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Examining the Relationship Between Role Models

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Leadership Growth
During the Transition to
Adulthood
Jill R. Bowers1, David M. Rosch1,

and Daniel A. Collier1
Abstract
Leadership and developmental scholars have highlighted the need to enhance
youth leadership skills. Yet, research that explains youths’ perceptions of
how and when role models influences their leadership growth processes
is limited. To address these gaps and begin to develop an understanding of
youths’ perspectives, we employed a qualitative, grounded theory design
and interviewed emerging adults (N = 23) about their perceptions of their
own leadership development. Our analysis resulted in a role model–driven
framework for youth leadership development. This framework illustrates
participants’ descriptions of the leadership growth process between
adolescence and emerging adulthood, including the ways in which youths’
motivation to lead was facilitated by the qualities of relational role models,
their knowledge of opportunities, the relational role models’ beliefs in youths
potential, and the fact that they were inspired by positional role models.
Keywords
leadership development, role models, mentors, adolescents, emerging
adults, leadership growth
1University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, USA
Corresponding Author:
Jill R. Bowers, Department of Human and Community Development, University of Illinois at
Urbana–Champaign, 2029 Christopher Hall, MC-080, 904 W. Nevada, Urbana, IL 61801, USA.
Email: bowers5@illinois.edu
Downloaded from jar.sagepub.com at UNIV OF ILLINOIS URBANA on May 27, 2015

2 Journal of Adolescent Research
Adolescents and emerging adults are the future leaders of our communities
and organizations, and longstanding concerns about the availability and effi-
cacy of good leadership among youth and adults in the United States have
continued seemingly unabated (Ashford & DeRue, 2012; Rosenthal, 2012;
Schwab, 2007). Adults have criticized contemporary youth (adolescents and
emerging adults) for lacking leadership qualities, or those that facilitate aca-
demic or occupational successes (e.g., by exhibiting poor interpersonal skills,
such as selfishness, or professional work ethic, such as laziness; Arnett,
2007). At the same time, scholars have, paradoxically, highlighted the critical
role of adult role models in youths’ leadership development (Astin, 1993;
Campbell, Smith, Dugan, & Komives, 2012; Dugan & Komives, 2007;
McNeill, 2010). In this study, we define role models as adults, or more expe-
rienced peers, who empower youth to develop as leaders by exhibiting cer-
tain qualities, behaviors, or successes. It is possible that how they have been
mentored, who their role models are, and the characteristics of the role mod-
els contribute to youths’ leadership deficiencies as highlighted by adults.
Research that helps us to understand the process by which role models influ-
ence leadership development among youth is limited. Furthermore, the vast
majority of the leadership literature focuses on adults’ perspectives. Less is
known about youths’ perspectives of the leadership growth process when, in
fact, youths’ voices may provide considerable insight into the ways in which
adults can define, teach, and mentor youth to grow as outstanding leaders in
their field. To address these gaps, we interviewed emerging adults about their
perceptions of their own leadership development between adolescence (i.e.,
experiences in high school) and emerging adulthood (i.e., experiences in col-
lege) and how their role models aided their development. The purpose of this
article was to gain a better understanding of how emerging adults describe
their own leadership growth and the processes by which role models facilitate
or constrain their leadership development.
Leadership Defined
Contemporary society calls almost all individuals to take on the responsibili-
ties of leadership in some context (Northouse, 2009), yet it has been argued
that “there are almost as many different definitions of leadership as there are
persons who have attempted to define it” (Bass, 1990, p. 11). Many observers
admit that they cannot clearly articulate a definition of leadership, but none-
theless know it when they see it (Rosch & Kuzel, 2010).
Social structures and work practices have shifted their focus from the
industrial paradigm of leadership that emphasizes hierarchy and control to a
more relationship-oriented focus that emphasizes trust, networks, and ethics

Bowers et al. 3
(Kezar, Carducci, & Contreras-McGavin, 2006; Komives, Lucas, &

McMahon, 2007; Rost, 1993). Furthermore, popular models have focused on
the emotional competencies required for creating effective relationships
(Goleman, Boyatzis, & McKee, 2002), described how leaders work with
groups to create adaptive change in organizations and society (Heifetz,
Grashow, & Linksy, 2009), and emphasized leader authenticity and integrity
(Avolio & Gardner, 2005). Still, there are some arguments about whether
leadership is a trait (Kirkpatrick & Locke, 1991; Stogdill, 1974), a skill
(Mumford, Marks, Connelly, Zaccaro, & Reiter-Palmon, 2000), a behavior
(McGregor, 1960), or the development of an influence-based relationship
(Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995). Nonetheless, relationships seem to be a common
denominator across the current leadership literature regardless of how schol-
ars are conceptualizing leadership.
Even when not clearly defined, many of the outcomes in the leadership
literature parallel the goals of educational systems (i.e., high school and col-
lege), such that outcomes often surround academic performance, occupa-
tional attainment, or success in adult roles. For example, research has shown
that the development of leadership and team-oriented competencies can help
adolescents and emerging adults to succeed in their communities and profes-
sional work settings after graduation (Astin & Astin, 2000). In addition,
employers wish universities spent more time educating their students on
issues of problem-solving, relationship development, communication skills
for teams, and ethical behavior (National Association of Colleges and
Employers, 2013). Based on the links between leadership traits, skills, behav-
iors, and outcomes related to community engagement and gainful employ-
ment in adulthood, we operationalized leadership when interviewing the
study participants as the skills, behaviors, or qualities that foster relationships
and achievements for individuals in positions of influence in community and
or occupational roles.
Youth as Primary Targets for Leadership Training

