Gramática de Antiguo Irlandés

Old Irish Grammar
Introduction
Patrizia de Bernardo Stempel and Jonathan Slocum
Irish is one of the so-called Celtic languages, a sub-family of Indo-European. The

Celtic languages documented and in part still spoken in modern times are Irish, Manx,
and Scottish-Gaelic (dialects of a previous intermediate linguistic stage known as
Goidelic), together with Welsh, Cornish, and Breton (which stem from a different
intermediate linguistic stage called Brittonic or Brythonic). All these are usually called
Insular Celtic languages because they evolved in the British Isles -- even if they were
later carried back to the Continent, as in the case of Breton. To these six, we can add
at least three more Celtic languages whose remains are limited to Antiquity, when
they were spoken on the Continent; these are often grouped together as Continental
Celtic, and were: Ancient Celtic from Italy (including the so-called Lepontic dialect),
the Ancient Celtic from Spain (including the so-called Celtiberian dialect), and Gaulish
Celtic (including the Galatian dialect).
The First Celtic-

Celtic-Speaking Peoples
Because there are many remarkable archaisms preserved in most of its dialects,
Celtic seems to have branched off quite early from the Proto-Indo-European parent
language. But the Celtic languages known from the early Middle Ages introduced
quite a number of striking innovations, most of which can be accounted for by the
colloquial style of everyday spoken language achieving prominence due to a very long
period of oral tradition.
In particular, we can nowadays assume that the oldest Celtic was spoken in
Central Europe and Northern Italy. The language seems to have then spread to the
Iberian Peninsula since Celtic remains found there, in particular the dialect from
Celtiberia, are slightly less conservative. A little later, we find in Italy a moderately
innovating Celtic variety which includes the dialect known as Lepontic but is still a far
cry from the strongly innovating language variety known as Gaulish, and even more
so from Brittonic (the most innovative Celtic branch). It seems that, in the period
before these last two varieties were fully developed, Old Celtic was taken to Ireland
where it gradually turned into Goidelic, sharing quite a few isoglosses with the more
innovative Gaulish and Brittonic varieties but at the same time becoming the most
archaic variety of Insular, i.e. modern Celtic. (More details and bibliography are found
in: Patrizia de Bernardo Stempel, "Language and the historiography of Celtic-speaking
peoples," in S. Rieckhoff (dir.), Celtes et Gaulois, l'Archéologie face à l'Histoire, I : Celtes et
Gaulois dans l'histoire, l'historiographie et l'idéologie moderne, Actes de la table ronde de
Leipzig, 16-17 juin 2005, Glux-en-Glenne: Bibracte, centre archéologique européen,
2006, pp. 33-56 [Bibracte; 12/1]; cf. also by the same author "Las lenguas célticas en la
investigación: cuatro observaciones metodológicas," Cuadernos de Filología clásica:
Estudios griegos e indoeuropeos, 16, 2006, pp. 5-21).
1
Old Irish between Heritage
Heritage and Innovation
The reason for presenting Old Irish in this EIEOL series is twofold. First, it is the
best known variety among the earliest surfacing stages of the Goidelic branch.
Second, it shows not only
1.the specific linguistic features (isoglosses) of Common Celtic, but also

2.remarkable archaisms preserved from an early stage of Indo-European (IE),
together with
3.several Goidelo-Gallo-Brittonic innovations,
4.many characteristic Goidelic isoglosses, and
5.a few mostly syntactical peculiarities only shared with Brittonic and probably
adopted in the early Middle Ages under the influence of its culturally
dominant variety (Christianity, writing, and some literal traditions were also
imported from/through Britain).
Two examples (a & b, below) will have to suffice for each of the aforesaid
characteristics:
1.(a) OIr. rí 'a king', genitive ríg 'of a king' with Celtic ī (as in Gaulish -rix) from IE
*ē as in Latin rēx, rēgis; and (b) OIr. brith 'act of bearing/judging' with Celtic ri (as
also in Gaulish and Brittonic, cf. resp. the god Britovios and Welsh bryd 'mind,
intent, will') as the vocalized outcome of IE *r sonans as in Sanskrit bhṛtiḥ;
2.(a) the lack of a synthetic verb for 'to have', for which a periphrasis is used
instead; and (b) the lack of verbal infinitives, for which verbal substantives are
used instead (at times even derived from different roots than the verb itself);
3.(a) the reduction of the relative pronoun into an uninflected relative particle;
and (b) the introduction of a so-called equative grade of the adjective by prefixing
com to an adjective as in OIr. commór 'equally big', to be seen also in the personal
names Gaulish Comaros and Old Breton Commor;
4.(a) OIr. cruth 'form' from IE *kwṛtus via *kwritus (from which also the
corresponding Welsh pryd), showing that IE *kw was still a real labiovelar prior to
its transformation into Goidelic and Irish c [k], which is why Goidelic is considered
one of the so-called q-Celtic varieties; and (b) the lenition of voiceless stops
between vowel(s) and/or sonorant(s) into voiceless fricatives;
5.(a) the transformation of the intermediate basic order S(ubject)-V(erb)-
O(bject), into which the older IE order SOV had gradually developed during the
joint Goidelo-Gallo-Brittonic period, into the typologically striking VSO, with a
resulting general anteposition of the Determinatum to the Determinans; and (b)
the usage of a lexical distinctive meaning 'woman' as a gender marker.
2
Literature and Other Sources
Sources in Medieval Irish
Having emerged from the less characterized stages of the so-called proto- and
primitive Goidelic, surfacing respectively in the 2nd and in the 5th-7th centuries AD,
Old Irish was used from the 8th to the 10th century AD to compose a quite huge
variety of textual genres, even if most of the texts were transmitted to us only in
much later manuscripts. Also its initial stage, called Archaic Irish and dated to the 6th
and 7th century AD, is known only indirectly. In fact almost the only Old Irish
documents that were written down at the time they were composed, and thus reached
us in their original form, are Irish glosses to Latin religious or grammatical texts that
were copied and used by Irish monks in Continental European monasteries: such are
e.g. the Würzburg and Milan glosses and, respectively, the Sankt Gall and Karlsruhe
glosses.
Poetry, mainly allitterative in the oldest period, is partly found scattered in such
manuscripts, partly inserted in larger prose texts which it integrates, or of which it
might even have constituted the earliest core. Most of the earlier Irish tales are in fact
prosimetra -- mixtures of prose and verse. Their titles usually hint at the literary genre
represented: e.g. adventure (echtra), banquet (fled), battle (cath), birth-tale
(compert), cattle-raid (táin), death-tale (aided), destruction (togail), elopement
(aithed), feast (feis), murder (orgain), tragedy (fingal), vision (aislinge), sea-voyage
(immram), wooing (tochmarc).
An important group of stories is centered on the dynasty of the Ulaid in

northeastern Ireland, supposed to have been ruled by a king Conchobar residing in
the palace of Emain Macha (identified with the archaeological site of Navan Fort near
Armagh): Cu Chulainn is the main hero, and this group is usually referred to as the
Ulster Cycle. Other tales are centered on supernatural beings with magical powers
that have been traced back to old Celtic deities; these fall into what is called the
mythological group (or Cycle). Sometimes an historical person, typically a king, is
made the hero of a tale that is mostly pure legend; these stories comprise the
historical group, although the boundary between history and legend cannot be fixed.
A fourth and comparatively later group of stories is centered on the mythical hero
Finn mac Cumhaill and his followers, a fraternity of free-lancing warriors whose
activities cut across tribal boundaries. Yet other tales are adaptations of Classical texts
to the insular vernacular world, and among these we find an Irish Iliad, Odyssey,
Aeneid, Achilleid, Pharsalia, Thebaid, a story of the Minotaur, of Hercules, and of the
conquest of Troy.
Beside specifically religious texts such as the Martyrology of Oengus, the Psalter
of Quatrains, or the lives of several saints, also didactic literature such as Morann's
speculum principis or the maxims attributed to King Aldfrith of Northumbria are
represented, together with a great number of law texts, the oldest ones belonging to
the juridical corpus called Senchas már 'the big old lore': they encompass injury and
other offenses, sometimes in connection with various animals, marriage and other
contracts, loans, pledges and sureties, also legal procedure in general, and they refer
to various social and professional groups, lunatics included. Genealogical and
annalistic literature should also be mentioned, with the Annals of Ulster and
Tigernach covering the earlier period.
3
Lesson Plan
Our text selections contrive to give an idea of the variety and beauty of the
literature written in medieval Irish. They range from Archaic and Early Old Irish
(sporadically still to be found in Audacht Morainn, Immram Brain, and Compert Con
Culainn), through Classical Old Irish, down to Middle Irish (to be found consistently in
Lebor Gabála Érenn and Aislinge Meic Con Glinne), but our texts are arranged more
according to motifs and difficulty than in chronological sequence.
Starting with a linguistically rather archaic prose text about the birth of the
principal Old Irish hero (Compert Con Culainn in Lesson 1), we continue with a
classical example of the cattle-raids literary genre in which the same hero, Cu
Chulainn, is the protagonist of an encounter with the war-goddess (Táin Bó Regamna
in Lessons 2-4): these last three selections encompass descriptive prose, dialogue, and
verse, in order to give a better idea of the different styles comprised in an average Old
Irish tale. Afterwards, the core parts of a lyrical short tale are presented, whose
protagonist is a very gifted medieval poetess (Comrac Liadaine ocus Cuirithir in
Lesson 5). Next we encounter a piece of didactic and more archaic poetry aimed at
instructing the leader of a community (Audacht Morainn in Lesson 6). The final four
lessons begin with another genre of archaic verse, a so-called 'rowing-about'
composition with a description of the Goidelic otherworld (Immram Brain in Lesson
7). We then revert to prose -- or perhaps theater -- with an Irish version of the
Classical tragedy of Hippolytos and Phaedra (Fingal Rónain in Lesson 8). After taking a
pseudohistorical look at the beginning of the colonization of Ireland (Lebor Gabála
Érenn in Lesson 9), the panorama closes with a view of the land of Cockayne taken
from a late satire on medieval religious life (Aislinge Meic Con Glinne in Lesson 10).
The authors of this series have tried to unify the various spelling policies
adopted by the editors of the printed texts into a consistent whole; some hints as to
the actual pronounciation are given in the first two lessons.
4
Lesson 1
This selection is taken from a text called Compert Con Culainn, The Conception
of Cú Chulainn, which is one of the preludes (remscéla, or pre-stories) to the tales
forming the so-called Ulster Cycle, a collection of lore centered around the heroes of
the ancient Irish province of Ulster. Compert Con Culainn narrates the miraculous
circumstances of the threefold birth of Cú Chulainn, the main hero of the Ulster saga.
According to Irish tradition, the events described took place around the time of the
birth of Christ, yet the central topic of the Ulster epic is far older and can be seen as a
window on pre-Iron Age Ireland, possibly reflecting the fights of the Indo-European
Celtic settlers against the older non-Celtic inhabitants of northwest Ireland.
While the stories contain various mythological elements, the geographical

setting is historical: Emain Macha, the seat of the king of Ulster, Conchobar mac
Nessa, has been identified with the archaeological site of Navan Fort, to the west of
the city of Armagh, and Bruig na Boinne is the Old Irish name of the region
surrounding the pre-Celtic hill grave of Newgrange, County Meath.
The text contains remarkable archaisms. Like most of the earlier Irish tales, it
cannot be attributed to any specific author, but was passed on as oral lore until being
written down by medieval scribes.
Reading and Textual Analysis
The selection is the first part of the account of the conception of Cú Chulainn. It
narrates the events that precede the threefold birth of the hero. The first of these
takes place in the house where Conchobar and his men seek shelter from the snow,
and coincides with the birth of two foals just outside the house. The child is then
raised by Conchobar's daughter, Deichtire, but dies in its infancy. Thereafter,
Deichtire conceives a child from the elf Lug mac Ethnenn, "Lug son of the Bird," by
drinking from a copper cup, and has a vision of Lug telling her that she will be having
a son by the name of Setanta. The miraculous conception together with the lack of a
father causes a scandal with the Ulidians, so that Conchobar finally marries his
daughter off to Sualtaim mac Roich, "Sualtaim son of the Mighty Horse." Ashamed of
marrying a man when already bearing another man's child, Deichtire aborts Lug's
baby and subsequently becomes pregnant by her husband, eventually giving birth to a
boy named Setanta, who later acquires the name Cú Chulainn, "hound of the smith."
Boí Conchuḃur ocus maithi UlaḋN iN nEṁuin.
• boí -- verb; 3rd person singular preterite indicative of substantive verb <attá>
is -- was
• Conchuḃur -- proper name masculine; nominative singular of <Conchubur,
Conchobar> Conchobar -- Conchobar
• ocus -- conjunction; <ocus> and -- and
• maithi -- noun; nominative plural masculine, i-stem, of adjective <maith> good
-- the nobles
• UlaḋN -- noun; genitive plural masculine, o-stem, of <Ulaid> Ulidians,
Ulstermen -- of the Ulstermen
5
• iN -- preposition; <in, iN> in, into -- in
• nEṁuin -- toponym; nasalized dative singular feminine, i-stem, of <Emain,
Emuin> Emain Macha -- Emain Macha
No tathigtis énḟlaith maġ arL Eṁuin.
• no -- verbal particle; introduces imperfect; <no>... -- ...

• tathigtis -- verb; 3rd person plural imperfect indicative active, conjunct, of
<taithigid> frequents, practices -- used to frequent
• énḟlaith -- noun; compound of <én> bird + lenited nominative singular
feminine, i-stem, of <flaith> rule; domain; ruler -- a flock of birds
• maġ -- noun; accusative singular neuter, s-stem, of <mag> plain, field -- the
plain
• arL -- preposition; <arL, airL> before, for, in front of, east of -- east of
• Eṁuin -- toponym; dative singular feminine, i-stem of <Emain, Emuin> Emain
Macha -- Emain Macha
NaL ġelltis conná fácbatis ciḋ mecnu na fér ná lossa iN dalaṁ.
• naL -- verbal particle; compound form of verbal particle <no> (introduces

imperfect) + infixed pronoun 3rd person singular neuter <aL> it -- it
• ġelltis -- verb; 3rd person plural imperfect indicative active, conjunct, of
<gelid> grazes, devours -- they used to devour
• conná -- conjunction; compound form of conjunct particle <con, coN> until; so
that; and + dependent negative particle <ná, na> not, nor -- until... not
• fácbatis -- verb; 3rd person plural imperfect indicative active, prototonic, of
<fo°ácaib> leaves -- they left
• ciḋ -- conjunction; compound form of conjunction <cía> although, even if +
suffixed enclitic present subjunctive of copula <is> is -- even
• mecnu -- noun; accusative plural masculine, o-stem, of <mecon, mecan> root --
roots
• na -- dependent negative particle; <ná, na> not, nor -- nor
• fér -- noun; accusative singular neuter, o-stem, of <fér> grass -- grass
• ná -- dependent negative particle; <ná, na> not, nor -- nor
• lossa -- noun; accusative plural masculine, u-stem, of <luss, lus> herb, plant,
vegetable -- herbs
• iN -- preposition; <in, iN> in, into -- on
• dalaṁ -- noun; nasalized dative singular masculine, n-stem, of <talam> earth,
ground -- the ground
BaH tochoṁracht laH hUltu aN naicsiu oc colluḋ aN nírenn.
• baH -- verb; 3rd person singular preterite indicative, absolute, of copula <is> is -
- was
• tochoṁracht -- verbal noun; nominative singular feminine, ā-stem, of
<tochomracht> distress, weariness, vexation -- distress(ing)
• laH -- preposition; <laH> among, by, with -- for
• hUltu -- proper name; aspirated accusative plural masculine, o-stem, of
<Ulaid> Ulidians, Ulstermen -- the Ulstermen
• aN -- possessive pronoun 3rd person plural <aN> their -- ...
6
• naicsiu -- verbal noun; nasalized nominative singular feminine, n-stem, of
<aicsiu> seeing -- to see
• oc -- preposition; <oc> at, with, by -- ...
• colluḋ -- verbal noun; dative singular neuter, u-stem/s-stem, of <collud>
damaging, destroying -- the destruction
• aN -- possessive pronoun 3rd person plural <aN> their -- their
• nírenn -- noun; nasalized genitive singular feminine, n-stem, of <íriu> land,
earth, soil -- of... land
Inlaat noí cairptiu diaN dofunn láaN nand.
• inlaat -- verb; 3rd person plural present indicative active, deuterotonic, of

<in°lá> undertakes, arranges, adjusts -- they yoke
• noí -- indeclinable numeral; <noí> nine -- nine
• cairptiu -- noun; accusative plural masculine, o-stem, of <carpat> war-chariot,
wagon -- chariots
• diaN -- preposition; compound form of preposition <duL, doL> to + suffixed
possessive pronoun 3rd person plural <aN> their -- to... them
• dofunn -- verbal noun; nasalized dative singular neuter, o-stem, of <tafann>
hunting, pursuing, expelling -- chase... away
• láaN -- noun; accusative singular neuter, yo-stem, of <láaN, láN> day, daylight --
one day
• nand -- pronominalized preposition; nasalized 3rd person singular neuter
dative of <in, iN> in, into -- then
Ar baH bés leusoṁ foriṁ én.
• ar -- conjunction; <air, ar> for -- for

- was
• bés -- noun; nominative singular masculine, u-stem, of <bés> custom, habit -- a
custom
• leusoṁ -- pronominalized preposition; 3rd person plural accusative of <laH>
among, by, with + emphasizing particle 3rd person plural <seom, som> he, it --
with them
• foriṁ -- verbal noun; nominative singular neuter, n-stem, of <forim> chase --
the chase
• én -- noun; genitive plural masculine, o-stem, of <én> bird -- of birds
Conchuḃur dano iN suḋiu innaL charput ocus aL inġen Deichtire os síL ṁacḋacht.

• dano -- enclitic emphatic particle; <dano, dono> again, now, then -- then
• iN -- preposition; <in, iN> in, into -- ...
• suḋiu -- verbal noun; dative singular neuter, yo-stem, of <sude, suide> sitting --
sitting
• innaL -- preposition; compound form of preposition <in, iN> in, into + suffixed
possessive pronoun 3rd person singular masculine <aL> his, its -- in his
7
• charput -- noun; lenited dative singular masculine, o-stem, of <carpat> war-
chariot, wagon -- chariot
• aL -- possessive pronoun 3rd person singular masculine <aL> his, its -- his
• inġen -- noun; nominative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <ingen> daughter --
daughter
• Deichtire -- proper name feminine; nominative singular of <Deichtire,
Deichtine> Deichtire -- Deichtire
• os -- verb; participle present of copula <is> is -- being
• síL -- personal pronoun 3rd person singular feminine of <(h)é, síL, (h)ed> he,
she, it -- she
• ṁacḋacht -- indeclinable; <macdacht> adult -- an adult
Is síL ḃaH harae diaH hathair.
• is -- verb; 3rd person singular present indicative, absolute, of copula <is> is -- it

is
• síL -- personal pronoun 3rd person singular feminine of <(h)é, síL, (h)ed> he,
she, it -- she
• ḃaH -- verb; 3rd person singular preterite indicative, absolute, syntactically
relative, of copula <is> is -- who was
• harae -- noun; aspirated nominative singular masculine, dental stem, of <are,
arae, ara> charioteer -- charioteer
• diaH -- preposition; compound form of preposition <duL, doL> to + suffixed
possessive pronoun 3rd person singular feminine <aH> her -- to her
• hathair -- noun; aspirated dative singular masculine, r-stem, of <athir, athair>
father -- father
Erriḋ UlaḋN olchenae innaN garptiḃ .i. Conall ocus Lóeġuire ocus cách olchenae.
• erriḋ -- noun; nominative plural masculine, dental stem, of <eirr, err> chariot-
fighter, champion, warrior -- the champions
• olchenae -- adverb; <olchenae> besides -- also
• innaN -- preposition; compound form of preposition <in, iN> in, into + suffixed
possessive pronoun 3rd person plural <aN> their -- in their
• garptiḃ -- noun; nasalized dative plural masculine, o-stem, of <carpat> war-
chariot, wagon -- chariots
• .i. -- abbreviation of <ed-ón> that is -- that is
• Conall -- proper name masculine; nominative singular of <Conall> Conall --
Conall
• Lóeġuire -- proper name masculine; nominative singular of <Lóegaire,
Lóeguire> Loegaire -- Loegaire
• cách -- pronominal; nominative singular masculine of <cách> everybody,
everyone -- everybody
• olchenae -- adverb; <olchenae> besides -- else
8
Bricriu dano leu.
• Bricriu -- proper name masculine; nominative singular of <Bricriu> Bricriu --

Bricriu
• dano -- enclitic emphatic particle; <dano, dono> again, now, then -- too
• leu -- pronominalized preposition; 3rd person plural accusative of <laH>
among, by, with -- with them
Fosruṁat indL éuin reṁiḃ diaN ndaiṁ tar Slíaḃ Fúait, tar Edṁuinn, tar Breġa.
• fosruṁat -- verb; variant of 3rd person plural present indicative, deuterotonic,

of <for°ruimi> sets, places; goes -- go
• indL -- article; nominative plural masculine of <in, aN, indL> the -- the
• éuin -- noun; nominative plural masculine, o-stem, of <én> bird -- birds
• reṁiḃ -- pronominalized preposition; 3rd person plural dative of <reN> before -
- before them
• diaN -- preposition; compound form of preposition <duL, doL> to + suffixed
possessive pronoun 3rd person plural <aN> their -- to their
• ndaiṁ -- noun; nasalized dative singular feminine, u-stem, of <dom, dam>
house, home -- abode
• tar -- preposition; <tar> across, over -- over
• Slíaḃ Fúait -- toponym; accusative singular of <Slíab Fúait> Wooden Hill -- Sliab
Fuait
• Edṁuinn -- toponym; accusative singular of <Edmann> Edmonn, Edmand --
Edmand
• Breġa -- toponym; accusative singular of <Brega> Brega -- Brega
Ní bíḋ claḋ ná airḃe ná caisel imL thír iN nÉre ind amsir sin acht maiġe réiḋi.
• ní -- independent negative particle; <ní, ni> not -- not

• bíḋ -- verb; 3rd person singular consuetudinal present, absolute, of substantive
verb <attá> is -- there would... be
• claḋ -- noun; nominative singular masculine, o-stem, of <clad> ditch, dyke -- a
dyke
• ná -- dependent negative particle; <ná, na> not, nor -- nor
• airḃe -- noun; nominative singular neuter, yo-stem, of <airbe> hedge, fence -- a
fence
• ná -- dependent negative particle; <ná, na> not, nor -- or
• caisel -- noun; nominative singular masculine, o-stem, of <caisel> stone wall,
rampart -- a stone wall
• imL -- preposition; <imbL, immL> around, about; mutually -- around
• thír -- noun; lenited accusative singular neuter, s-stem, of <tír> earth,
territory, land -- the land
• nÉre -- toponym; nasalized dative singular feminine, n-stem, of <Ériu> Ireland -
- Ireland
• ind -- article; accusative singular feminine of <in, aN, indL> the -- at
9
• amsir -- noun; accusative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <aimser, amsir> time,
period, season -- time
• sin -- anaphoric demonstrative pronoun; <sin> this, that, those, the
aforementioned -- that
• acht -- preposition; <acht> except, only, save, but -- but
• maiġe -- noun; accusative plural neuter, s-stem, of <mag> plain, field -- fields
• réiḋi -- adjective; accusative plural neuter of <réid> smooth, even, level -- even
BaH hálaind ocus baH caín in ténlorg ocus in ténaṁar boíL leu.
- it was
• hálaind -- adjective; aspirated nominative singular masculine of <álaind>
beautiful, lovely -- delightful
- it was
• caín -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <caín> fine, excellent,
beautiful -- beautiful
• in -- article; nominative singular masculine of <in, aN, indL> the -- the
• ténlorg -- noun; compound of <én> bird + nominative singular masculine, o-
stem, of <lorg> trail, path, course -- bird-
bird-flight
• ténaṁar -- noun; compound of <én> bird + nominative singular masculine, o-
stem, of <amar> singing, song -- bird-
bird-song
• boíL -- verb; 3rd person singular preterite indicative, syntactically relative, of
substantive verb <attá> is -- that was
• leu -- pronominalized preposition; 3rd person plural accusative of <laH>
among, by, with -- with them
Noí fichit én dóiḃ, rond argit eter cach dáL én.

• fichit -- numeral; nominative plural masculine, nt-stem, of <fiche> twenty --
units of twenty
• én -- noun; genitive plural masculine, o-stem, of <én> bird -- birds
• dóiḃ -- pronominalized preposition; 3rd person plural dative of <duL, doL> to --
to them
• rond -- noun; nominative singular masculine, u-stem, of <rond, ronn> chain,
bond -- a chain
• argit -- noun; genitive singular masculine, o-stem, of <arcat, argat> silver -- of
silver
• eter -- preposition; <eter> between, among -- between
• cach -- pronominal; nominative singular masculine of <cach, cech> each, every,
any -- every
• dáL -- numeral; accusative dual masculine of <dáL, díL, dáN> two -- two
• én -- noun; accusative dual masculine, o-stem, of <én> bird -- birds
10
Cach fiche innaL lurg foL leith, noí luirg dóiḃ.
• cach -- pronominal; nominative singular masculine of <cach, cech> each, every,

any -- each
• fiche -- numeral; nominative singular masculine, nt-stem, of <fiche> twenty --
unit of twenty
• innaL -- preposition; compound form of preposition <in, iN> in, into + suffixed
possessive pronoun 3rd person singular masculine <aL> his, its -- in its
• lurg -- noun; dative singular masculine, o-stem, of <lorg> trail, path, course --
flight
• foL -- preposition; <foL> under -- on
• leith -- noun; dative singular neuter, s-stem, of <leth> side, direction -- a side
• luirg -- noun; nominative plural masculine, o-stem, of <lorg> trail, path, course
-- trails
to them
Saṁlaiḋ dáL én bátar reṁiḃ, cuing argit etarru.
• saṁlaiḋ -- adverb; <samlaid, amlaid> thus, so, in this way -- thus

• dáL -- numeral; nominative dual masculine of <dáL, díL, dáN> two -- two
• én -- noun; nominative dual masculine, o-stem, of <én> bird -- birds
• bátar -- verb; 3rd person plural preterite indicative relative of substantive verb
<attá> is -- that were
- before them
• cuing -- noun; nominative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <cuing> yoke, chain --
a yoke
• argit -- noun; genitive singular masculine, o-stem, of <arcat, argat> silver -- of
silver
• etarru -- pronominalized preposition; 3rd person plural accusative of <eter>
between, among -- between them
Toscartha tríH héuin díḃ coH haidchi.
• toscartha -- verb; 3rd person plural preterite indicative passive, deuterotonic,

of <do°scara> overthrows, ruins -- were separated
separated
H
• trí -- numeral; nominative plural masculine of <trí, tri, teoir> three -- three
• héuin -- noun; aspirated nominative plural masculine, o-stem, of <én> bird --
birds
• díḃ -- pronominalized preposition; 3rd person plural dative of <diL, deL> from,
of -- from them
• coH -- preposition; <coH> to, until -- by
• haidchi -- noun; aspirated accusative singular feminine, yā-stem, of <adaig>
night -- night
11
Lotir reṁiḃ iN gend inL Ḃroġo.
• lotir -- verb; 3rd person plural preterite indicative of <luith, luid> moves; flies -
- they flew
- before them
• iN -- preposition; <in, iN> in, into -- to
• gend -- noun; nasalized accusative singular neuter, o-stem, of <cenn> head,
front; end -- the end
end
• inL -- article; genitive singular masculine of <in, aN, indL> the -- of the
• Ḃroġo -- toponym; genitive singular masculine, u-stem, of <brug, bruig> region,
district -- Brug na Boinne
Is and baH haḋaiġ for feraiḃ UlaḋN.
• is -- verb; 3rd person singular present indicative, absolute, of copula <is> is -- is

• and -- pronominalized preposition; 3rd person singular neuter dative of <in, iN>
in, into -- there
• baH -- verb; 3rd person singular preterite indicative, absolute, syntactically
relative, of copula <is> is -- that... was
• haḋaiġ -- noun; aspirated nominative singular feminine, yā-stem, of <adaig>
night -- night
• for -- preposition; <for> on, over -- on
• feraiḃ -- noun; dative plural masculine, o-stem, of <fer> man -- the warriors
Feraiḋ snechtae mór foraiḃ dano.
• feraiḋ -- verb; 3rd person singular present indicative active, absolute, of

<feraid> grants, affords, supplies, gives; performs; pours, sheds -- it pours
• snechtae -- noun; nominative singular masculine, yo-stem, of <snechtae,
snechta> snow -- snow
• mór -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <már, mór> big, great -- big
• foraiḃ -- pronominalized preposition; 3rd person plural dative of <for> on, over
-- on them
Asbert Conchuḃur friaL ṁuintir ara scortis aN gairptiu ocus ara cortis cor doL
chuindchiḋ tiġe dóiḃ.
• asbert -- verb; 3rd person singular preterite indicative active, deuterotonic, of

