Waste Management 48 (2016) 115–126

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Waste Management
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/wasman

Influence of bulking agents on physical, chemical, and microbiological

properties during the two-stage composting of green waste
Lu Zhang, Xiangyang Sun ⇑
College of Forestry, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, PR China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: A recyclable organic bulking agent (BA) that can be screened and was developed to optimize green waste
Received 18 August 2015 (GW) composting. This study investigated the use of wood chips (WC) (at 0%, 15%, and 25%) and/or com-
Revised 20 November 2015 posted green waste (CGW) (at 0%, 25%, and 35%) as the BAs in the two-stage composting of GW. The com-
Accepted 21 November 2015
bined addition of WC and CGW improved the conditions of composting process and the quality of
Available online 28 November 2015
compost product in terms of composting temperature, porosity, water retention, particle-size distribu-
tion, pH, electrical conductivity (EC), cation exchange capacity (CEC), nitrogen losses, humification
Keywords:
indices, microbial numbers, enzyme activities, macro- and micro-nutrient contents, and toxicity to ger-
Compost
Composted green waste
minating seeds. The compost matured in only 22 days with the optimized two-stage composting method
Green waste rather than in the 90–270 days typically required for traditional composting. The optimal two-stage com-
Two-stage composting posting process and the best quality of compost product were obtained with the combined addition of
Wood chips 15% WC and 35% CGW.
Ó 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction demonstrated that the composting of GW can be improved by add-

Composting is an effective and environmental friendly method
to stabilize organic wastes, inactivate pathogens, and recycle nutri-
ents (Zhang and Sun, 2015). The final product, compost, is rich in
stable humus-like substances and can be used as a soil amendment
or organic fertilizer (Zhang et al., 2013). The composting process is
greatly affected by environmental conditions (i.e., temperature,
moisture content, pH, and aeration) and organic waste properties
(i.e., C/N ratio, particle size, and nutrient content) (Iqbal et al.,
2010; Silva et al., 2014). If composting conditions are not appropri-
ate, the efficiency of the process is compromised. Furthermore,
application of the immature compost may inhibit seed germination
and reduce plant growth because the immature compost may
deprive roots of oxygen or be directly phytotoxic (Zorpas and
Loizidou, 2008).
One kind of organic material that can be composted is green
waste (GW). GW is the biodegradable organic fraction of municipal
solid waste and generally consists of grass, leaves, tree trimmings,
and other similar constituents. However, the composting of ligno-
cellulosic GW is challenging because it usually decomposes very
slowly (Fernandez-Hernandez et al., 2014). Previous research has
⇑ Corresponding author at: College of Forestry, Beijing Forestry University, P.O.
Box 111, Beijing 100083, PR China.
E-mail addresses: zhanglu1211@bjfu.edu.cn (L. Zhang), xysunbjfu@gmail.com,
sunxy@bjfu.edu.cn (X. Sun).
ing a bulking agent (BA), such as sawdust, rice husks, cotton waste,
or peanut shells (Zhou et al., 2014). BAs are commonly used to
ensure efficient composting, in part because they adjust the poros-
ity of the material to be composted and thereby improve ventila-
tion and water penetration and enhance microbial growth and
activity (Blazy et al., 2014; Shao et al., 2014). In addition, BAs can
be used to adjust carbon availability, C/N ratio, and the pH during
composting so as to increase the rate of decomposition (Jolanun
and Towprayoon, 2010). BAs can also enhance the stability of
organic matter and suppress pathogens and parasites (Shao et al.,
2014).Therefore, selecting an appropriate BA is critical for large-
scale, long-running composting operations.
The term ‘‘two-stage composting” refers to a process that
includes primary composting (PC) and secondary composting
(SC) (Zhang et al., 2013). During the PC, the thermophilic period
(55–60 °C) can be quickly achieved and maintained for a relatively
long time. Once the composting temperature in the PC decreases
below the middle composting temperature (35–45 °C) (the micro-
bial degradation has decreased at that time), the PC has essentially
ended, and the SC is started in order to quickly increase the tem-
perature to a second thermophilic period, during which decompo-
sition continues (Zhang et al., 2013). The thermophilic period is
generally longer in the SC than in the PC. Therefore, neither PC
nor SC represents a complete composting process; when com-
bined, the PC and SC together represent a complete composting