Individuals in late adolescence (approximately 17-18 years old) and emerg-
ing adulthood (18-25 years old) are often the target population for leadership
training programs as they are at pivotal points for establishing their own
community engagement and occupational trajectories. Concurrently,
research has shown rising rates of unemployment among this age group
(Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2010) and lower retention rates among first-
time college students (United States Department of Education, 2010). In
addition, some adults critique adolescents and emerging adults for appearing
selfish, lazy, unambitious, and entitled (Arnett, 2007; Sacred Heart

University, 2006), although these are some of the personal and professional
skills that are least valued in educational and occupational settings. As the
professional environment increasingly calls for adults who can practice
influence from any position within an organization and build trusting and
interdependent relationships with diverse others (Seidman, 2007), navigat-
ing the transition to adulthood from this perspective of leadership develop-
ment is paramount.
Role Models
In apparent response to the need for leadership education, leadership edu-
cation efforts at colleges and universities have doubled, with more than
1,000 colleges and universities offering leadership education in some
form (Riggio et al., 2003), yet leadership is not always explicitly taught.
Some research has shown that leadership behaviors are more commonly
learned by observing and listening to others (Avolio, Reichard, Hannah,
Walumbwa, & Chan, 2009). Yet, such growth is often dependent on how
individuals engage with learning opportunities within their environment
over time.
Some leadership scholars assert that individuals develop as leaders when
they are in empowering environments, where adults and more experienced
leaders allow space for youth to mature and practice new skills (Komives,
Longerbeam, Owen, Mainella, & Osteen, 2006). Leadership role models,
therefore, are individuals in youths’ environments who might provide guid-
ance and mentoring to adolescents and emerging adults in the leadership
growth process and or facilitate an empowering environment. Researchers
have found significant predictive relationships between university students’
leadership capacity and their ability to engage in a mentorship process with
professionals on their campus (Campbell et al., 2012). In fact, two types of
role modeling in relation to mentorship that have been central in the leader-
ship literature include psychosocial (instilling a sense of competence, foster-
ing a healthy identity development, or providing guidance toward achievement
in some capacity) and career (e.g., vocational coaching or job skills; Daloz,
1999; Kram, 1985). At the same time, less is known about the qualities of role
models that facilitate leadership development or the processes by which the
relationship with the role model facilitates leadership development between
adolescence and emerging adulthood. Some research has shown that defi-
ciencies in mentor relational skills play a role in the demise of the youth-role
model relationship (Spencer, 2007). At the same time, more research is
needed that examines role model characteristics in relation to youths’ leader-
ship pathways.

Bowers et al. 5
Goals of the Present Study

The purpose of this study was to gain a better understanding of how and when
relationships between youth and their role models influence the ways in
which they grow as leaders between adolescence and emerging adulthood.
We chose emerging adults who were in leadership positions as our target
sample because emerging adults who were in positions to lead could speak on
their experiences as adolescents and discuss their leadership growth and the
conditions that facilitated it between adolescence and emerging adulthood.
To address the gaps in the literature, we employed qualitative, grounded the-
ory research to address the following questions:
Research Question 1: What are youths’ perceptions of the processes by

which role models influence leadership development between adoles-
cence and emerging adulthood?
Research Question 2: What are the conditions that facilitate the leader-
ship growth process?
Method
To address these questions, data were collected through qualitative research,
and the overall aim was to contribute to a comprehensive, grounded theory
about role models, youth, and leadership development. The present research
design was based on the work of Strauss and Corbin (1990), who have
asserted that theory evolves from the data, research questions largely focus
on process, and the research design becomes more focused throughout the
data collection process. Grounded theorists believe that coding involves the
proposition of categories and the various links between them, and a valida-
tion of the information through constant comparisons, thus “moving between
inductive and deductive thinking” (Strauss & Corbin, 1990, p. 111). Through
this process, researchers highlight concepts and group them into common
categories and subcategories, or properties of the categories. Each of these
stages of analysis are described in detail in this section.
Data Collection and Analysis

