and arrow
(never with the more manly sword or spear) but often lacks the spirit for battle and prefers to sit in his room
making love to Helen while others fight for him, thus earning both Hector’s and Helen’s scorn.

 Helen
Reputed to be the most beautiful woman in the ancient world, Helen was stolen from her husband, Menelaus,
and taken to Troy by Paris. She loathes herself now for the misery that she has caused so many Trojan and
Achaean men. Although her contempt extends to Paris as well, she continues to stay with him.

 Aeneas
 A Trojan nobleman, the son of Aphrodite, and a mighty warrior. The Romans believed that Aeneas later
founded their city (he is the protagonist of Virgil’s masterpiece the Aeneid).
 Andromache
Hector’s loving wife, Andromache begs Hector to withdraw from the war and save himself before the Achaeans
kill him.

 Astyanax
Hector and Andromache’s infant son.

 Polydamas
A young Trojan commander, Polydamas sometimes figures as a foil for Hector, proving cool-headed and
prudent when Hector charges ahead. Polydamas gives the Trojans sound advice, but Hector seldom acts on it.

 Glaucus
A powerful Trojan warrior, Glaucus nearly fights a duel with Diomedes. The men’s exchange of armor after
they realize that their families are friends illustrates the value that ancients placed on kinship and camaraderie.

 Agenor
A Trojan warrior who attempts to fight Achilles in Book 21. Agenor delays Achilles long enough for the Trojan
army to flee inside Troy’s walls.

 Dolon
A Trojan sent to spy on the Achaean camp in Book 10.

 Pandarus
A Trojan archer. Pandarus’s shot at Menelaus in Book 4 breaks the temporary truce between the two sides.

 Antenor
A Trojan nobleman, advisor to King Priam, and father of many Trojan warriors. Antenor argues that Helen
should be returned to Menelaus in order to end the war, but Paris refuses to give her up.

 Sarpedon
One of Zeus’s sons. Sarpedon’s fate seems intertwined with the gods’ quibbles, calling attention to the unclear
nature of the gods’ relationship to Fate.

 Chryseis
Chryses’ daughter, a priest of Apollo in a Trojan-allied town.

 Briseis
A war prize of Achilles. When Agamemnon is forced to return Chryseis to her father, he appropriates Briseis as
compensation, sparking Achilles’ great rage.

 Chryses
A priest of Apollo in a Trojan-allied town; the father of Chryseis, whom Agamemnon takes as a war prize.

The Gods and Immortals

 Zeus
King of the gods and husband of Hera, Zeus claims neutrality in the mortals’ conflict and often tries to keep the
other gods from participating in it. However, he throws his weight behind the Trojan side for much of the battle
after the sulking Achilles has his mother, Thetis, ask the god to do so.

 Hera
Queen of the gods and Zeus’s wife, Hera is a conniving, headstrong woman. She often goes behind Zeus’s back
in matters on which they disagree, working with Athena to crush the Trojans, whom she passionately hates.
 Athena
The goddess of wisdom, purposeful battle, and the womanly arts; Zeus’s daughter. Like Hera, Athena
passionately hates the Trojans and often gives the Achaeans valuable aid.

 Thetis
A sea-nymph and the devoted mother of Achilles, Thetis gets Zeus to help the Trojans and punish the Achaeans
at the request of her angry son. When Achilles finally rejoins the battle, she commissions Hephaestus to design
him a new suit of armor.

 Apollo
A son of Zeus and twin brother of the goddess Artemis, Apollo is god of the sun and the arts, particularly music.
He supports the Trojans and often intervenes in the war on their behalf.

 Aphrodite
Goddess of love and daughter of Zeus, Aphrodite is married to Hephaestus but maintains a romantic
relationship with Ares. She supports Paris and the Trojans throughout the war, though she proves somewhat
ineffectual in battle.

 Poseidon
The brother of Zeus and god of the sea. Poseidon holds a long-standing grudge against the Trojans because they
never paid him for helping them to build their city. He therefore supports the Achaeans in the war.

 Hephaestus
God of fire and husband of Aphrodite, Hephaestus is the gods’ metalsmith and is known as the lame or crippled
god. Although the text doesn’t make clear his sympathies in the mortals’ struggle, he helps the Achaeans by
forging a new set of armor for Achilles and by rescuing Achilles during his fight with a river god.

 Artemis
Goddess of the hunt, daughter of Zeus, and twin sister of Apollo. Artemis supports the Trojans in the war.