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2015.11.032
0956-053X/Ó 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
116 L. Zhang, X. Sun / Waste Management 48 (2016) 115–126
process. Two-stage composting can generate a better product and
in a shorter time than traditional composting. Because the highest
composting temperature is attained twice and because the
thermophilic period lasts for a relatively long time, two-stage com-
posting generates stabilized, high value compost products in only
30 days rather than the 90–270 days typically required for tradi-
tional composting (Khalil et al., 2008; Zhang et al., 2013).
The current study concerned the two-stage composting of GW
with the addition of wood chips (WC) and/or composted green
waste (CGW) as the BAs. Lignocellulosic by-products such as WC
are commonly used as BAs to enhance the degradation rate during
composting (Blazy et al., 2014; Koivula et al., 2004; Vandecasteele
et al., 2013). By providing structural support, WC may ensure ade-
quate gas exchange and prevent excessive compaction of the com-
posting materials (Koivula et al., 2004). WC addition can also
increase the concentrations of macro- and micro-nutrients and
reduce the volatilization and leaching of nutrients during compost-
ing. For instance, the use of WC greatly reduced nutrient losses in
the composting of cattle manure (Kato and Miura, 2008). In partic-
ular, WC may serve as the carbon and nitrogen sources that sup-
port the activity and reproduction of microorganisms (Jolanun
and Towprayoon, 2010). As a consequence, the addition of woody
materials can improve the quality of the compost product
(Vandecasteele et al., 2013).
Successful composting often involves microbial inoculation. The
most convenient way to add microorganisms is to use mature com-
post as the BA, because mature compost often contains large num-
bers of microorganisms. Kato and Miura (2008) reported that the
addition of mature compost accelerated the succession of micro-
bial communities and maintained the microbial diversity in the
composting of cattle manure. The addition of mature compost is
also expected to shorten the composting period and reduce offen-
sive odors produced during composting (Makan et al., 2012). More-
over, mature compost can provide microorganisms with abundant
macro- and micro-elements (Kulikowska and Gusiatin, 2015;
Zhang and Sun, 2015). Finally, addition of compost product could
increase aeration and water penetration during composting and
thereby optimize the process and increase compost stability and
quality (Eyheraguibel et al., 2008).
The use of WC and mature CGW as the BAs in GW composting
has not been previously evaluated. Therefore, the objectives of this
research were to determine: (1) how addition of various quantities
and combinations of WC and CGW affects the physical, chemical,
and microbiological properties during the two-stage composting
of GW; (2) how these additions affect the quality of the final
compost; and (3) the optimal combination of WC and CGW for
the two-stage composting of GW.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Composting materials and bulking agents
In this study, GW was composted after WC and/or CGW were
added as BAs. The GW consisted of various biodegradable organic
materials (i.e., grass, fallen leaves, and branch cuttings) generated
by urban landscape maintenance in Beijing, China; the materials
were cut to a length of 10 mm before the composting began
(Zhang and Sun, 2015). WC and CGW were purchased from the
Beijing Jingpuyuan Biological Engineering Co., Ltd., China. The
WC consisted of a mixture of pine and alamo wood, which was
cut with a shredder to a length of 15 mm, a length that was
reported to optimize composting performance (Raichura and
McCartney, 2006). The particle size of CGW used in the study
was <8 mm. Bamboo vinegar, a light-yellow and transparent acidic
liquid with a slightly smoky smell, was used in the composting
because it can neutralize ammonia gas and reduce N volatilization
and therefore increase the retention of N in the compost (Zhang
et al., 2013). The bamboo vinegar, which was obtained from the
Beijing Kaiyin Organic Fertilizer Production Co., China, had a pH
of 3.10 and an electrical conductivity (EC) of 1.30 mS/cm. Urea,
which was obtained from the Beijing Jingpuyuan Biological
Engineering Co., Ltd., was used to adjust the initial C/N ratio of
the composting materials. The main properties of the initial GW,
WC, CGW, and nine composting mixtures are presented in Tables
1–3. The determination methods are described in section 2.4.
2.2. Experimental set-up and procedure
The initial quantity of GW (dry weight) was the same in all
treatments, and the quantities of WC and/or CGW added in the
nine treatments were calculated according to percentages (based
on dry weight) indicated by an orthogonal design (Table 3). Before
the composting was initiated, water was added to the GW to
obtain a moisture content of 60–65% (w/w). Then, the C/N ratio
was adjusted to 25–30 by application of urea (2.4 kg per 100 kg
of dry weight GW) (Zhang et al., 2013). Finally, different quantities
of WC and CGW were evenly mixed into the GW according to
Table 3. During the whole two-stage composting process, the com-
posting materials were watered regularly to maintain the moisture
content at 60–65%; the moisture content of composting mixture
was determined daily with an SK-100 moisture meter (Tokyo,
Japan); the oxygen-supplying method of composting (the details
were specified on the next paragraph) could provide appropriate
oxygen condition, and thus, ensure the successful completion of
the two-stage aerobic composting (Zhang et al., 2014, 2013).
This study used a two-stage composting method that includes
PC and SC (Zhang et al., 2013). On day 0 (the beginning of the
PC), the nine mixtures were added to composting reactors, which
were non-covered cement containers (6 m long, 2 m wide, and
1.5 m high) with an automatic compost-turning and -watering sys-
tem. Each treatment was represented by three replicate compost-
ing reactors, and thus there were 27 composting reactors. The
automatic system turned the mixture in each composting reactors
for 40 min every day during the PC to ensure oxygen supply, to
homogenize the materials, and to stimulate microbial activity
(Zhang et al., 2014, 2013). When the temperature of the mixture
increased to 50–60 °C, 2 ml of bamboo vinegar (diluted in 2 L of
water) was added per 100 kg of mixture (dry weight). The vinegar
solution was sprinkled onto the mixtures as they were being
turned. When the temperature dropped to 35–45 °C, the PC was
considered complete. The temperatures in all treatments
decreased to 35–45 °C by day 6. At that time, the mixtures were
once again treated with the vinegar solution (Zhang et al., 2013).
On day 6, the mixture was removed from each composting reactor
with an excavator and was placed in open windrows (three wind-
rows per reactor). The SC of all treatments began on day 6. Each
windrow had a trapezoidal cross-section and was 2 m long, 1.5 m
wide, and 1 m high. For sufficient aeration, each windrow was
manually turned with a mini-excavator for 40 min every 3 days
(Zhang et al., 2014, 2013). Diluted bamboo vinegar was added
during the SC as described for the PC. When the temperature of a
windrow decreased to the ambient temperature, the whole
composting process was considered complete.
2.3. Sampling and monitoring
Samples were collected as the composting mixtures were being
turned on day 0, 1, 4, 6, 10, 16, 22, 25, 27, and 30. On these days,
three subsamples (200 g per subsample) were collected from the
top, middle, and bottom of each reactor or windrow and were com-
bined to form one composite sample per composting reactor or
 L. Zhang, X. Sun / Waste Management 48 (2016) 115–126 117

Table 1
Physico-chemical properties of green waste (GW), wood chips (WC), composted green waste (CGW), and final composts. Values are means (SD); n = 3. Treatments T1–T9 are
described in Table 3.