Data were collected from a diverse sample of emerging adults who were
enrolled at a large, research-intensive university in the Midwestern United
States. We chose to interview emerging adults who were in college, so they
could speak about leadership growth experiences during adolescence and the
years in college that followed. Participants were involved by participating in

interviews (n = 23) and completing member checks (n = 11) where they

reviewed a four-paragraph summary of the results. Initial, open coding began
immediately after the first interviews. Following Strauss and Corbin’s (1990)
grounded theory model, we used axial coding and selective coding to analyze
each category further. Saturation occurred when we were confident that more
interviews or information from the participants would not provide additional
insights into the results of this study. This study involved simultaneous data
collection and analysis.
Participant recruitment. Participants were matriculated students who were

initially recruited through academic courses or student organizations that
included a spread of emerging adults across all undergraduate class stand-
ings (freshman through senior). Many youth do not even recognize their
own potential to employ leadership behaviors (Shertzer & Schuh, 2004). As
such, to explore the processes by which youth come to view certain adults
as role models who have influenced their leadership development between
adolescence and emerging adulthood, we employed purposeful sampling
and interviewed emerging adults who had been in positions to lead in col-
lege; purposeful sampling is a way to ensure information-rich cases are
included in the data (Patton, 2002). We intentionally chose to include stu-
dents who were actively involved in student organizations because we
wanted to explore the leadership growth process among emerging adults
who could recognize and articulate their leadership growth, potential,
behaviors, and the influence of role models. By selecting students who
were in positions to lead, we knew we could discuss these experiences in
the interviews if students struggled to recognize their own leadership devel-
opment. Purposeful, theoretical sampling is important to the grounded the-
ory process as grounded theory scholars believe that theoretical sampling
and the iterative process involved is important in developing a meaningful
understanding of all of the facets related to a category or concept (Glaser &
Strauss, 1967). We conducted interviews with all students who were
actively involved in student organizations and volunteered to participate.
Initial interviews with students from other countries or rural areas indicated
the potential for individual differences, so we purposefully recruited four
more students who were either from rural areas or who were international
students.
Incentives. Participants in this study were offered a $5 gift card to a food

establishment of their choice if they participated in initial interviews. Those
who completed member checks (n = 11) were presented with a $10 gift cer-
tificate to Amazon.

Bowers et al. 7
Data management. All interviews were audio-taped and transcribed by a tran-

scription company. The third author cross-checked the transcriptions and
assigned each participant a pseudonym (that they chose); these pseudonyms
were used in transcripts, memos, and written reports. All other identifying
information was removed. All transcriptions were uploaded into NVivo, a
software tool for managing qualitative data.
Sample Description
The college students (N = 23) who initially agreed to participate in initial
interviews included freshman (n = 3), sophomores (n = 6), juniors (n = 9),
and seniors (n = 5) from a variety of disciplines (i.e., biology; economics;
engineering; business; psychology; food science; health; Lesbian, Gay,
Bisexual, and Transgender [LGBT]/queer studies; secondary education; and
environmental sustainability). The study not only consisted of young women
(n = 11) and men (n = 12) who were largely U.S. citizens (n = 18) but also
included 5 who identified as international students from India (n = 4) or
China (n = 1). Of those who were U.S. citizens, the majority not only identi-
fied as White or Caucasian (n = 13) but also included students who identified
as Asian American (n = 4) and African American (n = 1).
Stages of analysis. The 60- to 120-minute interviews were appropriate for the
grounded theory methodology proposed here as they allow for rich insight,
discovery, and flexibility at the same time. In general, it is recommended that
20 to 30 participants are required for interviews in a grounded theory study
(Creswell, 2005; Onwuegbuzie & Leech, 2007), although the sample in this
study relied on theoretical saturation.
Questions that we asked participants focused on how they had developed
as leaders since high school (e.g., Describe the role that others have had in
your own leadership growth since high school), their motivation to lead (e.g.,
How are you motivated to lead compared with your friends or others you
know?), and the qualities of good or bad leaders that influenced them (e.g.,
Identify someone who you believe is a good leader; describe how you know
them and why you believe that individual is a good leader). Initial, open cod-
ing began immediately after the initial interviews. In addition, the interviewer
wrote memos after each interview that included observations, potential bias,
and ideas about the interview and interviewee.
Data collection, memo writing, and coding occurred simultaneously. The
first and third authors were involved in the flexible open coding that occurred
during initial analysis of interviews. The second author provided feedback
and assisted coders with coming to agreements on categories and definitions

when there were discrepancies. Then, the categories that emerged and their
definitions allowed for axial coding, which began after we had completed 10
interviews. Axial coding is a detailed form of coding, which allows research-
ers to analyze phenomena that arise from open coding and provide a concep-
tual explanation for some process surrounding the phenomena; with axial
coding, “the grounded theorist selects one open coding category, positions it
at the center of the process being explored (as the core phenomenon, and then
relates other categories to it” (Creswell, 2005, p. 298). Following Strauss and
Corbin’s (1990) model, we used axial coding to link multiple categories and
subcategories that were identified during open coding, labeling possible
causal conditions (events that lead to the development of the phenomenon),
context (set of properties that pertain to the phenomenon), intervening condi-
tions (condition that facilitate or constrain action strategies), action/interac-
tion strategies (devised to respond to a phenomenon), and consequences
(outcomes) that surrounded each phenomenon. The axial coding stage is
where the researcher begins to analyze the process, discovering a paradigm
model. In this study, we identified links between emerging adults’ back-
grounds, experiences with role models, and how they grew (or did not grow)
as leaders. For an example of our initial categories, see Table 1.
Then, we continued open and axial coding, but also began selective cod-
ing, including more details and validating or discounting cases. For example,
participants described positive qualities and negative qualities of adults with
whom they had interacted. Initially, we had subcategories for a variety of
positive or negative role model qualities. However, as our analysis became
more refined, we did not consider an observation of one negative or positive
action by an adult as characteristic of a role model; rather, we focused on
participants’ definitions of role models and their explanations as to why or
why not they considered these adults to be their role models along with the
nature of the relationship itself. Finally, we conducted formal member checks,
at which time participants who responded to the third authors’ emails (n = 11)
clicked on the link to review a four-paragraph summary of our analysis.
Researchers believe that the quality of the data improves through the member
checking process; even if participants disagree with the initial report of
research findings, this process helps the researchers to understand partici-
pants’ perspectives (Taylor & Bogdan, 1998).
Results
Our central research questions were designed for us to gain a better under-
standing of the processes by which role models influence youths’ leadership
development, specifically youths’ perceptions of the process between