<as°beir> says, speaks -- said
• friaL -- preposition; compound form of preposition <frithL, friH> against,
towards + suffixed possessive pronoun 3rd person singular masculine <aL> his,
its -- to his
• ṁuintir -- noun; accusative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <muinter> family;
party, followers; retinue, company -- party
12
• ara -- conjunction; <ar-aN> so that, in order that, that -- that
• scortis -- verb; 3rd person plural past subjunctive active, conjunct, of <scuirid>
unyokes -- they should unyoke
• gairptiu -- noun; nasalized accusative plural masculine, o-stem, of <carpat>
war-chariot, wagon -- chariots
• ara -- conjunction; <ar-aN> so that, in order that, that -- that
• cortis -- verb; 3rd person plural past subjunctive active, conjunct, of
<fo°cuirethar> puts, throws -- they should put
• cor -- verbal noun; accusative singular masculine, o-stem, of <cor> putting;
throwing; letting go -- a delegation
• doL -- preposition; <duL, doL> to -- to
• chuindchiḋ -- verbal noun; lenited dative singular masculine, i-stem, of
<cuingid, cuindchid> seeking, requesting -- the seeking
• tiġe -- noun; genitive singular neuter, s-stem, of <teg, tech> house, dwelling --
of shelter
for them
Lesson Text
Boí Conchuḃur ocus maithi UlaḋN iN nEṁuin. No tathigtis énḟlaith maġ arL Eṁuin.
NaL ġelltis conná fácbatis ciḋ mecnu na fér ná lossa iN dalaṁ. BaH tochoṁracht laH
hUltu aN naicsiu oc colluḋ aN nírenn. Inlaat noí cairptiu diaN dofunn láaN nand. Ar baH
bés leusoṁ foriṁ én. Conchuḃur dano iN suḋiu innaL charput ocus aL inġen Deichtire os
síL ṁacḋacht. Is síL ḃaH harae diaH hathair. Erriḋ UlaḋN olchenae innaN garptiḃ .i. Conall
ocus Lóeġuire ocus cách olchenae. Bricriu dano leu.
Fosruṁat indL éuin reṁiḃ diaN ndaiṁ tar Slíaḃ Fúait, tar Edṁuinn, tar Breġa. Ní bíḋ
claḋ ná airḃe ná caisel imL thír iN nÉre ind amsir sin acht maiġe réiḋi. BaH hálaind ocus
baH caín in ténlorg ocus in ténaṁar boíL leu. Noí fichit én dóiḃ, rond argit eter cach dáL
én. Cach fiche innaL lurg foL leith, noí luirg dóiḃ. Saṁlaiḋ dáL én bátar reṁiḃ, cuing
argit etarru. Toscartha tríH héuin díḃ coH haidchi. Lotir reṁiḃ iN gend inL Ḃroġo. Is and
baH haḋaiġ for feraiḃ UlaḋN. Feraiḋ snechtae mór foraiḃ dano.
Asbert Conchuḃur friaL ṁuintir ara scortis aN gairptiu ocus ara cortis cor doL
chuindchiḋ tiġe dóiḃ.
Translation
Conchobar and the nobles of the Ulstermen were in Emain Macha. A flock of birds
used to frequent the plain east of Emain Macha. They used to devour it until they left
nothing on the ground, not even roots or grass or herbs. To see the destruction of
their land was distress(ing) for the Ulstermen. One day they yoke nine chariots to
chase them away. For the chase of birds was a custom with them. Conchobar then,
sitting in his chariot, and his daughter Deichtire, she being an adult. It is she who was
charioteer to her father. Also the champions of the Ulstermen in their chariots, that is
Conall and Loegaire and everybody else. Bricriu, too, (was) with them.
13
The birds go before them to their abode, over Sliab Fuait, over Edmand, over Brega.
There would not be a dyke, nor a fence or a stone wall around the land in Ireland at
that time, but (just) even fields. It was delightful and it was beautiful the flight and the
singing of those birds. Nine units of twenty birds to them, a chain of silver between
every two birds. Each unit of twenty separated in its flight, nine trails (there were) to
them. Thus (it was) two birds that were before them, a yoke of silver between them.
Three birds were separated from them by the night. They flew before them to the end
of Bruig na Boinne. It is there that night was on the warriors of the Ulstermen. Then it
pours big snow on them.
Conchobar said to his party that they should unyoke their chariots and that they
should put a delegation to the seeking of shelter for them.
Grammar
1. Spelling and Pronunciation
1.1. The Phonological System and its Orthographical Representations
The phonetic values of the constituents of the Old Irish phonological system can
be inferred from their pronunciation in the modern language as well as from textual
variants and from secondary sources, such as e.g. Old Norse manuscripts.
The Old Irish phonological system is made up of the following phonemes:
Vowels and Diphthongs
Short vowels a e i o u
Long vowels á é í ó ú
Diphthongs áu, ái (áe) éu (éo) íu, ía oí (óe) úa, uí
Consonants
Labial Dental Palato-

Palato-velar
Stops Voiceless p t k
Voiced b d g
Fricatives Voiceless f θ x, h
Voiced v, ṽ/β~ ð ɣ
Nasals m n ŋ
Liquids r, l
Sibilants s
Depending on their vocalic environment, consonants can have either palatal or

non-palatal, that is velar or neutral quality. Palatal quality occurs after the vowels /e/
and /i/, whether short, long, or the second element of a diphthong (though <e> can
also indicate a preceding palatal and a following nonpalatal consonant); velar quality
occurs after the vowels /o/ and /u/, long and short or as second element of a
14
diphthong; long and short /a/ or diphthongs containing it as the second element
cause neutral quality of a following consonant.
The oldest extant written material of Old Irish consists of sepulchral stone
inscriptions, carved into rectangular stone pillars according to a peculiar dots and
line-system called ogam-alphabet. The distinction between vowels (represented by
one to five notches on the central line, which is the edge of the stone pillar) and
consonants (represented by one to five strokes cut across the central line), and the
classification of the sounds into four sets, roughly according to their type of
articulation, point to the fact that the writers were familiar with the Classical
grammatical tradition and probably adapted an earlier numeral system to the Latin
alphabet.
The Latin alphabet, which was used for all other purposes, had the major
disadvantage of possessing a poor inventory of symbols representing fricatives, so
that not every Irish sound could be orthographically represented by a specific letter.
Therefore, in the manuscripts certain Latin letters denote various Irish phonemes,
such as the letters <p t c>, which represent both voiced and voiceless stops [b d g p t k]
(in the latter 3 instances they are sometimes written double), because the letters <b d
g> are used to indicate voiced fricatives. Voiceless fricatives are indicated by <ph th
ch>. The letter <m> stands not only for [m], but also for the voiced nasalized fricatives
[β~] and [ṽ].
The following table shows the Old Irish consonant system as expressed by the
Latin letters, and the phonetic values these represent in Old Irish:
• p represents [p] and [b]

• t represents [t] and [d]
• c represents [k] and [g]
• b represents [v] and [b]
• d represents [ð] and [d]
• g represents [ɣ] and [g]
• ph represents [f]
• th represents [θ]
• ch represents [x]
• m represents [m], [ṽ] and [β~]
• n represents [n] and [ŋ]
• r represents [r]
• l represents [l]
• s represents [s]
• ṡ represents [h], as a morphophonemic variant of /s/
• f represents [f]
• ḟ represents lenited f, which is silent
• h represents [h], as prefixed to vowels (as by the initial mutation called
gemination, cf. lesson 2, section 6.3)
The phonetic value of those letters which represent several phonemes is

determined by its context. That is to say, whether e.g. /b d g m/ are pronounced as
stops or as fricatives depends on their position in the word and in the sentence. Word-
internally in intervocalic position or between vowel and sonorant, as well as word-
15
finally in postvocalic position and after vowel+liquid, they undergo so-called lenition,
which means they have laxer articulation. The phenomenon also affects /n r l/ in
intervocalic and post-vocalic word final position; yet while lenited /b d g m/ in later
manuscripts came to be written bh, dh, gh and mh respectively, there is no
orthographic indication of this phenomenon with respect to /n r l/ (but they are
sometimes written double when they are not lenited).
The same mutation also occurs between syntactically related words, where it has
to a great extent developed into a grammatical phenomenon, i.e. beyond the phonetic
one it originally was. Initial lenition will be discussed in lesson 2, section 6, together
with the two other types of initial mutation, i.e. nasalization and gemination, which
cause prefixing of an n- and h-, respectively, to a following vowel (where nasalization
takes place, there is also voicing of voiceless stops, yet this is not orthographically
indicated in the manuscripts or in the present text). There are many examples for the
various mutations in the present text. In the first sentence alone, we find instances of
lenited c, b, m and d in Conch chuḃ
ch ḃur, nEṁ ṁuin, and UlaḋḋN. The dative of the toponym
Eṁuin is furthermore nasalized by the preceding nasalizing preposition iN, thus
nEṁuin. Sentence four contains an example of gemination, where the preposition laH
causes aspiration of the vocalic initial of the following noun Ultu, thus hUltu.
That a word in certain syntactical contexts causes mutation of the initial of the
following word is indicated in the present work by L, N or H respectively after the word
in question. To facilitate correct pronunciation of the Old Irish texts, lenited
consonants are orthographically indicated in the first two lessons, even if these clues
are not present in the actual manuscripts.
1.2. Accentuation
As can be inferred from the reduction of unstressed syllables (viz. word-internal

syncope and word-final apocope), as well as from the pronunciation in most modern
dialects, Old Irish had a strong stress accent, which falls on the first syllable in
uncompounded words susceptible of full stress as well as in nominal compounds. Only
in verbal compounds does the first preverb not form a close compound with the
second element, so that the stress is usually on the second syllable of the compound;
this can be either the verbal stem itself or another preverb. Compound verbs
following this stress pattern are called deuterotonic. An example from the text is found
in sentence three, where naL (i.e. the verbal particle no + pronoun aL) precedes the 3
plural imperfect indicative ġelltis, which bears the accent on the first syllable, thus
naLġelltis.
ġell If the first position, however, is occupied by certain conjunctions and
particles, the stress falls on the first syllable, i.e. on the first preverb of a compound
verb. The compound is then said to have prototonic form. In the text, this is illustrated
by the verbal form fácbatis in the third sentence, which is preceded by the
conjunction conná, consisting of the conjunct particle conN + suffixed negative
particle ná. The verbal compound fo°ácaib accordingly has prototonic form, thus
fácbatis.
fác Prototonic verbal forms are also required in a few other constructions (cf.
lesson 5, section 22.2). Unstressed words, such as the article, prepositions, and many
pronouns are attached either to the following or the preceding word as proclitics or
enclitics.
16
2. Word Order
2.1. The Basic Word Order of Old Irish
In Old Irish, nominal as well as verbal predicates stand at the head of the
sentence, preceding subjects and objects. Only certain elements like pretonic
prepositions, conjunctions, interrogatives, negative particles and infixed personal
pronouns can precede the verb; all other elements, when focussed and hence placed
left of the verb, require a relative marker. According to typological classification, Old
Irish is therefore a language of the VSO type, because its basic word order is Verb-
Subject-Object. Sentences like the first two illustrate the VSO word order with initial
position of the verb, which in the first sentence is the copula boí, followed by the
subject Conchuḃur, and in the second the compound verb form no tathigtis, followed
by the subject énḟlaith and the direct object maġ arL Eṁuin. Sentence twelve
constitutes an example of the finite verb -- in this instance the copula bíḋ -- being
preceded by the negative particle ní.
The VSO order also implies further syntactical as well as certain morphological
characteristics and even phonological features. As to syntax, the determinans follows
the determinatum, that is to say, nominal modifiers such as genitives, descriptive
adjectives and relative constructions follow the noun they modify, complements
follow finite verbs etc. The aforementioned constructions can be seen in the text: in
the first sentence, the genitive UlaḋN follows the noun it modifies, maithi 'the nobles
of the Ulstermen'; the same is true in sentences 4 and 12, where we find colluḋ aN n-
írenn 'the destruction of their land', and in imaḋ na treḃ 'the rivalry of the tribes'. In
sentence 11, the noun maiġe is followed by its modifier, the adjective réiḋi, thus 'even
fields'. A determinatum-determinans relation in form of a relative construction
following the noun it modifies can be found in sentence 13, where boí leu 'that was
with them' follows the nouns in t-énlorg ocus in t-énaṁar 'the flight of the birds and
the singing of the birds'.
2.2. Word Order in Nominal Syntagms and Compounds
In nominal syntagms, the verbal or predicate element is placed at the head of

the sentence.
In nominal compounds, such as the determinative compounds énlorg 'flight of

the birds' and énaṁar 'singing of the birds', the VSO-specific syntactical order of
modifier and modified element appears reversed. Here, we find determinans-
determinatum instead of determinatum-determinans, with the logical genitive én 'birds'
preceding lorg 'flight' and aṁar 'singing' respectively, which it modifies. The
explanation for this lies in the fact that compounds generally tend to preserve archaic
patterns and Irish, like all other ancient Indo-European languages, originally belonged
to the SOV type but later underwent a typological change.
2.3. Residues of the Older SOV Structure
Apart from the word order in nominal compounds, which were formed
according to the older syntactic structure still preserved in the older Goidelic layers,
remnants of the original SOV structure can also be found in some of the earliest texts,
17
where verbs may be placed at the end of their clause. In this situation, simple verbs
take conjunct forms (see below, section 3.3), while compound verbs take prototonic
forms (see above, section 1.2). The phenomenon was identified by Osborn Bergin ("On
the Syntax of the Verb in Old Irish," Ériu 12, 1938, 197-214) and is therefore referred to
as Bergin's Law. Another type of residual OV construction is to be seen in sentence 3,
where the non-compound verb ġelltis is preceded by the object pronoun aL, which is
infixed between the verb itself and the imperfect-marker no. Remnants of SVO are
also attested, as probably the deuterotonic inlaat (with implicit subject) followed by
the direct object noí cairptiu in sentence 5.
3. The Verb
3.1. Sentences without Verb
In Old Irish, the verb is frequently omitted in any type of clause, especially
where it would have been a form of the 3rd person indicative, but also in descriptions,
peremptory commands, and even replies to questions. Omission of the verb 'to be' is
especially common, as in the present text sentences such as 7, 9 and 10 show, which
begin with the subject of the clause: Conchuḃur, Erriḋ UlaḋN, and Bricriu, respectively.
3.2. Nominal Forms of the Verb
In Old Irish, verbal action is frequently expressed by nouns, the so-called verbal
nouns, whose subject or object is usually in the genitive. In the last sentence of the
present text, the verbal noun of con°dieig, cuindchiḋ, which is itself in the dative and
is governed by the preposition doL, has the genitive tiġe as its object. Literally
translated, the phrase thus means 'for the seeking of shelter', though in English it
corresponds to an infinitive construction 'to seek shelter'. Verbal nouns may also
occur without an object; in still other constructions the subject or object of the action
may be placed before the nominative or accusative of the verbal noun, as the
following phrase from Fingail Rónain illustrates: Is mór bríg do mac aithig guin maic
ríg, 'It is a much too serious matter for the son of a villain to kill the son of a king' (lit.
'for the son of a villain the killing of the son of a king'), where the logical subject mac
aithig 'son of a villain' precedes the verbal noun guin 'killing', and the object maic ríg
'son of a king' follows in the genitive.
Other nominal forms of the verb are the past participle passive, which is
inflected like an adjective, and the verbal of necessity, which is not inflected and, used
only in predicative constructions, has the same meaning as Latin gerundives such as
agenda 'things to be done'.
3.3. Inflected Verbal Forms
In Old Irish, verbs are inflected for voice, mood, tense, number and person.
There are two voices, active and passive. In the active, two inflections are
distinguished, active and deponent, the latter of which is in its form similar to the
passive but actually based on the Indo-European middle voice, which denotes that an
action is carried out with reference or benefit to the subject. In the present selection,
only active and passive finite verbal forms occur. There are numerous examples of
18
active forms, e.g. boí 'it was', inlaat 'they prepare', fosruṁat 'they go', lotir 'they flew',
etc. A passive form is found e.g. in sentence eighteen, in the 3 plural preterite passive
toscartha 'they were separated'.
The passive has a special form for the 3rd person plural only, whereas the form
of the 3rd person singular is used for all other persons; in these contexts an infixed
pronoun (1st/2nd person singular/plural) must then be added to indicate the subject.
Three moods are distinguished. The indicative is used in declarative statements,

the subjunctive indicates uncertainty, in subordinate clauses also volition or
expectation, and the imperative serves for commands.
In the indicative, five tenses are distinguished: present, imperfect, preterite,

future and secondary future. The present is used for present and universal or
indefinite time, and is also very often employed as historical present to make a
narration more vivid. This is observed e.g. in sentences five, eleven and twenty-one of
the present text. The imperfect denotes repeated or customary action in the past, as
illustrated by the verbs in sentences two and three, which describe the habitual
behaviour of the birds. The preterite indicates past action or state. As is to be
expected in narration, most of the verbal forms of the text are in the preterite. The
future indicates future action, also action completed at a point of time in the future.
The secondary future indicates an action which, when viewed from a definite point of
past time, lay in the future, and also serves as potentialis and irrealis.
The subjunctive mood only differentiates between present and past, whereby
the present subjunctive corresponds to the present and future indicative, and the past
subjunctive corresponds to the imperfect and preterite indicative, and in some
subordinate clauses can also serve as subjunctive of the secondary future.
In order to indicate that an act or state is perfect, completed, the verbal particle
ro, which in origin is a preposition, can be combined with nearly all simple and most
compound verbs. It gives perfective force to the preterite indicative and the past
subjunctive, which otherwise have the meaning of a simple past, and with the
imperfect denotes that an action is repeatedly completed in the past. It also has modal
function, expressing possibility or ability (e.g. as°ro-ba(i)r 'he can say', from as°beir
'says').
The tenses and moods of the verbs are formed from five different stems:
• present stem for present and imperfect indicative as well as the imperative
(active/deponent and passive forms);
• subjunctive stem for present and past subjunctive (active/deponent and passive
forms);
• future stem for primary and secondary future indicative (active/deponent and
passive forms);
• active preterite stem for the preterite indicative, active and deponent;
• passive preterite stem for the passive preterite indicative.
Two main classes of verbs, strong and weak, can be distinguished according to
the way in which they form these stems. Strong verbs are without exception primary,
19
never derived, while weak verbs are mainly denominative. The difference between
the two classes is most obvious in the 3 singular present indicative active, where a
weak verb in the so-called conjunct inflection has the ending -a or -i, while a strong verb
has no visible ending.
There are two numbers, singular and plural. Dual subjects take a plural verb.
Both numbers distinguish three persons.
Inflection may be either absolute or conjunct. Absolute inflection is employed

for simple verbs in absolute sentence-initial position. Conjunct inflection is used after
all kinds of preceding elements, such as prepositions, the verbal particles ro and no,
the conjunctions and particles usually termed conjunct particles, and in the archaic
construction where the verb stands at the end of its clause. An example of conjunct
inflection is found in the second and third sentence, where the verbs, viz. notathigtis,
naLġelltis, and connáfácbatis, are in the imperfect and therefore necessarily conjunct,
since the imperfect has no absolute forms; its forms must therefore be preceded by
the semantically void particle no whenever there is no preverb or conjunct particle to
introduce them.
Special relative forms of the verb incorporating the pronominal element exist in
the absolute inflection for the third person singular and plural, active and passive,
and generally also for the first person plural active in the present and future
indicative as well as in the present subjunctive (cf. lesson 5, section 21).
Not all paradigms given in the following lessons are complete. This does not
necessarily mean that the forms did not exist, but rather that no textual evidence has
been found for them yet; forms which are preceded by an asterisk are
reconstructions.
3.4. Impersonal Constructions
Impersonal constructions are very common in Old Irish. They are generally used
where the emphasis is on the semantic content of the verb, rather than on the logical
subject of the action. Many of these constructions involve prepositions, as for
example in sentence four, which reads BaH tochoṁracht laH hUltu and would be
literally translated as 'it was weariness with the Ulstermen', i.e. 'the Ulstermen were
weary', or in sentence six, where we find the construction ḃaH bés leusoṁ, 'it was a
custom with them', i.e. 'they had the custom'. Another type of impersonal
construction is found in the Irish passive constructions, where the emphasis on the
verbal action is even stronger, while the persons involved are of no importance; there
are also actual impersonal forms within the Old Irish passive paradigms.
4. The Noun
Old Irish distinguishes three grammatical genders, masculine, feminine, and

neuter. In nominal inflection, the three Indo-European numbers, singular, plural and
dual -- the latter denoting units of two -- are preserved. Four cases are still
differentiated: nominative, accusative, genitive, and dative. They have the following
primary functions:
20
• The nominative is the case of the grammatical subject.
• The accusative is the case of the direct object. It is also used with verbs of
coming and going to indicate direction, and to indicate time, usually duration,
as well as after certain prepositions.
• The dative is the case of the indirect object. It is also used after certain
prepositions.
• The genitive is the case of the subject of possession. It is used to specify or even
to describe another noun (as in e.g. senóir clérigh léith, lit. 'an old man of a
grey cleric', i.e. 'an old, grey-haired cleric'). It also indicates the subject or
object of a verbal noun.
Old Irish also possesses a vocative, which is strictly speaking not a case but a
special grammatical form of address for nouns, which are then preceded by the
leniting particle aL, áL.
It must be noted that not all cases are formally differentiated by all three
genders or in all three numbers, and distinction is furthermore dependent on the
stem-class to which a noun belongs. Old Irish distinguishes twelve different stem-
classes, six vocalic and six consonantal, according to the sound in which the stem
originally ended. These will be discussed in detail in the subsequent lessons.
5. Prepositions
Prepositions introduce prepositional phrases, comparable to those in English,

and are very common in VSO languages. They require the accusative (e.g. friL 'against',
laH 'with') or the dative (e.g. doL, duL 'to'; diL, deL 'of, from') of the following noun or
pronoun, or either the accusative or dative depending on whether they denote
direction or location (e.g. iN, in 'in; into'; foL 'under'). They are frequently followed by
enclitic personal or possessive pronouns, as in diaN 'to their', from prep. doL 'to' +
suffixed possessive pronoun 3 plural aN 'their' in sentence five, innaN 'in their', from
prep. inN + suffixed possessive pronoun 3 plural aN 'their' in sentence nine, dóiḃ 'to
them', from prep. doL + enclitic personal pronoun -iḃ 'them' in sentences fifteen and
sixteen, etc. Due to the frequent occurrence of these combinations of prepositions
plus personal pronouns, they are not transparent anymore and therefore treated as
inflectional paradigms in the grammars, where they are usually referred to as
conjugated prepositions (cf. lesson 7, section 35); here, for the sake of clarity, they are
referred to as pronominalized prepositions.
21
Lesson 2
The text passages of this and the following two lessons are taken from the story
entitled Táin Bó Regamna "The Cattle Raid of the Important Calf," which, like the text
in Lesson 1, forms part of the Ulster Cycle. The story belongs to the Irish literary genre
of Tána Bó, meaning "cattle raids," and is a prelude to its most prominent
representative, the Táin Bó Cuailnge (TBC) "The Cattle Raid of Cooley," which can be
dated to the 8th-11th century AD and relates how the Ulster hero Cú Chulainn wins
back the Brown Bull after it had been stolen by Medb, queen of the neighbouring
province of Connacht. The practice of raiding cattle was common among Indo-
European tribes and represents an archaic feature which must be considered
historical, as similar events are also known from ancient Greece. A successful cattle
raid was an assertion of the integrity of the tribal community and consequently was of
major social importance, though it ceased to be practised in the wake of Christianity
with Irish Catholic church law prohibiting such raids.
Táin Bó Regamna is one of the various and sometimes later composed remscéla
leading up to the TBC: while being a small Táin Bó of its own right, it also serves as a
pretext to anticipate certain events within TBC. It tells of the encounter between the
Ulster hero Cú Chulainn and the war-godess Morrígan "Great Queen". The theme of
confrontation between a hero and a supernatural being is actually a literary genre in
itself, and is characterized by several typical features that are also found in our text:
the name of the supernatural being is not explicitly mentioned until the end of the
story, but is encoded in a riddle for his/her real name; the description of the
supernatural being contains unambiguous hints as to his/her identity; the hero is
defeated in one way or the other by the supernatural being; the hero is being foretold
disaster.
Táin Bó Regamna has come down to us in two manuscripts, one from the
fourteenth century AD, contained in the Yellow Book of Lecan (Y), and the other from
the sixteenth century AD (Egerton 1782 (E)), which, albeit younger, contains fewer
modernisations and additions. The language of the archetype seems to go back to the
ninth century, thus belonging to the Early Middle Irish period and therefore
somewhat younger than Compert Con Chulainn, the text of Lesson 1, yet the version
used in the present lesson is that prepared and adapted to the Old Irish standard
language in J. Corthals' edition of the text.
The following selection relates the events leading up to the encounter between
Cú Chulainn and the Morrígan. The hero is woken up by the roaring of cattle. Outside
his house he is met by his charioteer Lóeg, and the two follow the sound till they meet
up with a highly unusual entourage, consisting of a red-haired woman clad in red,
whose chariot is drawn by only one red horse in contrast to the customary two horses
-- which moreover has only one leg -- accompanied by a big man who is driving a cow.
The symbology points to the identity of the woman as the war-goddess Morrígan, yet
her name is not mentioned. Cú Chulainn enters into a dispute with her over the cow.
22
AN mboí Cú Chulainn iN nDún Iṁriḋ coNgúalae ní, aN ngéim.
• aN -- conjunction; <aN> as, when -- when

• mboí -- verb; nasalized 3rd person singular preterite indicative of substantive
verb <attá> is -- was
• Cú Chulainn -- proper name masculine; nominative singular of <Cú Chulainn>
Hound of Culann -- Cu Chulainn
• nDún Iṁriḋ -- toponym; nasalized dative singular of <Dún Imrid> Fort Imrid --
Dun Imrid
• coNgúalae -- verb; 3rd person singular preterite indicative active, deuterotonic,
of <ro°cluinethar> hears -- he heard
• ní -- indefinite pronoun; accusative singular neuter of <ní> something,
anything -- something
• aN -- article; accusative singular neuter of <in, aN, indL> the -- the
• ngéim -- verbal noun; nasalized accusative singular neuter, n-stem, of <géim>
roaring (of cattle) -- a roaring of... cattle
CoN ndíuchrastar trianaL chotluḋ coniḋ corastar assaL imḋai coN riacht inN nariḋin inaL
ṡuiḋiu for lár.
• coN -- conjunction; used as verbal particle; <con, coN> until; so that; and -- and
• ndíuchrastar -- verb; nasalized 3rd person singular preterite indicative,
prototonic, of <do°fíuch(t)ra> wakes up -- he woke up
• trianaL -- preposition; compound form of preposition <triL, treL> through +
suffixed possessive pronoun 3rd person singular masculine <aL> his, its -- from
his
• chotluḋ -- noun; lenited dative singular masculine, u-stem, of <cotlud>
sleeping, sleep -- sleep
• coniḋ -- conjunction; compound form of conjunction <con, coN> until; so that;
and + infixed pronoun 3rd person singular masculine <idL> he -- and... himself
• corastar -- verb; 3rd person singular preterite indicative active, prototonic, of
<fo°ceird> sets, puts; throws -- he threw
• assaL -- preposition; compound form of preposition <essH, asH, aH> out of, from +
suffixed possessive pronoun 3rd person singular masculine <aL> his, its -- out of
his
• imḋai -- noun; dative singular feminine, yā-stem, of <imdae> bed, couch -- bed
• coN -- conjunction; used as verbal particle; <con, coN> until; so that; and -- so
that
• riacht -- verb; 3rd person singular perfect indicative active, prototonic, of
<ro°saig> reaches -- he reached
• inN -- article; accusative singular masculine of <in, aN, indL> the -- the
• nariḋin -- noun; nasalized accusative singular masculine, n-stem, of <aride,
airide> bench -- bench
• inaL -- preposition; compound form of preposition <in, iN> in, into + suffixed
possessive pronoun 3rd person singular masculine <aL> his, its -- that was
• ṡuiḋiu -- verbal noun; lenited dative singular neuter, o-stem, of <sude, suide>
sitting -- sitting
23
• lár -- noun; dative singular neuter, o-stem, of <lár> floor, surface; middle -- the
floor
ÍarN sin immach doL ṡuiḋiu arL les.
• íarN -- preposition; <íarN, íarmL-> after -- after