Treatment BD (g/cm3) WHC (%) TPS (%) AP (%) WHP (%) pH

GW 0.892(0.013) 52.34(0.67) – – – 8.02(1.72)
WC 0.120(0.010) 30.12(0.86) – – – 6.03(1.09)
CGW 0.403(0.028) 80.98(1.22) 80.23(0.50) 23.92(1.02) 56.31(0.66) 7.20(1.64)
T1 0.316(0.020)i 62.21(1.30)h 63.65(0.70)h 15.44(0.81)h 48.21(0.39)f 8.40 (0.86)a
T2 0.371(0.032)e 74.08(1.19)d 76.02(1.61)d 22.01(0.94)d 54.01(0.87)d 7.88(1.15)e
T3 0.353(0.020)f 73.26(0.72)e 74.13(0.43)e 20.34(0.62)e 53.79(0.80)d 7.96(0.60)d
T4 0.330(0.007)g 71.10(0.64)f 72.52(0.86)f 18.52(0.29)f 54.00(0.42)d 8.04(0.43)c
T5 0.403(0.018)a 81.09(0.52)b 84.36(0.67)b 26.09(0.33)b 58.27(0.90)a 7.61(0.52)g
T6 0.401(0.010)b 83.17(1.02)a 87.29(1.11)a 28.12(0.55)a 59.17(0.83)a 7.52(0.71)h
T7 0.321(0.020)h 68.89(1.30)g 68.07(1.07)g 17.49(0.76)g 50.58(0.46)e 8.13(0.93)b
T8 0.390(0.011)d 79.25(0.37)c 82.23(0.65)c 25.92(0.97)b 56.31(0.35)c 7.65(0.78)g
T9 0.396(0.008)c 78.96(0.85)c 81.90(1.80)c 24.33(1.00)c 57.57(0.54)b 7.73(1.05)f
IRa 0.400 70.00–85.00 70.00–90.00 20.00–30.00 50.00–60.00 7.50–8.00
EC (mS/cm) CEC (cmol/kg) TOC (%) DP HI (%) HR (%)
GW 2.34(0.42) – – – – –
WC 0.28(0.10) – – – – –
CGW 1.94(0.29) 123.21(1.33) 20.09(1.20) – – –
T1 1.21(0.45)g 56.05(1.58)i 43.09(1.58)a 0.51(0.43)i 0.80(0.17)i 10.07(1.87)i
T2 1.46(0.63)d 110.34(1.62)e 30.42(1.10)d 1.35(0.94)e 2.31(0.29)e 27.96(1.09)e
T3 1.43(0.81)d 91.93(0.43)f 32.29(1.36)c 1.10(0.12)f 1.98(0.30)f 25.04(1.12)f
T4 1.36(0.37)e 79.81(1.09)g 33.02(1.29)c 1.04(0.59)g 1.72(0.11)g 20.99(1.95)g
T5 1.68(0.32)b 160.22(1.25)b 20.09(1.11)f 2.42(0.87)b 3.59(0.21)b 42.10(1.54)b
T6 1.79(0.16)a 179.89(1.65)a 15.13(1.20)g 3.19(0.35)a 4.23(0.38)a 50.03(1.80)a
T7 1.30(0.28)f 68.32(1.54)h 36.88(1.22)b 0.76(0.64)h 1.37(0.08)h 16.98(1.32)h
T8 1.62(0.26)c 149.18(0.87)c 23.44(1.35)e 2.11(0.13)c 3.30(0.33)c 40.05(1.20)c
T9 1.59(0.31)c 132.29(1.26)d 24.36(1.52)e 2.03(0.75)d 2.89(0.65)d 34.92(1.08)d
IRa <4.00 >60.00 – – – –

BD = bulk density; WHC = water-holding capacity; TPS = total porosity; AP = aeration porosity; WHP = water-holding porosity; EC = electrical conductivity (at 25 °C);
CEC = cation exchange capacity; TOC = total organic carbon; DP = the degree of polymerization; HI = humification index; HR = humification ratio.
The day at the end of observation was the 30th day for treatment T1; the 27th day for treatments T2, T3, T4, and T7; the 25th day for treatments T5, T8, and T9; and the 22nd
day for treatment T6.
Means in a column followed by the same letter are not significantly different at p 6 0.05 by LSD.
All percentages are based on air-dried weight.
a
IR = ideal range, according to Harada and Inoko (1980) and Makan et al. (2012).

windrow. Then, each composite sample was divided into three
parts. One part was air-dried (3–5% moisture content), and a sec-
ond part was oven-dried at 65 °C. The dried samples were crushed
in a small grinder, passed through soil sieves (0.25 and 0.1 mm),
and sealed in plastic containers. The third part was not dried and
was kept in a plastic container at 4 °C.
The air-dried samples were used for determination of physical
properties, pH, EC, cation exchange capacity (CEC), and the
contents of total organic carbon (TOC), total Kjeldahl nitrogen
(TN), total phosphorus (TP), and humic substances. The oven-
dried samples were used for determination of the contents of total
potassium (TK) and macro- and micro-nutrients. The non-dried
samples were used to quantify microorganisms (bacteria,
actinomycetes, and fungi) and enzymes (dehydrogenase, cellulase,
b-glucosidase, protease, urease, and catalase), and were also used
for a seed germination test.
Temperatures in the upper, middle, and lower layers of the
composting mixtures were monitored using a self-made tempera-
ture sensor consisting of a temperature sensor attached to a
1-m-long rod. Ambient temperature was also recorded using the
same temperature sensor. Temperature data were collected daily
during the entire composting process. The three readings per com-
posting mixture were averaged.
2.4. Physical, chemical, and microbiological analyses
When the same property was determined for the initial GW,
WC, CGW, and composting samples, the same method was used.
Analyses were performed in triplicate.
2.4.1. Physical properties
Bulk density (BD), water-holding capacity (WHC), total porosity
(TPS), aeration porosity (AP), and water-holding porosity (WHP)
were determined in the initial materials and in the final composts
as described by Zhang et al. (2013).
The particle-size distribution of the final compost was deter-
mined by the sieve method of Gabhane et al. (2012), i.e., air-
dried samples were passed through sieves (mesh sizes of 0.10,
0.25, 0.50, 1.00, 2.00, and 12.00 mm), and the material retained
on each sieve was weighed.
2.4.2. Chemical properties
pH and EC were determined with an MP521 pH/EC meter
(Shanghai, China) for a slurry consisting of 1:10 (w/v) sample:dis-
tilled water. CEC was measured at pH 7.0 with ammonium acetate.
TOC was determined with a ‘Liqui TOC’ total organic carbon ana-
lyzer (Kyoto, Japan). TN was determined by a modified micro-
Kjeldahl procedure with a KDY-9830 automatic Kjeldahl apparatus
(Beijing, China). TP was estimated by the Anti-Mo-Sb spectropho-
tometry method using a 721 spectrophotometer (Shanghai, China).
TK was determined by flame photometry using a 425 flame pho-
tometer (Shanghai, China).
N loss during composting was calculated based on ash content
according to the equation proposed by Cayuela et al. (2006) and
Jolanun and Towprayoon (2010): N loss (%) = 100 – 100(A1N2)/
(A2N1), where A1 and A2 are the initial and final ash contents, and
N1 and N2 are the initial and final TN.
HA and FA contents were determined by the method of Francou
et al. (2008). The humification index (HI) and the humification
ratio (HR) were expressed as a percentage of TOC (Zhang and
118 L. Zhang, X. Sun / Waste Management 48 (2016) 115–126

Table 2
Contents of macro-nutrients (TN, TP, TK, Ca, Mg, and S) and micro-nutrients (Fe, Cu, Mn, Zn, B, and Mo) in the green waste (GW), wood chips (WC), composted green waste (CGW),
and final composts. Values are means (SD); n = 3. Treatments T1–T9 are described in Table 3.