 Ares
God of war and lover of Aphrodite, Ares generally supports the Trojans in the war.

 Hermes
The messenger of the gods. Hermes escorts Priam to Achilles’ tent in Book 24.
 Iris
Zeus’s messenger.
 QUIZ 4A

Instructions: Below are the events that took place in the prologue of the epic poem “Iliad”. Arrange the
pool of events chronologically by supplying the number on the space provided before each sentence.
Number it from 1-15.

_____ Aphrodite fulfilled her pledge to Paris by guiding him across Aegean towards Sparta.

_____ Paris chose Aphrodite as she promised him to give the most beautiful woman in the world.

_____ All deities were invited to the celebration except the goddess Eris.

_____ Troy assembled allies from throughout Western Asia Minor.

_____ Paris seduced Helen and brought her to Troy.

_____ A competition took place among the three goddesses to win over Paris.

_____ A wedding occurred between Thetis and Peleus.

_____ Thetis dipped her baby in the river Styx as a means of protecting him form harm.

_____ An expedition promoted by Menelaus was planned to get Helen back.

_____ Achilles commanded fifty shiploads of Myrmidon warriors from his father’s kingdom.

_____ Menelaus and his ally Odysseus travelled to Troy but unsuccessfully sought to recover Helen
with diplomacy.

_____ Thetis bore Peleus a son, Achilles.

_____ Aphrodite, on the other hand, rewarded Paris’ choice by siding with him.

_____ Allies joined the expedition from all over Greece and neighboring islands.

_____ Hera and Athena supported Greece during the Trojan war.

Part 1B: Summary of the Epic Poem “The Iliad”

Discussion
PART 1C: The Epilogue of Iliad

Discussion

QUIZ 4B

Instructions: Below are the events that took place in the epilogue of the epic poem “Iliad”. Arrange the
pool of events chronologically by supplying the number on the space provided before each sentence.
Number it from 1-10.

_____ Hector died causing the fall of Troy.

_____ Achilles fell before Troy.

_____ Diomed was received by Daunus in Apulla.

_____ Helen, after the death of Paris, married Deiphobus, his brother.
 _____ Ulysses, also, after innumerable troubles by sea and land, at last returned in safety to Ithaca.

_____ Agamemnon, at his return, was barbarously murdered by Aegysthus.

_____ Nestor lived in peace with his children, in Pylos, his native country.

_____ Hector prophesied the death of Achilles.

_____ The unfortunate Priam was killed by Pyrrhus, the son of Achilles.

_____ Ajax had a contest with Ulysses for the armour of Vulcan.

WEEK 4
Learning Outcomes/Objectives:

a. Discuss the poem and its elements.

b. Watch the movie adaptation of the poem (part 1 and part 2) on youtube and make a thorough analysis
of it.
c. Differentiate Iliad and Odyssey.

Part 1D: Odyssey

Task 1: Watch the movie adaptation of the epic poem “Odyssey” using the links below.

PART 1: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PHX1NCwkYA0

PART 2: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Mei0MJc59WU

1. Make a character analysis of the epic poem

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2. Identify the themes and motifs

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3. Make a summary of the movie adaptation of the epic poem “Odyssey”

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Task 2: Retell the adventures of Odysseus by identifying its elements.

1. Characters

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2. Plot

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3. Settings

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4. Themes

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5. Social Relevance

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WEEK 5
Learning Objectives/Outcomes:

a. Explain the history and the timeline of Latin literature.

b. Identify the different writers and their literary pieces.
c. Analyze poems and make a character analysis.

Part 2: Latin Literature

Discussion
Activity: Who Wrote What?

Instructions: Browse the internet and search for the different works of 10 Latin authors including their
magnum opus or masterpiece works by supplying the table below. Give at least 5 titles of their works.(50 pts.)

AUTHOR LITERARY WORKS MAGNUM OPUS

 Part 2A: Aeneid

Discussion

Author
Virgil
Years Written
c. 30–19 BCE
Type
Epic Poem
Genre
Adventure
Perspective and Narrator
As the narrator of The Aeneid, Virgil describes the thoughts and feelings of the characters in his story in the
third person. Books 2 and 3 are narrated by Aeneas in the first person, telling the story of his travels from Troy.

Tense
The Aeneid is mostly told in the past tense, although there is some present-tense and future-tense narration.

About the Title

Although Virgil wrote in Latin, he used the Greek form of Aeneas's name in his title as an homage to the Greek
writer Homer, his literary predecessor.