• immach -- adverb; <immach> out of, out -- outside
• doL -- preposition; <duL, doL> to -- with
• ṡuiḋiu -- anaphoric demonstrative pronoun; lenited dative singular masculine
of <sude, suide> this one, the aforementioned -- him
• arL -- preposition; <arL, airL> before, for, in front of, east of -- into
• les -- noun; accusative singular masculine, o-stem, of <les> yard -- the yard
CoN mbu íL, aL ḃen, berthae aL étach ocus aL armm inaL ḋiaiḋ.
• mbu -- verb; nasalized 3rd person singular preterite indicative, conjunct, of
copula <is> is -- it was
• íL -- personal pronoun; 3rd person singular feminine of <(h)é, síL, (h)ed> he,
she, it -- she
• ḃen -- noun; lenited nominative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <ben> woman,
wife -- wife
• berthae -- verb; 3rd person singular preterite indicative active, absolute,
relative of <berid> carries, brings -- who brought
• étach -- noun; accusative singular neuter, o-stem, of <étach> clothing, garment
-- clothing
• armm -- noun; accusative singular neuter, o-stem, of <arm, armm> armour,
weapon -- armour
possessive pronoun 3rd person singular masculine <aL> his, its -- on his
• ḋiaiḋ -- noun; lenited dative singular neuter, o-stem, of <dead, diad> end -- trail
CoN naccae ní, Lóeg araL chinn inaL charput inneltiu oc Fertai Loíg antúaiḋ.
• naccae -- verb; nasalized 3rd person singular preterite indicative active,
prototonic, of <ad°cí, at°chí> sees -- he saw
• Lóeg -- proper name masculine; accusative singular of <Lóeg> Laeg -- Laeg
• araL -- preposition; compound form of preposition <arL, airL> before, for, in
front of, east of + suffixed possessive pronoun 3rd person singular masculine
<aL> his, its -- in... of him
24
• chinn -- noun; lenited dative singular neuter, o-stem, of <cenn> head, front;
end -- front
possessive pronoun 3rd person singular masculine <aL> his, its -- in his
chariot, wagon -- war-
war-chariot
• inneltiu -- adjective; dative singular masculine of preterite indicative passive
participle <inneltae> yoked, harnessed -- harnessed
• oc -- preposition; <oc> at, with, by -- at
• Fertai Loíg -- toponym; dative singular feminine of <Fertae Loíg> Laeg's
tumulus -- Ferta Laeg
• antúaiḋ -- adverb; <antúaid> from the north -- from the north
"CiḋL dotLucai?" ol Cú Chulainn friH Lóeg.
• ciḋL -- stressed interrogative pronoun; neuter; <cidL, cedL> what; why -- what
• dotLucai -- verb; 3rd person singular perfect indicative active, deuterotonic, of
<do°beir> brings + infixed pronoun 2nd person singular <totL, tatL, tL> you --
brings you
• ol -- indeclinable; <ol> says, said -- said
• friH -- preposition; <frithL, friH> against, towards -- to
• Lóeg -- proper name masculine; accusative singular of <Lóeg> Laeg -- Laeg
"Géiṁ roLchúala issinL ṁaiġ," ol Lóeg.
• géiṁ -- verbal noun; accusative singular neuter, n-stem, of <géim> roaring (of
cattle) -- the roaring of cattle
• roLchúala -- verb; 1st person singular perfect indicative active, deuterotonic,
syntactically relative, of <ro°cluinethar> hears -- that I heard
• issinL -- preposition; compound form of preposition <in, iN> in, into + dative
singular neuter of article <in, aN, indL> the -- in the
• ṁaiġ -- noun; dative singular neuter, s-stem, of <mag> plain, field -- plain
• Lóeg -- proper name masculine; nominative singular of <Lóeg> Laeg -- Laeg
"CiḋL leth?" ol Cú Chulainn.
• ciḋL -- stressed interrogative pronoun; neuter; <cidL, cedL> what; why -- which
• leth -- noun; nominative singular neuter, s-stem, of <leth> side, direction --
direction
"Aníarthúaiḋ amne," ol Lóeg.
• aníarthúaiḋ -- adverb; <aníarthúaid> from the north-west, in the north-west --

from the north-
north-west
25
• amne -- emphatic particle; <amae, amin, amne> thus, in that way, so, then -- in
fact
• Lóeg -- proper name masculine; nominative singular of <Lóeg> Laeg -- Laeg
"InaN ndiaiḋ," ol Cú Chulainn.
• inaN -- preposition; compound form of preposition <in, iN> in, into + suffixed
possessive pronoun 3rd person plural <aN> their -- on their
• ndiaiḋ -- noun; nasalized accusative singular neuter, o-stem, of <dead, diad>
end -- trail
Tíaġait ass íaruṁ coH hÁth da Ḟerta.
• tíaġait -- verb; 3rd person plural present indicative, absolute, of <téit> goes --
they set
• ass -- pronominalized preposition; 3rd person singular neuter dative of <essH,
asH, aH> out of, from -- out
• íaruṁ -- pronominalized preposition; 3rd person singular neuter dative of
<íarN, íarmL-> after -- after this
• coH -- preposition; <coH> to, until -- to
• hÁth da Ḟerta -- toponym; aspirated accusative singular of <Áth da Ḟerta> Ford
of the Two Mounds -- Ath da Ferta
InN dan mbátar ann, íaruṁ coNgúalatar culgaire inL charpait iN doíḃ Grellchae Culgairi.
• inN -- article; accusative singular feminine of <in, aN, indL> the -- at the
• dan -- noun; nasalized accusative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <tan, tain> time
-- time
• mbátar -- verb; nasalized 3rd person plural preterite indicative, syntactically
relative, of substantive verb <attá> is -- they were
• ann -- adverb; <ann> there -- there
<íarN, íarmL-> after -- afterwards
• coNgúalatar -- verb; 3rd person plural preterite indicative active, deuterotonic,
of <ro°cluinethar> hears -- they heard
• culgaire -- noun; accusative singular neuter, yo-stem, of <culgaire> noise,
rumble of a chariot -- the rumble
• charpait -- noun; lenited genitive singular masculine, o-stem, of <carpat> war-
• iN -- preposition; <in, iN> in, into -- on
• doíḃ -- noun; nasalized dative singular masculine, o-stem, of <tóeb> side -- the
side
• Grellchae Culgairi -- toponym; genitive singular of <Grellach Culgairi> Bog of
the Chariot-rumble -- of Grellach Culgairi
26
Tíaġait fóe coN naccatar ní, inN garpat reiṁiḃ.
• tíaġait -- verb; 3rd person plural present indicative, absolute, of <téit> goes --
they go
• fóe -- pronominalized preposition; 3rd person singular masculine accusative of
<foL> under -- down to it
• naccatar -- verb; nasalized 3rd person plural preterite indicative active,
prototonic, of <ad°cí, at°chí> sees -- they see
• inN -- article; accusative singular masculine of <in, aN, indL> the -- the
• garpat -- noun; nasalized accusative singular masculine, o-stem, of <carpat>
war-chariot, wagon -- chariot
• reiṁiḃ -- pronominalized preposition; 3rd person plural dative of <reN> before
-- before them
Óenech derg foa ocus óenchoss foL ṡuiḋiu ocus síthḃe inL charpait sethnu indL eich coN
ndechuiḋ geinn trít friH fosaḋ aL étain anair.
• óenech -- noun; compound of <óen-> one, single + nominative singular

masculine, o-stem, of <ech> horse -- a single... horse
• derg -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <derg> red -- red
• foa -- pronominalized preposition; 3rd person singular masculine dative of
<foL> under -- under it
• óenchoss -- noun; compound of <óen-> one, single + nominative singular
feminine, ā-stem, of <coss, cos> foot, leg -- a single leg
• foL -- preposition; <foL> under -- under
• ṡuiḋiu -- anaphoric demonstrative pronoun; lenited dative singular masculine
of <sude, suide> this one, the aforementioned -- the just-just-mentioned
• síthḃe -- noun; nominative singular neuter, yo-stem, of <síthbe> pole, shaft --
the shaft
• sethnu -- preposition; <sethnu, sethno> through, across -- through
• indL -- article; genitive singular masculine of <in, aN, indL> the -- the
• eich -- noun; genitive singular masculine, o-stem, of <ech> horse -- horse
that
• ndechuiḋ -- verb; nasalized 3rd person singular perfect indicative, prototonic,
of <téit> goes -- went
• geinn -- noun; nominative singular feminine, dental stem, of <genn, geinn>
wedge, block -- a wedge
• trít -- pronominalized preposition; 3rd person singular masculine accusative of
<triL, treL> through -- through it
• friH -- preposition; <frithL, friH> against, towards -- till
27
• fosaḋ -- noun; accusative singular masculine/neuter, o-stem, of <fossad, fosad>
plain surface -- the surface
• aL -- possessive pronoun 3rd person singular masculine <aL> his, its -- of its
• étain -- noun; genitive singular masculine, o-stem, of <étan, édan> front, brow,
forehead -- forehead
• anair -- adverb; <anair> from the front, before -- from the front
Ben derg issinL charput ocus bratt derg impe ocus diL ḃraí ḋerġa lé ocus aH bratt eter
diL ḟeirt inL charpait síar coN sliġeḋ lár inaH diaiḋ ocus fer mór iN goṁair inL charpait.
• ben -- noun; nominative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <ben> woman, wife -- a...
woman
• issinL -- preposition; compound form of preposition <in, iN> in, into + dative
singular masculine of article <in, aN, indL> the -- in the
• bratt -- noun; nominative singular masculine, o-stem, of <bratt> cloak, mantle -
- a... cloak
• impe -- pronominalized preposition; 3rd person singular feminine accusative
of <imbL, immL> around, about; mutually -- around her
• diL -- numeral; nominative dual feminine of <dáL, díL, dáN> two -- two
• ḃraí -- noun; lenited nominative dual feminine, u-stem, of <brú, brá> eyebrow,
brow -- eyebrows
• ḋerġa -- adjective; lenited nominative dual feminine of <derg> red -- red
• lé -- pronominalized preposition; 3rd person singular feminine accusative of
<laH> among, by, with -- on her
• aH -- possessive pronoun; 3rd person singular feminine <aH> her -- her
• bratt -- noun; nominative singular masculine, o-stem, of <bratt> cloak, mantle -
- cloak
• eter -- preposition; <eter> between, among -- between
• diL -- numeral; accusative dual feminine of <dáL, díL, dáN> two -- the two
• ḟeirt -- noun; lenited accusative dual feminine, ā-stem, of <fert> shaft, pole --
hind-
hind-poles
chariot, wagon -- of the chariot
• síar -- adverb; <síar> backwards, back -- to the back
that
• sliġeḋ -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect indicative active, conjunct, of
<sligid> strikes, slays; clears -- it dragged
• lár -- noun; accusative singular neuter, o-stem, of <lár> floor, surface; middle --
on the ground
• inaH -- preposition; compound form of preposition <in, iN> in, into + suffixed
possessive pronoun 3rd person singular feminine <aH> her -- on her
28
• diaiḋ -- noun; accusative singular neuter, o-stem, of <dead, diad> end -- trail
• fer -- noun; nominative singular masculine, o-stem, of <fer> man -- a.. man
• mór -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <már, mór> big, great -- big
• goṁair -- adverb; nasalized; <comair> in front of -- front of
• inL -- article; genitive singular masculine of <in, aN, indL> the -- the
Fúan forbbtha immi ocus gaḃallorg finnchuill friaL aiss oc immáin naH bó.
• fúan -- noun; nominative singular neuter, o-stem, of <fúan> tunic -- a tunic

• forbbtha -- noun; genitive singular feminine, i-stem, of <forbbaid> covering;
shroud -- as a covering
• immi -- pronominalized preposition; 3rd person singular masculine accusative
of <imbL, immL> around, about; mutually -- on him
• gaḃallorg -- noun; compound of <gabul, gabal> fork + nominative singular
feminine, ā-stem, of <lorg> stick, shaft -- forked pole
• finnchuill -- noun; compound of <find, finn> white, bright + lenited genitive
singular masculine, o-stem, of <coll> hazel-tree -- of white hazel
• friaL -- preposition; compound form of preposition <frithL, friH> against,
towards + suffixed possessive pronoun 3rd person singular masculine <aL> his,
its -- on his
• aiss -- noun; accusative singular feminine of <aiss, ais> back, hinder part --
back
• oc -- preposition; <oc> at, with, by -- ...
• immáin -- verbal noun; dative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <immáin> driving;
roaming, wandering about -- he was driving
• naH -- article; genitive singular feminine of <in, aN, indL> the -- the
• bó -- noun; genitive singular feminine, irregular, of <bó> cow, ox -- cow
"Ní fóeliḋ inL ḃó liḃ ocaH himmáin," ol Cú Chulainn.

• fóeliḋ -- adjective; nominative singular feminine of <fóelid> happy -- happy
• inL -- article; nominative singular feminine of <in, aN, indL> the -- the
• ḃó -- noun; lenited nominative singular feminine irregular of <bó> cow, ox --
cow
• liḃ -- pronominalized preposition; 2nd person plural accusative of <laH> among,
by, with -- with ye
• ocaH -- preposition; compound form of preposition <oc> at, with, by + suffixed
possessive pronoun 3rd person singular feminine <aH> her -- at her
• himmáin -- verbal noun; aspirated dative singular feminine, ā-stem, of
<immáin> driving; roaming, wandering about -- driving
29
"Ní dír duit éim aH hetercert naH bó so," ol inL ḃen.

• dír -- adjective; nominative singular neuter of <dír> proper, fit, necessary --
fitting
• duit -- pronominalized preposition; 2nd person singular dative of <duL, doL> to
-- for you
• éim -- emphatic particle; <ém, éim> truly, indeed, then -- indeed
• aH -- possessive pronoun; 3rd person singular feminine <aH> her -- ...
• hetercert -- noun; aspirated nominative singular feminine, ā-stem, of
<etercert> interpretation, discussion, judgement, decision -- the judging
• naH -- article; genitive singular feminine of <in, aN, indL> the -- of
• so -- demonstrative pronoun; <so> this, these -- this
wife -- woman
"Ní bó charat na choicéli duit."
• ní -- independent negative particle; <ní, ni> not -- it is not

• bó -- noun; nominative singular feminine, irregular, of <bó> cow, ox -- the cow
• charat -- noun; lenited genitive singular masculine, nt-stem, of <carae> friend -
- of a friend
• choicéli -- noun; lenited genitive singular masculine, yo-stem, of <coicéle,
coicéile> companion, friend; friendship -- of a companion
-- to you
"Is dír daṁsa éim baí UlaḋN nuile," ol Cú Chulainn.

is
• dír -- adjective; nominative singular neuter of <dír> proper, fit, necessary --
fitting
• daṁsa -- pronominalized preposition; compound form of 1st person singular
dative of <duL, doL> to + emphasizing particle 1st person singular <se, sa> I -- for
me
• éim -- emphatic particle; <ém, éim> truly, indeed, then -- indeed
• baí -- noun; nominative plural feminine, irregular, of <bó> cow, ox -- the cows
• nuile -- adjective; nasalized genitive plural masculine of <uile> all, whole -- of
all
30
"Etercertaisu anba, aL Chú," ol inL ḃen.
• etercertaisu -- verb; compound form of 2nd person singular present indicative

active, deuterotonic, of <eter°certa> interprets; decides, determines +
emphasizing particle 2nd person singular <siu, so, su> you -- you judge
• anba -- noun; accusative singular feminine, yā-stem, of <anba> vast quantity --
a vast quantity
• aL -- particle; introduces vocative; <aL> o -- o
• Chú -- proper name masculine; lenited vocative singular of <Cú> Hound -- Cu
wife -- woman
"CiḋL arndiḋ íL, inL ḃen, atomLġláḋathar?" ol Cú Chulainn.
• ciḋL -- stressed interrogative pronoun; neuter; <cidL, cedL> what; why -- why is
it
• arndiḋ -- preposition; compound form of preposition <arL, airL> before, for, in
front of, east of + relative particle <-aN, -saN> that which, what + 3rd person
singular present indicative, conjunct, of copula, <-did> is -- that it is
• íL -- personal pronoun; 3rd person singular feminine of <(h)é, síL, (h)ed> he,
she, it -- her
wife -- woman
• atomLġláḋathar -- verb; compound form of 3rd person singular present
indicative, deuterotonic, syntactically relative of <ad°gládathar> addresses,
speaks to + infixed pronoun 1st person singular <domL, dumL> I -- who speaks
to me
"CiḋL nach é in fer atomLġláḋathar?"
• ciḋL -- stressed interrogative pronoun; neuter; <cidL, cedL> what; why -- why
• nach -- negative particle; compound form of negative <nad> not + 3rd person
singular present indicative, conjunct, of copula <is> is -- is it not
• é -- personal pronoun; 3rd person singular masculine of <(h)é, síL, (h)ed> he,
she, it -- him
• fer -- noun; nominative singular masculine, o-stem, of <fer> man -- man
• atomLġláḋathar -- verb; compound form of 3rd person singular present
indicative, deuterotonic, syntactically relative of <ad°gládathar> addresses,
speaks to + infixed pronoun 1st person singular <domL, dumL> I -- who speaks
to me
31
Lesson Text
AN mboí Cú Chulainn iN nDún Iṁriḋ coNgúalae ní, aN ngéim. CoN ndíuchrastar
trianaL chotluḋ coniḋ corastar assaL imḋai coN riacht inN nariḋin inaL ṡuiḋiu for lár. ÍarN
sin immach doL ṡuiḋiu arL les. CoN mbu íL, aL ḃen, berthae aL étach ocus aL armm inaL
ḋiaiḋ.
CoN naccae ní, Lóeg araL chinn inaL charput inneltiu oc Fertai Loíg antúaiḋ.
"CiḋL dotLucai?" ol Cú Chulainn friH Lóeg.
"Géiṁ roLchúala issinL ṁaiġ," ol Lóeg.
"CiḋL leth?" ol Cú Chulainn.
"Aníarthúaiḋ amne," ol Lóeg.
"InaN ndiaiḋ," ol Cú Chulainn.
Tíaġait ass íaruṁ coH hÁth da Ḟerta. InN dan mbátar ann, íaruṁ coNgúalatar culgaire
inL charpait iN doíḃ Grellchae Culgairi. Tíaġait fóe coN naccatar ní, inN garpat reiṁiḃ.
Óenech derg foa ocus óenchoss foL ṡuiḋiu ocus síthḃe inL charpait sethnu indL eich coN
ndechuiḋ geinn trít friH fosaḋ aL étain anair. Ben derg issinL charput ocus bratt derg
impe ocus diL ḃraí ḋerġa lé ocus aH bratt eter diL ḟeirt inL charpait síar coN sliġeḋ lár
inaH diaiḋ ocus fer mór iN goṁair inL charpait. Fúan forbbtha immi ocus gaḃallorg
finnchuill friaL aiss oc immáin naH bó.
"Ní fóeliḋ inL ḃó liḃ ocaH himmáin," ol Cú Chulainn.
"Ní dír duit éim aH hetercert naH bó so," ol inL ḃen. "Ní bó charat na choicéli duit."
"Is dír daṁsa éim baí UlaḋN nuile," ol Cú Chulainn.
"Etercertaisu anba, aL Chú," ol inL ḃen.
"CiḋL arndiḋ íL, inL ḃen, atomLġláḋathar?" ol Cú Chulainn. "CiḋL nach é in fer
atomLġláḋathar?"
Translation
When Cu Chulainn was in Dun Imrid, he heard something, a roaring of the cattle.
And he woke up from his sleep and he threw himself out of his bed so that he reached
the bench that was sitting on the floor. After that, outside with him, into the yard.
And it was she, his wife, who brought his clothing and his armour on his trail. And he
saw something, Laeg, in front of him, in his harnessed war-chariot, at Ferta Laeg, from
the north.
"What brings you (here)?" said Cu Chulainn to Laeg.
"A roaring of cattle that I heard in the plain," said Laeg.
"Which direction?" said Cu Chulainn.
"From the north-west, in fact," said Laeg.
"(Let's go) on their trail!" said Cu Chulainn.
32
After this, they set out to Ath da Ferta. Afterwards, at the time they were there, they
heard the rumble of the chariot on the side of Grellach Culgairi. They go down to it
and see something, the chariot before them. A single red horse under it, and a single
leg under the just-mentioned, and the shaft of the chariot through the horse, so that a
wedge went through it till the surface of its forehead from the front. A red woman
(was) in the chariot, and a red cloak around her, and two red eyebrows on her, and
her cloak to the back between the two hind-poles of the chariot so that it dragged on
the ground on her trail, and a big man (was) in front of the chariot. (There was) a
tunic as a covering on him, and a forked pole of white hazel on his back; he was
driving the cow.
"The cow (is) not happy with ye at her driving," said Cu Chulainn.
"The judging of this cow is indeed not fitting for you," said the woman. "(It is) not the
cow of a friend nor of a companion to you."
"It is fitting for me indeed (to judge) the cows of all of the Ulstermen," said Cu
Chulainn.
"You judge a great quantity, o Cu," said the woman.
"Why is it that it is her, the woman, who speaks to me?" said Cu Chulainn. "Why is it
not him, the man, who speaks to me?"
Grammar
6. Initial Mutations
In Old Irish, a morphophonological phenomenon exists which causes

phonological alterations to the initial sounds of words in certain syntactical
constructions. Originally of purely phonological character, these changes were caused
by the old endings of the preceding forms/words; even though the original endings
had already been lost by the Old Irish period, their effects remained, causing the
initial sound of a following word or words to be lenited, nasalized or aspirated.
However, for a word to suffer initial mutation, the word causing this does not
necessarily have to immediately precede it, or can even be completely absent, as is the
case with the leniting and nasalizing relative clauses (cf. lesson 4, section 16).
6.1. Lenition
Historically speaking, initial lenition was caused by the final vowel of a

syntactically closely connected preceding word. In such a context, the following forms
and words cause lenition of a following initial consonant:
A. Declensional forms:
• dative singular of all genders and stems;

• nominative and vocative singular of all feminines;
• genitive, vocative singular and nominative plural of masculine o- and yo-
stems;
• genitive singular of neuter o- and yo- stems;
• nominative, vocative and accusative plural of all neuters (inconsistently after
those ending in -a);
• nominative, accusative and genitive dual of masculines and feminines;
• nominative and vocative singular of cú 'hound';
33
• the neuters alaill and ced cid 'which?';
• the possessive pronouns mo m- 'my', do t- 'thy', a 'his, its';
• the infixed personal pronouns, 1st and 2nd person singular -m and -t, and 3rd
person singular neuter -a -(i)d.
B. Verbal forms:
Originally, initial lenition only occurred after the following forms of the copula:
• absolute relative forms in leniting relative clauses;

• all forms of the imperative;
• the 3rd person singular past subjunctive bad, bed;
• monosyllabic conjunct forms (except 3rd person singular -did -dib -dip and
forms that have become monosyllabic by shortening);
• the forms masu 'if it is', cesu 'though it is', and their plurals matu, cetu ceto.
In later sources the application of lenition spreads and any verb can lenite a
following object, subject or attributive, though this is not a general rule.
C. Uninflected words:
• the prepositions amal, ar, cen, di, do, fiad, fo, im, ó úa and tre tri lenite the
initial consonant of the word they govern;
• the verbal particle ro ru when unstressed after a conjunct particle;
• the conjunctions acus ocus 'and', no/nó nu/nú 'or', fa/fá ba/bá 'or', ma/má
'if', cía ce 'although', co 'so that', ó 'since', ama(i)l 'as', except in nasalizing
relative clauses;
• the negatives nicon/nícon, na(d)con;
• the vocative particle a/á;
• the emphasizing particle su, so after personal pronouns;
• the numeral cóic 'five' in all cases except the genitive plural.
Also, the second element of a compound (cf. lesson 9, section 43) is lenited:
• when the first element is a noun, adjective (including uninflected adjectives

prefixed to a noun), or numeral;
• after the inseparable prefixes so- su- 'good', do- du- 'bad', mí- 'ill-, mis-, wrong'
and the negative neb- neph-;
• after the prepositions aith ath 're-, ex-', air er ir 'before, for', dí de 'of, from',
do, du 'to', fo 'under', imb im(m) 'about, mutually', ind 'in, into', ó 'from, by',
rem 'before', ro, ta(i)rm 'across, over', to 'to, towards', in nominal and in close
verbal compounds.
Initial lenition affects consonants only, and has basically the same effect as
word-internal lenition (cf. lesson 1, section 1), causing spirantization of g, d, b, c, t, p
and m to ġ, ḋ, ḃ, ch, th, f and ṁ respectively, and causing more lax articulation of n r l,
which, however, is not indicated orthographically. It furthermore affects f, which
becomes silent, while s turns into either /h/ or f, depending on its origin (e.g. suidiu
'sitting', lenited ṡuidiu -- as in the second sentence, inaL ṡuiḋiu; but siur 'sister', lenited
fiur, from *sw- (cf. Goth. swistar)).
34
There are general exceptions to initial lenition: where the Old Irish final sound
and the following initial consonant are homorganic, initial lenition does not occur and
the two sounds form an unlenited geminate instead; initial t and d are never lenited
after final n, l, s, th, d; the initial consonants of adjectival cach cech 'every', of the
emphasizing particles sa, se, su, som etc. (cf. lesson 3, section 15.1), and of the
demonstrative particles so, sin are never lenited (though the demonstrative particles
are lenited when used as substantives after prepositions and in sunda 'here').
Just like lesson 1, the text of this lesson provides many examples of initial
lenition, such as trianaL chotluḋ 'from his sleep' or the abovementioned inaL ṡuiḋiu, lit.
'in his sitting', both lenited by the possessive pronoun, 3rd person singular masculine
aL. In the phrase inL charpait the genitive singular of the article lenites the following
genitive noun (carpait), while Ní bó charat na choicéli represents an instance of a
following genitive (carat, coicéli) being lenited for syntactic reasons. In diL ḃraí 'two
eyebrows' lenition is caused by the numeral 'two', and in aL Chú we find lenition of the
personal name due to the preceding vocative particle aL.
6.2. Nasalization
This phenomenon is generally caused by the following words and inflectional

forms, originally ending in -n (representing both old final -n and -m):
Declensional forms:
• the accusative singular and genitive plural of all genders;

• the nominative singular of all neuters;
• the nominative, vocative, accusative and genitive dual of all neuters;
• the dative, all genders, of the numeral "two";
• the infixed personal pronouns 3rd person singular masculine a, d; also,
optionally, the 3rd person singular feminine and 3rd person plural s;
• the plural possessive pronouns ar 'our', far 'your', a 'their'.
Verbal forms:
• the absolute relative forms of the copula in nasalizing relative clauses

• (cf. lesson 4, section 16).
Uninflected words:
• the numerals secht, ocht, noí, deich;

• the uninflected numerals cóic and sé nasalize the initial sound of a following
genitive plural;
• the relative particle (s)a, and i 'in which';
• the conjunctions a 'while', ara, dia;
• the conjunct particle co (but without nasalization when it is spelled con);
• the interrogative particle in.
• The prepositions co 'with', i 'in', íar 'after' and re ri ría 'before' nasalize the
initial sound of a dependent case.
• The originally nominal prepositions dochum 'towards', in-degaid 'after' and
tar-ési 'instead of' nasalize the initial sound of stressed syllables only.
35
In certain relative clauses the initial sound of the verb is nasalized (cf. lesson 4,
section 16).
Nasalization affects both vowels and consonants. It causes prefixing of n to an

initial vowel, and of the homorganic nasal to the mediae g, d, b; the tenues c, t, p are
turned into mediae, and f into its voiced counterpart v. Initial r, l, m, n and s are
geminated when preceded by a proclitic vowel (see below). In writing, nasalization is
clearly indicated only in the case of vowels and mediae; orthographic instances of
nasalized c, t, p, f are rare.
There are many instances of nasalization in the lesson text. The first sentence
alone presents us with four examples: AN mboí Cú Chulainn, where the conjunction aN
nasalizes the initial sound of the following copula; iN nDún Iṁriḋ, with nasalization of
the toponym caused by the preposition iN; coNgúalae, again with nasalization of the
finite verb (°cúalae) caused by a conjunction (coN) used as a verbal particle; and finally
aN ngéim, where the nasalization of the direct object is due to the preceding article
(accusative singular neuter). In the phrase InaN ndiaiḋ, for example, we find the
nasalizing 3rd person plural of the possessive pronoun a, causing mutation of the
following adverb.
6.3. Spirant Mutation
This phenomenon is generally caused by the original final -s of a syntactically

related preceding word, which may belong to any of the following categories:
Declensional forms:
• the genitive singular of all feminines;