Bowers et al. 9
Table 1. Example of an Initial Axial Coding Table During Coding for this Study.
Term Examples
Causal conditions Youths’ role models define success and leadership
and the opportunities that will help emerging adults to
achieve success and leadership.
Phenomenon Youth are influenced by relational and or
positional role models.
Context The number of role models emerging adults are
influenced by; opportunities for involvement;
number of people they are competing with; college
status (e.g., freshman, sophomore, junior, senior),
knowledge, and experience of role models—
What their role models know (or knowledge of role
models) and the experiences of their role models, who
their role models are and what they stand for?
Intervening conditions Role models define leadership and success, and they
display good or bad interpersonal skills, character
traits, work ethic, risk-taking behaviors, control,
or ethics, and youth find them credible or not
based on these characteristics.
Action/interaction Youth are motivated by role models they
believe are credible and/or they experience
barriers because of their role models’ actions,
characteristics, interpersonal skills, work ethic,
risk-taking behaviors, control, or ethics.
Consequences Youth grow as leaders; those who had leaders who
inspired them with good characteristics experience
the most positive changes in thoughts and actions
related to leadership or gain confidence in their own
leadership skills and recognize leadership as a process;
those who experienced the most barriers with role
models were not motivated to change or did not
understand how.
adolescence and emerging adulthood. Furthermore, we wanted to explore the

conditions that facilitated the leadership growth process. We include partici-
pants’ quotes from the interviews and member checks in this section to pro-
vide examples of how the categories and subcategories were derived through
the analysis. We conclude with a section on the data derived from the member
checks. We begin with the description of a conceptual model that emerged
from the data and depicts youths’ perceptions of the ways in which role mod-
els influenced their leadership development between adolescence and
emerging adulthood.

Figure 1. A role model–driven framework for youth leadership development.
A Role Model–Driven Framework for Youth Leadership

Development
The data revealed that their role models influenced how participants defined
leadership and success, their knowledge of growth opportunities, their indi-
vidual awareness of their potential to become leaders, how they are inspired
to become leaders, their pursuit of opportunities, and their levels of involve-
ment. The analysis provided insight into the ways in which relational role
models (i.e., parents, friends, family, high school teachers, coaches, profes-
sors, or other mentors with which they have a personal relationship) provided
the foundation for their leadership development by displaying good leader-
ship qualities. As the relational role models displayed good leadership quali-
ties, youth were motivated to develop as leaders. The relational role models
helped youth by providing them with knowledge of opportunities for leader-
ship development, as well as a belief in their own potential as leaders. As
participants became knowledgeable and believed in their own potential, they
got involved in leadership roles and were often inspired by positional role
models (i.e., college professors; institutional, organizational, community, and
world leaders that they learn from but with whom they do not have a relation-
ship). See Figure 1 for a graphic representation of the nature of participants’
leadership growth.
According to participants, they trusted, respected, learned, and listened
most to role models who displayed professional work ethic (e.g., initiative,
drive, persistence), good interpersonal skills (e.g., communicating with con-
fidence, listening), and positive character traits (e.g., respectful, responsible,

Bowers et al. 11
positive attitude, tolerant). Although some participants viewed role models’

“weaknesses as a learning opportunity” (Britney), many acknowledged get-
ting frustrated and discouraged by role models who did not exhibit qualities
that youth perceive to be those representative of good leadership. Ben said
that he and others his age often “struggle with role models who lack certain
characteristics [because] we want someone who can influence us to be better
than who we already are.” Thus, the personal qualities that the role model
employs are critical to the influence the role model had on youths’ leadership
growth. These qualities are, in essence, what makes role models credible and
trustworthy leaders through the eyes of youth. Eve summarized the words of
others when she stated, “if role models want successful young adults, they
must realize their success is a reflection of their guidance.”
Professional work ethic. Professional work ethic was the most commonly
coded subcategory within relational role models’ qualities. Many partici-
pants’ echoed Ingrid who stated, “Nobody will be inspired by someone who
has no work ethic or professional skills, so I don’t think these types of people
will be role models in the first place.” Hana said,
Anyone can be complacent, not showing any initiative, working hard, etc. . . .
no one admires this because it’s often in the natural state. However, when we
see what can be accomplished with good work ethic, [ . . . ] people want to
work equally hard.
Many participants viewed hard work and initiative as minimal require-

ments of a good leader. Participants said, “as a leader you have to take on
. . . you’re willing to take on more responsibilities” (Allison), “show more
involvement” (Britney), “take initiative” (Cassie), and “take on more than the
rest, have your workload be a little bit more” (Peter).
Interpersonal skills. Participants in this study also discussed interpersonal