CHARACTERS

Mortals

 Aeneas

The protagonist of the Aeneid. Aeneas is a survivor of the siege of Troy, a city on the coast of Asia Minor. His
defining characteristic is piety, a respect for the will of the gods. He is a fearsome warrior and a leader able to
motivate his men in the face of adversity, but also a man capable of great compassion and sorrow. His destiny is
to found the Roman race in Italy and he subordinates all other concerns to this mission. The Aeneid is about his
journey from Troy to Italy, which enables him to fulfill his fate.

 Dido

The queen of Carthage, a city in northern Africa, in what is now Tunisia, and lover of Aeneas. Dido left the land
of Tyre when her husband was murdered by Pygmalion, her brother. She and her city are strong, but she
becomes an unfortunate pawn of the gods in their struggle for Aeneas’s destiny. Her love for Aeneas proves to
be her downfall. After he abandons her, she constructs a funeral pyre and stabs herself upon it with Aeneas’s
sword.

 Turnus

The ruler of the Rutulians in Italy. Turnus is Aeneas’s major antagonist among mortals. He is Lavinia’s leading
suitor until Aeneas arrives. This rivalry incites him to wage war against the Trojans, despite Latinus’s
willingness to allow the Trojans to settle in Latium and Turnus’s understanding that he cannot successfully defy
fate. He is brash and fearless, a capable soldier who values his honor over his life.
 Ascanius

Aeneas’s young son by his first wife, Creusa. Ascanius (also called Iulus) is most important as a symbol of
Aeneas’s destiny—his future founding of the Roman race. Though still a child, Ascanius has several
opportunities over the course of the epic to display his bravery and leadership. He leads a procession of boys on
horseback during the games of Book V and he helps to defend the Trojan camp from Turnus’s attack while his
father is away.

 Anchises

Aeneas’s father, and a symbol of Aeneas’s Trojan heritage. Although Anchises dies during the journey from
Troy to Italy, he continues in spirit to help his son fulfill fate’s decrees, especially by guiding Aeneas through
the underworld and showing him what fate has in store for his descendants.

 Creusa

Aeneas’s wife at Troy, and the mother of Ascanius. Creusa is lost and killed as her family attempts to flee the
city, but tells Aeneas he will find a new wife at his new home.

 Sinon

The Greek youth who pretends to have been left behind at the end of the Trojan War. Sinon persuades the
Trojans to take in the wooden horse as an offering to Minerva, then lets out the warriors trapped inside the
horse’s belly.

 Latinus

The king of the Latins, the people of what is now central Italy, around the Tiber River. Latinus allows Aeneas
into his kingdom and encourages him to become a suitor of Lavinia, his daughter, causing resentment and
eventually war among his subjects. He respects the gods and fate, but does not hold strict command over his
people.

 Lavinia

Latinus’s daughter and a symbol of Latium in general. Lavinia’s character is not developed in the poem; she is
important only as the object of the Trojan-Latin struggle. The question of who will marry Lavinia—Turnus or
Aeneas—becomes key to future relations between the Latins and the Trojans and therefore the Aeneid’s entire
historical scheme.
 Amata

Queen of Laurentum (a region of Latium, in Italy) and wife of Latinus. Amata opposes the marriage of Lavinia,
her daughter, to Aeneas and remains loyal throughout to Turnus, Lavinia’s original suitor. Amata kills herself
once it is clear that Aeneas is destined to win.

 Evander

King of Pallanteum (a region of Arcadia, in Italy) and father of Pallas. Evander is a sworn enemy of the Latins,
and Aeneas befriends him and secures his assistance in the battles against Turnus.
 Pallas

Son of Evander, whom Evander entrusts to Aeneas’s care and tutelage. Pallas eventually dies in battle at the
hands of Turnus, causing Aeneas and Evander great grief. To avenge Pallas’s death, Aeneas finally slays
Turnus, dismissing an initial impulse to spare him.

 Drancës

A Latin leader who desires an end to the Trojan-Latin struggle. Drancës questions the validity of Turnus’s
motives at the council of the Latins, infuriating Turnus.

 Camilla

The leader of the Volscians, a race of warrior maidens. Camilla is perhaps the only strong mortal female
character in the epic.

 Juturna

Turnus’s sister. Juno provokes Juturna into inducing a full-scale battle between the Latins and the Trojans by
disguising herself as an officer and goading the Latins after a treaty has already been reached.