Treatment Macro-nutrients
TN (%)a TP (%)a TK (%)b Ca (%)b Mg (%)b S (%)b
GW 0.87(0.02) 0.16(0.08) 0.70(0.13) 0.64(0.05) 0.70(0.11) 5.74(0.43)
WC 0.91(0.10) 0.29(0.02) 0.82(0.09) 0.75(0.03) 0.81(0.04) 4.01(0.20)
CGW 3.25(0.17) 0.50(0.10) 0.76(0.12) 1.40(0.67) 1.19(0.52) 14.46(0.12)
T1 2.07(0.02)i 0.08(0.03)g 0.26(0.04)h 0.92(0.03)g 0.40(0.08)g 7.26(0.16)i
T2 3.02(0.08)e 0.42(0.09)d 0.65(0.09)e 1.49(0.02)d 1.15(0.09)d 13.12(0.22)e
T3 2.89(0.04)f 0.37(0.05)de 0.61(0.03)ef 1.45(0.07)d 1.10(0.04)de 12.57(0.31)f
T4 2.71(0.05)g 0.35(0.01)e 0.57(0.05)fg 1.39(0.04)e 1.06(0.02)ef 11.99(0.40)g
T5 4.12(0.07)b 0.61(0.06)b 0.92(0.02)b 1.63(0.09)b 1.30(0.05)b 14.78(0.67)b
T6 4.90(0.09)a 0.72(0.02)a 1.01(0.01)a 1.77(0.01)a 1.39(0.03)a 15.03(0.58)a
T7 2.51(0.02)h 0.22(0.03)f 0.52(0.03)g 1.31(0.05)f 1.01(0.02)f 10.32(0.43)h
T8 3.87(0.03)c 0.54(0.04)c 0.84(0.04)c 1.58(0.06)bc 1.27(0.07)b 14.02(0.29)c
T9 3.45(0.01)d 0.51(0.07)c 0.78(0.07)d 1.54(0.01)c 1.21(0.06)c 13.66(0.96)d
Micro-nutrients
3
Fe (10 %)b Cu (10 3
%)b Mn (10 3
%)b Zn (10 3
%)b B (10 3
%)b Mo (10 3
%)b
GW 8.29(1.00) 0.36(0.09) 6.03(0.76) 0.70(0.05) 1.01(0.03) 0.32(0.04)
WC 9.44(1.35) 0.22(0.02) 5.10(1.40) 0.38(0.02) 0.65(0.11) 0.10(0.01)
CGW 20.55(2.01) 0.40(0.08) 10.04(1.47) 1.08(0.07) 2.03(1.09) 1.22(0.06)
T1 9.11(0.29)i 0.14(0.01)g 8.01(0.37)i 0.84(0.07)h 1.40(0.38)h 0.63(0.08)g
T2 18.24(0.67)e 0.51(0.03)d 11.40(0.81)e 1.22(0.03)de 2.17(0.10)d 1.54(0.13)d
T3 17.03(0.56)f 0.47(0.08)de 11.02(0.32)f 1.18(0.01)ef 2.11(0.22)e 1.49(0.37)d
T4 16.45(0.39)g 0.42(0.09)e 10.23(0.24)g 1.13(0.09)f 2.02(0.34)f 1.43(0.08)e
T5 22.32(0.25)b 0.65(0.02)b 13.78(0.10)b 1.37(0.02)b 2.35(0.15)b 1.72(0.29)b
T6 23.01(0.53)a 0.71(0.06)a 14.52(0.68)a 1.43(0.04)a 2.42(0.76)a 1.79(0.15)a
T7 13.28(0.16)h 0.36(0.04)f 10.09(0.54)h 1.04(0.02)g 1.65(0.58)g 1.36(0.09)f
T8 21.08(0.42)c 0.61(0.02)bc 13.03(0.19)c 1.31(0.05)c 2.28(0.53)c 1.63(0.43)c
T9 19.89(0.33)d 0.58(0.01)c 12.26(0.26)d 1.25(0.03)d 2.21(0.62)d 1.60(0.26)c

TN = total nitrogen; TP = total phosphorus; TK = total potassium.

The day at the end of observation was the 30th day for treatment T1; the 27th day for treatments T2, T3, T4, and T7; the 25th day for treatments T5, T8, and T9; and the 22nd
day for treatment T6.Means in a column followed by the same letter are not significantly different at p 6 0.05 by LSD.
a
Percentages are based on air-dry weight.
b
Percentages are based on oven-dry weight.

Table 3
Orthogonal design L9(34) of the experiment and the initial physico-chemical properties of treatments.

Treatment WC (% in initial GW, CGW (% in initial GW, MC (%) pH EC (mS/cm) CEC (cmol/kg) DP HI (%) HR (%)
based on dry weight) based on dry weight)
T1 0 0 62 8.02 2.34 17.11 0.05 0.08 2.11
T2 0 25 63 7.62 2.13 37.90 0.41 0.40 10.09
T3 0 35 63 7.69 2.22 35.01 0.36 0.32 7.02
T4 15 0 62 7.79 2.25 31.99 0.30 0.30 6.20
T5 15 25 63 7.26 1.73 52.89 0.80 1.00 20.00
T6 15 35 64 7.11 1.62 58.20 1.00 1.20 25.16
T7 25 0 64 7.90 2.30 26.12 0.25 0.20 4.12
T8 25 25 63 7.33 1.83 47.80 0.71 0.80 16.03
T9 25 35 64 7.40 1.92 41.23 0.60 0.70 14.01

GW = green waste; WC = wood chips; CGW = composted green waste; MC = moisture content; EC = electrical conductivity (at 25 °C); CEC = cation exchange capacity; DP = the
degree of polymerization; HI = humification index; HR = humification ratio.
The initial quantity of GW (dry weight) was the same in all treatments.