skills when asked to think about someone they know and what makes them a
good leader. For example, Cassie stated that individuals trust leaders who are
empathetic, such as those who are able to problem solve, as well as “read a
group and know how they work” and listen to their ideas. She emphasized the
importance of knowing your audience and being able to adapt. Similarly, Abe
said that “being charismatic . . . and working well with people” in addition
to “being empathetic and seeing [things] through your subordinates eyes” is
important. Listening skills played a key role for participants. For example,
Peter stated that one of his role models was “always trying to listen to people,
not just say what’s on his mind. He’ll listen first, absorb what they’re trying

to say, and then say something back.” Displaying good interpersonal skills
was a quality that youth valued in their role models and others whom they
viewed as leaders.
Positive character traits. There were several character traits that participants
discussed as important to the influence of the relational role model or the for-
mation of the relationship between youth and role models with whom they
did not already have a relationship. For example, good leaders “have posi-
tive personalities” (Gail), “have respect for us” (Ben), “consider themselves
equal to the people they’re leading, but just have to take more responsibility”
(Cassie), and “cover everyone equally” (Ben). Some of the character traits
were mentioned because they were motivated by a role model who displayed
such traits. For example, Gail was inspired by a high school teacher who
influenced her students to do their best. She said that this teacher was confi-
dent and listened, but she was also positive and respectful to all people and
subsequently, people turned to her when they had a problem. Youth may fear
rejection and thus, a role model with a positive attitude may help increase
comfort and confidence when deciding to approach them. Ingrid said, “It is
important to have a mentor who you can go to for help when you are feeling
discouraged, and that person should be someone who has a positive attitude
and will help you get back on track.”
Eve said,
if students receive positive feedback from someone they trust, they’ll thrive.
And if you work very hard with a role model, but they’re negative or don’t
acknowledge your work, you feel very dejected and are probably less likely to
perform at your full aptitude from that point forward.
Again, many participants also respected mentors who lead by example. If

their role models, for example, considered it a sign of disrespect to be late for
a class, they expected the teacher or professor to give them the same respect.
For example, Ben said that if a class started at 8:30 and the professor expects
everyone to be there by 8:30 (if not before), then, he or she should not come
walking in at 8:35.
Such focus on respect was evident in each discussion with participants
who mentioned this as an important leadership quality. Sometimes, respect
was earned by giving it and other times, participants discussed the respect
they had for role models who displayed other positive character traits, such as
positivity and tolerance.
The foundations that the relational role models provided for participants’
leadership development were often indirect, such that they did not say, “here’s

Bowers et al. 13
how to be a leader.” Instead, they modeled traits that led youth to incorporate
learned values and behaviors. For example, Hana said, “While they [my par-
ents] did not directly inspire me to be a leader, they did teach me to behave
positively and to work hard.”
Relational role models influence youth’s motivation for leadership development. As

the role model displayed good leadership qualities, role models with whom
youth had a relationship influenced youths’ motivation for leadership devel-
opment. The data revealed the significance of a personal relationship between
youth and their role models in helping youth to define leadership and boost-
ing their desire for leadership development. For example, Ingrid said, “I don’t
personally learn well from people who I am not closely connected to . . .
mentors who I have close relationships with have shaped me and influenced
my motivation and goals.” Many other participants in this study echoed Brit-
ney’s comments. She stated,
I would not have grown as a leader if I wasn’t encouraged by my own teachers,

friends’ parents, and my own parents. Their belief in me as a leader also helped
them provide me with more opportunities to develop as a leader.
Because some youth talked about their parents or family members as most
influential on their leadership growth process and others discussed the quali-
ties that influenced the relationship between youth and their leadership role
models, we believe that it may be the combination of the youths’ perspectives
of leadership qualities displayed by the role model and the relationship itself
that supported the leadership development process for the youth in this study.
Nonetheless, the relational aspect appeared to be a critical component of the
leadership growth process. Thus, we believed that it was important to distin-
guish these roles models from those with whom youth did not have a relation-
ship. As such, we defined relational role models as parents, friends, family,
high school teachers, coaches, professors, or other mentors with whom they
had a personal relationship.
According to participants in this study, relational role models provided the
foundation for their leadership abilities. For example, Jake talked about his
dad and said, “my father was by far the biggest influence on my leadership
development.” Others, such as Britney, Abe, and Cassie described high
school teachers or coaches as role models who played an essential role on
their leadership development. Some participants mentioned relational role
models they had had in college (e.g., professors or those who were officers of
a student organization in which they were involved). For example, Curt dis-
cussed being influenced by a friend, who had more leadership experience as