 Achates

A Trojan and a personal friend of Aeneas.

Gods and Goddesses

 Juno

The queen of the gods, the wife and sister of Jupiter, and the daughter of Saturn. Juno (Hera in Greek
mythology) hates the Trojans because of the Trojan Paris’s judgment against her in a beauty contest. She is also
a patron of Carthage and knows that Aeneas’s Roman descendants are destined to destroy Carthage. She takes
out her anger on Aeneas throughout the epic, and in her wrath acts as his primary divine antagonist.

 Venus

The goddess of love and the mother of Aeneas. Venus (Aphrodite in Greek mythology) is a benefactor of the
Trojans. She helps her son whenever Juno tries to hurt him, causing conflict among the gods. She is also
referred to as Cytherea, after Cythera, the island where she was born and where her shrine is located.

 Jupiter

The king of the gods, and the son of Saturn. While the gods often struggle against one another in battles of will,
Jupiter’s will reigns supreme and becomes identified with the more impersonal force of fate. Therefore, Jupiter
(also known as Jove, and called Zeus in Greek mythology) directs the general progress of Aeneas’s destiny,
ensuring that Aeneas is never permanently thrown off his course toward Italy. Jupiter’s demeanor is controlled
and levelheaded compared to the volatility of Juno and Venus.
 Neptune

God of the sea, and generally an ally of Venus and Aeneas. Neptune (Poseidon in Greek mythology) calms the
storm that opens the epic and conducts Aeneas safely on the last leg of his voyage.

 Mercury

The messenger god. The other gods often send Mercury (Hermes in Greek mythology) on errands to Aeneas.

 Aeolus

The god of the winds, enlisted to aid Juno in creating bad weather for the Trojans in Book I.

 Cupid

A son of Venus and the god of erotic desire. In Book I, Cupid (Eros in Greek mythology) disguises himself as
Ascanius, Aeneas’s son, and causes Dido to fall in love with Aeneas.

 Allecto

One of the Furies, or deities who avenge sins, sent by Juno in Book VII to incite the Latin people to war against
the Trojans.

 Vulcan

God of fire and the forge, and husband of Venus. Venus urges Vulcan (Hephaestus in Greek mythology) to craft
a superior set of arms for Aeneas, and the gift serves Aeneas well in his battle with Turnus.

 Tiberinus

The river god associated with the Tiber River, where Rome will eventually be built. At Tiberinus’s suggestion,
Aeneas travels upriver to make allies of the Arcadians.

 Saturn

The father of the gods. Saturn (Chronos in Greek mythology) was king of Olympus until his son Jupiter
overthrew him.

 Minerva

The goddess who protects the Greeks during the Trojan War and helps them conquer Troy. Like Juno, Minerva
(Pallas Athena in Greek mythology) is motivated against the Trojans by the Trojan Paris’s judgment that Venus
was the most beautiful among goddesses.

 Apollo

A son of Jupiter and god of the sun. Apollo was born at Delos and helps the Trojans in their voyage when they
stop there. Because he is often portrayed as an archer, many characters invoke his name before they fire a shaft
in battle.

Characters from Homer’s Iliad Relevant to the Aeneid

 Ulysses

The hero of Homer’s Odyssey, and one of the captains of the Greek army that takes Troy. Ulysses (Odysseus in
Greek lore), like Aeneas, must make a long and treacherous voyage before he finds home again, and references
to his whereabouts in the Aeneid help situate Aeneas’s wanderings in relation to Ulysses’.
 Achilles

The greatest of the Greek warriors. Achilles slew the Trojan hero Hector during the war and is the tragic hero of
the Iliad.
 Hector

The greatest of the Trojan warriors, killed at Troy. Hector is in some ways a parallel figure to Turnus, who also
defends his native city to the death.

 Andromachë

Hector’s wife, who survives the siege of Troy. Andromachë meets Aeneas in his wanderings, tells him her
story, and advises his course to Italy.

 Paris

A Trojan prince, son of Priam and Hecuba, and brother of Hector. The handsomest of men, Paris is asked to
judge which goddess is most beautiful: Venus, Juno, or Minerva. Venus promises him Helen as his wife in
exchange for his judgment, so Paris selects Venus. This selection inspires the permanent wrath of Juno against
the Trojans. Stealing Helen from her Greek husband, Menelaus, Paris provokes the Trojan War.