Sun, 2015). HI, the degree of polymerization (DP), and HR were cal-
culated according to Iqbal et al. (2010): HI (%) = 100HA/TOC;
DP = HA/FA; HR (%) = 100(HA + FA)/TOC.
For determination of micro- and macro-nutrient contents,
composting samples were digested with sulfuric acid, and the
digested liquid was analyzed by inductively coupled plasma mass
spectrometry (New Hampshire, America).
2.4.3. Microbiological properties
Throughout the two-stage composting process, the numbers of
culturable bacteria, actinomycetes, and fungi in the composting
sample were determined by serial dilution and plating as described
by Sen and Chandra (2009) and Shi et al. (2006).
Dehydrogenase, cellulase, b-glucosidase, protease, urease, and
catalase activities were determined according to the methods of
Gabhane et al. (2012), Pancholy and Rice (1973), Martens et al.
(1992), Ladd and Butler (1972), Frankenberger and Tabatabai
(1980), and Zhu et al. (2012), respectively.
2.5. Seed germination test
A germination index (GI) was used to evaluate the negative
effects of aqueous compost product extracts on plant growth
(Zorpas and Loizidou, 2008); extracts were obtained as described
by Zhang et al. (2013). In brief, 20 pakchoi (Brassica rapa L., Chinen-
sis group) seeds were placed on two pieces of filter paper that lined
the bottom of a 90-mm sterile culture dish; the filter papers had
been treated with 5 ml of each extract or with 5 ml of distilled
water as a control. Each treatment was represented by three repli-
cate dishes. After the dishes were kept at 25 °C in the dark for 48 h,
 L. Zhang, X. Sun / Waste Management 48 (2016) 115–126
the germinated seeds were counted, and the lengths of roots were
measured. The GI value was calculated as follows (Zhang et al.,
2013): GI (%) = (mean number of germinated seeds per dish -
 mean root length per dish  100%)/(mean number of germinated
seeds in the control  mean root length in the control).
2.6. Statistical analysis
One-way analyses of variance (ANOVAs) were used to determine
whether the physical, chemical, and microbiological properties dif-
fered among the treatments. When ANOVAs were significant,
means were separated with an LSD test. As noted earlier, the sam-
ples collected from individual composting reactors and from indi-
vidual windrows were treated as replicates for each sampling
time. All statistical analyses were performed with the SPSS16.0.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Effects of bulking agents on the composting temperature
The temperature patterns were generally similar for all treat-
ments (the temperature changes of two-stage composting were
obtained under appropriate oxygen condition) (Fig. 1). In the PC,
the temperatures of treatments T5, T6, T8, and T9 (combined addi-
tion of WC and CGW) increased rapidly and peaked on day 1. Other
treatments peaked on day 4. The maximum temperatures attained
in treatments T1, T2, T3, T4, T5, T6, T7, T8, and T9 during the PC
were 50.0, 53.2, 52.3, 52.0, 57.4, 59.2, 51.5, 55.2, and 54.3 °C,
respectively. After peaking in the PC, the temperatures declined
in all treatments.
In the SC, the composting temperatures increased again, and
maximum temperatures were once again achieved earlier in treat-
ments T5, T6, T8, and T9, and especially in treatment T6, than in the
other treatments. The maximum temperatures attained in treat-
ments T1, T2, T3, T4, T5, T6, T7, T8, and T9 during the SC were
50.1, 54.7, 53.9, 53.1, 58.3, 60.8, 52.2, 56.2, and 54.8 °C, respec-
tively. After peaking, the temperatures began to drop and reached
the ambient level at 30 days for treatment T1; at 27 days for treat-
ments T2, T3, T4, and T7; at 25 days for treatments T5, T8, and T9;
and at 22 days for treatment T6.
Fig. 1. Effects of wood chips (WC) and composted green waste (CGW) on the composting temperature during the two-stage composting of green waste (GW). Ambient air
temperature is also indicated and was the same for all treatments. Treatments T1–T9 are described in Table 3.
119
Temperature is one of the main parameters used to monitor the
composting process, because temperature both affects and indi-
cates the rate of biological reactions and also determines the san-
itation capacity of the process. In China and some European
countries, if the thermophilic phase (55–60 °C) lasts longer than
3 days, the compost will meet sanitation requirements, i.e., it will
be free of weed seeds and pathogens (Sadaka and El-Taweel,
2003; Zhang et al., 2013). In both the PC and the SC, the highest
temperatures were obtained in treatment T6 (15% WC and 35%
CGW) and the lowest temperatures were in treatment T1, indicat-
ing that the combination of WC and CGW supported a substantial
increase in composting temperature during the whole composting
process. The thermophilic period (50–60 °C) lasted longer in treat-
ments with the combined addition of WC and CGW (3–5 days in PC
and 7–9 days in SC) and especially in treatment T6 (5 days in PC
and 9 days in SC) than in the other treatments (1–2 days in PC
and 4 days in SC). These result indicated that the temperatures in
all treatments met the sanitation requirement and also that all
composts were mature and stable. The best combination was 15%
WC and 35% CGW.
The combined addition of WC and CGW increased the air per-
meability and water retention of the composting mixtures; air per-
meability and water retention enhance the degradation of organic
wastes and help maintain high temperatures (Eyheraguibel et al.,
2008; Koivula et al., 2004). Moreover, as described in Section 3.8,
WC and CGW greatly increased microbial growth and activity,
which would enhance the microbial degradation of the easily
decomposable organic matter and also result in the increased gen-
eration of heat from decomposition; release of heat with decompo-
sition would result in more rapid increases in temperature and
longer thermophilic periods (Zhu et al., 2012). The presence of
microbial communities in the CGW also accelerated the degrada-
tion process and greatly reduced the volume of the materials dur-
ing composting (Kato and Miura, 2008). According to Khalil et al.
(2008) and Zhang et al. (2013), traditional composting requires
90–270 days to produce a mature compost product. In the present
study, however, the production of a mature and stable compost by
the two-stage composting required only 22 days with the optimal
combination of BAs (15% WC and 35% CGW), indicated that WC and
CGW greatly reduced the time required to obtain a mature
compost.
120 L. Zhang, X. Sun / Waste Management 48 (2016) 115–126