• the accusative plural of all genders;
• the nominative plural feminine and neuter of the article (also the same case-
forms of some other words);
• the nominative accusative singular neuter of na 'any';
• the feminine possessive pronoun a 'her';
• the infixed personal pronouns 3rd person singular feminine and 3rd person
plural da, ta, a.
• The nominative singular ua 'grandson' (a later medieval form of áue) causes
prefixation of h- to an initial vowel in the later language.
Verbal forms:
• the preterital and modal 3rd person singular of the copula ba (except in
relative clauses);
• the negative of the copula ni ní 'is not'.
Uninflected words:
• the prepositions a 'out of', co, cu 'to', fri 'against' and la 'with, among', before a
dependent case;
• the particle assa between comparatives;
• the negative na 'nor';
36
• the numeral sé 'six', except in the genitive plural;
• the particle a before abstract numerals.
• In pretonic position, all prepositions ending in a vowel, as well as the particles
ro, no, the interrogatives cía ce and co, and the negatives ni ní, na, when no
infixed pronoun is attached to them, geminate the initial consonant of a
following verb or verbal compound (except in relative clauses).
Spirant mutation, also known as gemination, causes the doubling of an initial

consonant as a consequence of the progressive assimilation of the old final sound of
the preceding word. It also affects initial stressed vowels, causing prefixation of h-.
Already in decline in the Old Irish period, gemination is only indicated in writing
where the two words are written together, as scribes never double the initial
consonant of a separate word. Unlike the other two types of mutation, which have
become morphophonological phenomena, gemination has never developed beyond a
phonetic phenomenon.
Instances of gemination are found in the present lesson, for example in coH hÁth
da Ḟerta where the preposition coH causes mutation of the following toponym, or in
ocaH himmáin where the aspiration of the verbal noun immáin is due to the possessive
pronoun 3rd person singular feminine a, which is here attached to the preposition oc.
7. Tmesis
Tmesis
As mentioned in lesson 1, section 2, whereas Proto-Celtic was an SOV language,

the basic word order of Old Irish is verb-initial, so that the finite verb generally stands
at the head of its clause. In Old Irish poetry and certain types of prose, however, a
more archaic syntax has been preserved, in which the first preposition of a compound
verb or the negative particle may stand alone at the head of the clause, separated by
other words from the remainder of the verb, which follows later. This feature is
known as tmesis. The following example from Audacht Morainn illustrates this: Is tre
ḟir flathemoin fo-síd sámi sube soad sádili-sláini "It is through the justice of the ruler
that he secures peace, tranquility, joy, ease [and] comfort," where the preposition fo-
of the compound verb fo°sláini is separated from the rest of the verb by its objects (síd
... sádili).
8. Verbal Nouns and Their Use
The basics of the verbal noun have already been introduced in lesson 1, section
3.2. This chapter will take a closer look at the more advanced details of verbal nouns
and the constructions they are used in.
8.1. Morphology of the Verbal Noun
No uniform rules exist for the formation of verbal nouns. Though with many
exceptions, they are formed from the same root as the verb to which they belong. The
verbal nouns derived from strong verbs show a great diversity of formations; cf:
• combag, combach from con°boing 'breaks';

• tofun(n) from do°seinn 'pursues', in lesson 1;
• su(i)de from saidid 'sits', in this lesson;
37
• brith breth, genitive brithe, from berid 'bears';
• mrath from marn(a)id, °mairn 'betrays';
• aicsiu from ad°cí 'sees', in lesson 1;
• ac(c)aldam from ad°gládathar 'addresses';
• géim, in the present lesson, from géisid 'shouts, roars';
• án, áin from agid 'drives';
• clúas from ro°clu(i)nethar 'hears';
• gabál from ga(i)bid 'takes'; etc.
The verbal nouns derived from weak verbs (cf. lesson 4, section 17.2) are usually
formed from the verbal stem by adding -ad, -ath or -iud, -iuth, -ud, -uth, while weak
denominative verbs usually employ the very abstract noun from which they were
derived.
8.2. Constructions Involving Verbal Nouns
As noted in lesson 1, section 3.2, verbal noun constructions often correspond to

the infinitives of other languages. They may also be used like English infinitives
connected by 'for ... to', as in Niba fír ... Cet do rainn na mucce, 'It is not just ... for Cet
to divide the pig'; the object is in the genitive, as in most cases, and the verbal noun is
related to other nouns by means of do; but other prepositions (cf. lesson 1, section 5)
are found, too. Subjects also can be connected to the verbal noun by a preposition, e.g.
iN in the sentence Conchuḃur dano iN suḋiu innaL charput 'Conchubur then was sitting
in his chariot' (cf. lesson 1, 1st selection), literally 'Conchubur then was in the (act of)
sitting in his chariot'.
9. General Synopsis of the Case Endings in Relation to the Noun-

Noun-Stem Classes
In lesson 1, section 4, the different vocalic and consonantal stem-classes of Old

Irish were mentioned. Due to their variety, it is not always clear from the ending of a
declensional form which case-form of which stem-class the ending represents. The
following table offers a general synopsis of the different possibilities. An [a], [i] or [u]
after the C of the consonantal endings refers to its a-, i-, or u-quality (i.e. velar, palatal
or neutral -- cf. lesson 1, section 4).
Ending Singular Plural

Case Stem Case Stem
a
C# Nom. O Gen. O
Nom. Ā Gen. Ā
Nom/Acc/Voc. Ntr. S Gen. Cons.
Gen. Cons.
Acc. O Nom/Acc/Voc. Ntr. O
Voc. Ntr. O Nom/Acc. Ntr. Cons.
Voc. Ā
Nom. Ī Nom. O
38
C i#
Nom. I Nom. Cons.
Gen. O
Dat. Ā, I, Cons.
Acc. Ā, I, Cons.
Voc. O, I
C u# Nom. U
Dat. O, U
Acc. U
Voc. U
a# Gen. I Nom/Acc/Voc.2 Ntr. O

Gen.2 U Nom/Acc/Voc. Ā
Nom. U
Acc. Cons.
Nom/Acc.2 Ntr. Cons.
e# Nom. YO Gen. YO
Nom. YĀ Gen. YĀ/Ī
Gen. Ā Gen. I
Gen. YĀ/Ī Gen. (Cae) U
Gen. S Gen. S
Acc. YO Nom/Acc. Ntr. YO
Voc. YĀ Nom/Acc/Voc. Ntr. I
Nom/Acc. Ntr. S
Nom. (Cae) U
i# Gen. YO Nom. YO
Dat. YĀ/Ī Nom. YĀ/Ī
Acc. YĀ/Ī Nom. I
Voc. YO Acc. YĀ/Ī
Acc. I
Nom. (Cai) U
o# Gen. I, U
u# Acc. O, U
Voc. O
(i)u# Dat. YO Acc. YO
39
Voc. YO
(a)ib# Dat. O, Ā, U, Cons.
ib# Dat. YO, YĀ/Ī, I, S
10. The Pronoun
Old Irish distinguishes four major groups of pronouns, which are: personal,
possessive, interrogative, and demonstrative pronouns. These are divided into several
subclasses.
Personal pronouns exist for all three persons, singular and plural, with a
distinction of the three grammatical genders in the 3rd person singular. Proclitic and
enclitic forms are far more numerous than the stressed ones. The proclitic forms
became attached to a pretonic preverb and are therefore considered to be 'infixed' in
the verbal form. Three different sets of infixed personal pronouns exist, whose usage
depends on phonological and syntactical constraints. The enclitic forms are suffixed
either to certain verbal forms or to prepositions, with which they combine to give the
so-called 'conjugated prepositions' (cf. lesson 1, section 5). A special type of personal
pronoun are the emphasizing particles, or notae augentes, which exist in various forms
for each person, with a distinction between masculine/neuter versus feminine in the
3rd person singular. A detailed description of the personal pronoun will follow in
lesson 3, section 15.
The possessive pronouns are formally the old genitive forms of the personal
pronoun, and are therefore not inflected. Again, stressed and unstressed forms exist,
with the stressed ones being used very rarely. The unstressed forms are different for
the first and second persons, while the form for the third persons is a in the singular
and plural, and the number/gender can only be inferred from the following initial
mutation: lenition for the 3rd person singular masculine/neuter, aspiration for the
3rd person singular feminine, and nasalization for the 3rd person plural. Details on
the possessive pronoun will be given in lesson 3, section 15.
The interrogative pronoun distinguishes two forms: An unstressed or weakly

stressed form ce, ci, cía, invariable in gender and number, as well as a more fully
stressed form cía 'who?', neuter cid, ced 'what?', plural citné. For details on the
interrogative pronoun see lesson 8, section 40.1.
The adjectival demonstratives known from other IE languages are expressed in

Old Irish by a combination of the definite article with adverbs of place, like so, se, sin,
etc.; see in this lesson the phrase ÍarN sin immach doL ṡuiḋiu ... 'After that outside with
him ...', or in lesson 1 the phrase ind amsir sin 'at that time'. The demonstrative is
often emphasized by stressed í (hí), placed before the demonstrative particle, e.g. in
fer (h)í-siu 'this man'. Details on the article and on the demonstratives will be given in
lesson 6, section 30.
40
Lesson 3
After relating the beginning of the encounter between Cú Chulainn and the still-
unnamed Morrígan (see Lesson 2), the text goes on to describe how the hero gets
angry with the war-goddess and her companion because whenever he addresses the
man the woman answers, and vice versa. Upset by their mockery, Cú Chulainn jumps
onto the chariot and threatens the woman with his sword. She tells him that she is a
lampooner and got the cow as a reward for a poem. Upon the hero's demand to hear
the poem, she chants of how he will be slain during the Táin.
This selection continues the conversation, during which Cú Chulainn realizes

the true identity of the woman. The passage includes a dindshenchas, that is, the story
of how a place got its name. We hear how the bog formerly known as Grellach Culgairi
'Bog of the Chariot-Rumble' -- the name it still bears in the text of the previous lesson
-- comes to be named Grellach Dolluid 'Bog of the Pernicious One'. Though Grellach
Dolluid is often identified with Girley, a village south of Kells, it is most likely located
in the north of County Louth; this identification is supported by the fact that Cú
Chulainn, departing from Dún Imrid in Mag Muirthemne, which is the original name
of the plain south of Dundalk in Louth, heads off in north-western direction, towards
Áth da Ḟerta -- not towards the south-west where Kells would be. Other identifiable
place names in this passage are that of Cúailnge 'Cooley', a mountainous landscape in
the north of County Louth and home of the Brown Bull who fathered the calf, which
was to be the cause of the cattle-raid of Cúailnge, as well as Crúachu, later Crúachain -
- Rathcroghan -- in County Roscommon, seat of the kings of Connacht.
Foceird Cú Chulainn beḋg inaL charpat feissin íaruṁ.
• foceird -- verb; 3rd person singular present indicative active, deuterotonic, of

<fo°ceird> sets, puts; throws -- ...
• beḋg -- noun; accusative singular masculine, o-stem, of <bedg> start, leap --
leaps
possessive pronoun 3rd person singular masculine <aL> his, its -- onto his
• charpat -- noun; lenited accusative singular masculine, o-stem, of <carpat>
war-chariot, wagon -- chariot
• feissin -- pronominal; 3rd person singular masculine of <féin, feissin> -self,
own -- own
Naicc ní iN nneoch íaruṁ inN mnaí nach inN garpat nach inN nech nach inN fer nach inN
mboin, ocus coNnaccaesiuṁ íaruṁ: baH hénsi duḃ forsinL chroíḃ inaL ḟarraḋ.
• naicc -- negative particle; <naicc> no, not -- ...
41
anything -- nothing
• nneoch -- indefinite pronoun; nasalized dative singular neuter of <ní>
something, anything -- anywhere
• inN -- preposition; <in, iN> in, into -- with regard to
• mnaí -- noun; nasalized accusative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <ben> woman,
wife -- the woman
singular present indicative, conjunct, of copula <is> is -- nor
• garpat -- noun; nasalized accusative singular masculine, o-stem, of <carpat>
war-chariot, wagon -- the chariot
• nech -- noun; nasalized accusative singular masculine, o-stem, of <ech> horse -
- the horse
• fer -- noun; accusative singular masculine, o-stem, of <fer> man -- the man
• mboin -- noun; nasalized accusative singular feminine, irregular, of <bó> cow,
ox -- the cow
• coNnaccaesiuṁ -- verb; compound form of 3rd person singular preterite
indicative active, deuterotonic, of <ad°cí, at°chí> sees + emphasizing particle
3rd person singular masculine <seom, som> he, it -- he saw it
<íarN, íarmL-> after -- then
- was
• hénsi -- noun; compound form of aspirated nominative singular masculine, o-
stem, of <én> bird + emphasizing particle 3rd person singular feminine <(h)é,
síL, (h)ed> he, she, it -- she... a...
a... bird
• duḃ -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <dub> black -- black
• forsinL -- preposition; preposition <for> on, over + dative singular feminine of
article <in, aN, indL> the -- on the
• chroíḃ -- noun; lenited dative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <cróeb, cráeb>
branch; tree, bush -- branch
possessive pronoun 3rd person singular masculine <aL> his, its -- him
• ḟarraḋ -- adverb; lenited; <farrad> beside, along with -- near
42
"DoltachL ḃen atatLchoṁnaic," ol Cú Chulainn.
• doltachL -- adjective; nominative singular feminine of <doltach> pernicious,

hurtful -- pernicious
wife -- a... woman
• atatLchoṁnaic -- verb; compound form of 2nd person singular preterite
indicative, deuterotonic, syntactically relative of <ad°cumaing> strikes, cuts;
happens, chances + infixed pronoun 2nd person singular <totL, tatL, tL> you --
that it what you happen to be
"Is Dolluḋ dono bias forsinL ġrellaiġ se coH bráth," ol inL ḃen.

is
• Dolluḋ -- toponym; nominative singular, o-stem, of <Dollud> distress, damage,
havoc -- Dollud
• dono -- emphatic particle; <dano, dono> again, now, then -- then
• bias -- verb; 3rd person singular future indicative, absolute, relative, of
substantive verb <attá> is -- that... will be
• forsinL -- preposition; preposition <for> on, over + dative singular feminine of
article <in, aN, indL> the -- ...
• ġrellaiġ -- noun; lenited dative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <grellach> bog,
mire -- bog
• se -- demonstrative pronoun; <se> this, these -- this
• coH -- preposition; <coH> to, until -- until
• bráth -- noun; accusative singular masculine, u-stem, of <bráth> Doomsday --
Doomsday
wife -- woman
Grellach Dolluiḋ íaruṁ aH hainm óL ṡin ille.
• Grellach Dolluiḋ -- toponym; nominative singular of <Grellach Dolluid> Bog of

Distress -- Grellach Dolluid
• aH -- possessive pronoun; 3rd person singular feminine <aH> her -- its
• hainm -- noun; aspirated nominative singular neuter, n-stem, of <ainm> name
-- name
• óL -- preposition; <óL, úaL> from, by -- from... on
• ṡin -- anaphoric demonstrative pronoun; lenited; <sin> this, that, those, the
• ille -- adverb; <illei, ille> hither; since; moreover -- time
43
"Acht rofeisind beḋ tú ní saṁlaiḋ noscarfamais," ol Cú Chulainn.
• acht -- conjunction; <acht> if only, provided that -- if only

• rofeisind -- verb; variant of 1st person singular preterite subjunctive active,
deuterotonic, of <ro°fitir> knows -- I had known
• beḋ -- verb; 3rd person singular preterite subjunctive, absolute, relative, of
copula <is> is -- that it were
• tú -- personal pronoun; 2nd person singular <tú> you -- you
• saṁlaiḋ -- adverb; <samlaid, amlaid> thus, so, in this way -- like this
• noscarfamais -- verb; 1st person plural secondary future indicative active,
conjunct, syntactically relative, of <scaraid> separates, parts -- we would...
have parted
"Ciḋ dorrignis," olsí, "bieith olc de."
• ciḋ -- conjunction; compound form of conjunction <cía> although, even if +

suffixed enclitic present subjunctive of copula <is> is -- whatever
• dorrignis -- verb; 2nd person singular perfect indicative active, deuterotonic,
syntactically relative, of <do°gní> does; makes -- you would have done
• olsí -- indeclinable; compound form of indeclinable <ol> says, said + personal
pronoun 3rd person singular feminine <(h)é, síL, (h)ed> he, she, it -- said she
• bieith -- verb; 3rd person singular future indicative, absolute, of substantive
verb <attá> is -- will result
• olc -- noun; nominative singular neuter, o-stem, of <olc> evil, wrong;
misfortune -- misfortune
• de -- pronominalized preposition; 3rd person singular neuter dative of <diL,
deL> from, of -- from it
"Ni cuṁgai olc daṁ," ol Cú Chulainn.
• ni -- independent negative particle; <ní, ni> not -- not

• cuṁgai -- verb; 2nd person singular present indicative, prototonic, of <con°icc>
can, is able -- you can
• olc -- noun; accusative singular neuter, o-stem, of <olc> evil, wrong; misfortune
-- misfortune
• daṁ -- pronominalized preposition; 1st person singular dative of <duL, doL> to -
- to me
"Cuṁgaiṁ écin," ol inL ḃen.
• cuṁgaiṁ -- verb; 1st person singular present indicative, prototonic, of

<con°icc> can, is able -- I can
44
• écin -- adverb; dative singular feminine, ā-stem, of noun <écen> necessity,
compulsion -- indeed
wife -- woman
"Is oc dídin doL ḃáissiu atáusa ocus bia," olsí.

• dídin -- noun; dative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <díden> end -- the final
touch(es)
• doL -- preposition; <duL, doL> to -- to
• ḃáissiu -- noun; compound form of lenited genitive singular neuter, o-stem, of
<bás> death + emphasizing particle 2nd person singular <siu, so, su> you -- your
death
• atáusa -- verb; compound form of 1st person singular present indicative,
deuterotonic, syntactically relative, of substantive verb <attá> is + emphasizing
particle 1st person singular <se, sa> I -- what I am
• bia -- verb; 1st person singular future indicative, absolute, syntactically
relative, of substantive verb <attá> is -- what I will be
"Doucussa inN mboin se éim," olsí, "aH síḋ Crúachan conda rodart in Donn Cúailngi leṁ
.i. tarḃ Dáiri maic Ḟiachnai ocus is ed aret biasu iN mbethu coN raḃ dartaiḋ in lóeg fil
inaH broinn inaH bó so ocus is é consaíḋfea Táin Bó Cúailngi."
• doucussa -- verb; compound form of 1st person singular perfect indicative

active, deuterotonic, of <do°beir> brings -- I have brought
• inN -- article; accusative singular feminine of <in, aN, indL> the -- ...
• mboin -- noun; nasalized accusative singular feminine, irregular, of <bó> cow,
ox -- cow
• se -- demonstrative pronoun; <se> this, these -- this
• éim -- emphatic particle; <ém, éim> truly, indeed, then -- ...
pronoun 3rd person singular feminine <(h)é, síL, (h)ed> he, she, it -- said
said she
• aH -- preposition; <essH, asH, aH> out of, from -- from
• síḋ -- noun; dative singular neuter, s-stem, of <síd> fairy fort -- the fairy fort
• Crúachan -- toponym; genitive singular of <Crúachu, Crúachain> Cruachain --
of Rathcroghan
• conda -- conjunction; compound form of conjunction <con, coN> until; so that;
and + infixed pronoun 3rd person singular feminine <daH> she -- and... her
• rodart -- verb; 3rd person singular perfect indicative active, conjunct, of
<dairid> bulls -- has mounted
• Donn -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <donn> brown -- Brown
Bull
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• Cúailngi -- toponym; genitive singular of <Cúailnge> Cuailnge -- of Cuailgne
• leṁ -- pronominalized preposition; 1st person singular accusative of <laH>
among, by, with -- through my intervention
• tarḃ -- noun; nominative singular masculine, o-stem, of <tarb> bull -- the bull
• Dáiri maic Ḟiachnai -- proper name masculine; genitive singular of <Dáire mac
Fiachnai> Daire son of Fiachnae -- of Daire mac Fiachnai
• ed -- personal pronoun; 3rd person singular neuter of <(h)é, síL, (h)ed> he, she,
it -- such
• aret -- noun; nominative singular neuter, o-stem, of <aret, airet> length,
interval, space (of time) -- the space of time
• biasu -- verb; compound form of 2nd person singular future indicative,
absolute, syntactically relative, of substantive verb <attá> is + emphasizing
particle 2nd person singular <siu, so, su> you -- that you will be
• mbethu -- noun; dative singular masculine, dental stem, of <bethu> life,
existence -- alive
• coN -- conjunction; used as verbal particle; <con, coN> until; so that; and -- until
• raḃ -- verb; 3rd person singular RO-present subjunctive, conjunct, of copula
<is> is -- will have become
• dartaiḋ -- noun; nominative singular masculine, i-stem, of <dartaid> heifer, bull
calf -- a yearling
• lóeg -- noun; nominative singular masculine, o-stem, of <lóeg> calf -- calf
• fil -- verb; 3rd person singular present indicative, absolute, relative, of
substantive verb <attá> is -- which is
• inaH -- preposition; compound form of preposition <in, iN> in, into + suffixed
possessive pronoun 3rd person singular feminine <aH> her -- in
• broinn -- noun; dative singular feminine, n-stem, of <brú> belly, womb -- the
womb
• inaH -- article; genitive singular feminine of <in, aN, indL> the -- of this
• so -- demonstrative pronoun; <so> this, these -- here
is
• é -- personal pronoun; 3rd person singular masculine of <(h)é, síL, (h)ed> he,
she, it -- this
this
• consaíḋfea -- verb; 3rd person singular future indicative active, deuterotonic,
syntactically relative, of <con°saídi> stirs up, excites -- which will cause
• Táin Bó Cúailngi -- noun; accusative singular feminine, i-stem, of <Táin Bó
Cúailnge> Cattle-Raid of Cuailnge -- the Tain Bo Cuailnge
"Biaṁ airḋirciusa de dinL Táin í sin," ol Cú Chulainn.
• biaṁ -- verb; 1st person singular future indicative, absolute, of substantive

verb <attá> is -- I will be
46
• airḋirciusa -- adjective; compound form of comparative of <airdirc> obvious;
renowned + emphasizing particle 1st person singular <se, sa> I -- all the more
famous
deL> from, of -- ...
• dinL -- preposition; compound form of preposition <diL, deL> from, of + dative
singular feminine of article <in, aN, indL> the -- through
• Táin -- noun; dative singular feminine, i-stem, of <Táin> Tain, cattle-raid --
cattle-
cattle-raid
• í -- demonstrative particle; <í> this, these, those -- this
aforementioned -- very
"Géna aN nánradu. Brisfea aN mórchathu. Bia tiġḃae naH Táno."
• géna -- verb; 1st person singular future indicative active, absolute, of <gonaid>
slays, kills, wounds -- I will slay
• nánradu -- noun; nasalized accusative plural masculine, o-stem, of <ánrad>
hero, warrior, champion -- warriors
• brisfea -- verb; 1st person singular future indicative active, absolute, of
<brissid> breaks, destroys; defeats -- I will win
their
• mórchathu -- noun; compound form of adjective <már, mór> big, great +
lenited accusative plural masculine, u-stem, of <cath> battle, fight -- big battles
• bia -- verb; 1st person singular future indicative, absolute, of substantive verb
<attá> is -- I will be
• tiġḃae -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <tigbae> surviving -- the
survivor
• naH -- article; genitive singular feminine of <in, aN, indL> the -- of the
• Táno -- noun; genitive singular feminine, i-stem, of <Táin> Tain, cattle-raid --
Tain
Lesson Text
Foceird Cú Chulainn beḋg inaL charpat feissin íaruṁ. Naicc ní iN nneoch íaruṁ
in mnaí nach inN garpat nach inN nech nach inN fer nach inN mboin, ocus
N
coNnaccaesiuṁ íaruṁ: baH hénsi duḃ forsinL chroíḃ inaL ḟarraḋ.
"DoltachL ḃen atatLchoṁnaic," ol Cú Chulainn.
"Is Dolluḋ dono bias forsinL ġrellaiġ se coH bráth," ol inL ḃen.
Grellach Dolluiḋ íaruṁ aH hainm óL ṡin ille.
"Acht rofeisind beḋ tú ní saṁlaiḋ noscarfamais," ol Cú Chulainn.
47
"Ciḋ dorrignis," olsí, "bieith olc de."
"Ni cuṁgai olc daṁ," ol Cú Chulainn.
"Cuṁgaiṁ écin," ol inL ḃen. "Is oc dídin doL ḃáissiu atáusa ocus bia," olsí.
"Doucussa inN mboin se éim," olsí, "aH síḋ Crúachan conda rodart in Donn Cúailngi leṁ
.i. tarḃ Dáiri maic Ḟiachnai ocus is ed aret biasu iN mbethu coN raḃ dartaiḋ in lóeg fil
inaH broinn inaH bó so ocus is é consaíḋfea Táin Bó Cúailngi."
"Biaṁ airḋirciusa de dinL Táin í sin," ol Cú Chulainn. "Géna aN nánradu. Brisfea aN

mórchathu. Bia tiġḃae naH Táno."
Translation
Cu Chulainn leaps onto his own chariot after this. Nothing anywhere after this
with regard to the woman, nor with regard to the chariot, nor with regard to the
horse, nor with regard to the man, nor with regard to the cow, and then he saw it: she
was a black bird on the branch near him.
"A pernicious woman, that is what you happen to be," said Cu Chulainn.
"It is Dollud, then, that this bog will be (called) until Doomsday," said the
woman.
After this, Grellach Dolluid has been its name from that time on.
"If only I had known that it were you, we would not have parted like this," said
Cu Chulainn.
"Whatever you would have done," said she, "misfortune will result from it."
"You cannot cause misfortune to me," said Cu Chulainn.
"Indeed I can," said the woman. "(Putting) the final touch(es) to your death, that
is what I am at, and that is what I will be at," said she. "I have brought this cow," said
she, "from the fairy fort of Rathcroghan, and through my intervention the Brown Bull
of Cuailnge has mounted her, that is, the bull of Daire mac Fiachnai; and such is the
space of time that you will be alive, until the calf, which is in the womb of this cow
here, will have become a yearling, and it is this (bull calf) which will cause the Tain Bo
Cuailnge."
"I will be all the more famous through this very cattle raid," said Cu Chulainn. "I
will slay their warriors, I will win their big battles. I will be the survivor of the Tain."
Grammar
11. Syntax: Coordination
Sentences are coordinated by means of different conjunctions. Some of these are

in origin prepositions and have the same meaning in both functions, while others are
cases of nouns or pronouns and are followed by a dependent clause.
11.1. The Conjunction ocus
The most common copulative conjunction, linking sentences as well as words, is

ocus 'and'. In the manuscripts, it is often abbreviated by a symbol resembling a small
digit 7. Coordination, specifically the linking of sentences with ocus, has many
applications and is often used where in modern European languages other kinds of
constructions, such as subordination, are preferred. No conjunction is needed to link
48
adjectives (an example will come up in lesson 4 in the phrase ... fer coṁthrén
coṁchrotha coṁchliss coṁḟobaiḋ coṁéscaiḋ coṁchiníuil coṁghaisciḋ comméte friut
... 'A man of the same strength, of the same shape, of the same skill, of the same
swiftness, of the same eagerness, of the same descent, of the same prowess, of the
same height as you'), except where they are used predicatively and the copula is
repeated between them (as in the phrase BaH hálaind ocus baH caín in t-énlorg ... 'It
was delightful and it was beautiful the bird-flight' in lesson 1). In that case they are
linked by ocus. A number of co-ordinate words which are constituent elements of a
larger unit are linked by ocus and governed by the preposition eter iter etir, which
precedes the first of them.
11.2. Alternatives to ocus
A special short form os is used when prefixed to the stressed nominative forms
of personal pronouns (cf. lesson 1, section 15.1) in the sense of 'and I' (lit. 'I being') etc.
(an example is found in lesson 1 in the phrase ... ocus aL inġen Deichtire os síL
ṁacḋacht 'And his daughter Deichtire, she being an adult.'); before the pronoun of the
3rd person plural the form ot is used. In early legal texts os sometimes also occurs in
other positions, and very early texts still preserve the old IE enclitic -ch 'and', which is
usually either infixed after the proclitics ro, to, or suffixed to the copula ba. Early
poetry and rhetorical speech also employ the conjunction scéo, scéu. The meaning 'as
well ... as' is expressed by the repetition of the particle emid, which by itself means
'nearly, as it were'. Coordination may also be expressed by cenmithá 'besides that',
which is followed either by a principal clause or by a nasalizing relative clause (cf.
lesson 4, section 16).
11.3. Disjunctive Conjunctions

Conjunctions
Separate co-ordinate clauses as well as members of the same clause are usually
separated by disjunctive nó no, nú nu, which in the manuscripts is commonly
symbolized by a small barred l. In combinations of disjunctive phrases leniting rodbo
rodbu robo robu is used; it either introduces the first phrase while the remaining
phrases are introduced by nó no, or it may introduce every phrase, or even, in more
complex syntagms, it may stand only before the later phrases. Between disjunctive
clauses airc, airg(g) is occasionally found in the meaning of 'or'. In disjunctive
interrogative clauses of the type 'is it ... or ...?', 'whether ... or ...?' leniting fa, ba is
used, while parallel von-verbal words or phrases in negative clauses are linked by
geminating ná, na, before proclitics nach. Two parallel clauses may be disjuncted by
placing sech before the first clause (e.g. sech níthartsat-som nícomtachtmar-ni
'neither have they given it nor have we sought (it)'); though at times the same
construction can have copulative force (as in sech bid día, bid duine 'he will be both
God and man').
11.4. Adversative Conjunctions
Adversative force can for example be expressed by noch (optionally reinforced

by immurgu 'however' or calléic 'yet, nevertheless'), which can also serve as an
emphatic copulative conjunction at the head of a principal clause, or by another
conjunction sech, which is different from the copulative/disjunctive sech mentioned
before.
49
12. The Two Paradigms of the Verb 'to be'
Like Spanish and Basque (non-Indo-European), Old Irish distinguishes two forms
of the verb 'to be': the copula and the substantive verb. The copula (is) denotes 'to be'
when it is used for linking the subject to its predicate and therefore is common in
characterizations and descriptions (cf. Span. ser). Syntactically, the copula can also be
used to topicalise a particular word, phrase, or even an entire subordinate clause. The
substantive verb ((a)tá) has a wider semantic connotation, always denoting existence,
be it a presence, a transient state, etc. (cf. Span. estar).
12.1. The Copula
The copula is proclitic and therefore never bears the stress. It immediately
precedes the predicate. The forms of the copula go back to two different roots, IE es-
and another one with initial bh- (OIr. b-).
Forms exist for the following tenses and moods: 1. Present indicative and
subjunctive; 2. Past subjunctive; 3. Preterite and imperfect indicative (formally
identical); 4. Future indicative; 5. Secondary Future indicative; 6. Imperative. Except
for the imperative, all paradigms distinguish between absolute and conjunct forms;
absolute flexion in the past subjunctive is exclusively found with the copula and does
not exist for other verbs.
The forms of the copula are as follows:
Present Indicative
Absolute Conjunct
1 Sg. am °da
2 Sg. at °da
3 Sg. is °t, °did (°id)
Rel. as
1 Pl. ammi °dan (arch. °dem)