the leadership chair for a university service fraternity for which he was
involved. The relationship with the role model(s) facilitated youths’ knowl-
edge of leadership qualities, opportunities, and their belief in their own abili-
ties to follow suit.
Knowledge is gained of opportunities and belief in their own potential. For partici-
pants to learn about opportunities and believe in their own potential as lead-
ers, they had at least one (and sometimes many) relational role models who
facilitated such knowledge and beliefs. For example, Hana said, “my greatest
time of growth was when I surrounded myself with people whom I consid-
ered to be good leaders. These people motivated me, helped me find my
intrinsic motivation, and encouraged me to keep up with them.” As such,
participants’ knowledge of opportunities and belief in their own potential
flourished or was constrained by a variety of individual and contextual fac-
tors (e.g., ethnicity, gender, where they grew up, their college status). For
example, Mike said, “If one is a minority, then he has the stigma engrained
into him from birth that he must work harder than others to prove himself.
That is how it was for me.” Although some participants considered them-
selves advantaged because they were a part of a dominant group, a few others
acknowledged stereotypes that might make it difficult for others. For exam-
ple, Ben who grew up in a rural area said most of his role models were men.
He said, “When I was younger, I can remember thinking about who would be
considered ‘in charge’ and it was always a male.” As such, Ben’s capacity for
leadership may have been influenced by social policies that encouraged him
as a young man, and it is possible that his female peers may not have been
encouraged in the same manner.
Some participants had opportunities to be influenced by a number of rela-
tional role models, yet others persevered because they had just one relational
role model who inspired their knowledge of opportunities and belief in their
own potential. For example, Gail was raised by a single mother who immi-
grated to the United States and did not have a college education and thus,
Gail experienced barriers to leadership development surrounding class and
family structure. She was a first-generation college student and although she
viewed her mother as a role model, the knowledge that her mother could
provide about leadership opportunities was limited. Yet, she went on to pur-
sue college and leadership opportunities at college because she had a cousin
who went to optometry school. Her career path modeled that of her cousin’s
and she said he gave her hope that she was capable and she was “impressed
and motivated by his success and hard work.”
Indeed, the data revealed that participant’s awareness of leadership oppor-
tunities and their own potential were often dependent on the intersection

Bowers et al. 15
between their relational role models and individual and contextual factors. It
was often the case that the knowledge and beliefs of the role models in a
given culture or area influenced participants’ own knowledge and beliefs.
Even those that did not discuss their own advantages or disadvantages with
respect to knowledge of opportunities and belief in their own potential
described their perceptions of how such differences influenced others’ leader-
ship growth. For example, Eve said,
Everyone likes to hear a good success story because it makes them feel less
guilty about the huge gap in educational quality and opportunities for those of
less privileged genders, races, and socio-economic backgrounds. I don’t think
less privileged kids are any less inspired by their own personal leadership role
models. But, the quality of that role model greatly varies from demographic to
demographic.
Youth is inspired by positional role models and actively pursue opportunities. The

relational role models with good leadership qualities facilitated participants’
own knowledge and beliefs, yet the data in this study revealed that to grow,
youth become inspired by positional role models as they actively pursue
opportunities for involvement. Based on participants’ descriptions of indi-
viduals who they considered role models but they did not necessarily know
personally, we defined positional role models as college professors, institu-
tional, organizational, community, and world leaders that they learn from but
with whom they do not have a relationship. Jake articulated this when asked
specifically about differences between his relational and positional role mod-
els in the member checks phase of this study. He said,
I think that relational role models have the greater impact on our willingness
and ability to serve as a leader, but positional role models provide the inspiration
for us to strive for higher levels of leadership and greater levels of success
within our positions.
Some participants believed that their transition from learning from rela-
tional models to closely observing positional role models occurs over time
and possibly, with age. In essence, their relational models were still consid-
ered important influences, but less so as they “grow out” of them or observe
positional role models more closely aligned with their aspirations in life. For
example, Eve said,
Growing up, I always idolized my teachers and parents. But when you get
older, you realize that they’re a little out of touch and their magic fades. By the
time I was 18, I think all of my major sources of inspiration were people that I

had never met. While I do look up to my parent, teachers, and professors for
advice and guidance, I don’t look to them for leadership inspiration. They will
always be a great tool in getting leadership advice, but in terms of the people
that I would want to mold my personal leadership trajectory off of, I would
look up more to Barack Obama, Hillary Clinton, and other people that were
once normal and unimportant like me. That’s way more inspiring than my
parents telling me that I’m great.
In summary, the data revealed that the relationship between youth and
their relational role models provided the foundation for their growth. The
relationship and its influence on participants’ motivation for leadership
growth were facilitated by the qualities that the role models exhibited (i.e.,
professional work ethic, interpersonal skills, and positive character traits).
Once participants learned of opportunities to get involved and believed in
their own potential, they actively pursued those opportunities. As they got
more involved, many participants were also inspired by positional role mod-
els, who had qualities, behaviors, or outcomes that they believed extended
the capabilities of their relational role models. As such, the relationships that
youth have with role models helped to define leadership and success and set
the stage for further development. From there, leadership skills are “continu-
ously evolving” (Britney).
Member Checks
In this study, we emailed a link to a four-paragraph summary of the results
and asked participants to validate or refine our interpretations. Many of the
participants, who completed the member checks (n = 11) provided feedback,
such as “I agree with the above statement because . . . ” or “I completely
agree with this” and “I find this to be very true” with descriptions and expla-
nations in the comments sections below each paragraph. Participants’ favor-
able responses to the one page summary and their additional comments
provided the validation for the constructs. Of the few that discounted any of
our interpretations, their disagreements surrounded the significance of indi-
vidual and contextual factors in relation to the opportunities the emerging
leader learns about from his or her role model(s). Yet, many participants
agreed with the information in this section and elaborated or included exam-
ples to provide further validation. As such, we did not refine our interpreta-
tions in this area, and we believe participants’ own perceptions are limited to
their unique experiences. These experiences and unique leadership pathways
deserve more attention in the literature (e.g., similarities and differences in
social norms, expectations, opportunities, and role models in various geo-
graphic locations or cultures). Regardless, no new properties or dimensions