3.2. Effects of bulking agents on the physical properties of the final
compost
3.2.1. Bulk density, water-holding capacity, and porosity
BD values of the final composts were significantly reduced
(p < 0.05) by the addition of WC and CGW alone or in combination
(Table 1). In particular, the BD values in treatments T5, T6, T8, and
T9 were near optimum. Addition of WC and/or CGW, and especially
the combined addition of WC and CGW, greatly increased (p < 0.05)
WHC, TPS, AP, and WHP values in the final composts. WHC and TPS
values were within the acceptable ranges for treatments T2 to T6,
T8, and T9; AP values were within the acceptable range for treat-
ments T2, T3, T5, T6, T8, and T9; and WHP values were within
the optimal range for treatments T2 to T9 (Harada and Inoko,
1980; Makan et al., 2012). Therefore, in terms of BD, WHC, TPS,
AP, and WHP, treatments T5, T6, T8, and T9 produced more stable
and more mature compost products than the other treatments.
The above results indicate that the combined addition of WC
and CGW could increase pore space and water-holding capacities
of the final compost product. Both WC and CGW have low densities
and, when added to the GW, reduced the BD values. Addition of
WC and CGW therefore created conditions that enhanced gas
exchange, water retention, and water drainage of the final compost
product (Fernandez-Hernandez et al., 2014).
3.2.2. Particle-size distribution
Addition of WC and/or CGW greatly increased (p < 0.05) the
percentage of particles between 0.25 and 2.00 mm in the compost
product (Table 4). This was especially true for the combination of
WC and CGW (treatments T5, T6, T8, and T9). Treatment T6 (15%
WC and 35% CGW) had the highest percentage of particles in the
size range of 0.25–2.00 mm, while treatment T1 had the lowest
percentage of particles in that size range.
Gabhane et al. (2012) reported that the optimal size range for
particles in mature compost was 0.25–2.00 mm. The particle-size
data therefore indicate that compost maturity and stability were
higher for treatments T5, T6, T8, and T9 than for the other treat-
ments. The combined addition of WC and CGW to the composting
materials promoted the decomposition of GW and thereby
improved the physical properties (especially the particle-size dis-
tribution) of composting materials and increased the percentages
of particles in the optimal range (Zhang et al., 2013). In addition
to improving the particle-size distribution of the final compost,
addition of WC and CGW improved particle-size distribution and
compost structure during the whole process, which would increase
the rate of degradation and reduce the composting time. These
results agree with those of Silva et al. (2014) and Zhang et al.
(2014).
3.3. Effects of bulking agents on the pH during composting
The changes in pH during the composting process followed a
similar pattern for all treatments (Fig. 2a). In the PC, pH quickly
increased and then declined for all treatments; the pH peaked at
day 1 for treatments T5, T6, T8, and T9, and peaked at day 4 for
treatments T1–T4 and T7. In the SC (from day 6), the pH increased
again and subsequently declined in all treatments; the pH were
highest at day 10 for treatments T5, T6, T8, and T9; at day 16 for
treatments T2–T4 and T7; and at day 25 for treatment T1. In the
whole composting process, the pH was highest in treatment T1
and lowest in treatment T6 (15% WC and 35% CGW). At the end
of composting, the pH for all compost products, except for treat-
ments T1, T4, and T7, were within the acceptable range (7.5–8.0)
for mature and stable compost (Table 1), indicating that addition
of reasonable percentages of WC and CGW could decrease the final
pH of composts (Makan et al., 2012).
Earlier studies have indicated that a pH range of 7.5–8.5 during
composting supports microbial decomposition of organic materials
(Zhang et al., 2009); when the pH was outside of that range, micro-
bial activities were limited. In the current study, the pH during the
composting was closer to the optimal range for treatments T5, T6,
T8, and T9, and especially for treatment T6 (15% WC and 35%
CGW), than for other treatments. WC and CGW have a neutral to
slightly acid pH (Table 1), which would adjust the pH in the com-
posting and thus support microbial activities in general and
hydrolysis/acidogenesis reactions in particular (Adhikari et al.,
2009; Cayuela et al., 2006). The increased pH during composting
is generally thought to result from the microbial decomposition
of organic acids and the subsequent release of ammonium through
mineralization of organic N sources (Jolanun and Towprayoon,
2010). WC and CGW could prevent the loss of N resulting from
ammonia volatilization and N leaching (Section 3.6); this conserva-
tion of N would also tend to decrease the pH of the compost.
3.4. Effects of bulking agents on the electrical conductivity during
composting
In the current study, the changes in EC were opposite to those
for pH (Fig. 2b). EC values were higher for treatments with the
combined addition of WC and CGW than for treatments with WC
or CGW alone or without WC or CGW. The EC of the final compost
was highest for treatment T6 (15% WC and 35% CGW) and lowest
for treatment T1. The final EC values for all treatments were
<4.00 mS/cm (Table 1), which has been reported to be the upper
limit for avoiding negative effects on microorganisms and organic
matter biotransformation (Zhang and Sun, 2015).

Table 4
Particle-size distribution of final composts. The values for particle-size distribution indicate the percentage in each size range (in mm). Values in each row (excluding values for
0.25–2.00) add to 100%. Values are means (SD); n = 3. Treatments T1–T9 are described in Table 3.

Treatment >12.00 (mm) 12.00–2.00 1.00–2.00 0.50–1.00 0.50–0.25 0.25–0.10 <0.10 0.25–2.00
T1 0 30.45(0.65) 19.20(0.40) 13.54(0.46) 3.09(0.31) 18.88(0.23) 14.84(0.65) 35.83(0.21)i
T2 0 16.02(0.98) 15.00(0.15) 16.87(0.20) 22.45(0.73) 19.79(0.16) 9.87(0.92) 54.32(0.19)e
T3 0 14.87(0.54) 13.79(0.26) 15.34(0.98) 23.16(0.49) 12.9(0.24) 19.94(0.18) 52.29(0.24)f
T4 0 23.99(0.43) 12.34(0.49) 14.21(0.51) 24.10(0.38) 11.98(0.74) 13.38(0.27) 50.65(0.31)g
T5 0 13.09(0.09) 20.65(0.57) 22.98(0.67) 20.66(0.23) 17.35(0.19) 5.27(0.21) 64.29(0.46)b
T6 0 15.93(0.47) 12.12(0.38) 14.01(0.34) 42.21(0.12) 8.34(0.37) 7.39(0.39) 68.34(0.37)a
T7 0 22.78(0.83) 21.12(0.54) 23.02(0.43) 4.18(0.65) 10.04(0.18) 18.86(0.23) 48.32(0.16)h
T8 0 20.16(0.28) 18.54(0.61) 21.08(0.55) 22.49(0.30) 16.46(0.64) 1.27(0.48) 62.11(0.25)c
T9 0 18.24(0.17) 16.99(0.35) 18.65(0.39) 24.44(0.22) 15.09(0.49) 6.59(0.52) 60.08(0.13)d