2 Pl. adib °dad
3 Pl. it °dat
Rel. ata
For the 1st person plural absolute no relative form is attested. When combined
with negative ni ní, the initial d- of the conjunct forms becomes t-, thus we have 1st
and 2nd person singular nita níta, 1st person plural nitan nítan, etc., while the 3rd
person singular has no ending and the form is simply ni ní.
50
Preterite and Imperfect Indicative
Absolute Conjunct
1 Sg. basa °bsa, °psa, °sa
2 Sg. basa *°bsa, °sa
3 Sg. ba (bá) °bo, °po, °bu, °pu
Rel. ba (bá)
1 Pl. --- °bommar, °bum(m)ar

2 Pl. --- ---
3 Pl.
Pl. batir, batar °btar, °ptar (°tar, °dar)
Rel. batar
Future Indicative
Absolute Conjunct
1 Sg. be ---
2 Sg. be, ba °be, °pa
3 Sg. bid bith °be °pe, ba °pa
Rel. bes, bas
1 Pl. bemmi, bimmi, bami ---

2 Pl. --- °beth
3 Pl. bit °bat, °pat
Rel. beta
Present Subjunctive
Absolute Conjunct
1 Sg. ba °ba
2 Sg. ba (be) °ba
3 Sg. ba (bá) °b, °p, ---, °dib, °dip (°bo, °po, °bu)
Rel. bes, bas
1 Pl. --- °ban

2 Pl. bede °bad (°baid)
3 Pl. --- °bat, °pat
Rel. bete, beta, bata
51
Past Subjunctive
Absolute Conjunct
1 Sg. --- °bin, °benn
2 Sg. --- °ptha
3 Sg. bid (bith) °bad, °pad, °bed
Rel. bed, bad
1 Pl. bemmis, bimmis °bemmis, °bimmis

2 Pl. --- ---
3 Pl. betis, bitis °bdis, °ptis (°dis, °tis)
For the Secondary Future only forms of the 3rd persons are attested. These are
always conjunct, and where they are not preceded by any other conjunct particle, the
perfective particle ro- is prefixed to them. The attested forms are ro°bad, ro°pad for
the singular and ro°btis ro°ptis for the plural.
Imperative
Absolute
1 Sg. ---
2 Sg. ba
3 Sg. bad, bed
1 Pl. ban
2 Pl. bad, bed
3 Pl. bat
12.2. The Substantive Verb
Unlike the copula the substantive verb is stressed. It is the only verb which has a
special set of forms for the so-called consuetudinal present, which has the meaning 'is
wont to be, is continually', as opposed to the ordinary present denoting 'is (now)'.
The forms of the substantive verb are as follows:
Ordinary Present Indicative
Conjunct
1 Sg. °táu, °tó
2 Sg. °taí
3 Sg. °tá
1 Pl. °taam
2 Pl. °taid, °taaid, °taaith
52
3 Pl. °taat
For its relative forms, the suppletive fil(e) is used, which, being a form of an old
verb for 'to see', requires the accusative of the semantic subject.
Absolute flexion exists only in the 3rd persons, with attá, atá (i.e. *ad°tá) being
the most common form. When conjunct forms are used after a conjunct particle, the
preposition ad° is dropped.
A special impersonal form °táthar exists for the 3rd person singular.
Consuetudinal Present
Absolute Conjunct
1 Sg. bíuu °bíu
2 Sg. --- °bí
3 Sg. biid, biith, bíid °bí
Rel. bís
1 Pl. bímmi °biam

Rel. bímme
3 Pl. biit, bíit °biat, °bíat
Rel. bíte
Again, special impersonal forms exist for the 3rd person singular; these are
bíthir, absolute flexion, and °bíther, enclitic °rubthar, in the conjunct flexion. The
relative form of bíthir is bíther.
Preterite Indicative
Absolute Conjunct
1 Sg. bá °bá
2 Sg. --- °bá
3 Sg. boí baí °boí °baí
Rel. boíe
1 Pl. bámar °bámmar

2 Pl. --- °baid
3 Pl. bátar, bátir °bátar
Rel. bátar
The absolute forms are used far more rarely than the conjunct forms, and are
found only in somewhat later texts.
53
The impersonal forms are *both(a)e, botha in the absolute flexion, with the
relative form being identical (*both(a)e, botha), and °both in the conjunct flexion.
Future Indicative
Absolute Conjunct
1 Sg. bia ---
2 Sg. bie ---
3 Sg. bieid, bied °bia, °bía
Rel. bias
1 Pl. be(i)mmi °biam

2 Pl. bethe °bieid, °bied
3 Pl. bieit, biet, bíet °biat
Rel. be(i)te
Secondary Future
Conjunct
1 Sg. °beinn
3 Sg. °biad
1 Pl. °bemmis
3 Pl. °betis
Present Subjunctive
Absolute Conjunct
1 Sg. beu, beo °béo
2 Sg. --- °bee
3 Sg. beith beid, beth bed °bé
Rel. bes(s)
1 Pl. be(i)mmi °bem

2 Pl. be(i)the °beith, °beid
3 Pl. beit °bet
Rel. bete
The impersonal forms for the 3rd person singular are bethir (absolute), its
relative form being bether, and bether (conjunct).
54
Past Subjunctive
Conjunct
1 Sg. °beinn
2 Sg. °betha
3 Sg. °beth, °bed
1 Pl. °bemmis
2 Pl. °bethe
3 Pl. °betis
Some of the abovementioned conjunct forms insert ro° between the conjunct
particle and the verbal stem; in that case the verb has a slightly different form, as the
following table shows:
Consuetudinal RO-
RO-present Perfect
Present Perfect Indicative Subjunct
Subjunctive
ive Subjunctive
3 Sg. °ru-b(a)i °rob(a)e °rab(a)e °roi-b °ro-bad
1 Pl. --- °robammar °ro-bam ---
2 Pl. --- °robaid °ro-bith ---
3 Pl. °ru-bat °robatar °rabatar °ro-bat °roibtis
The substantive verb has a verbal of necessity, bu(i)thi. The verbal noun is buith,
buid, genitive bu(i)the.
13. The Noun: o-

o- and yo-
yo-Stems
These are masculine or neuter. As in all ancient Indo-European languages, the

neuter only differs from the masculine in the nominative and accusative, which
originally shows two distinct forms in the masculine paradigm while both cases are
formally identical in the neuter.
The following table shows the inflections of the o-stem fer, masculine, 'man':
Singular Plural Dual

Nom. fer firL ferL
Voc. fir firu ferL
Acc. ferN firu ferL
Gen. firL ferN fer
Dat. fiurL feraib feraib
55
The following table shows the inflections of the o-stem dliged, neuter, 'law':

Nom. dligedN dligedL dligeda dligedN
Voc. dligedN dligedL dligeda dligedN
Acc. dligedN dligedL dligeda dligedN
Gen. dligidL dligedN dliged
Dat. dligudL dligedaib dligedaib
The inflection of yo-stems is represented by céile, masculine, 'fellow':

Nom. céile céili céile
Voc. céili céiliu céile
Acc. céileN céiliu céile
Gen. céiliL céileN céile
Dat. céiliuL céilib céilib
...and by cride, neuter, 'heart':

Nom. crideN cride crideN
Voc. crideN cride crideN
Acc. crideN cride crideN
Gen. cridiL crideN cride
Dat. cridiuL cridib cridib
14. The Syntax of the Adjective
An adjective which is used as predicative nominative is inflected and generally

agrees with its subject in gender and number (as in the abovementioned BaH hálaind
ocus baH caín in t-énlorg ... 'It was delightful and it was beautiful the bird-flight' in
lesson 1), except where a neuter adjective in the singular predicates a plural noun. In
attributive use, the adjective follows its noun, with which it agrees in gender, number,
and case (e.g. ... baH hén-si duḃ ... 'She was a black bird', in this lesson). However, in
prose certain adjectives generally precede their noun; these are the cardinal numerals
2, 3 and 4 (also 5-10, but these remain uninflected), the ordinal numerals, and cach
cech 'each', nach 'any', and uile 'all, whole' (cf. Is dír daṁ-sa éim baí UlaḋN n-uile 'It is
fitting for me indeed (to judge) the cows of all of the Ulstermen' in lesson 2).
15. Personal and Possessive Pronouns I
It has already been noted in lesson 2, section 10 that the independent forms of
the personal and possessive pronouns are more restricted in their use than their
dependent counterparts and are mainly employed to highlight the agent, especially
where a differenciation between two subjects is desired. All of the forms mentioned
56
below are therefore emphatic, not just the more complex ones termed 'emphatic',
which are used to add extra reinforcement.
15.1. Independent Personal Pronouns
The independent personal pronouns are most commonly used predicatively and
are just nominatives after the copula and is most commonly used as predicative
nominative after the copula, which is then in the 3rd person, and the pronoun agrees
with the subject in gender (e.g. in this lesson ... is ed aret ..., lit. 'It is it, the space of
time' > 'Such is the space of time', ... is é consaíḋfea Táin Bó Cúailngi, lit. 'It is he who
will cause the Tain Bo Cuailnge', or Acht rofeisind beḋ tú ... 'If only I had known that it
were you'). The 1st and 2nd person plural of the independent personal pronoun
always take a singular form of the copula, even where the subject is plural (e.g. is
snisni ata bobes 'It is we who are boues'); but not the 3rd person plural, which always
takes the plural form of the copula.
The stressed nominative forms are:
•1st person singular: mé, emphatic messe, meisse, mese

•2nd person singular: tú, emphatic tussuL, tusuL
•3rd person singular: masculine (h)é, emphatic (h)é-som, feminine sí,
neuter (h)ed
• 1st person plural: sní, emphatic snisni, sníni
• 2nd person plural: sí, sib, emphatic sissi, sisi
• 3rd person plural, all genders: (h)é, emphatic héssom
15.2. Emphasizing Personal Pronouns
Also termed notae augentes, the emphasizing personal pronouns are used to
reinforce the pronominal concept or the personal concept already expressed in the
sentence. They are always enclitic and can be suffixed to any pronoun or verb (except
the copula, which is proclitic and therefore cannot support other clitics). The forms of
the emphasizing personal pronouns are:
• 1st person singular: se after palatal consonants and -e, -i, otherwise sa
• 2nd person singular: siu after palatals, otherwise so
• 3rd person singular: masculine and neuter som, feminine si
• 1st person plural: ni
• 2nd person plural: si
• 3rd person plural, all genders: som.
The initial s is never lenited; but it is sometimes geminated after vowels.
15.3. Possessive Pronouns
The possessive pronoun is formally the old genitive of the personal pronoun and
is therefore uninflected. It usually stands in unstressed position before the noun it
qualifies, so that the commonest forms are the unstressed ones; they are as follows:
57
• 1st person singular: moL muL; but simple mLafter prepositions ending in
a vowel, and after the preposition for
L L L
• 2nd person singular: do du ; but t after prepositions ending in a vowel,
and after the preposition for
L H
• 3rd person singular: masculine and neuter a ; feminine a
N
• 1st person plural: ar
N N
• 2nd person plural: far , for
N
• 3rd person plural: a .
The stressed forms of the possessive pronoun occur very rarely, because they
are only used predicatively; yet in such constructions, where possessive pronouns are
used predicatively in other modern Indo-European languages, Old Irish nearly always
employs the preposition la or do plus suffixed (i.e. unstressed) personal pronoun
instead (e.g. is limm sa 'He is mine').
The following stressed forms are found:
• 1st person singular: muí, emphatic muisse

• 2nd person singular: taí
• 3rd person singular: aí, áe, all genders
• 1st person plural: nathar (náthar)
• 2nd person plural: sethar-si
• 3rd person plural: aí, áe.
58
Lesson 4
The following section constitutes the final part of the Táin Bó Regamna,
continuing Lessons 2 and 3. After having been foretold his death, Cú Chulainn enters
into a battle of words with the war-goddess, in which he threatens to defeat her in the
imminent battle of the Táin Bó Cuailgne, and that she will have to beg his forgiveness.
But the war-goddess comes up with a new plot every time, telling him how she will
three times take on the shape of a different animal in order to succeed with her plan.
Reading
An interesting element of this passage is the wording of Cú Chulainn's oath,

which he utters three times altogether, following each of the threats of the war-
goddess. The verb employed is tongaid 'swear' (in for-tongu and tongu-sa), and the
name of the god is not said, which has its equivalent in the magic formulas of the
Gaulish inscription of Chamalières, where we find the figura etymologica toncnaman
toncsiiontio 'who will swear the oath', and is also known from Middle Welsh tales
such as Kulhwch ac Olwen in the formula tynghaf dynghet. The fact that the decisive
battle will take place at a ford is characteristic of Celtic battles and Celtic lore history.
The text ends with the third oath, in which Cú Chulainn once again threatens to
harm the war-goddess, this time by a shot from his sling that will break her thigh, so
that he will not be killed that day. Finally, he returns home to Dún Imrid, while the
red woman, for the first and only time named as Morrígan, continues on with her cow
to the fairy-fort of Crúachu.
"Cinnas conicfaesu anní sin", ol inL ḃen.
• cinnas -- adverb; <cinnas> how -- how

• conicfaesu -- verb; compound form of 2nd person singular future indicative,
deuterotonic, of <con°icc> can, is able + emphasizing particle 2nd person
singular <siu, so, su> you -- will you be able
• anní -- demonstrative particle; neuter; <anní> this, that -- this
aforementioned -- ...
said
wife -- woman
"Ar inN dain nombiasu oc coṁruc friH fer coṁthrén coṁchrotha coṁchliss coṁḟobaiḋ
coṁéscaiḋ coṁchiníuil coṁghaisciḋ comméte friut bam escongsa ocus foLchichiur
curu immotL chossa issindL áth coN mba éccoṁlonn mór."

• inN -- article; accusative singular feminine of <in, aN, indL> the -- at the
• dain -- noun; nasalized accusative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <tan, tain> time
-- time
59
• nombiasu -- verb; 2nd person singular future indicative, conjunct, syntactically
relative, of substantive verb <attá> is + emphasizing particle 2nd person
singular <siu, so, su> you -- when you will be
• oc -- preposition; <oc> at, with, by -- in
• coṁruc -- noun; dative singular neuter, o-stem, of <comrac> encounter;
combat; collision; sexual relation -- combat
• friH -- preposition; <frithL, friH> against, towards -- with
• fer -- noun; accusative singular masculine, o-stem, of <fer> man -- a man
• coṁthrén -- adjective; compound form of preposition <comL, coN> with +
lenited adjective <trén> strong -- of the same strength
• coṁchrotha -- adjective; compound form of preposition <comL, coN> with +
lenited genitive singular masculine, u-stem, of <cruth> form, appearance -- of
the same shape
• coṁchliss -- adjective; compound form of preposition <comL, coN> with +
lenited genitive singular neuter, o-stem, of <cless> feat, skill -- of the same skill
• coṁḟobaiḋ -- adjective; compound form of preposition <comL, coN> with +
lenited adjective <fobaid> quick, prompt, active -- of the same swiftness
• coṁéscaiḋ -- adjective; compound form of preposition <comL, coN> with +
adjective <éscaid> alert, eager; swift -- of the same eagerness
• coṁchiníuil -- adjective; compound form of preposition <comL, coN> with +
genitive singular neuter, o-stem, of <cenél> race, tribe; descent -- of the same
descent
• coṁghaisciḋ -- adjective; compound form of preposition <comL, coN> with +
genitive singular masculine, o-stem, of <gaisced> weapons, armour; prowess --
of the same prowess
• comméte -- adjective; compound form of preposition <comL, coN> with +
genitive singular feminine, yā-stem, of <méit> greatness, magnitude, size -- of
the same height
• friut -- pronominalized preposition; 2nd person singular accusative of <frithL,
friH> against, towards -- as you
• bam -- verb; 1st person singular future indicative, absolute, of copula <is> is -- I
will be
• escongsa -- noun; compound form of nominative singular feminine, of
<escong> eel + emphasizing particle 1st person singular <se, sa> I -- an eel
• foLchichiur -- verb; 1st person singular future indicative active, deuterotonic,
of <fo°ceird> sets, puts; throws -- I will throw
• curu -- verbal noun; accusative plural masculine, o-stem, of <cor> putting;
throwing; letting go -- slings
• immotL -- preposition; compound form of preposition; <imbL, immL> around,
about; mutually + possessive pronoun 2nd person singular <doL, tL> your --
around your
• chossa -- noun; lenited accusative plural feminine, ā-stem, of <coss, cos> foot,
leg -- feet
• issindL -- preposition; compound form of preposition <in, iN> in, into +
accusative singular masculine of article <in, aN, indL> the -- in the
• áth -- noun; accusative singular masculine, u-stem, of <áth> ford -- ford
that
60
• mba -- verb; nasalized 3rd person singular future indicative, conjunct, of
copula <is> is -- it will be
• éccoṁlonn -- noun; nominative singular masculine, o-stem, of <éccomlonn>
unequal combat, unfair odds -- a... unequal combat
• mór -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <már, mór> big, great --
very
"Fortongu doL ḋía toingthe Ulaiḋ", ol Cú Chulainn, "fortatnesaḃsu friH glaisslecca indL
átho ocus nicotL ḃia ícc úaimLse de coH bráth manimL ḋergaissu."
• fortongu -- verb; 1st person singular present indicative, deuterotonic, of

<for°toing> swears, attests -- I swear
• doL -- preposition; <duL, doL> to -- by
• ḋía -- noun; lenited dative singular masculine, o-stem, of <dé, día> god -- the
god
• toingthe -- verb; 3rd person plural present indicative, absolute, relative of
<tongaid> swears, takes an oath -- by which... swear
• Ulaiḋ -- proper name; nominative plural masculine, o-stem, of <Ulaid>
Ulidians, Ulstermen -- the Ulstermen
• fortatnesaḃsu -- verb; compound form of 1st person singular future indicative
active, deuterotonic, of <for°nesa> strikes, kicks, crushes + infixed pronoun 2nd
person singular <totL, tatL, tL> you + emphasizing particle 2nd person singular
<siu, so, su> you -- I will crush you
• friH -- preposition; <frithL, friH> against, towards -- against
• glaisslecca -- noun; compound form of adjective <glass, glas> greenish, blue,
grey + accusative plural feminine, ā-stem, of <lecc> rock, stone -- the grey
stones
• indL -- article; genitive singular masculine of <in, aN, indL> the -- of the
• átho -- noun; genitive singular masculine, u-stem, of <áth> ford -- ford
• nicotL -- independent negative; compound form of negative particle <nícon,
nicon> not + infixed pronoun 2nd person singular <totL, tatL, tL> you -- no... for
you
• ḃia -- verb; 3rd person singular future indicative, conjunct, of substantive verb
<attá> is -- there will be
• ícc -- noun; nominative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <ícc> cure; solution --
cure
• úaimLse -- pronominalized preposition; compound form of 1st person singular
dative of <óL, úaL> from, by + emphasizing particle 1st person singular <se, sa> I
-- on my part
Doomsday
• manimL -- conjunction; compound form of negative conjunction <mani> if not
+ infixed pronoun 1st person singular <mL, mmL> I -- unless... my
61
• ḋergaissu -- verb; 2nd person singular RO-present subjunctive active,
prototonic, of <do°guid> entreats, asks pardon + emphasizing particle 2nd
person singular <siu, so, su> you -- you ask... pardon
"Bia soḋsa dono glass duitsiu", olsí, "ocus géḃa bréit dotL ḋóitind deiss conicci doL riġiḋ
clí."
• bia -- verb; 1st person singular future indicative, absolute, of substantive verb
<attá> is -- I will be
• soḋsa -- noun; nominative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <sod, sad> bitch, wolf-
bitch + emphasizing particle 1st person singular <se, sa> I -- a... wolf-
wolf-bitch
• glass -- adjective; nominative singular feminine of <glass, glas> greenish, blue,
grey -- grey
• duitsiu -- pronominalized preposition; compound form of 2nd person singular
dative of <duL, doL> to + emphasizing particle 2nd person singular <siu, so, su>
you -- against you
• géḃa -- verb; 1st person singular future indicative active, absolute, of <gaibid>
takes; proceeds; recites -- I will take
• bréit -- noun; accusative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <bréit> strip; cloth;
shred -- a strip
• dotL -- preposition; compound form of preposition <diL, deL> from, of + suffixed
possessive pronoun 2nd person singular <totL, tatL, tL> you -- off... your
• ḋóitind -- noun; lenited compound form of <dóe> arm + dative singular neuter,
o-stem, of <ind> end -- the end of... arm
• deiss -- adjective; dative singular feminine of <dess> right, south of -- right
• conicci -- preposition; <conicci> as far as, up to, to, till -- up to
• doL -- possessive pronoun; 2nd person singular <doL, tL> your -- your
• riġiḋ -- noun; accusative singular feminine, dental stem, of <rig> fore-arm --
fore-
fore-arm
• clí -- adjective; accusative singular feminine of <clé> left -- left
"Tongusa doL ḋía toingte Ulaiḋ", ol Cú Chulainn, "notLḃenaḃsu sechaṁ coṁL chleittíniu
coN mmeṁa doL ṡúil itL chinn ocus nicotL ḃia ícc úaimLse de coH bráth manimL
ḋergaissu."
• tongusa -- verb; 1st person singular present indicative, absolute, of <tongaid>

swears, takes an oath + emphasizing particle 1st person singular <se, sa> I -- I
swear
• doL -- preposition; <duL, doL> to -- by
• ḋía -- noun; lenited dative singular masculine, o-stem, of <dé, día> god -- the
god
• toingte -- verb; 3rd person plural present indicative, absolute, relative of
<tongaid> swears, takes an oath -- by which... swear
• Ulaiḋ -- proper name; nominative plural masculine, o-stem, of <Ulaid>
Ulidians, Ulstermen -- the Ulstermen
62
• notLḃenaḃsu -- verb; compound form of verbal particle <no>... + infixed
pronoun 2nd person singular <totL, tatL, tL> you + 1st person singular future
indicative active, conjunct, of <benaid> beats, strikes, slays, wounds +
emphasizing particle 2nd person singular <siu, so, su> you -- I... will strike you
• sechaṁ -- pronominalized preposition; 1st person singular accusative of
<sech> past, beyond -- myself
• coṁL -- preposition; compound form of preposition <comL, coN> with + suffixed
possessive pronoun 1st person singular <moL, mL> my -- with my
• chleittíniu -- noun; lenited dative singular masculine, yo-stem, of <cleittíne>
javelin, dart -- javelin
that
• mmeṁa -- verb; 3rd person singular future indicative, conjunct, of <maidid>
breaks, bursts -- shall burst
• ṡúil -- noun; lenited nominative singular feminine, i-stem, of <súil> eye -- eye
• itL -- preposition; compound form of preposition <in, iN> in, into + suffixed
possessive pronoun 2nd person singular <doL, tL> your -- inside your
• chinn -- noun; lenited dative singular neuter, o-stem, of <cenn> head, front;
end -- head
• nicotL -- independent negative; compound form of negative particle <nícon,
nicon> not + infixed pronoun 2nd person singular <totL, tatL, tL> you -- no... for
you
• ḃia -- verb; 3rd person singular future indicative, conjunct, of substantive verb
<attá> is -- there will be
• ícc -- noun; nominative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <ícc> cure; solution --
cure
• úaimLse -- pronominalized preposition; compound form of 1st person singular
dative of <óL, úaL> from, by + emphasizing particle 1st person singular <se, sa> I
-- on my part
until
Doomsday
• manimL -- conjunction; compound form of negative conjunction <mani> if not
+ infixed pronoun 1st person singular <mL, mmL> I -- unless... my
• ḋergaissu -- verb; 2nd person singular RO-present subjunctive active,
prototonic, of <do°guid> entreats, asks pardon + emphasizing particle 2nd
person singular <siu, so, su> you -- you ask... pardon
63
"Biaṁ saṁaiscse finn áuderg dono", olsissi, "ocus doraġ issinN linn iN fail indL átho inN
nattan rombiasu oc coṁruc friH fer busL choiṁchliss duit ocus cétN mbó finnN náuderg
imL ḋiaiḋ ocus meṁais ind éit uile imL ḋiaiḋse issinN náth ocus conbiḃsustar fír ferN
fortsu aN llá sin ocus géttair doL chenn ditL issindL áth sin."
• biaṁ -- verb; 1st person singular future indicative, absolute, of substantive

verb <attá> is -- I will be
• saṁaiscse -- noun; nominative singular feminine, ī-stem, of <samaisc> heifer +
emphasizing particle 1st person singular <se, sa> I -- a... heifer
• finn -- adjective; nominative singular feminine of <find, finn> white, bright --
white
• áuderg -- adjective; compound of <áu> ear + nominative singular feminine of
adjective <derg> red -- red-
red-eared
• olsissi -- indeclinable; compound form of indeclinable <ol> says, said +
emphatic personal pronoun 3rd person singular feminine <(h)é, síL, (h)ed> he,
she, it -- said she
• doraġ -- verb; 1st person singular future indicative, deuterotonic, of <do°tét,
do°téit> comes; goes -- I will come
• issinN -- preposition; compound form of preposition <in, iN> in, into +
accusative singular feminine of article <in, aN, indL> the -- into the
• linn -- noun; accusative singular feminine, yā-stem, of <linn> pool, lake, sea --
water
• iN -- preposition; <in, iN> in, into -- at
• fail -- noun; dative singular feminine, i-stem, of <fail> place, spot -- a spot
• indL -- article; genitive singular masculine of <in, aN, indL> the -- of the
• átho -- noun; genitive singular masculine, u-stem, of <áth> ford -- ford
• inN -- preposition; <in, iN> in, into -- ...
• nattan -- noun; nasalized dative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <attan, attain>
another time -- once again
• rombiasu -- verb; compound form of nasalized 2nd person singular RO-future
indicative, conjunct, syntactically relative, of substantive verb <attá> is +
emphasizing particle 2nd person singular <siu, so, su> you -- when... you will
be
• oc -- preposition; <oc> at, with, by -- in
• coṁruc -- noun; dative singular neuter, o-stem, of <comrac> encounter;
combat; collision; sexual relation -- combat
• friH -- preposition; <frithL, friH> against, towards -- against
• fer -- noun; accusative singular masculine, o-stem, of <fer> man -- a man
• busL -- verb; 3rd person singular future indicative, absolute, relative, of copula
<is> is -- who will be
• choiṁchliss -- adjective; lenited compound form of preposition <comL, coN>
with + lenited genitive singular neuter, o-stem, of <cless> feat, skill -- as skilled
-- as you
• cétN -- numeral; nominative singular neuter, o-stem, of <cétN> hundred -- a
hundred
64
• mbó -- noun; nasalized genitive plural feminine, irregular, of <bó> cow, ox --
cows
• finnN -- adjective; genitive plural feminine of <find, finn> white, bright -- white
• náuderg -- adjective; nasalized compound of <áu> ear + genitive plural
feminine of adjective <derg> red -- red-
red-eared
• imL -- preposition; compound form of preposition <in, iN> in, into + possessive
pronoun 1st person singular <moL, mL> my -- me
• ḋiaiḋ -- noun; lenited accusative singular neuter, o-stem, of <dead, diad> end --
after
• meṁais -- verb; 3rd person singular future indicative, absolute, of <maidid>
breaks, bursts -- will charge
• ind -- article; nominative singular feminine of <in, aN, indL> the -- the
• éit -- noun; nominative singular feminine, yā-stem, of <éit> cattle -- cattle
• uile -- adjective; nominative singular feminine of <uile> all, whole -- all
• imL -- preposition; compound form of preposition <in, iN> in, into + possessive
pronoun 1st person singular <moL, mL> my -- on my
• ḋiaiḋse -- noun; lenited compound form of accusative singular neuter, o-stem,
of <dead, diad> end + emphasizing particle 1st person singular <se, sa> I -- trail
• issinN -- preposition; compound form of preposition <in, iN> in, into +
accusative singular masculine of article <in, aN, indL> the -- into the
• náth -- noun; nasalized accusative singular masculine, u-stem, of <áth> ford --
ford
• conbiḃsustar -- verb; 3rd person singular future indicative passive,
deuterotonic, of <con°boing> breaks; defeats; violates -- will be violated
• fír -- noun; nominative singular neuter, o-stem, of <fír> truth; right; justice --
the right
• ferN -- noun; genitive plural masculine, o-stem, of <fer> man -- of men
• fortsu -- pronominalized preposition; compound form of 2nd person singular
dative of preposition <for> on, over + emphasizing particle 2nd person singular
<siu, so, su> you -- against you
• aN -- article; accusative singular neuter of <in, aN, indL> the -- on that
• llá -- noun; nasalized accusative singular neuter, yo-stem, of <láaN, láN> day,
daylight -- day
• géttair -- verb; 3rd person singular future indicative passive, absolute, of
<gataid> takes away, removes; steals -- will be chopped
• chenn -- noun; lenited nominative singular neuter, o-stem, of <cenn> head,
front; end -- head
• ditL -- pronominalized preposition; 2nd person singular dative of <diL, deL>
from, of -- off you
• issindL -- preposition; compound form of preposition <in, iN> in, into + dative
singular masculine of article <in, aN, indL> the -- in that
• áth -- noun; dative singular masculine, u-stem, of <áth> ford -- ford
65
Lesson Text
"Cinnas conicfaesu anní sin", ol inL ḃen. "Ar inN dain nombiasu oc coṁruc
H
fri fer coṁthrén coṁchrotha coṁchliss coṁḟobaiḋ coṁéscaiḋ coṁchiníuil
coṁghaisciḋ comméte friut bam escongsa ocus foLchichiur curu immotL chossa
issindL áth coN mba éccoṁlonn mór."
"Fortongu doL ḋía toingthe Ulaiḋ", ol Cú Chulainn, "fortatnesaḃsu friH