Bowers et al. 17
emerged from member checks, and we became even more confident that the
data analysis included enough details, yet was comprehensive enough that it
accounted for much of the possible variability among participants’ responses.
We, therefore, determined after completing member checks that we had
reached theoretical saturation and no new data needed to be collected.
Discussion and Implications

Our study focused on youth leadership growth processes, youths’ perceptions
of how their role models came to be their leadership-oriented role models,
and the ways in which certain role models influenced their leadership
development between adolescence and emerging adulthood. We inter-
viewed emerging adults who described their leadership growth between
adolescence and emerging adulthood. A role model–driven framework for
youth leadership development emerged from data, and this model can be
used to discriminate the influence of relational role models and positional
role models. According to the emerging adult participants, relational role
models seem to provide a foundation of confidence within the youth, and
aid in recognizing the potential for engagement in student or service orga-
nizations. Once such a foundation is created, inspiration from positional
role models may then provide energy and momentum toward increased
engagement and growth beyond what relational role models often provide.
Perhaps most critical to the youth-role model relationship for emerging
adults in this study were the positive leadership behaviors and traits pos-
sessed by relational role models. Indeed, these findings indicate that youth
learn best from and listen to role models who display positive characteris-
tics (i.e., professional work ethic, interpersonal skills, and positive charac-
ter traits), and the positive leadership qualities exhibited by these role
models provide the foundation for the youth-role model relationship.
Moreover, some participants attributed their motivation for leadership
development to their role models. It is possible that the qualities their role
models possessed facilitated youths’ intrinsic motivation to develop as
leaders, such that youths’ role models provided informational support that,
in turn, facilitated self-determination and competence as leaders, rather
than control over the youth, which has been found to lower self-determina-
tion and undermine intrinsic motivation (Deci, Koestner, & Ryan, 2001).
We provide implications for research and provide practical suggestions for
role models, school or university administrators, or those who work in
organized youth programs by focusing here on leading by example and
motivating youth, as well as individual and contextual factors that should
be considered in future research and practice.

Leading by Example and Motivating Youth

The findings from this study possess several important implications for those
involved in youth development programs and invested in youths’ futures.
First, the data revealed that positive leadership qualities displayed by indi-
viduals who are in positions to lead youth (e.g., program staff, faculty, interns,
coaches, or volunteers) are a key to the youth-role model relationship and,
subsequently, youth leadership development. Adults in positions of influence
who lack initiative, interpersonal skills, and positive character traits may
impede youth’s knowledge of opportunities, or their confidence to try out
various leadership positions. As such, it is especially important for adults to
display positive leadership qualities that they wish to see in youth before
youth will learn to develop as leaders with those qualities. To ensure that
those who work with youth are displaying positive leadership qualities and
leading by example, leaders, themselves, may need explicit leadership train-
ing (e.g., by requiring staff or volunteers who are in direct service positions
to read a book or attend a workshop on leadership qualities that they are
expected to exhibit). Administrators may falsely assume that their organiza-
tions’ leaders will exhibit such qualities. With more explicit leadership train-
ing for staff and volunteers, however, youths’ potential role models could
become aware of their strengths and areas for potential growth. Moreover,
such training could facilitate a culture of leadership within organizations or
institutions that serve youth (e.g., through common leadership-focused lan-
guage or naturally occurring accountability that occurs as a result of aware-
ness of one’s own leadership styles, as well as organizational expectations).
Second, developmental scholars have found that the development of ini-
tiative plays a critical role in positive youth development, and opportunities
for such growth often occur in the context of organized youth activities or
school (Larson, 2000). Larson believes that within these contexts, youth learn
when they experience a combination of intrinsic motivation and concentra-
tion. It is possible that the qualities displayed by role models with whom
emerging adults could potentially have a relationship can facilitate or con-
strain their initiative, intrinsic motivation, and ability to pay attention. This
could be tested in quantitative studies that examine the association between
role model characteristics, motivation, and the youth-role model relationship,
and such research could inform curricula and training for youth program
leaders.
Finally, leadership and developmental scholars assert that the contempo-
rary work force requires skills such as collaboration, strategic thinking, orga-
nization, and others that are not measured in many westernized countries in a
way that influence youths’ work or college pathways (Larson, Wilson, &

Bowers et al. 19
Mortimer, 2002). If youth are expected to exhibit good leadership qualities

and such qualities often dictate their ability to obtain or maintain employ-
ment, perhaps evidence of the development of leadership skills could be
more explicitly taught and utilized as measures of potential future success.
Considering Individual and Contextual Factors