The day at the end of observation was the 30th day for treatment T1; the 27th day for treatments T2, T3, T4, and T7; the 25th day for treatments T5, T8, and T9; and the 22nd
day for treatment T6.
Means in the last column followed by the same letter are not significantly different at p 6 0.05 by LSD.
All percentages are based on air-dried weight.
 L. Zhang, X. Sun / Waste Management 48 (2016) 115–126
Fig. 2. Effects of wood chips (WC) and composted green waste (CGW) on the pH (a), electrical conductivity (EC) (b), and cation exchange capacity (CEC) (c) during the two-
stage composting of green waste (GW). Treatments T1–T9 are described in Table 3.
Addition of WC and CGW (especially at 15% WC and 35% CGW)
increased the EC values during the composting probably because it
increased the production of inorganic compounds and the release
of ions. The results indicate that WC and CGW could enhance
GW decomposition and thus increase the rate at which ions are
released; addition of WC and CGW could also increase ion
retention in the compost product, which would also increase the
EC values (Banegas et al., 2007). Similar observations were made
by Blazy et al. (2014) and Zhou et al. (2014).
3.5. Effects of bulking agents on the cation exchange capacity during
composting
The CEC in all treatments increased as composting proceeded
and became steady at the end of the process (Fig. 2c). CEC was
greater in treatments with than without WC and/or CGW and
was especially high in treatments with both WC and CGW (treat-
ments T5, T6, T8, and T9). During composting, CEC was highest
in treatment T6 (15% WC and 35% CGW) and lowest in treatment
T1. The CEC of the final compost in all treatments except treatment
T1 was >60.0 cmol kg 1 (Table 1), indicating that all composts
except that produced by treatment T1 were mature and stable
(Harada and Inoko, 1980).
CEC not only reflects the decomposition rate but also measures
the capacity of compost to retain nutrients (Steiner et al., 2010).
According to Table 1, CGW has a high CEC and this may be one rea-
son why CGW increased the CEC of composting mixtures. As noted
earlier, addition of WC and CGW, and especially the combined
addition of 15% WC and 35% CGW, increased composting
temperatures, which could accelerate the decomposition and
121
humidification of organic matter and thus increase the formation
of carboxyl and phenolic functional groups; these could increase
CEC values and thus enhance nutrient conservation during com-
posting (Steiner et al., 2010).
3.6. Effects of bulking agents on the nitrogen losses during composting
The trends for N losses were similar to those for temperature
(Fig. 3). N losses for all treatments peaked during the PC and again
during the SC. For treatments T5, T6, T8, and T9, N losses peaked on
day 1 in the PC and on day 10 in the SC. For treatments T2–T4 and
T7, N losses peaked on day 4 in the PC and on day 16 in the SC.
For treatment T1, N losses peaked on day 4 in the PF and on day
25 in the SC. N losses were lower in treatments T5, T6, T8, and
T9 than in other treatments. In the composting process, N losses
was lowest in treatment T6 (15% WC and 35% CGW) and highest
in treatment T1.
N losses could reduce the nutrient value of the final compost
and also cause serious atmospheric pollution (Zhang and Sun,
2015). Most N is usually lost through the volatilization of NH3
when pH and temperatures are high, particularly during the ther-
mophilic period of composting. As indicated by their lower N
losses, treatments with the combined addition of WC and CGW,
and especially 15% WC and 35% CGW, helped dissolve ammonia
and immobilize N (Jolanun and Towprayoon, 2010). The high sorp-
tion capacity and the large surface areas of WC could enhance the
adsorption of ammonium-N during composting. The results were
consistent with those of Koivula et al. (2004). In addition, the
microorganisms in CGW could help convert the ammonia into
122 L. Zhang, X. Sun / Waste Management 48 (2016) 115–126

Fig. 3. Effects of wood chips (WC) and composted green waste (CGW) on the N loss during the two-stage composting of green waste (GW). Treatments T1–T9 are described in
Table 3.

Fig. 4. Effects of wood chips (WC) and composted green waste (CGW) on the degree of polymerization (DP) (a), the humification index (HI) (b), and the humification ratio
(HR) (c) during the two-stage composting of green waste (GW). Treatments T1–T9 are described in Table 3.

nitrate and thus reduce the N losses and increase the quality of the
compost product (Kato and Miura, 2008).
3.7. Effects of bulking agents on the humification
Fig. 4 illustrates the changes in humification indices (DP, HI, and
HR) during the two-stage composting of GW. DP, or the degree of
polymerization, has been proposed to be an important indicator
of compost maturity and reflects the formation of complex mole-
cules from simpler molecules and a reduction in the non-humic
components of composting mixtures that are the most easily
degraded by microorganisms (Tejada et al., 2009). The DP of all
treatments increased during composting (Fig. 4a). DP values were
higher in treatments with the combined addition of WC and
CGW than in other treatments. The trends in HI and HR were sim-
ilar to those for DA (Fig. 4b and c), and these trends agree with
 L. Zhang, X. Sun / Waste Management 48 (2016) 115–126
those of previous studies (Tejada et al., 2009). The values for these
three indices were highest in treatment T6 (15% WC and 35% CGW)
and lowest in treatment T1.
Compost maturity is often judged by its content of humic frac-
tions and its degree of humification and polymerisation (Iqbal
et al., 2010). As previously shown, the combined addition of WC
and CGW (especially the addition of 15% WC and 35% CGW) with
higher humification indices could optimize the physical and chem-
ical properties during composting and enhance microbial growth
and activity, which would increase the humification of organic
structures and the production of humic-like substances and
thereby increase compost maturity and stability.
3.8. Effects of bulking agents on the microbiological properties during
composting
3.8.1. Microbial numbers
The changes in microbial numbers during composting are likely
to reflect composting efficiency. Throughout the composting pro-
cess and particularly during the thermophilic phases, the numbers
of bacteria, actinomycetes, and fungi were higher in treatments
with WC and/or CGW than in treatments without WC and CGW
(Fig. 5). During the PC, microbial numbers peaked on day 1 for
treatments T5, T6, T8, and T9 and on day 4 for the other treat-
ments. During the SC, the numbers increased again and peaked
on day 10 for treatments T5, T6, T8, and T9; on day 16 for treat-
ments T2, T3, T4, and T7; and on day 25 for treatment T1. And then,
the microbial numbers dropped gradually until the end of the pro-
cess, which indicated that the microbial activities in the compost-
ing decreased and especially the compost product turned mature
and stable (Zhang and Sun, 2015). Over the entire composting per-
iod, the microbial numbers were higher for treatments with the
Fig. 5. Effects of wood chips (WC) and composted green waste (CGW) on the numbers of bacteria (a), actinomycetes (b), and fungi (c) during the two-stage composting of
green waste (GW). Treatments T1–T9 are described in Table 3.
123
combined addition of WC and CGW (treatments T5, T6, T8, and
T9) than for other treatments; the numbers were highest in treat-
ment T6 (15% WC and 35% CGW) and lowest in treatment T1.
An increase in microbial numbers usually results in more exten-
sive and more rapid biodegradation during composting (Zhang and
Sun, 2015). The results indicate that an appropriate combination of
WC and CGW, and especially the combined addition of 15% WC and
35% CGW, could enhance microbial abundance. WC has a labyr-
inthine and macroporous structure that provides a very high sur-
face area for microorganism attachment (Koivula et al., 2004). As
mentioned before, WC could serve as the carbon and nitrogen
sources for microorganisms (Kato and Miura, 2008). CGW addition
also probably provided nutrients and therefore supported micro-
bial activities as indicated by Gabhane et al. (2012). Furthermore,
the addition of WC and CGW to GW improved the aeration and
moisture content of the composting materials, which provided
the appropriate physical microenvironment for microbial activity
and reproduction.
3.8.2. Enzyme activities
The activities of dehydrogenase, cellulase, b-glucosidase, pro-
tease, urease, and catalase increased during the thermophilic per-
iod in the PC before decreasing and then increased again during
the thermophilic period in the SC before decreasing (Fig. 6). The
trends for enzyme activities were similar to those for microbial
numbers. During the whole process, enzyme activities were higher
in treatments T5, T6, T8, and T9 than in the other treatments;
enzyme activities were highest in treatment T6 (15% WC and
35% CGW) and lowest in treatment T1.
Microbial degradation of organic matter relies on various
hydrolytic enzymes, and the most important of these are dehydro-
genase, cellulase, b-glucosidase, protease, urease, and catalase
124 L. Zhang, X. Sun / Waste Management 48 (2016) 115–126