glaisslecca indL átho ocus nicotL ḃia ícc úaimLse de coH bráth manimL
ḋergaissu."
"Bia soḋsa dono glass duitsiu", olsí, "ocus géḃa bréit dotL ḋóitind deiss conicci
doL riġiḋ clí."
"Tongusa doL ḋía toingte Ulaiḋ", ol Cú Chulainn, "notLḃenaḃsu sechaṁ coṁL

chleittíniu coN mmeṁa doL ṡúil itL chinn ocus nicotL ḃia ícc úaimLse de coH bráth
manimL ḋergaissu."
"Biaṁ saṁaiscse finn áuderg dono", olsissi, "ocus doraġ issinN linn iN fail indL
átho inN nattan rombiasu oc coṁruc friH fer busL choiṁchliss duit ocus cétN
mbó finnN náuderg imL ḋiaiḋ ocus meṁais ind éit uile imL ḋiaiḋse issinN náth
ocus conbiḃsustar fír ferN fortsu aN llá sin ocus géttair doL chenn ditL issindL áth
sin."
Translation
"How will you be able (to do) this?", said the woman. "For at the time
when you will be in combat against a man of the same strength, of the same
shape, of the same skill, of the same swiftness, of the same eagerness, of the
same descent, of the same prowess, of the same height as you, I will be an eel,
and I will throw slings around your feet in the ford, so that it will be a very
unequal combat."
"I swear by the god by which the Ulstermen swear", said Cu Chulainn, "I
will crush you against the grey stones of the ford, and there will be no cure
from it for you on my part until Doomsday, unless you ask my pardon."
"I will be a grey wolf-bitch, then, against you", said she, "and I will take a
strip off the end of your right arm up to your left fore-arm."
"I swear by the god by which the Ulstermen swear", said Cu Chulainn, "I
myself will strike you with my javelin so that your eye shall burst inside your
head, and there will be no cure from it for you on my part until Doomsday,
unless you ask my pardon."
"I will be a white, red-eared heifer then", said she, "and I will come into
the water at a spot of the ford when once again you will be in combat against a
man who will be as skilled as you, and a hundred white, red-eared cows after
me, and all the cattle will charge into the ford after me, and the right of men
will be violated against you on that very day, and your head will be chopped
off you in that very ford."
66
Grammar
16. Relative Clauses
16.1. Types of Relative Clauses
There are basically three types of relative clauses in Old Irish, depending on the
relation between the relative clause and the antecedent:
Where the antecedent is the subject of the verb of the relative clause, the leniting
relative clause is used. Where the antecedent is the object of the verb of the relative
clause, the nasalising relative clause or optionally the leniting relative clause is used. The
construction with nasalising relative clause is also employed where the antecedent (a)
is the verbal noun of the verb of the relative clause, (b) is semantically the predicative
nominative of the relative clause, (c) designates the manner or degree of the contents
of the relative clause, or (d) designates the place or time at which the contents of the
relative clause take place. Where the relation between relative clause and antecedent
is expressed by a preposition, the prepositional relative clause is used.
In all types of relative clauses, the essential marker of relativity is just the
lenition or nasalisation showing in the initial consonant of their predicate. In
addition, some further relative morphemes may appear in the relative clause:
• The special relative form of simple verbs, absolute inflection, in the 3rd
persons or in the 1st person plural (such as the 3rd person plural toingthe in
do día toingthe Ulaid 'by the god by which the Ulstermen swear' in the text of
this lesson, or the 3rd person singular bias in is Dollud dono bias forsin grellaig
se 'it is Dollud then that this bog will be' in the previous lesson).
• The semantically void verbal prefix no before all other persons of simple
verbs.
• The special relative forms of the negative: nad/nád, na/ná, before infixed
pronouns nach-/nách-.
• The special relative forms imme/imma and ara of the prototonic prepositions
imm and ar (as in ara scortis a cairptiu 'that they should unyoke their chariots'
in lesson 1).
In the construction with prepositional relative clause, the preposition stands at

the beginning of the relative clause, followed by the enclitic element -aN or -saN, which
remains uninflected; the variant used depends on the original final sound of the
preposition: after original vowels, the form with s- is used, so that the preposition ar
becomes ar-aN, co becomes cosaN, etc.
Furthermore, the infixed personal pronouns have special relative forms, which
cause lenition or nasalisation depending on the person, yet their use is not obligatory
(for these see lesson 6, section 26).
67
17. The Verb: Voice and Stem-
Stem-Classes
17.1. Active vs. Impersonal/Passive
As has been pointed out in lesson 1, section 3.3, Old Irish distinguishes two
voices, active and passive. Verbs with active meaning either have active personal
forms, or personal forms resembling those of the passive. These latter forms ends in -r
(except in the 2nd person plural) and have correspondences in Italic, Hittite and
Tocharian; they constitute the so-called deponent inflection and will be discussed in
more detail in lesson 9, section 45.2.
All active verbs (including deponents) -- be they transitive or intransitive -- have

two additional, impersonal forms, one for the singular and one for the plural, both
ending in -r. They are used in impersonal constructions, e.g. of intransitive verbs:
tíagar 'let someone/people go' (from téit 'goes'), lit. 'let it be gone'. In lesson 3, section
12.2, examples have been seen from the substantive verb.
Both singular and plural impersonal forms are used to form passive
constructions of active verbs. They do not require an added personal pronoun when
used for the 3rd person singular (e.g. carthair/°carthar 'he/she/it is loved', 3rd person
singular absolute/conjunct, present indicative) or plural (e.g. cartair/°cartar 'they are
loved', 3rd person plural absolute/conjunct, present indicative). The 3rd person
singular of the impersonal is also used to express the passive of a 1st or 2nd person
singular or plural; in this type of construction, an infixed personal pronoun is
necessary to indicate the subject: e.g. no-m-charthar 'I am loved', no-t-charthar 'you
are loved' (the lenition of the initial c- of the verbal stem is caused by the infixed
pronouns), no-n-carthar 'we are loved', no-b-carthar 'ye are loved'. Thus, parallel to
the active, also the impersonal/passive distinguishes between absolute and conjunct
inflection (also with special relative forms in the absolute inflection).
17.2. The Stem-

Stem-Classes and their Characteristics
According to the way in which active and deponent verbs form their present
stem, eight different stem-classes can be distinguished, three for the weak verbs and
five for the strong verbs (on this distinction, cf. lesson 1, section 3.3). The stem-class a
verb belongs to can best be seen in the conjunct form of the 3rd person singular
present indicative active, where the numbers in brackets refer to their classification
according to R. Thurneysen's Grammar of Old Irish (GOI):
A. Stem-classes of weak verbs:
1. 3rd person singular conjunct ending in -a (e.g. °móra, from móraid

'magnifies'), corresponding to weak verbs whose verbal stem ended in -a. 2. 3rd
person singular conjunct ending in -i (e.g. °léici, from léicid 'leaves'), corresponding to
weak verbs whose verbal stem ended in -i. 3. So- called 'hiatus-verbs' (e.g. °gní, from
gníid 'does', or °rá from ráid 'rows'), corresponding to verbal stems from roots ending
in a vowel.
B. Stem-classes of strong verbs:
68
• 3rd person singular conjunct showing no ending (e.g. °beir, from berid 'bears'),
corresponding mainly to verbs whose present stem originally consisted of the
root + thematic vowel; the reflex of the (lost) thematic vowel e/o, depending on
the person caused interchange between palatal and neutral quality of the final
consonant of the stem. This class also contains certain other types of present-
stem formations. Most strong verbs belong to this class, but no deponents.
• 3rd person singular conjunct showing no ending (e.g. °gaib, from ga(i)bid
'takes'), corresponding to verbs whose present stem originally consisted of the
root + *-ye-/-yo-; the reflex of the old formative *-ye-/-yo- caused the final
consonant of the root to be palatalised in all persons.
• 3rd person singular conjunct showing no ending (e.g. °boing, from bongid
'breaks, reaps'), corresponding to a small number of verbs who are
characterised by an -n-infix before the last consonant of the root, which is
always d or g.
• 3rd person singular conjunct showing no ending (e.g. °ben, from benaid 'hews,
cuts'), corresponding to verbs who are characterised by an -n-suffix after the
root, so that the present-stem ends in -n, which was originally always neutral
in quality.
• 3rd person singular conjunct showing no ending (e.g. ara°chrin 'knows', or
do°lin 'flows'), corresponding to a small number of verbs with the same
characteristics as B IV, but where the neutral quality of the final -n of the
present-stem was not original.
18. The Noun: ā- and yā

yā-Stems
These are all feminine. The following table shows the inflection of the ā-stem
túath 'tribe, people':

Nom. túathL túatha túaithL
Voc. túath túatha túaithL
Acc. túaithL túatha túaithL
Gen. túa(i)the túathN túathL
Dat. túaithL túath(a)ib túath(a)ib
There are two types of yā-stems: the ordinary yā-stems and those with old
nominative in -ī. The latter only differ from the ordinary yā-stems in the nominative,
vocative singular and in the nominative, accusative dual, where they show palatal
quality in the final consonant and have no ending. The ordinary yā-stems are
represented by soilse 'light' in the following table:

Nom. soilseL soilsi soilsi
Voc. soilseL *soilsi soilsi
Acc. soilsiN soilsi soilsi
Gen. soilse soilseN soilse
Dat. soilsiL soilsib soilsib
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The stems with old nominative in -ī are represented by sétig 'female companion,
wife':
Nom. sétigL séitchi sétigL
Voc. sétigL *séitchi sétigL
Acc. séitchiN séitchi sétigL
Gen. séitche séitcheN *séitcheL
Dat. séitchiL séitchib *séitchib
19. Numerals
19.1. Cardinals
The cardinal numerals are:

1 óen 6 séH 20 fiche 70 sechtmogo
2 da 7 sechtN 30 tricho 80 ochtmogo
3 tri 8 ochtN 40 cethorcho 90 nocha
4 ceth(a)ir 9 noiN 50 coíca 100 cét
5 cóicL 10 deichN 60 sesca 1000 míle
The cardinals cóic and sé nasalize a following genitive plural. Cardinals between
10 and 100 are formed by the digit plus the ten following in the genitive (all decads
are masculine and inflect as nt-stems; cf. lesson 7, section 33.4). The noun to which a
numeral refers stands immediately after the digit and agrees with it in number (e.g.
noí cairptiu 'nine chariots' and dáL én 'two birds' in lesson 1, or di litir fichet '22
letters'). Where the numeral is not defined, it is preceded by the geminating particle
aH* (e.g. a dáu 'two', a ocht deac '18'). The decads as well as cét and míle are always
substantives and are followed by the genitive of the enumerated objects (e.g. in lesson
1 noí fichit én lit. 'nine twenties of birds').
The cardinal numerals are nominal, except for those from 1 to 10, which are
adjectival and are used predicatively (or as substantives when identical things are
enumerated). Only 2, 3, and 4 are inflected for case and, unlike in most other IE
languages, also distinguish gender.
The cardinal two
2 Masc. Fem. Ntr.

Nom. daL, dáL diL, díL daN, dáN
Acc. daL, dáL diL, díL daN, dáN
Gen. daL, dáL daL, dáL daN, dáN
Dat. dibN, deibN dibN, deibN dibN, deibN
70
The cardinals three and four
3, 4 Masc/Ntr. Fem. Masc/Ntr. Fem.

Nom. tri teoir teuir, téora ceth(a)ir cethéoir, cethéora
Acc. tri téora cethri cethéora
Gen. tri téora cethéora
Dat. trib téoraib *cethrib cethéoraib
Particularly when enumerating different things, special numeral substantives

are formed by adding the suffix -de, inflecting as neuter yo-stems. When enumerating
persons, special numeral substantives are formed by compounding the cardinals with
fer 'man', with the exception of 'two persons', for which dias is used.
19.2. Ordinals
The forms of the ordinals are:

1st cétn(a)e 6th se(i)ssed 20th fichetmad
2nd tán(a)ise 7th sechtmad 30th trichatmad
3rd tris(s) 8th ochtmad 100th cétmad
4th cethramad 9th nómad
5th cóiced 10th dechmad
In combination with tens, cétn(a)e is replaced by oínmad, oénmad, and tán(a)ise

is replaced by indeclinable alaN, which in turn combines with the article to give indala
for all genders and cases.
All ordinals, whether inflected or not (cf. lesson 3, section 14; the forms in -ed -
ad are o- and ā-stems), stand before the noun they qualify (with the exception of
tán(a)ise 'second', which follows its noun). In combinations of digits with tens and
hundreds, only the digit takes the ordinal form, while the tens are expressed by the
genitive of the cardinal (see above 19.1), and the hundreds are attached by means of
ar; the noun to which the numeral refers stands immediately after the digit. Examples
are in chóiced fichet 'the twenty-fifth', indala n-ainmm deac 'the twelfth name', isin
fichtetmad blíadain ar chét 'in the one hundred and twentieth year'.
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20. Suffixed Pronouns
Unstressed personal pronouns can be added to stressed verbs or prepositions. To

verbs, the pronouns can be infixed or suffixed, but to prepositions they can only be
suffixed (the infixed pronouns will be discussed in lesson 5, section 25; for details on
the combinations of preposition plus personal pronoun -- the pronominalized
prepositions -- see lesson 7, section 35). In both cases they can serve as direct or
indirect objects. Most commonly, a pronoun of the third person is attached as direct
object to the verbal ending of the 3rd singular absolute form of an active verb in the
indicative. The forms of the suffixed personal pronouns are:
Singular Form
1st -um
2nd -ut
3rd masc/ntr. -i (-it)
3rd fem. -us
Plural Form
1st -unn
2nd -uib
3rd -us
The suffixed pronouns of all persons can be used in combination with the 3rd
singular absolute, present indicative, of the substantive verb (*táith) in a dative sense,
to denote possession; e.g. táthut (2nd singular) 'there exists for you', i.e. 'you have'.
Apart from the 3rd singular, the only verbal forms capable of taking a suffixed
pronouns are 3rd plurals in -it, 1st plurals in -mi, and the 1st singular future indicative
in -a. To these, only the pronoun of the 3rd singular masculine or neuter can be
attached, which then has the form -it. The pronouns of the 1st and 2nd persons are
restricted to the poetic language in their use as direct object, whereas infixed
pronouns have to be used in prose.
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Lesson 5
The story of Liadain agus Cuirithir is a tale consisting -- as usual -- of prose and
poetry, which on linguistic grounds can be dated to the ninth or early tenth century,
even though it has come down to us only in two late manuscripts. The theme of this
romance is the love of a poet and a poetess: after an initial engagement to marry
Cuirithir, Liadain -- the Grey Lady -- takes the veil. It is not clear at what point of the
transmission of the text this occurred; if early, her act makes the plot a conflict
between love and religion, though it might have been different in the original version
of the beginning of the story, where Liadain postpones the marriage to Cuirithir
because of her professional interests as a travelling poetess.
In the course of the story (i.e. after the first selection, sentences 1-9), the lovers
seek the spiritual direction of St. Cummine, who first imposes a light probation upon
them but then, challenged by Liadain, allows the couple more freedom. When
Cuirithir breaks the vow of chastity (as told in the second part of the selection,
sentence 10), he is banished to another monastery by Cummine and has to renounce
love, as we see in the third part of the selection (sentences 11-13). As Liadain professes
her love for Cuirithir and still seeks him (as narrated in the fourth and fifth part of the
selection, sentences 14-22), Cuirithir crosses the sea while Liadain returns to the scene
of their penance and his prayers and shortly thereafter dies. Cummine subsequently
lays over her grave the stone where Liadain had mourned her love of Cuirithir, and
upon which she died.
(N.B. In order to give a better idea of the verse form, Ruth Lehmann's poetic
rendering will appear following our more literal translation of the selections for this
lesson)
Comrac Liadaine ocus Cuirithir
• comrac -- noun; nominative singular masculine/neuter, o-stem, of <comrac>

encounter; combat; collision; sexual relation -- the encounter
• Liadaine -- proper name feminine; genitive singular of <Líadain> Liadain -- of
Liadain
• Cuirithir -- proper name masculine; genitive singular of <Curithir, Cuirithir>
Cuirithir -- Cuirithir
Líadain ben do Chorco Duibne .i. banéces.
• Líadain -- proper name feminine; nominative singular of <Líadain> Liadain --

Liadain
• ben -- noun; nominative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <ben> woman, wife -- a
woman
• do -- preposition; <duL, doL> to -- of
• Chorco Duibne -- toponym; lenited dative singular masculine, yo-stem, of
<Corco Duibne> Corkaguiney -- Corkaguiney
73
• banéces -- noun; compound of <ben> woman, wife + nominative singular
masculine, o-stem, of <éces, éices> scholar, sage, poet -- a poetess
Luid sí for cúairt hi crích Connacht.
• luid -- verb; 3rd person singular preterite indicative, absolute, of <téit> goes --
went
• sí -- personal pronoun 3rd person singular feminine of <(h)é, síL, (h)ed> he, she,
it -- she
• cúairt -- noun; dative singular masculine, i-stem, of <cúairt> circle; tour,
journey -- a tour
• hi -- preposition; <in, iN> in, into -- into
• crích -- noun; accusative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <crích> boundary,
territory -- into the territory
• Connacht -- toponym; genitive plural feminine, ā-stem, of <Connacht>
inhabitant of Connacht -- of the inhabitants of Connacht
Cuirithir mac Doborchon, éces side dno.
• Cuirithir mac Doborchon -- proper name masculine; nominative singular of

<Cuirithir mac Doborchon> Cuirithir son of Doborchu -- Cuirithir son of
Doborchu
• éces -- noun; nominative singular masculine, o-stem, of <éces, éices> scholar,
sage, poet -- a poet
• side -- anaphoric demonstrative pronoun; nominative singular masculine of
<sude, suide> this one, the aforementioned -- himself
• dno -- shortened from enclitic particle; <dano, dono> again, now, then -- as
well
Do Chonnachtaib dó.
• do -- preposition; <duL, doL> to -- to

• Chonnachtaib -- proper name feminine; lenited dative plural of <Connacht>
inhabitant of Connacht -- the inhabitants of Connacht
• dó -- pronominalized preposition; 3rd person singular masculine dative of
<duL, doL> to -- that he belonged
Dogníther ón cuirm dísi le Cuirithir.
• dogníther -- verb; 3rd person singular present indicative passive, deuterotonic,

of <do°gní> does; makes -- is made
• ón -- indeclinable; demonstrative pronoun neuter singular <ón> this, that --
this
• cuirm -- noun; nominative singular neuter, i-stem, of <cuirm> ale, beer; ale-
feast, entertainment -- an ale-
ale-feast
• dísi -- pronominalized preposition; 3rd person singular feminine dative of
<duL, doL> to + emphasizing particle 3rd person singular feminine <(h)é, síL,
(h)ed> he, she, it -- for her
74
• le -- preposition; <laH> among, by, with -- by
• Cuirithir -- proper name masculine; accusative singular of <Curithir, Cuirithir>
"Cid ná dénaimni óentaid, a Líadain?" ol Cuirithir.
• cid -- stressed interrogative pronoun; neuter; <cidL, cedL> what; why -- why
• ná -- dependent negative particle; <ná, na> not, nor -- not
• dénaimni -- verb; 1st person plural present indicative active, prototonic, of
<do°gní> does; makes + emphasizing particle 1st person plural <ni> we -- do
we... make
• óentaid -- noun; accusative singular masculine, dental stem, of <oentu> unity,
alliance, sexual union -- a union
• a -- particle; introduces vocative; <aL> o -- o
• Líadain -- proper name feminine; vocative singular of <Líadain> Liadain --
Liadain
• Cuirithir -- proper name masculine; nominative singular of <Curithir,
Cuirithir> Cuirithir -- Cuirithir
"Ropud án ar mac ar ndís".
• ropud -- verb; 3rd person singular perfect subjunctive, conjunct, of copula <is>
is -- would be
• án -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <án> splendid, brilliant;
splendour -- brilliant
• ar -- possessive pronoun; 1st person plural <arN> our -- our
• mac -- noun; nominative singular masculine, o-stem, of <macc, mac> son -- son
• ar -- conjunction; introduces relative; <ar-aN> so that, in order that, that --
whom
• ndís -- verb; nasalized 2nd person singular present subjunctive active,
prototonic, of <do°icc, tic(c), tig> approaches; gets; comes -- you would beget
"Ní dénaimni ón", ol sise, "ar ná loiti mo chúairt immum.

• dénaimni -- verb; 1st person plural imperative active, prototonic, of <do°gní>
does; makes + emphasizing particle 1st person plural <ni> we -- let us... do
• ón -- indeclinable; demonstrative pronoun neuter singular <ón> this, that -- so
• sise -- emphatic personal pronoun 3rd person singular feminine <(h)é, síL,
(h)ed> he, she, it -- she
• ar -- conjunction; introduces relative; <ar-aN> so that, in order that, that -- so
that
• loiti -- verb; 3rd person singular present indicative active, conjunct, of <lottid>
injures, spoils, destroys -- it does... spoil
• mo -- possessive pronoun; 1st person singular of <moL, mL> my -- my
• chúairt -- noun; lenited accusative singular masculine, i-stem, of <cúairt>
circle; tour, journey -- tour
75
• immum -- pronominalized preposition; 1st person singular accusative of <imbL,
immL> around, about; mutually -- for me
Día tís ar mo chend dorísi dom thig, doregsae lat." ...
• día -- conjunction; <diaN> when; if -- if

• tís -- verb; 2nd person singular present subjunctive, prototonic, of <do°icc,
tic(c), tig> approaches; gets; comes -- you might come
• ar -- preposition; <arL, airL> before, for, in front of, east of -- for
• mo -- possessive pronoun; 1st person singular of <moL, mL> my -- ...
• chend -- noun; lenited accusative singular neuter, o-stem, of <cenn> head,
front; end -- me
• dorísi -- adverb; <dorísi, dorís> again, once more -- again
again
• dom -- preposition; compound form of preposition <duL, doL> to + suffixed
possessive pronoun 1st person singular <moL, mL> my -- to my
• thig -- noun; lenited dative singular neuter, s-stem, of <teg, tech> house,
dwelling -- house
• doregsae -- verb; 1st person singular future indicative active, deuterotonic, of
<do°tét, do°téit> comes; goes + emphasizing particle 1st person singular <se,
sa> I -- I shall come
• lat -- pronominalized preposition; 2nd person singular accusative of <laH>
among, by, with -- with you
Foit in oidchi sin. ...
• foit -- verb; 3rd person plural present indicative active, absolute, of <foad, foid,
foaid> sleeps together -- they sleep together
• in -- article; accusative singular feminine of <in, aN, indL> the -- that
• oidchi -- noun; accusative singular feminine, yā-stem, of <adaig> night -- night
Rucad som íarum do chill aili.
• rucad -- verb; 3rd person singular perfect passive, deuterotonic, of <do°beir>

brings -- was brought
• som -- emphasizing particle; 3rd person singular masculine <seom, som> he, it
-- he
• íarum -- pronominalized preposition; 3rd person singular neuter dative of
<íarN, íarmL-> after -- then
• chill -- noun; lenited dative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <cell> cloister,
monastic settlement -- monastery
• aili -- pronominal; dative singular feminine of <aile> other -- another
Is and asbert som:

is
76
in, into -- there
• asbert -- verb; 3rd person singular preterite indicative active, deuterotonic,
syntactically relative, of <as°beir> says, speaks -- that... said
• som -- emphasizing particle; 3rd person singular masculine <seom, som> he, it
-- he
"Di chíanaib
ó roscarus fri Líadain,
sithithir cech lá fri mí,
sithithir mí fri blíadain." ...
• di -- preposition; <diL, deL> from, of -- of

• chíanaib -- noun; lenited dative plural feminine, ā-stem, of <cían> long time;
period -- late
• ó -- conjunction; <ó> since -- since
• roscarus -- verb; 1st person singular perfect indicative active, conjunct, of
<scaraid> separates, parts -- I have parted
• fri -- preposition; <frithL, friH> against, towards -- from
• Líadain -- proper name feminine; accusative singular of <Líadain> Liadain --
Liadain
• sithithir -- adjective; equative of <síth> long -- as long
• cech -- pronominal; nominative singular neuter of <cach, cech> each, every,
any -- each
• lá -- noun; nominative singular neuter, yo-stem, of <láaN, láN> day, daylight --
day
• fri -- preposition; <frithL, friH> against, towards -- as
• mí -- noun; accusative singular masculine, s-stem, of <mí> month -- a month
• sithithir -- adjective; equative of <síth> long -- as long
• mí -- noun; nominative singular masculine, s-stem, of <mí> month -- a month
• fri -- preposition; <frithL, friH> against, towards -- as
• blíadain -- noun; accusative singular feminine, ī-stem, of <blíadain> year -- a
year
Luid sium didu co mboí hi Cill Letrech i tír na nDésse inna ailithri.
• luid -- verb; 3rd person singular preterite indicative, absolute, of <téit> goes --
went
• sium -- emphasizing particle; 3rd person singular masculine <seom, som> he, it
-- he
• didu -- particle; <didiu, didu> now, therefore, then -- therefore
• co -- conjunction; used as verbal particle; <con, coN> until; so that; and -- until
• mboí -- verb; nasalized 3rd person singular preterite indicative of substantive
verb <attá> is -- he was
• hi -- preposition; <in, iN> in, into -- in
• Cill Letrech -- toponym; dative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <Cell Letrech>
Cloister Letrech -- Cell Letrech
• i -- preposition; <in, iN> in, into -- in
• tír -- noun; dative singular neuter, s-stem, of <tír> earth, territory, land -- the
land
77
• na -- article; genitive plural of <in, aN, indL> the -- of the
• nDésse -- proper name; nasalized genitive plural masculine, i-stem, of <déis>
vassal -- Deisi
• inna -- preposition; compound form of preposition <in, iN> in, into + suffixed
possessive pronoun 3rd person singular masculine <aL> his, its -- on his
• ailithri -- noun; dative singular feminine, yā-stem, of <ailithre> pilgrimage --
pilgrimage
Doluid sí for a íarairsom ocus dixit:
• doluid -- verb; 3rd person singular preterite indicative, deuterotonic, of

<do°tét, do°téit> comes; goes -- went
it -- she
• a -- possessive pronoun; 3rd person singular masculine <aL> his, its -- his
• íarairsom -- noun; accusative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <íarar, íarair>
search + emphasizing particle; 3rd person singular masculine <seom, som> he,
it -- search
• dixit -- Latin; <dixit> said -- said
"Cen áinius
in chaingen dorigenus:
an rocharus rocráidius. ...
• cen -- preposition; <cenL> without -- without

• áinius -- noun; accusative singular masculine, u-stem, of <áinius> pleasure --
pleasure
• in -- article; nominative singular feminine of <in, aN, indL> the -- the
• chaingen -- noun; lenited nominative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <caingen>
deal, bargain -- bargain
• dorigenus -- verb; 1st person singular perfect indicative active, deuterotonic,
syntactically relative, of <do°gní> does; makes -- which I have made
• an -- relative pronoun; <anL> what, that what -- that what
• rocharus -- verb; 1st person singular perfect indicative active, conjunct,
syntactically relative, of <caraid> loves -- I have loved
• rocráidius -- verb; 1st person singular perfect indicative active, conjunct, of
<cráidid> torments, vexes, afflicts -- I have vexed
Mé Líadain,
rocharussa Cuirithir:
is fírithir adfiadar.
• mé -- independent personal pronoun; 1st person singular <mé> I -- I

• Líadain -- proper name feminine; nominative singular of <Líadain> Liadain --
Liadain
• rocharussa -- verb; 1st person singular perfect indicative active, conjunct,
syntactically relative, of <caraid> loves + emphasizing particle 1st person
singular <se, sa> I -- I who have loved
78
is
• fírithir -- adjective; equative of <fír> true -- true exactly as
• adfiadar -- verb; present indicative impersonal singular, deuterotonic, of
<ad°fét> tells, relates -- it is told
Gair bása
hi coimthecht mo Chuirithir:
frissom ba maith mo gnássa.
• gair -- adjective; accusative singular neuter, i-stem, of <gair> short; a short

time -- a short time
• bása -- verb; 1st person singular preterite indicative, absolute, of substantive
verb <attá> is + emphasizing particle 1st person singular <se, sa> I -- I was
• hi -- preposition; <in, iN> in, into -- in
• coimthecht -- noun; dative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <coimthecht>
company -- the company
• Chuirithir -- proper name masculine; lenited genitive singular of <Curithir,
Cuirithir> Cuirithir -- of... Cuirithir
• frissom -- pronominalized preposition; 3rd person singular masculine
accusative of <frithL, friH> against, towards + emphasizing particle 3rd person
singular masculine <seom, som> he, it -- with him
• ba -- verb; 3rd person singular preterite indicative, absolute, of copula <is> is --
was
• maith -- adjective; nominative singular feminine of <maith> good -- good
• gnássa -- noun; nominative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <gnás> intercourse +
emphasizing particle emphasizing particle 1st person singular <se, sa> I --
intercourse
Céol caille
fomchanad la Cuirithir
la fogur fairce flainne.
• céol -- noun; nominative singular neuter, o-stem, of <céol> music -- the music
• caille -- noun; genitive singular feminine, ī-stem, of <caill> wood, forest -- of
the woods
• fomchanad -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect indicative active,
deuterotonic, of <fo°cain> accompanies with song, sings to, chants + infixed
pronoun 1st person singular <mL, mmL> I -- would sing to me
• la -- preposition; <laH> among, by, with -- with
• la -- preposition; <laH> among, by, with -- together with
• fogur -- noun; accusative singular masculine, o-stem, of <fogur> sound -- the
voice
79
• fairce -- noun; genitive singular feminine, yā-stem, of <fairrge> sea -- of the...
sea
• flainne -- adjective; genitive singular feminine of <flann> blood red -- purple
Doménainn
ní cráidfed frim Chuirithir
do dálaib cacha ndénainn.
• doménainn -- verb; 1st person singular past subjunctive active, deuterotonic,

of <do°moinethar> thinks -- I would have thought
• cráidfed -- verb; 3rd person singular conditional active, conjunct, of <cráidid>
torments, vexes, afflicts -- there would... result torment
• frim -- preposition; compound form of preposition <frithL, friH> against,
towards + suffixed possessive pronoun 1st person singular <moL, mL> my -- to
my
• Chuirithir -- proper name masculine; lenited accusative singular of <Curithir,
Cuirithir> Cuirithir -- Cuirithir
• do -- preposition; variant of <diL, deL> from, of -- from
• dálaib -- noun; dative plural feminine, ā-stem, of <dál> meeting, encounter --
the encounters
• cacha -- pronominal; dative plural feminine of <cach, cech> each, every, any --
all
• ndénainn -- verb; 1st person singular past subjunctive active, prototonic,
syntactically relative, of <do°gní> does; makes -- which I might have arranged
Ní chela!
ba hésom mo chrideṡerc,
cía nocharainn cách chenae.