 Helen

The most beautiful of mortal women and wife of Menelaus. Helen’s abduction to Troy by Paris sparks the
Trojan War.

 Menelaus

A Greek king who wed Helen and made a pact with her other suitors to fight anyone who tried to steal her.
When Paris took Helen, the pact was invoked and the Trojan War began.

 Agamemnon

The leader of the Greek army at Troy, and the king of Argos, a city in Greece. Upon his return from the war,
Agamemnon is killed by his adulterous wife, Clytemnestra.

 Priam

The king of Troy. Priam is slain before Aeneas’s eyes during the Greeks’ sacking of Troy.

 Pyrrhus

The son of Achilles. Pyrrhus, also called Neoptolemus, appears in Aeneas’s account of the siege of Troy as the
brutal murderer of Priam and Priam’s sons.
 PLOT SUMMARY

The Aeneid begins after the fall of Troy. The Trojan fleet carrying the surviving warriors is being battered by a
storm in the Mediterranean Sea south of Sicily. The storm has been sent by Juno, queen of the gods. She holds a
grudge against the Trojans and their leader, Aeneas, over past injustices done to her by Trojans and because in
the future, the descendants of Aeneas will destroy her favorite city, Carthage. Just as it seems the Trojans will
be destroyed, the sea god Neptune guides their ships to shore. They discover they are near the city of Carthage,
ruled by Queen Dido, who welcomes them warmly. The Trojans have been traveling since Troy was destroyed,
trying to find a new home. Worried that Aeneas, her son, will have no place to rest, the goddess Venus makes
Dido fall passionately in love with him.

Aeneas Tells of His Feats

Aeneas tells Dido the story of their travels so far, beginning with the destruction of Troy. He describes how the
Trojans were manipulated into bringing a giant horse left by the Greeks into their city. It was filled with Greek
soldiers, who sneaked out in the night and let in the Greek army. Aeneas fought through the streets but could
not save the city. Venus sent him back home to save his family before the fall of the city. He got his father and
son safely out of Troy, but his wife disappeared as they fled the city. When he returned to look for her, he found
only her ghost, who told him to seek a new queen in Italy.

Aeneas and the other survivors from Troy built their fleet and then sailed to neighboring Thrace and tried to
settle there. However, a terrible omen of future treachery sent them back to sea. They stopped at Delos, an
island sacred to the god Apollo, where Aeneas was given a prophecy to settle in his ancestor's land. Thinking of
the wrong ancestor, they tried to settle on Crete, but a plague drove them back to sea. As they sailed on,
encountering monsters and old friends, the prophecy was clarified—their new home would be in Italy.
Unfortunately, Aeneas's father, Anchises, died before they reached it. Aeneas buried him in Sicily, and the
Trojans set sail again, this time getting waylaid by Juno's storm.

A Tragic Love Affair Ends as New Adventures Begin

Dido is impressed by Aeneas and his feats, and succumbs to her feelings for him. Hoping it will keep Aeneas
out of Italy and prevent his fate, Juno maneuvers Dido into having sex with Aeneas. However, it is not an
official marriage, and the winged monster Rumor flies to tell people in other towns about their union. Noticing
Aeneas is getting too comfortable, Jupiter sends his messenger Mercury to remind Aeneas of his fate and duty.
Dido is terribly distraught to learn he is leaving and foresees her death. Aeneas is regretful, but nothing can
delay him or change his mind. Dido climbs on her funeral pyre, where her dead body will burn, and fatally stabs
herself with his sword as he sails away.
Fighting unfavorable winds, the Trojan fleet stops again in Sicily, just in time to celebrate the first anniversary
of Anchises's death. Aeneas and his people make sacrifices and feast before the games of speed and skill.
Trojans and Sicilians distinguish themselves, while others are embarrassed. Aeneas richly rewards both winners
and other notable competitors. Meanwhile, Juno incites the women in the fleet, who are tired of traveling, to
burn the ships. Jupiter puts the fires out before the ships are destroyed, but it shakes Aeneas's confidence. The
ghost of his father appears, telling him to sail to Italy and visit him in the underworld.

Aeneas's first stop in Italy is Cumae, where the Sibyl delivers prophesies to Aeneas and where the door to the
underworld lies. The Sibyl foretells a terrible war before Aeneas can make his home in Italy. She directs Aeneas
to the golden bough he must find to enter the underworld and then guides him into its depths. They cross the
river Acheron and the marshes of the Styx, where the ferryman Charon waits for the dead, meeting many spirits.
Aeneas sees Dido and tries to apologize, but she refuses to speak to him. He finds his father in the Elysian
Fields, and Anchises shows him many of his Roman descendants who will build the Roman Empire. They
include Romulus, Julius Caesar, and Augustus Caesar.