Our findings also indicate that various individual and contextual factors (e.g.,
ethnicity, gender, college status, geographic location of where they grew up)
may influence role models’ knowledge and beliefs about leadership and, subse-
quently, knowledge and opportunities for youth. For example, the analysis
revealed that young men in this study who grew up in rural areas may be at an
advantage when compared with the young women because of the social policies
that reinforce gendered behaviors. As such, young women in rural areas may
benefit from female role models who have knowledge of opportunities for
young women to get involved, or have, themselves, sought positions or careers
that facilitate leadership growth. More research, however, is needed on these
factors. Through quantitative research and a larger sample of youth, researchers
could better address individual differences as a function of gender, region, social
class, and culture. Practitioners could, subsequently, refine leadership training
practices or develop programs to help specific populations. For example, young
women in rural areas may benefit from structured mentoring systems while they
are in high school.
Limitations
We are able to provide a role model–driven framework for youth leadership
development and several implications based on our work with emerging
adults, yet our study was not without limitations. Our grounded theory was
based on the values and beliefs of the 23 emerging adults who participated,
and while this group was diverse, it should not be seen as necessarily repre-
sentative of the broad demographic of emerging adults in contemporary soci-
ety. We intentionally chose a sample of youth who were leaders in some
capacity, so that they could discuss their experiences about their leadership
development. Further research that includes a broader representation of
emerging adults in regards to demography and geography is warranted. The
inclusion of younger adolescents, who might be currently developing rela-
tionship with potential mentors, could provide for a more refined model as well,
especially if this research could be combined with longitudinal analysis of youth
leadership through their elementary, high school, and college years. Although
exploratory, our findings surrounding individual and contextual diversity high-
light a need to include individual differences in studies of leadership growth.

Moreover, our results were informed by college students who have already
succeeded in some ways by simply being enrolled in an institution of higher
education. As such, future research should examine the role model–driven
framework and the influence of youth-role model relationships on non-uni-
versity populations.
Conclusion
This research provides an understanding of youth leadership growth processes
and contributes to the developmental and leadership literature by highlighting
the ways that role models influenced the leadership development of emerging
adults in this study. Our analysis resulted in a role model–driven framework
for the leadership growth process between adolescence and emerging adult-
hood, emphasizing the importance of relational role models in youths’ knowl-
edge of opportunities and belief in their potential. Additionally, positional role
models inspired youth to actively pursue opportunities that enhanced their
leadership growth. This research can be used in future efforts involving lead-
ership training for emerging adults, as well as adults who work with youth to
ensure more congruity between employers’ and other adults’ expectations and
emerging adults’ knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors surrounding leadership.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research,
authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publi-
cation of this article.
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Author Biographies
Jill R. Bowers is a researcher in the Family Resiliency Center in the Department of
Human and Community Development at the University of Illinois at Urbana–
Champaign. Her research focuses on online program development and evaluation,
specifically online positive youth development programs for adolescents and emerg-
ing adults.
David M. Rosch serves as an assistant professor in the College of Agriculture,
Consumer, and Environmental Sciences (ACES) at the University of Illinois at
Urbana–Champaign. His particular areas of interest include programmatic training in
youth leadership development and the accurate assessment of leadership effective-
ness. He earned his doctorate in higher education administration from Syracuse
University, a master’s in student affairs in higher education from Colorado State
University, and a bachelor’s degree from Binghamton University, NY.
Daniel A. Collier is a graduate student in the Education Policy, Organization and
Leadership doctoral program. He is particularly interested in student leadership devel-
opment, ethical leadership practices of administration, and evaluation of educational
workplace policy, and currently serves as a research assistant in the Illinois Leadership
Laboratory through the Agriculture Education Department.

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Examining the Relationship Between Role Models

Article in Journal of Adolescent Research · June 2015

David Rosch Daniel A. Collier

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Jill R. Bowers1, David M. Rosch1,

1University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, USA

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(Kezar, Carducci, & Contreras-McGavin, 2006; Komives, Lucas, &

Youth as Primary Targets for Leadership Training

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Goals of the Present Study

Research Question 1: What are youths’ perceptions of the processes by

Data Collection and Analysis

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interviews (n = 23) and completing member checks (n = 11) where they

Participant recruitment. Participants were matriculated students who were

Incentives. Participants in this study were offered a $5 gift card to a food

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Data management. All interviews were audio-taped and transcribed by a tran-

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adolescence and emerging adulthood. Furthermore, we wanted to explore the

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Figure 1. A role model–driven framework for youth leadership development.

A Role Model–Driven Framework for Youth Leadership

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positive attitude, tolerant). Although some participants viewed role models’

Many participants viewed hard work and initiative as minimal require-

Interpersonal skills. Participants in this study also discussed interpersonal

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Again, many participants also respected mentors who lead by example. If

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Relational role models influence youth’s motivation for leadership development. As

I would not have grown as a leader if I wasn’t encouraged by my own teachers,

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Youth is inspired by positional role models and actively pursue opportunities. The

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Discussion and Implications

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Leading by Example and Motivating Youth

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Mortimer, 2002). If youth are expected to exhibit good leadership qualities

Considering Individual and Contextual Factors

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Declaration of Conflicting Interests

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Kram, K. E. (1985). Mentoring at work. Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman.

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