• chela -- verb; lenited 1st person singular subjunctive active, conjunct, of
<celid> conceals, hides -- I may... conceal
• ba -- verb; 3rd person singular preterite indicative, absolute, relative, of copula
<is> is -- that it was
• hésom -- personal pronoun; 3rd person singular masculine of <(h)é, síL, (h)ed>
he, she, it + emphasizing particle 3rd person singular masculine <seom, som>
he, it -- him indeed
• chrideṡerc -- noun; lenited compound of <cride> heart + lenited nominative
singular feminine, ā-stem, of <serc> love -- heart's love
• cía -- conjunction; <cía> although, even if -- even if
• nocharainn -- verb; 1st person singular past subjunctive active, conjunct, of
<caraid> loves -- I might have loved
• cách -- pronominal; accusative singular masculine of <cách> everybody,
everyone -- everybody else
• chenae -- pronominalized preposition; lenited 3rd person singular neuter
accusative of <cenL> without -- besides
80
Deilm ndegae
rotethainn mo chridesae,
rofess nícon bíad cenae."
• deilm -- noun; nominative singular neuter, n-stem, of <deilm> loud, rumbling

noise -- the roaring
• ndegae -- noun; nasalized genitive plural feminine, i-stem, of <daig> flame, fire;
pang -- of the blaze
• rotethainn -- verb; 3rd person singular perfect indicative active, conjunct, of
<teinnid, tennaid> cuts, cracks, breaks -- has shattered
• chridesae -- noun; lenited accusative singular neuter, yo-stem, of <cride> heart
+ emphasizing particle 1st person singular <se, sa> I -- heart
• rofess -- verb; perfect impersonal singular, deuterotonic, of <ro°fitir> knows --
it is certain
• nícon -- independent negative particle; <nícon, nicon> not -- not
• bíad -- verb; 3rd person singular conditional, conjunct, syntactically relative,
of substantive verb <attá> is -- that it might... exist
• cenae -- pronominalized preposition; 3rd person singular masculine accusative
of <cenL> without -- without him
Lesson Text
Comrac Liadaine ocus Cuirithir Líadain ben do Chorco Duibne .i. banéces.
Luid sí for cúairt hi crích Connacht. Cuirithir mac Doborchon, éces side dno. Do
Chonnachtaib dó. Dogníther ón cuirm dísi le Cuirithir. "Cid ná dénaimni
óentaid, a Líadain?" ol Cuirithir. "Ropud án ar mac ar ndís". "Ní dénaimni ón",
ol sise, "ar ná loiti mo chúairt immum. Día tís ar mo chend dorísi dom thig,
doregsae lat." ...
Foit in oidchi sin. ...
Rucad som íarum do chill aili. Is and asbert som:
"Di chíanaib
ó roscarus fri Líadain,
sithithir cech lá fri mí,
sithithir mí fri blíadain." ...
Luid sium didu co mboí hi Cill Letrech i tír na nDésse inna ailithri. Doluid sí for
a íarairsom ocus dixit:
"Cen áinius
in chaingen dorigenus:
an rocharus rocráidius. ...
Mé Líadain,
rocharussa Cuirithir:
is fírithir adfiadar.
81
Gair bása
hi coimthecht mo Chuirithir:
frissom ba maith mo gnássa.
Céol caille
fomchanad la Cuirithir
la fogur fairce flainne.
Doménainn
ní cráidfed frim Chuirithir
do dálaib cacha ndénainn.
Ní chela!
ba hésom mo chrideṡerc,
cía nocharainn cách chenae.
Deilm ndegae
rotethainn mo chridesae,
rofess nícon bíad cenae."
Translation
Liadain, a woman of Corkaguiney, that is, a poetess; she went on a tour
into the territory of the inhabitants of Connacht. Cuirithir son of Doborchu, a
poet himself as well; (it was) to the inhabitants of Connacht that he belonged.
This is made, an ale-feast for her by Cuirithir. "Why do we not make a union, o
Liadain?" said Cuirithir. "Brilliant would be our son whom you would beget."
"Let us not do so", said she, "so that my tour is not spoiled for me. If you might
come for me again, to my house, I shall come with you." [...]
They sleep together that very night. [...]
He was brought then to another monastery. It is there that he said:
"Of late,
since I have parted from Liadain,
each day (is) as long as a month,
a month as long as a year." [...]
He went, therefore, until he was in Cell Letrech, in the land of the Deisi,
on his pilgrimage. She went on his search and said:
"Without pleasure
(is) the bargain which I have made:
what I have loved, I have vexed. [...]
"I (am) Liadain,
I who have loved Cuirithir:
it is true exactly as it is told.
A short time (only)
I was in the company of my Cuirithir:
my intercourse with him was good.
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The music of the woods
would sing to me (when) with Cuirithir,
together with the voice of the purple sea.
I would have thought
that there would not result torment to my Cuirithir
from all the encounters which I might have arranged.
I may not conceal (it)!
It was him indeed (who was) my heart's love,
even if I might have loved everybody else besides.
The roaring of the blaze
has shattered my heart:
it is certain that it might not exist without him."
(N.B.
N.B. Ruth Lehmann's rendering, which follows, is intended to convey the
poetical devices employed by the Irish author but not the literal content of the
verses; also, our selection includes verses not included by her selection and
excludes, with [...], verses included by her "Nachdichtung" because these are,
in the primary lesson author's opinion, later Christian additions to the original
pagan text.)
No pleasure
in deed done to loving-one;
tormenting without measure.
What madness
not to give him happiness,
though fear of God feed sadness.
No ruin,
his affair desirable
through pain heaven pursuing.
Cause slender
through me troubled Cuirithir,
though I was gentle, tender.
I'm Liadan;
it is I loved Cuirithir;
truly, though said by heathen.
Brief hour
together with Cuirithir;
our closeness then a dower.
Woods singing
to me beside Cuirithir
with somber sea-sounds dinning.
I wonder
it would trouble Cuirithir,
any deal made asunder.
No hiding:
he was my heart's true lover,
though I loved all beside him.
83
Flames flowing
burst my heart, now desperate, dead without him - this knowing. No.
Grammar
21. Relative Clauses: Special Verb Forms
It has been mentioned in lesson 4, section 16.1, that simple verbs in absolute
inflection have special relative forms for the 3rd persons and generally also for the 1st
person plural. The endings of these relative forms were originally characterised by a
final -e, which goes back to a petrified form of the old relative pronoun *yo-. This -e
has generally been preserved in the following relative forms:
• in the 1st person plural active of all tenses, ending in -me (deponent -mer);
• in the 3rd person plural active of all tenses, ending in -te (deponent and
impersonal/passive -tar), as in the present indicative active toingthe, toingte
in lesson 4;
• in the 3rd person singular present indicative active of the irregular verb téit
'goes' (téte) and of the substantive verb attá 'is' (file);
• in the 3rd person singular indicative active of the t-preterite, ending in -t-e, as
in berthae in lesson 2;
• in the 3rd person singular indicative active of the suffixless preterite, ending
in -e;
• in the 3rd person preterite impersonal/passive, ending in -th(a)e.
Otherwise, the relative form of 3rd person singular active ends in -s(s), i.e. in the
present indicative of all verbs other than téit and attá, in the ā-subjunctive, as well as
in the f-future, in the normal reduplicated future, and in the future formations of
certain other verbs.
22. The Verb: Absolute and Conjunct
In most tenses and moods, all personal forms of finite verbs can have either
absolute or conjunct inflection, that is, they have two different sets of endings. Thus, a
weak verb such as 'leaves' has the 3rd person singular present indicative active lécid
in the absolute inflection vs. léci in the conjunct inflection, with corresponding
impersonal/passive forms léicthir and léicther; for the strong verb 'bears, carries', the
absolute and conjunct forms are berid and be(i)r in the active vs. ber(a)ir and berar in
the passive, and similarly the deponent verb 'places' has the absolute and conjunct
forms su(i)digidir and suidigedar in the active vs. suidigthir and suidigther in the
impersonal/passive. Whether a personal form takes absolute or conjunct inflection is
determined by the form of the verb itself (simple or compound) and by the element
preceding it, as the following subparagraphs will show.
22.1. Absolute vs. Simple Conjunct
The absolute forms are used where the verb is neither compounded with any
preposition or verbal particle (ro, no), nor preceded by a so-called conjunct particle (see
below). Instances of personal verbal forms in absolute inflection from this lesson
include the 3rd person preterite indicative active luid, the 3rd person plural present
84
indicative active foit, the 3rd person present indicative active is, the 3rd person
singular conditional active cráidfed, etc.
Conjunct forms, on the other hand, are used where the verb is either
compounded with a preposition or a verbal particle (ro, no), or is preceded by a
conjunct particle. These particles are called conjunct particles because they demand
the conjunct form of a following verb (simple or compound). The conjunct particles
are:
• the negative particles ní/ni, nícon/nicon, ná/na, nád, nacon and their
compounds;
• the interrogative particle in, and sometimes also the interrogative pronoun
cía;
• prepositions in combination with the relative particle (s)aN (cf. lesson 4,
section 16.1);
• the nasalising preposition iN, hiN in relative use ('in which');
• the nasalising conjunctions araN 'in order that', diaN 'if, when', coN, conN 'so
that'.
Three different types of conjunct forms can be distinguished: simple conjunct,

conjunct deuterotonic and conjunct prototonic. Their use depends on the element
preceding them. Simple conjunct forms occur with non-compounded verbs only. They
are employed:
• where a simple (i.e. non-compounded) verb follows a conjunct particle

(instances from this lesson include the 3rd person singular present indicative
active loiti after ná, the 1st person singular present subjunctive active chela
after ní, and the 3rd person singular conditional bíad after nícon); and
• where a simple verb is preceded by the verbal particle ro or no (as e.g. in the
3rd person singular past subjunctive ropud, the 3rd person singular perfect
indicative passive rucad, the 1st person singular perfect indicative active
roscarus, and the 1st person singular past subjunctive active nocharainn in
this lesson).
22.2. Conjunct Deuterotonic vs. Conjunct Prototonic
Compound verbs (i.e. verbs compounded with a preposition) have either

deuterotonic or prototonic form (the difference in accentuation between
deuterotonic and prototonic forms has already been explained in lesson 1, section
1.2).
Deuterotonic means that the stress falls on the second element of the
compound, so that verbs compounded with one preposition bear the stress on the
first syllable of the verbal root (e.g. the 3rd person present indicative passive
dogníther from do°gní, or the 3rd person preterite indicative active asbert from
as°beir in this lesson), while verbs compounded with two or more prepositions bear
the stress on the second preposition.
85
Prototonic means that the stress falls on the first element of the compound,
which is invariably the first preposition, thus implying important phonological
changes in the verbal compound. Prototonic form is required:
• After the conjunct particles mentioned in 22.1 (cf. in this lesson the 1st person
plural present indicative active dénaim from do°gní, or the 2nd person
singular present subjunctive active tís from do°icc)
• In the imperative (cf. the 1st person plural imperative active dénaim, from
do°gní, in this lesson)
• Occasionally where the verb introduces a relative clause (cf. the nasalised 1st
person singular past subjunctive active relative ndénainn, from do°gní, in this
lesson)
• In the archaic construction where the verb stands at the end of its clause (on
this phenomenon cf. lesson 1, section 2.3).
23. The Noun: u-

u-, i-
i-, and ī-Stems
The inflection of u-stems corresponds to that of the i-stems: both are

characterised by the Irish ending -o -a in the genitive singular and dual; the
nominative, vocative, accusative and dative singular, and the nominative, accusative
dual have no ending, from a descriptive point of view, while the final consonant of
these cases is neutral in the u-stems and palatal in the i-stems; the dative plural and
dual of both stems end in -ib, the genitive plural ends in -e. Both stems differ in the
plural, however, where the masculine u-stems end in -e, -a or -i and the neuters either
show u-quality in the final consonant or have the ending -a while the i-stems show
the ending -i in the nominative, vocative and accusative masculine and -e in the
neuter.
23.1. u-
u-Stems
These comprise masculines and neuters; they are represented, first, by the
masculine mug 'serf':

Nom. mug mog(a)e, moga mug
mog(a)i
Voc. mug (*mugu) mug
Acc. mug mugu mug
Gen. mogo, -a mog(a)e mogo, -a
Dat. mug mog(a)ib mog(a)ib
86
...and u-Stems are represented, second, by the neuter dorus 'door':

Nom. dorus dorus, doirsea dorus
Voc. dorus doirsea dorus
Acc. dorus dorus, doirsea dorus
Gen. doirseo, -ea doirse *doirseo,-ea
Dat. dorus doirsib *doirsib
Instances of u-stems in this lesson include the accusative singular masculine

áinius and the compound genitive singular masculine coṁchrotha; in lesson 4, the
dative singular masculine áth; in lesson 3, the compound accusative plural masculine
mórchathu; in lesson 1, a neuter form in the dative singular collud.
23.2. i-
i-Stems
All three genders are found, though neuters are rare. As masculines and
feminines of this declension are inflected alike, the following will suffice.
For example, the feminine súil 'eye':

Nom. súil sú(i)li súil
Voc. súil sú(i)li súil
Acc. súil sú(i)li súil
Gen. súlo, -a sú(i)le súlo, -a
Dat. súil sú(i)lib sú(i)lib
For example, the neuter muir 'sea':

Nom. muir mu(i)re muir
Voc. muir muir
Acc. muir mu(i)re muir
Gen. moro, -a mu(i)re moro, -a
Dat. muir mu(i)rib mu(i)rib
Instances are found in this lesson in the dative singular masculine cúairt, in the
nominative singular neuter cuirm, in the accusative singular neuter of the
substantivized adjective gair, and in the nasalised genitive singular feminine ndegae.
87
23.3. ī-Stems
These are feminine only. The inflection of ī-stems is basically like that of the yā-
stems (cf. lesson 4, section 18); it differs however both in the nominative and vocative
singular and in the nominative and accusative dual, where the ī-stems have no
apparent ending and show palatal quality in the final consonant. The inflection of ī-
stems is exemplified by the noun setig 'female companion, wife':
L
Nom. sétig séitchi sétigL
Voc. sétigL *séitchi sétigL
Acc. séitchiN séitchi sétigL
Gen. séitche séitcheN *séitcheL
Dat. séitchiL séitchib *séitchib
The present lesson provides two examples: the accusative singular blíadain, and
the genitive singular caille.
24. The Adjective: Declensions

Declensions of the Adjective
It has already been mentioned in lesson 3, section 14, that adjectives are
inflected in certain syntactic positions. Five different classes of adjectival declensions
can be distinguished:
• o- and ā-stems;
• yo- and yā-stems;
• i-stems;
• u-stems;
• consonantal stems.
The distribution of genders corresponds to that of the substantives, so that

classes 3-5 contain all three genders (in the u-stem adjectives, the feminine inflection
survived, whereas original Indo-European feminine u-stem nouns were incorporated
into the ā-stems), while masculine and neuter adjectives belonging to classes 1 or 2
inflect as o- or yo-stems and the corresponding female forms inflect as ā- or yā-stems.
Classes 1-3 contain numerous adjectives, while those belonging to class 4 are less
common, and of class 5 only few remnants exist.
88
The declensions are the following:
24.1. o-
o- and ā-stems
For example, bec(c) 'small':
Singular Masc. Fem. Ntr.

Nom. becc becc becc
Voc. bicc becc becc
Acc. becc bicc becc
Gen. bicc bicce bicc
Dat. biucc bicc biucc
Plural Masc. Fem/Ntr.

Nom. bicc becca
Voc. biccu becca
Acc. biccu, becca becca
Gen. becc becc
Dat. becc(a)ib becc(a)ib
Examples of adjectives following this declension are the masculine nominative

singular án and the feminine genitive singular flainn in this lesson, the compound
comtrén, the masculine nominative singular mór, the feminine nominatives singular
of the colour adjectives glass, finn and derg (in the compound áuderg) and the
feminine dative singular deiss in lesson 4, the feminine nominative singular doltach
and the masculine nominative singular of the colour adjective donn in lesson 3.
24.2.
24.2. yo-
yo- and yā
yā-stems
For example, u(i)le 'all, whole':
Singular Masc. Fem. Ntr.

Nom. u(i)le u(i)le u(i)le
Voc. u(i)li u(i)le u(i)le
Acc. u(i)le u(i)li u(i)le
Gen. u(i)li u(i)le u(i)li
Dat. u(i)liu u(i)li u(i)liu
Plural Masc/Fem/Ntr.
Nom. u(i)li
Voc. u(i)li
Acc. u(i)li
Gen. u(i)le
Dat. u(i)lib
89
Examples of yo-/yā-stem adjectives are found in the feminine accusative
singular clí and in the feminine nominative singular uile in lesson 4, as well as in the
masculine dative singular inneltiu in lesson 2.
24.3. i-
i-stems
For example, maith 'good':
Singular Masc/Ntr. Fem.

Nom. maith maith
Voc. maith maith
Acc. maith maith
Gen. maith ma(i)the
Dat. maith maith
Nom. ma(i)thi
Voc. ma(i)thi
Acc. ma(i)thi
Gen. ma(i)the, maith
Dat. ma(i)thib
Examples of adjectives following this declension are the neuter accusative

singular gair and the feminine nominative singular maith in this lesson, the
compounds comfobaid and coméscaid in lesson 4, as well as the neuter accusative
plural réidi and the masculine nominatives singular hálaind and caín in lesson 1.
24.4. u-
u-stems
For example, dub 'black':
Singular Masc/Ntr. Fem.

Nom.
Nom. dub dub
Acc. dub duib
Gen. duib dub(a)e
Dat. dub duib
Nom. dub(a)i
Acc. dub(a)i
Gen. dub
Dat. dub(a)ib
An example of an adjective following this declension is found in the masculine

nominative singular dub in lesson 3.
90
As adjectives following the consonantal declension are very rare, and since only
single forms exist, no paradigm is given here.
The declension according to which an adjective inflects depends on its stem

formation. New adjectives can be formed:
• by composition of nouns or adjectives, without adding a suffix (as in lesson 3 in

adjectival compounds of the type comtrén 'of the same strength' (prefix 'same'
+ adjective 'strong'), comchrotha 'of the same shape' (masculine genitive
singular of comchruth, preposition 'same' + noun 'shape'), etc., or in the
feminine nominative singular áuderg 'red-eared' (noun 'ear' + adjective 'red')
in lesson 4);
• by derivation from nouns or adjectives by means of the suffix -d(a)e, inflecting
as yo- and yā-stems;
• by derivation from nouns or adjectives by means of the suffix -ach, inflecting
as o- and ā-stems (as in the feminine nominative singular doltach 'pernicious'
from dolud 'distress, loss, damage' in lesson 3);
• by derivation from transitive verbs by means of the suffix -the (-te -de -se),
serving as past participle passive (as in inneltiu in lesson 2, masculine dative
singular of inneltae, from the verb in°lá 'arranges, adjusts').
25. Infixed Pronouns
The difference between independent and dependent personal pronouns has

already been mentioned in lesson 2, section 10 (the independent forms having been
discussed in detail in lesson 3, section 15.1). The proclitic dependent forms of the
personal pronoun are used with verbs and, being attached to a pretonic preverb, are
considered to be infixed in the verbal form.
The exact position of the infixed pronoun depends on the pretonic element(s)
preceding the verb, which cause the infixed pronoun to be integrated into the verb in
one of the following manners:
• Where the verb (compounded or not) is preceded by one or more conjunct

particles (cf. above, 22.1), the pronoun is generally attached to the last of
these, and the stress falls on the immediately following element (as in nicotL
ḃia in lesson 4, where the infixed pronoun tL of the 2nd person singular is
attached to the negative particle nicon, or in conda rodart in lesson 3, where
the infixed pronoun daH of the 3rd person singular feminine is attached to the
conjunction con and precedes the verb dairid; the same conjunction is found
with attached infixed pronoun idL of the 3rd person singular masculine in the
form conidcorastar in lesson 2, where the verb is fo°ceird).
• If the verb is not preceded by any conjunct particles but is compounded with a
preposition or a verbal particle, the pronoun is generally attached to the first
of these (as in fomchanad, where the infixed pronoun mL of the 1st person
singular is attached to the preverb fo of the compound verb fo°cain, in this
lesson, or in fortatnesabsu, where the infixed pronoun tatL of the 2nd person
singular is attached to the preverb for of for°nesa).
• If the verb is neither preceded by a conjunct particle nor compounded, the
semantically void verbal particle no is prefixed to the verb, and the pronoun is
91
attached to this particle (as in notLbenabsu, in lesson 4, where the infixed
pronoun tL of the 2nd person singular is attached to the verbal particle no in
order to serve as infixed pronoun with the simple verb benaid).
Infixed personal pronouns may serve the following syntactic purposes:
• They express the direct object when attached to active or deponent forms of
transitive verbs (e.g. dotLucai 'brings you' in lesson 3, where the infixed
pronoun tL of the 2nd person singular serves as direct object of the verb
do°beir 'brings', or similarly in condarodart in lesson 3, where the direct object
of dairid is represented by the infixed pronoun daH of the 3rd person singular
feminine).
• They express the indirect object when attached to forms of the verb 'to be'
(e.g. nicotLḃia in lesson 4, where the infixed pronoun tL of the 2nd person
singular serves as indirect object of the substantive verb attá).
• The infixed pronouns of the 1st and 2nd persons indicate the subject when
attached to passive forms.
Formally, the infixed pronouns fall into three different classes, termed A, B and
C in traditional grammar. Since the use of class C infixed pronouns is determined by
syntactical rather than phonological aspects -- as in the case of classes A and B -- they
will be discussed separately, in lesson 6, section 26.
25.1. 'Class A' Infixed Pronouns
These are used after all particles and most prepositions which originally ended
in a vowel, i.e. ro, no, do, di, fo, ar, im(m) and the negative particle ní/ni (also after
cetu, cita 'first'). Their forms are:
1 Sg. mL, mmL

2 Sg. tL
3 Sg. masc. aN (-N)
fem. sN, s
ntr. aL (-L)
1 Pl. n, nn
2 Pl. b, f
3 Pl. sN, s
After the negative particle ní/ni, which itself causes spirant mutation (cf. lesson
2, section 6.3), the a of the 3rd person singular masculine and neuter is regularly
ommited; the presence and form of an infixed pronoun can therefore only be
determined by the effect ní/ni has on a following initial (spirant mutation meaning
ní/ni without attached pronoun, lenition meaning ní/ni + infixed pronoun 3rd person
singular masculine, and nasalisation meaning ní/ni + infixed pronoun 3rd person
singular neuter).
Instances of verbs with class A infixed pronouns include manimLdergaissu and

notLbenabsu in lesson 4.
92
25.2. 'Class B' Infixed Pronouns
These are characterised by an initial d- in all forms, which is never lenited

(hence often written t). They are used after prepositions originally ending in a
consonant, i.e. for and etar, also frith- and com- (which combine with the initial d- of
the infixed pronoun to give frit- and cot-), and ad-, aith-, ess-, in-/ind-, oss-, all of
which combine with the initial d- to give at- (occasionally written ad-, add-, atd-).
Their forms are:
1 Sg. domL, dumL, tomL, tumL, dam(m)L, tam(m)L

2 Sg. totL, tatL, tL
3 Sg. masc. tN, taN
fem. daH, taH
ntr. tL
1 Pl. don, ton, tan(n)
2 Pl. dob, dub, tob (tof), tab
3 Pl. daH, taH
Instances of verbs with class B infixed pronouns include atomLgládathar, from
ad°gládathar, in lesson 2, as well as atatLchoṁnaic, from ad°cumaing, and
condaHrodart, from dairid, in lesson 3.
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Lesson 6
The text selections of this lesson are taken from Audacht Morainn 'The
Testament of Morann' in the edition of Fergus Kelly. It belongs to the literary genre of
Speculum principum or 'Mirror of Princes', texts which give advice to a king, though it
is not certain if they ever really formed part of the inauguration ceremonies of kings.
Five compositions of this genre are known from Old Irish, Audacht Morainn being the
oldest. Though the first paragraph of the text attributes the work to the wise judge
Morann, who addressed it to his foster-son Neire, it is probable that Morann and the
other characters are merely mythical figures, the author of the text being, as usual,
unknown. On orthographical and syntactic grounds, a compilation date of
approximately 700 A.D. has been assumed, even if major parts of the text will probably
have existed before that, in oral or even written form.
The text has come down to us in three recensions represented by various
manuscripts, the most accurate and complete of them being Royal Irish Academy
manuscript 23. N.10, which, albeit transcribed in 1575, faithfully preserves the archaic
spelling of the Early Old Irish original with only few Middle Irish orthographical
modernisations.
The most important archaic linguistic features of Audacht Morainn found in our
selections are the following:
• archaic forms and spellings, such as final historical -th instead of -d (cf.
ardosécath in sentence 3), the older spelling már 'great' (cf. Gaul. -maros, W.
mawr) for later mór (e.g. in sentence 7), the preverbs to- and di- for later do-
(cf. to-léci 'yields' in sentences 12 and 54), and the archaic infixed pronoun -
de(n)- of the 3rd person singular feminine (cf. inde cluinethar 'when he hears
it' and inden aici 'when he sees it');
• archaic syntax, such as the verb-final constructions tmesis (cf. ní ... imderga
'he may not redden') and Bergins' Law (no example of this construction is
contained in our selection, but cf. § 12 mortlithi márlochet di doínib dingbatar,
'plagues [and] great lightnings are kept from the people', with the verb being
the prototonic form of di-ingaib, or § 21 clanda caini cain-tussimter ... 'fair
children are well begotten', the verb being the prototonic form of to-fuissim),
the absence of the definite article (cf. do ḟlaith 'for the ruler' in sentence 7),
and the general absence of the copulative conjunction ocus 'and' (as in ... asa
daingni deni dlúmaicdib 'by its firmness [and] strength in shiny artefacts' in
sentence 9);
• stylistic archaisms, such as parallelism (cf. the first two lines of our selection,
where the verbs con-oí and ocaib respectively appear in the imperative in the
first part of the syntagm and are repeated in the future form in the second
part) and alliteration (cf. ... co foill na forráin fonnath fodrethat in sentence 5);
• lexical archaisms (cf. the literary meaning 'runs under' of fo-reith in sentence
5, which later exclusively means 'helps'); the text is also characterised by a
very low count of Latin loan-words and shows no influence of specifically
Christian notions.
As usual, the author of the text is unknown. Though the first paragraph of the
text attributes the work to the wise judge Morann, who supposedly composed it on his
death-bed and addressed it to his foster-son Neire, it is probable that Morann and the
other characters mentioned are merely mythical figures, and the paragraph in
question is a later addition to the original text. Irrespective of authorship, Audacht
Morainn provides us with valuable information about the role of the king in pre-
94
Christian Irish society, which seems to be valid also for the early Christian period. Pre-
Christian Irish society is generally regarded as rather violent and warlike, yet the
present text paints a different picture by adopting a generally unmilitaristic attitude:
the central idea is that the welfare of the king and his tribe depends on the king's
justice (fír flathemon), which protects them from misfortune and ensures prosperity.
Various short passages have been selected (§ 6, 8, 22/2-5, 24, 29, 39-42, 54/a-b-
c,e-f,k-m, 59, 61), which best give an impression of the whole. In the first selection the
future king, who is compared to the charioteer of an old wagon, is exhorted to be just
and merciful by caring for his people and avoiding violence; the second stresses the
importance of the king's capacity in judging the quality of metals, first of all iron
(iarn), in the production of which the Celts excelled -- so much so that their word for
it was taken over by the Germanic languages, cf. German Eisen and English iron --
whereas gold is named last and as a foreign (allmar) product. The third selection gives
an idea of Old Irish proverbs meant to exalt moral qualities, such as generosity and
truth, while the fourth distinguishes the good from the unsuccessful leaders, who try
to occupy foreign countries.
Comath fírinni, cotnofathar. [...]
• comath -- verb; 3rd person singular imperative active, prototonic, of <con°oí>

keeps, preserves -- let him preserve
• fírinni -- noun; accusative singular feminine, yā-stem, of <fírinne> truth --
justice
• cotnofathar -- verb; compound form of 3rd person singular future indicative
active, deuterotonic, of <con°oí> keeps, preserves + infixed pronoun 3rd person
singular masculine <tN> he -- it will preserve him
Ocbath trócairi, cotnocéba. [...]
• ocbath -- verb; 3rd person singular imperative active, prototonic, of <ocaib>

raises, exalts -- let him exalt
• trócairi -- noun; accusative singular feminine, yā-stem, of <trócaire> mercy --
mercy
• cotnocéba -- verb; compound form of 3rd person singular future indicative
active, deuterotonic, of <con°ocaib> truly raises, truly exalts + infixed pronoun
3rd person singular masculine <tN> he -- it will truly exalt him
Aranécath arid sencharpait.
• aranécath -- verb; compound form of 3rd person singular imperative active,

prototonic, of <*ar°éci> observes + infixed pronoun 3rd person singular
masculine <aN> he -- let him
him observe him
• arid -- noun; accusative singular masculine, dental stem, of <are, arae, ara>
charioteer -- the driver
95
• sencharpait -- noun; compound form of <sen> old + lenited genitive singular
masculine, o-stem, of <carpat> war-chariot, wagon -- of an old
old chariot
Ar nícon chotli are senḟonnith.