The Trojans finally find the Tiber River, where they are meant to settle. Aeneas sends an envoy to make peace
with the king of Latium. Following a prophecy, King Latinus offers his daughter, Lavinia, in marriage. But
before the deal can be made, Juno sends the Fury of Rage to turn both Latinus's queen and Turnus, king of a
neighboring city and one of Lavinia's suitors, against Aeneas. Between the three of them, they rouse Italy to war
with the Trojans.

More Warfare
Turnus gathers allies, and Aeneas needs to find allies of his own to fight with him. The god of the Tiber River
tells Aeneas to go up the river to Pallanteum, which often fights against Latium. There, King Evander tells
Aeneas of another potential ally, the Etruscans. They have overthrown their cruel king and are gathered to
attack Turnus, with whom the former king has taken refuge. However, a prophecy says their leader cannot be
from Italy. Evander sends horsemen and his son, Pallas, with Aeneas to meet the Etruscans. Wanting to ensure
the safety of her son in battle, Venus asks her husband, Vulcan, the god of fire, to make Aeneas weapons and
armor. He creates a great shield that shows the future glory of Rome.

Turnus's army attacks the Trojans left behind when Aeneas went to Pallanteum, a group that includes Aeneas's
son, Ascanius. They retreat safely within their fort, so Turnus instead tries to burn their ships. However, Jupiter
turns them into sea nymphs, and they swim away. The Trojan comrades Nisus and Euryalus make a daring
attempt to get through the enemy camp surrounding them and summon Aeneas back, but a lust for plunder
betrays them to their tragic death. When Turnus attacks the fort itself, a few of the Trojans open the gates to
better fight the enemy. The gates are closed again, but Turnus is already inside. He kills many Trojans before he
is driven out.

Aeneas sails back with the Etruscan fleet, and a great battle begins. Aeneas and Turnus are effectively
invincible against anyone except each other. Pallas, commanding the cavalry from Pallanteum, fights bravely
and catches Turnus's attention. Pallas attacks first, but Turnus's attack is deadlier, and Pallas dies with a spear in
his chest. Fatefully, Turnus takes Pallas's sword belt to wear as a trophy. Aeneas, enraged by news of Pallas's
death, finally frees the Trojan fort. Fearing Aeneas's strength, Juno whisks Turnus away from the battlefield.
The cruel Etruscan king Mezentius is still fighting, though. Aeneas wounds him with a spear throw, but his son,
Lausus, protects him so he can get away. Unfortunately, that costs the noble Lausus his life. Mezentius returns
to avenge him and is also killed by Aeneas.

Aeneas sends Pallas's body home with a great procession. When an envoy from Latium arrives, he suggests he
and Turnus fight in single combat to decide the war. In Latium, King Latinus and Turnus learn they won't be
joined by a powerful ally, and Turnus reluctantly agrees to single combat. However, before it can be arranged,
part of Aeneas's army approaches the city. While Turnus unsuccessfully tries to trap Aeneas and the other half
of his army, the warrior princess Camilla defends the city. Camilla is as deadly as Turnus or Aeneas, but she
gets distracted, allowing an Etruscan soldier to get a spear through her defenses. Camilla's patron goddess Diana
ensures that vengeance is taken on her killer, but the defense of Latium is broken.

Settling Things One-on-One, with the Gods' Help

Turnus agrees to single combat with Aeneas. Latinus asks him to consider another bride, but Turnus is
fatalistically determined to win Lavinia or die. On the morning of the duel, Juno convinces Turnus's sister,
Juturna, to save her brother by provoking the armies to fight again. When Aeneas tries to stop the escalating
hostilities, he is struck by an arrow, but Venus helps heal him. Juturna disguises herself as Turnus's charioteer
and keeps her brother away from Aeneas. When Aeneas attacks the city, Turnus finally returns for the duel.
Turnus is no match for Aeneas assisted by the gods. Wounded and humbled, he asks for mercy. Aeneas is about
to grant it when he sees Turnus is wearing Pallas's sword belt. In a blaze of fury, Aeneas stabs Turnus through
the heart.

Introduction

1Trojan ships are driven by a storm to Carthage.