Fig. 6. Effects of wood chips (WC) and composted green waste (CGW) on the activities of dehydrogenase (a), cellulase (b), b-glucosidase (c), protease (d), urease (e), and
catalase (f) during the two-stage composting of green waste (GW). Treatments T1–T9 are described in Table 3.

(Ladd and Butler, 1972; Martens et al., 1992; Nikaeen et al., 2015).
The above results indicate that the addition of WC and CGW, espe-
cially the optimal combination of 15% WC and 35% CGW, could
enhance enzyme activities. One possible reason is that the nutri-
ents in WC and CGW improved microbial activity and thus acceler-
ated enzyme production and secretion. Another possible reason is
that WC homogenized the composting materials while increasing
porosity and surface area, which increased the adsorption of
enzymes and therefore increased enzyme activities.
3.9. Effects of bulking agents on the nutrient content of the final
compost
Nutrient contents of the final composts were significantly
higher (p < 0.05) in treatments with both WC and CGW (treatments
T5, T6, T8, and T9) than in other treatments (Table 2). Nutrient
content was highest in treatment T6 (15% WC and 35% CGW)
and lowest in treatment T1.
Macro- and micro-nutrient contents in the compost product can
be affected by the addition of WC and/or CGW (Vandecasteele
et al., 2013). Adding WC and/or CGW to the compost, and espe-
cially adding 15% WC and 35% CGW, could increase the mineraliza-
tion of GW, which would enhance the release of nutrients and the
formation of humus. WC and CGW also provided nutrients and
reduced nutrient leaching, and could therefore increase the nutri-
ent content of the final compost (Jolanun and Towprayoon, 2010;
Kato and Miura, 2008).
3.10. Effects of bulking agents on the germination index of the final
compost
GI values were substantially higher (p < 0.05) in treatments
with the combined addition of WC and CGW (treatments T5, T6,
 L. Zhang, X. Sun / Waste Management 48 (2016) 115–126
Table 5
The germination index (GI) of the final composts. Values are
means (SD); n = 3. Treatments T1–T9 are described in Table 3.
Treatment GI (%)
T1 72(1)h
T2 108(3)e
T3 90(5)f
T4 86(2)f
T5 147(3)b
T6 165(2)a
T7 80(4)g
T8 130(1)c
T9 121(3)d
IRa >80
The day at the end of observation was the 30th day for treatment
T1; the 27th day for treatments T2, T3, T4, and T7; the 25th day
for treatments T5, T8, and T9; and the 22nd day for treatment T6.
a
IR = ideal range, according to Zorpas and Loizidou (2008).
T8, and T9) than in the other treatments (Table 5). The values were
highest in treatment T6 (15% WC and 35% CGW) and lowest in
treatment T1. The GI values of compost products except that pro-
duced by treatment T1 were all >80% (Table 5); according to
Zorpas and Loizidou (2008), compost products with GI values
>80% are mature and are not phytotoxic. Thus, all of the final com-
posts produced in this study, with the exception of that produced
by treatment T1, can be considered mature and stable.
A seed germination test was used to evaluate the phytotoxicity
of the final composts. The results show that WC and CGW
(especially the optimal treatment of 15% WC and 35% CGW) could
efficiently reduce the toxicity of final compost and promote the
maturity and stability of final compost, and thus enhance the seed
germination and seedling root elongation.
4. Conclusion
When used as BAs in the current study, WC and CGW increased
not only the rate of two-stage composting of GW but also the qual-
ity of the final product. The combined addition of WC and CGW
enhanced the composting process by: extending the duration of
the thermophilic period; improving pH, EC, and CEC values;
increasing the residual N content; promoting microbial numbers
and enzyme activities; and enhancing humification. For the com-
post product, the combined addition of WC and CGW improved
aeration, water retention, and particle-size distribution; enhanced
the macro- and micro-nutrient contents; and increased seed ger-
mination. Based on the selected physico-chemical properties and
the germination test, the stability and maturity of the compost
product was greater for compost containing both BAs than for
compost that contained only one or neither of these BAs. The best
final compost product was obtained in only 22 days with the com-
bined addition of 15% WC and 35% CGW.
Acknowledgments
This study was supported by the Fundamental Research Funds
for the Central Universities (NO. BLX2015-07), and the National
Level Project Promotion of Forestry Scientific and Technological
Achievements of the National Forestry Bureau (No. 39, 2012)
‘‘the Promotion and Demonstration of the Agricultural and Forestry
Wastes Production Flowers and Trees Growth Media Technology”.
We also thank Prof. Bruce Jaffee for his linguistic modification of
this paper.
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