Rising Action

2Aeneas tells Dido of their journey from Troy.

3Aeneas leaves Dido to follow his fate; she kills herself.
4Aeneas celebrates the anniversary of Anchises's death.
5Aeneas and the Sibyl visit Anchises in the Underworld.
6Trojans find their fated destination and begin to build.
7Juno drives Queen Amata and Turnus to start a war.
8Turnus traps the Trojans, but Aeneas arrives with allies.
Climax

9Turnus kills the prince Pallas, igniting Aeneas's rage.

Falling Action

10The girl-warrior Camilla fights bravely and dies in battle.

11After another battle, Aeneas duels Turnus in single combat.
Resolution
12Aeneas kills Turnus in combat, becoming ruler of Latium.

SYMBOLS

Virgil uses symbolism to evoke a range of mythological, historical, and emotional associations in The Aeneid.

Fire
Fire is an uncontrollable force in the poem, symbolizing both destruction and inspiration. It physically destroys
Troy and damages the Trojan ships in Sicily, and it is figuratively used to describe the fury of battle that
obscures even Aeneas's rational thinking and mercy. Dido is driven to suicide by her love for Aeneas.
Pallanteum's grief over Pallas's death is also symbolized by fire.
On the positive side, fire is a symbol of destiny and inspiration. The flame of passion the
goddess Venus inspires in her husband, Vulcan, figuratively and physically results in the creation of the shield
and weapons she gives to Aeneas. Fire appears on both Ascanius's and Lavinia's heads as a sign of their
destinies. The sight of Aeneas's great descendants waiting in the Underworld "fired his soul with a love of glory
still to come."

Golden Bough
The golden bough is a symbol of Aeneas's extraordinary and inevitable fate. To enter the Underworld, he must
find and pluck the bough, and he will only be able to do so if Fate allows it. Like his fate, his access to the
bough has already been determined. The golden bough grants him access to the world of the dead that is usually
forbidden to those not dead, making him one of only a few extraordinary people who have entered it while still
living.

Shield of Aeneas
The great shield that the fire god Vulcan makes for Aeneas is engraved with images of Roman history, which
have not happened yet in the epic's time frame. Because these events have happened in Virgil's time, they are
inevitable as Aeneas's future. The shield functions as a symbol of the destiny of Rome and Aeneas's fate. It also
ensures Aeneas's inevitable fate by protecting him in battle. Other people's shields, including Pallas's
and Turnus's, fail, allowing them to be injured or killed, but Aeneas's shield protects him without taking
damage.

Gates of War
The Gates of War were the entrances to the temple of Janus (god of doorways) in Rome. They were
symbolically opened during wartime and closed in times of peace. In Book 7 Virgil places an early version of
the Gates of War in Latium. King Latinus, waffling between Queen Amata, Turnus, and the people who are
clamoring for war and his pledge of peace to Aeneas, hesitates to open the Gates of War and start the conflict.
When Juno takes the decision out of his hands and flings open the gates, "all Italy blazed." Jupiter predicts
in Book 1 that the Gates of War are destined to be bolted shut, symbolizing the long and peaceful rule that
Virgil envisions for Caesar Augustus and successors.

THEMES

The most obvious purpose of The Aeneid is to glorify the history of Rome and its new leader, Caesar Augustus.
This effort was most likely encouraged by Augustus's close adviser Maecenas. Virgil also laid out his own
purposes: making a case for peace by highlighting the dangers and costs of war and demonstrating the traits of
an ideal Roman.

Inevitability of Fate
A person's destiny is determined by the Fates, three goddesses who spin the thread of life, measure it, and cut it,
thus determining the quality and length of a person's life. Once set, even the gods cannot change Fate. Aeneas's
inevitable fate is to found a new city in Italy that builds the groundwork for the city of Rome and the Roman
Empire. This theme primarily glorifies Rome, but Virgil obviously also hopes for the inevitable fate of the
Roman Empire to be a long and peaceful future.
Some characters try to alter the course of Aeneas's fate. The goddess Juno is set against him from the very
beginning, and she repeatedly uses her divine powers to cause trouble for him. However, she only manages to
lengthen and twist Aeneas's path to his fate, not block it. Turnus is Juno's primary agent for interfering with
Aeneas's fate in Italy, imposing a costly war on him just when it looks like he will fulfill his fate in Italy by the
peaceful means of marriage.
Other characters support Aeneas's fate, most notably his mother, the goddess Venus who, naturally, as the
goddess of love, believes his protection lies in that attribute, even though his fate is made more difficult by his
attachment to Dido. Other gods also keep Aeneas's fate on track, clarifying his destiny and countering Juno's
mischief. The sea god Neptune rescues the Trojan ships in Book 1, and Apollo repeatedly sends Aeneas
prophecies telling him where he should be heading. Jupiter, king of the gods, is responsible for executing the
Fates' decree. Although he tempers that responsibility with sympathy for Juno, who is also his wife, he does
finally rein her in and allow Fate to take its course. Of course, Aeneas's fate is supported by his family and
fellow Trojans. His father, Anchises, in particular plays a large role in exploring and explaining the specifics of
his fate.

Destiny of Rome
Aeneas's fate is inextricably linked with the destiny of Rome. By placing the legendary hero Aeneas into a
historical framework, Virgil uses his heroic qualities to explain the historical rise of Rome up to his time and to
predict the continued greatness of the Roman Empire into the future. Although the poem is set generations
before the founding of Rome, many details reference events from Roman history through Virgil's time. The
images on Aeneas's shield and the parade of Romans waiting in the Underworld to be reborn are the most
obvious examples, but there are also many less explicit references that would have resonated with Roman
readers.
Aeneas's character illustrates the qualities Virgil believed were needed for Rome to achieve a peaceful destiny.
When not consumed by battle fury, he is just and merciful and never starts a fight. The contrast between
Aeneas's actions in and out of battle is a subtle condemnation of the endless quest for glory through battle,
which not only had become a defining characteristic of Rome and its leaders, but also led to civil war.

Honor and Respect

Aeneas is repeatedly called pious (pius Aeneas appears numerous times in the Latin text), a concept that
encompassed much more than paying respect to the gods in Roman culture. Piety (pietas) also includes
honoring and being mindful of one's duties to family and country. Aeneas is a nearly ideal example of pietas.
He takes great care to preserve his family, especially his father and son. In the destruction of Troy, he carries his
disabled father on his back and holds his son's hand. His father, Anchises, is his most respected adviser. Aeneas
also preserves the household gods of Troy, carrying the spirits of his old home to his fated new home in Italy.
And of course Aeneas honors the gods with offerings and sacrifices. With the exception of Juno, whom he is
unable to appease, the gods reward his reverence by answering his prayers.
However, Aeneas's great piety can be overcome, at least temporarily, by passion and anger. His love
for Dido threatens to disrupt his fate until Jupiter reminds him of his duty to family. At the end of the poem, his
rage over Pallas's death prompts him to kill Turnus rather than show him mercy, ignoring his father's directive
to spare the defeated. Virgil seems to be warning readers about the dangers of war and acting in anger and
vengeance, a lesson for both Rome, which has been ravaged by civil war, and for all those who would make
war. With these human flaws, Aeneas represents an ideal test of the heroic man's resolve to remain true to his
own destiny.

Will of the Gods

Most of the conflict in The Aeneid is caused by the changing will of the gods. Far from being infallible, the gods
of Rome (like their Greek counterparts) act more like squabbling children than higher beings. In this
frame Virgil seems to invite the reader to question whether or not the gods merit the respect they demand of
human beings, a consideration that would not have been alien to philosophical considerations of Romans at the
time. Unfortunately, the gods also have a lot of power, so they cause great trouble. They are just as biased as
mortal characters in the epic and give little thought to the people who are caught in the crossfire. Juno, queen of
the gods, is Aeneas's main antagonist, always trying to prevent the fulfillment of his fate, whereas Aeneas's
goddess mother, Venus, is his main supporter. Both intervene to influence Dido, and their meddling ultimately
causes her suicide. Juno starts the war in Italy by enraging Turnus and Queen Amata, forcing Aeneas into a
fight he does not want.
As powerful as the gods are, they cannot change Fate. Juno succeeds in making Aeneas's path to his new home
in Italy more difficult, but in the end, even she must let Fate take its course. Other gods and mythical figures
support each side of the conflict, serving to balance the divine influences and ensure Aeneas's fate. Jupiter, king
of the gods, mediates between the arguing goddesses and has the final responsibility to fulfill the Fates' decree.
As the gods cannot change Aeneas's fate, they also cannot change Rome's great fate.

Activity: AENEID
DIAGRAM
Instructions: Make a diagram of the elements found in the epic poem “Aeneid”. Use the space provided below.
(50 pts.)
 A
WORKTEXT
ON