• nícon -- independent negative particle; <nícon, nicon> not -- not
• chotli -- verb; lenited 3rd person singular present indicative, prototonic, of
<con°tuili> sleeps -- does... sleep
• are -- noun; nominative singular masculine, dental stem, of <are, arae, ara>
charioteer -- the driver
• senḟonnith -- noun; compound form of <sen> old + lenited genitive singular
neuter, o-stem, of <fonnat> wheel-rim -- of an old wheel-
wheel-rim
Remi déci, íarmo déci, tair sceo desiul sceo túaithbiul.
• remi -- adverb; <remi> ahead -- ahead

• déci -- verb; 3rd person singular present indicative active, prototonic, of
<de°éci, do°écai> looks -- he looks
• íarmo -- adverb; <íarmo> behind -- behind
• déci -- verb; 3rd person singular present indicative active, prototonic, of
<de°éci, do°écai> looks -- he looks
• tair -- adverb; <tair> in front -- in front
• sceo -- conjunction; <sceo> and -- and
• desiul -- noun; dative singular masculine, o-stem, of <desel, deisel> right-hand
side -- to the right
• sceo -- conjunction; <sceo> and -- and
• túaithbiul -- noun; dative singular masculine, o-stem, of <túaithbel> left-hand
side -- to the left
Deéci, imdích, imdídnathar, arna bó

co foill na forráin fonnath fodrethat. [...]
• deéci -- verb; 3rd person singular present indicative active, deuterotonic, of

<de°éci, do°écai> looks -- he looks out
• imdích -- verb; 3rd person singular present indicative active, deuterotonic, of
<im(m)°dích> defends, protects -- he defends
• imdídnathar -- verb; 3rd person singular present indicative active,
deuterotonic, of <im(m)°dídnathar> protects, releases, exempts -- he protects
• arna -- negative; compound form of <ar-aN> so that, in order that, that +
dependent negative particle <ná, na> not, nor -- so that... not
• bó -- verb; 3rd person singular present subjunctive active, conjunct, of
<bongid> breaks -- he may... break
• co -- preposition; <comL, coN> with -- with
• foill -- noun; dative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <foll, faill> neglect -- neglect
• forráin -- noun; dative singular feminine ā-stem, of <forrán> violence --
violence
96
• fonnath -- noun; accusative plural neuter, o-stem, of <fonnat> wheel-rim -- the
wheel-
wheel-rims
• fodrethat -- verb; compound form of 3rd person plural present indicative,
deuterotonic, syntactically relative, of <fo°reith> runs under + infixed pronoun
3rd person singular masculine <idN, dN, -N> he -- which run under him
Is tre ḟir flathemon rosaig cech dán mochtide mind suíthi. [...]

is
• tre -- preposition; <triL, treL> through -- through
• ḟir -- noun; lenited accusative singular neuter, o-stem, of <fír> truth; right;
justice -- the justice
• flathemon -- noun; nasalized genitive singular masculine, n-stem, of <flathem,
flaithem> ruler -- of the ruler
• rosaig -- verb; 3rd person singular present indicative active, perfective,
conjunct, syntactically relative, of <saigid> seeks, obtains -- that... attains
• cech -- pronominal; nominative singular masculine of <cach, cech> each, every,
any -- each
• dán -- noun; nominative singular masculine, o-stem, of <dán> craftsman, man
of art -- man of art
• mochtide -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <mochtide> great,
mighty -- great
• mind -- noun; accusative singular neuter, o-stem, of <mind> crown, diadem,
summit -- the summit
• suíthi -- noun; genitive singular masculine, yo-stem, of <suíthe> wisdom,
knowledge -- of knowledge
Apair fris, ní már nairlise nimderga, ar is dortuth cecha flatho folam la foscath ó ḟini
do ḟlaith fuiliche. [...]
• apair -- verb; 2nd person singular imperative active, prototonic, of <as°beir>

says, speaks -- say
• fris -- pronominalized preposition; 3rd person singular masculine dative of
<frithL, friH> against, towards -- to him
• már -- noun; accusative singular neuter, o-stem, of <már, mór> big, great -- a
great number
• nairlise -- noun; nasalized genitive plural feminine, yā-stem, of <airlise>
forecourt, enclosure -- of fore-
fore-courts
courts
• nimderga -- verb; nasalized 3rd person singular present subjunctive active,
prototonic, nasalizing relative, of <im(m)°derga> reddens -- that he may...
redden
• dortuth -- noun; nominative singular masculine, u-stem, of <dortuth, dórtad>
pouring out; destruction -- the... destruction
97
• cecha -- pronominal; genitive singular feminine of <cach, cech> each, every,
any -- of all
• flatho -- noun; genitive singular feminine, i-stem, of <flaith> rule; domain;
ruler -- rule
• folam -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <folam> empty, vain --
vain
• la -- preposition; <laH> among, by, with -- and
• foscath -- noun; accusative singular neuter, o-stem, of <foscath, foscad> shade,
protection -- of the protection
• ó -- preposition; <óL, úaL> from, by -- from
• ḟini -- noun; lenited dative singular feminine, yā-stem, of <fine> kin -- the kin
• do -- preposition; <duL, doL> to -- for
• ḟlaith -- noun; lenited dative singular feminine, i-stem, of <flaith> rule; domain;
ruler -- the ruler
• fuiliche -- noun; nominative singular feminine, yā-stem, of <fuiliche>
bloodiness, bloodshed -- bloodshed
Admestar iarn asa thoichib túath tacarthaib.
• admestar -- verb; 3rd person singular present subjunctive active, deuterotonic,

of <ad°midethar> estimates, evaluates -- let him estimate
estimate
• iarn -- noun; accusative singular neuter, o-stem, of <iarn> iron -- iron
• asa -- preposition; compound form of <essH, asH, aH> out of, from + possessive
pronoun 3rd person singular neuter <aL> his, its -- by its
• thoichib -- noun; lenited dative plural neuter of <toich> natural, proper --
properties
• túath -- noun; genitive plural feminine, ā-stem, of <tóth, túath> tribe, people --
of tribes
• tacarthaib -- noun; dative plural neuter, yo-stem, of <tacre, tacrae> pleading,
declaration, dispute -- at disputes
Admestar hume asa daingni deni dlúmaicdib.

• hume -- noun; accusative singular neuter, yo-stem, of <(h)ume, (h)umae>
copper -- copper
• daingni -- noun; dative singular feminine, yā-stem, of <daingne> firmness --
firmness
• deni -- noun; dative singular feminine, yā-stem, of <dene, deine> strength --
strength
• dlúmaicdib -- noun; compound of <dlúm> mass, density + dative plural
feminine, yā-stem, of <aicde> artefact, article -- in solid artefacts
98
Admestar arcat asa bethu bríg bánaicdib.

• arcat -- noun; accusative singular neuter, o-stem, of <arcat, argat> silver --
silver
• bethu -- noun; dative singular masculine, dental stem, of <bethu> life,
existence -- durability
• bríg -- noun; dative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <bríg> strength, value -- value
• bánaicdib -- noun; compound of <bán> white, shiny + dative plural feminine,
yā-stem, of <aicde> artefact, article -- in shiny artefacts
Admestar ór asa ḟorníamaib allmaraib adamraib. [...]

• ór -- noun; accusative singular neuter, o-stem, of <ór> gold -- gold
• ḟorníamaib -- noun; lenited dative plural feminine, ā-stem, of <forníam>
ornament, decoration -- ornaments
• allmaraib -- adjective; dative plural feminine of <allmar> foreign -- foreign
• adamraib -- adjective; dative plural feminine of <adamrae> very wonderful --
very wonderful
Toléci dorche do ṡorchi.
• toléci -- verb; 3rd person singular present indicative active, deuterotonic, of

<do°léici> yields -- yields
• dorche -- noun; nominative singular neuter, yo-stem, of <dorche, dorchae>
darkness -- darkness
• ṡorchi -- noun; lenited dative singular feminine, yā-stem, of <sorche, sorchae>
light, brightness – light
Toléci brón do ḟáilti.

• brón -- noun; nominative singular masculine, o-stem, of <brón> sorrow --
sorrow
• ḟáilti -- noun; lenited dative singular feminine, yā-stem, of <fáilte> joy,
happiness -- joy
99
Toléci borb do ecnu. [...]

• borb -- noun; nominative singular masculine, o-stem, of <borb> oaf -- an oaf
• ecnu -- adjective; dative singular masculine, yo-stem, of <ecne, ecnae> wise -- a
sage
Toléci dóer do ṡóer.

• dóer -- noun; nominative singular masculine, o-stem, of <dóer> unfree person -
- a serf
• ṡóer -- noun; lenited dative singular masculine, o-stem, of <sóer> free man -- a
freeman
Toléci dochell do chlothaib. [...]

• dochell -- noun; nominative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <dochell>
niggardliness, inhospitality -- niggardliness
• chlothaib -- noun; lenited dative plural masculine, o-stem, of <cloth> fame,
reputation -- generosity
Toléci anflaith do ḟírḟlaith.

• anflaith -- noun; compound of <an-> non- + lenited nominative singular
feminine, i-stem, of <flaith> rule; domain; ruler -- anarchy
• ḟírḟlaith -- noun; compound of lenited <fír> truth; right; justice + lenited dative
singular feminine, i-stem, of <flaith> rule; domain; ruler -- proper rule
Toléci debuith do chóri.

• debuith -- noun; nominative singular feminine, i-stem, of <debuith> conflict --
conflict
• chóri -- noun; lenited dative singular feminine, yā-stem, of <córe, córae> peace
-- peace
peace
100
Toléci gó do ḟír. [...]

• gó -- noun; nominative singular feminine, ā-stem, <gáu, gó> falsehood, false
judgement -- falsehood
• ḟír -- noun; lenited dative singular neuter, o-stem, of <fír> truth; right; justice --
truth
Fírḟlaith cétamus,
luithir side fri cach fó,
fristibi fírinni inde cluinethar,
cotenocaib inden aici.
[...]
• fírḟlaith -- noun; compound of <fír> truth; right; justice + lenited dative
singular feminine, i-stem, of <flaith> rule; domain; ruler -- the true ruler
• cétamus -- adverb; <cétamus> firstly -- in the first place
• luithir -- verb; 3rd person singular present indicative passive, absolute, of
<luith, luid> moves; flies -- he is moved
<sude, suide> this one, the aforementioned -- this one
• fri -- preposition; <frithL, friH> against, towards -- toward
• cach -- pronominal; accusative singular neuter of <cach, cech> each, every, any
-- every
• fó -- noun; accusative singular neuter of <fó> good -- good thing
• fristibi -- verb; 3rd person singular present indicative, deuterotonic, of
<fris°tibi> smiles on -- he smiles on
• fírinni -- noun; accusative singular feminine, yā-stem, of <fírinne> truth -- the
truth
• inde -- conjunction; compound form of conjunction <in, iN> when + archaic
infixed pronoun 3rd person singular feminine <deH, den> she -- when... it
• cluinethar -- verb; 3rd person singular present indicative active, conjunct, of
<ro°cluinethar> hears -- he hears
• cotenocaib -- verb; 3rd person singular present indicative active, deuterotonic,
of <con°ocaib> truly raises, truly exalts + archaic infixed pronoun 3rd person
singular feminine <deH, den> she -- he truly exalts it
• inden -- conjunction; compound form of conjunction <in, iN> when + archaic
infixed pronoun 3rd person singular feminine <deH, den> she -- when... it
• aici -- verb; 3rd person singular present indicative active, prototonic, of <ad°cí,
at°chí> sees -- he sees
Flaith congbále co slógaib díanechtair;

insoet a ṡlóig side,
insnádat a aidilcni,
air ní soí soithcedach sechtair.
101
• flaith -- noun; nominative singular feminine, i-stem, of <flaith> rule; domain;
ruler -- the ruler
• congbále -- noun; genitive singular feminine, yā-stem, of <congbál>
occupation, holding -- of occupation
• slógaib -- noun; dative plural masculine, o-stem, of <slóg, slúag> troop, host,
army -- hosts
• díanechtair -- adverb; <díanechtair> from outside -- from outside
• insoet -- verb; 3rd person plural present indicative active, deuterotonic, of
<in°soí> turns, returns -- turn away
• ṡlóig -- noun; nominative plural masculine, o-stem, of <slóg, slúag> troop, host,
army -- hosts
<sude, suide> this one, the aforementioned -- own
• insnádat -- verb; 3rd person plural present indicative active, deuterotonic, of
<in°snádi> defers, puts off -- they put off
• aidilcni -- noun; accusative plural feminine, yā-stem, of <aidilcne> necessity,
need -- needs
• air -- preposition; <arL, airL> before, for, in front of, east of -- for
• soí -- verb; 3rd person singular present indicative active, conjunct, of <soith>
turns -- does... turn
• soithcedach -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <soithcedach>
prosperous, fortunate -- a prosperous man
• sechtair -- adverb; <sechtair> outside -- outside
Lesson Text
Comath fírinni, cotnofathar. [...]
Ocbath trócairi, cotnocéba. [...]
Aranécath arid sencharpait.

Ar nícon chotli are senḟonnith.
Remi déci, íarmo déci, tair sceo desiul sceo túaithbiul.
Deéci, imdích, imdídnathar, arna bó
co foill na forráin fonnath fodrethat. [...]
Is tre ḟir flathemon rosaig cech dán mochtide mind suíthi. [...]
Apair fris, ní már nairlise nimderga, ar is dortuth cecha flatho folam la foscath ó
ḟini do ḟlaith fuiliche. [...]
Admestar iarn asa thoichib túath tacarthaib.

Admestar hume asa daingni deni dlúmaicdib.
Admestar arcat asa bethu bríg bánaicdib.
Admestar ór asa ḟorníamaib allmaraib adamraib. [...]
102
Toléci dorche do ṡorchi.
Toléci brón do ḟáilti.
Toléci borb do ecnu. [...]
Toléci dóer do ṡóer.
Toléci dochell do chlothaib. [...]
Toléci anflaith do ḟírḟlaith.
Toléci debuith do chóri.
Toléci gó do ḟír. [...]
Fírḟlaith cétamus,
luithir side fri cach fó,
fristibi fírinni inde cluinethar,
cotenocaib inden aici.
[...]
Flaith congbále co slógaib díanechtair;
insoet a ṡlóig side,
insnádat a aidilcni,
air ní soí soithcedach sechtair.
Translation
Let him preserve justice, it will preserve him. [...]
Let him exalt mercy, it will truly exalt him. [...]
Let him observe him, the driver of an old chariot.
For the driver of an old wheel-rim (= chariot) does not sleep:
He looks ahead, he looks behind, in front and to the right and to the left;
he looks out, he defends, he protects, so that he may not break
with neglect or violence the wheel-rims which run under him. [...]
It is through the justice of the ruler that each great man of art attains the summit
of knowledge. [...]
Say to him that he may not redden a great number of fore-courts, for bloodshed is
the vain destruction of all rule and of the protection from the kin for the ruler. [...]
Let him estimate iron by its properties at disputes of tribes.
Let him estimate copper by its firmness, [i.e.] strength in solid artefacts.
Let him estimate silver by its durability, [and] strength in shiny artefacts.
Let him estimate gold by its very wonderful foreign ornaments. [...]
Darkness yields to light,
Sorrow yields to joy.
An oaf yields to a sage, [...]
A serf yields to a freeman.
Niggardliness yields to generosity, [...].
Anarchy yields to proper rule,
Conflict yields to peace,
Falsehood yields to truth. [...]
The true ruler, in the first place,
He is moved, this one, toward every good thing:
He smiles on the truth when he hears it,
He truly exalts it when he sees it.
[...]
103
The ruler of occupation with hosts from outside:
His own hosts turn away,
They put off his needs,
For a prosperous man does not turn outside.
Grammar
26. Relative Clauses: Special Pronominal Forms
Infixed pronouns in relative clauses normally show the forms of the so-called
'class C'. These are:
1 Sg. domL, dumL, dam(m)L

2 Sg. datL, ditL
3 Sg. masc. idN (didN), dN, -N, (seldom daN)
fem. daH
ntr. idL (didL), dL, -L
1 Pl. don, dun (din), dan(n)
2 Pl. dob, dub (dib), dab
3 Pl. daH
They are also used after the interrogative particle in and the conjunctions diaN
'if', araN 'in order that', coN/con 'so that'.
The relative marker n is always inserted immediately before the originally
lenited d- which is then delenited.
Examples are in ben atomgladathar 'the woman who speaks to me' and in fer
atomgladathar 'the man who speaks to me' in Lesson 2, dianom berthasa 'even if I
myself were thrown' and dianat chluine Mael Fothartaig 'if Mael Fothartaig should
hear you' in Lesson 8, conda rodart in Donn Cúailngi 'so that the Brown Bull of
Cuailgne has mounted her' in Lesson 3.
27. The Verb: Past Tenses of the

the Indicative
27.1. Different Forms for Different Functions
The iterative preterite is expressed by the imperfect (hence normally denoting
repeated or customary actions, and at times used in descriptive passages or for
simultaneous actions), as opposed to past actions or states which are not
characterized as repeated and hence expressed by the simple preterite.
The above-mentioned uses of the imperfect can be appreciated in no tathigtis
'they used to frequent', na gelltis 'they used to devour it', °fácbatis 'they used to leave'
(all in Lesson 5), coN sliged 'so that it dragged', and fo-m-chanad 'would sing to me' (in
Lessons 2 and 5).
To underline the result of a past action or state, the verbal particle ro is inserted
into the simple preterite to form a new Celtic (i.e. post-Indo-European) perfect. Its
semantic content is thus opposed to that of the narrative preterite. Although its
position seems to vary depending on the structure of the specific sentence, ro is
always placed immediately before the first stressed syllable, be it the verbal root itself
or a preverb, although in the older instances it appears petrified before the verbal
root.
104
Examples of preterites with inserted ro, i.e. of ro-perfects, are i.a. ro°cúala 'I
have heard' (Lesson 2), ro°carus 'I have loved', ro°cráidius 'I have vexed', ro°scarus 'I
have parted', do°ri°genus 'I have made' (all in Lesson 5), ro°gabais 'you have taken'
(Lesson 8), ro°dart 'has mounted' and ro°tethainn 'has shattered' (Lessons 3 and 5).
Note, however, that some verbs express their perfect by means of different
preverbs (e.g. tongid 'swears' with to and com as in du°cuitig 'has sworn' or, in Lesson
9, do°roich 'reaches' with the preverb oss/uss in the perfect con-us°toracht 'until he
had come to them' in Lesson 9); or by means of altogether different verbal roots (e.g.
beirid 'carries' uses ro°uc(c)- and do°beir 'brings' to°uc(c)-, cf. r°ucad 'he had been
brought' and do°ucus 'I have brought' in Lesson 5 and 3; téit 'goes' and do°tét 'comes'
use di°cued and to°di°cued, cf. co n-dechuid 'so that had gone' in Lesson 2; fo°ceird
and °cuirethar 'puts, throws' use ro°lá- etc).
27.2. Morphology of the Imperfect

The imperfect indicative has no special inflection forms for deponent verbs nor
for the so-called absolute inflection: even if its very forms may appear in poetry
without any introducing preverb whatsoever, in prose at least the preverb no is
preposed to the forms of the imperfect.
móraid 'magnifies', suidigedar 'sets', berid 'bears':
Active AI A II BI
1 Sg. mór(a)in(n) suidigin(n) berin(n)
2 Sg. *mórtha suidigthea ---
3 Sg. mórad, -ath suidiged, -eth bered (berad)
1 Pl. mórm(a)is suidigmis beirmis

2 Pl. *mórth(a)e *suidigthe ---
3 Pl. mórt(a)is suidigtis beirtis (bertis)
Passive
General Form mórth(a)e suidigthe berthe
3 Pl. mórt(a)is suidigtis beirtis (bertis)
27.3. Morphology of the Preterites

Apart from those preterites which are built from a completely different verbal
root (such as the suppletive preterites at°bath 'he died' to at°baill, luid 'he went' and
do°luid 'she came' to téit and do°tét in Lessons 9 and 5), there are preterites which go
back to Indo-European aorist formations and preterites which go back to IE perfect
formations.
From a descriptive point of view, some preterites are formed by adding a new
morpheme, others by reduplicating the verbal root, and others again by lengthening
the root vowel or inserting a new one.
To the first group belong the so-called s- and t-preterites: both continue an IE
sigmatic aorist and their name depends on the shape assumed by the original sigmatic
aorist in combination with the various Celtic roots. Their formation is reserved to
weak verbs (s-preterite) and to strong verbs in l/-r and sometimes -m/-g (t-preterite),
as in the following paradigms of the verbs móraid 'magnifies', léicid 'leaves',
suidigedar 'sets', beirid 'bears':
105
Active Conjunct AI A II (act. & dep.) BI
1 Sg. mórus léicius, suidigsiur biurt
2 Sg. mór(a)is lécis, suidigser birt
3 Sg. mór léic, suidigestar bert
1 Pl. mórsam léicsem, suidigsemmar bertam(m)ar

2 Pl. mórs(a)id léicsid, suidigsid ---
3 Pl. mórsat léicset, suidigsetar bertar, bertatar
As for the active absolute inflection, it seems to have mostly existed in the 3rd
person (cf. mór(a)is 'he magnified', eissistir 'he besought', birt 'he carried', berte 'who
carried', cars(a)it 'they loved', cretsit 'they believed', tuilsitir 'they slept', geltatar
'they fed', berta(ta)r 'who carried'), even if a few other persons are attested for the s-
preterite of active verbs.
The other strong verbs are rather unpredictable with regard to their preterite
formation: in those verbs which neither adopt the t-preterite nor show root
reduplication, the root vowel -i- is mostly replaced by long -í-, whereas either long -í-
or long -á- replace a root vowel -e-. An example of the different types is given in the
following (verbs ro°clu(i)nethar 'hears', con°rig 'binds', gu(i)did 'prays', midithir
'judges'), but for more details one will have to look up the complete lists in the
handbooks (cf. Lesson 10, point 50).
Active Conjunct AI A II BI
1 Sg. cúala, rerag gád mídar
2 Sg. cúala, rerag gád ---
3 Sg. cúal(a)e, rer(a)ig gáid míd(a)ir
1 Pl. cúalammar, rergammar gádammar ---

2 Pl. cúal(a)id, *rerg(a)id *gádid ---
3 Pl. cúalatar, rergatar gádatar mídatar
Also for the suffixless preterite, almost no specific absolute flexion is attested;
only in the 1st and 3rd there are some forms in -ir alternating with those in -ar (e.g.
lotir 'they moved, they flew' as in Lesson 1, which was emended by a later hand into
the more usual lotar). Noteworthy is the existence of a 3rd singular relative form in -e
(gáde 'who prayed').
No distinctions are made in the passive, whose forms, albeit felt as verbs, go
back to the Indo-European verbal adjective in *-to-/tā (cf. also Lesson 1, point 3.4).
Passive Absolute
3 Sg. & Rel. mórth(a)e léicthe breth(a)e
3 Pl. mórth(a)i ? léicthi ? ---
Passive Conjunct
General Form °mórad, -ath °léced, -eth °breth
3 Pl. °mórtha °léicthea °bretha
106
28. The Noun: s-
s-Stems
This class of inherited neuter nouns is preserved quite well in Old Irish, where it
is also often adopted by landscape terms. To it belong leth 'side, direction' (in Lessons
1 and 2), mag 'plain, field' (in Lessons 1, 2, 7, 9 and 10), síd 'fairy fort' (in Lesson 3),
teg/tech 'house, dwelling' (in Lessons 1, 5 and 10), tír 'earth, territory, land' (in
Lessons 1, 5, 7).
For the inflection cf. glenn 'valley':

Nom/Acc. glenn glinne glenn
Voc. glenn
Gen. glinne glinne glinne
Dat. glinn glinnib glinnib
Note that the dative singular of mag is maig/muig whereas leth has genitive
singular le(i)the and dative singular leith; for teg/tech, forms with -ai- are attested
together with those with regular -i-: genitive singular taige, dative singular taig,
nominative plural taige.
29. Comparison of the Adjective: the Comparative Grade
29.1. The Regular Formation

Formation
The normal comparative suffix is -(i)u with palatalization of all Old Irish
palatalizable environments, since it goes back to IE *yōs; cf. airdirciu 'more famous'
from airdirc 'renowned' in Lesson 3, together with siniu from sen 'old', déniu from
dían 'swift', and ardu from ard 'high'.
29.2. Irregular Formations

Some adjectives have a comparative in -a (i.a. letha from lethan 'broad', sía from
sír 'long', tressa from trén 'strong'); others use altogether different roots and
formations, such as ferr 'better' (in Lesson 8) as opposed to maith 'good' or messa
'worse' as opposed to olc 'bad'.
29.3. Syntax
Both regular and irregular forms show no traces of inflection. They are used in
nominative constructions, but not as attributes, and relative sentences are used
instead of substantivized forms (such as intí as siniu 'he who is older' for 'the older').
30. Demonstrative Pronouns and Pronominals; the Article
30.1. Demonstrative Pronouns
The demonstrative adjectives of other languages are expressed in Old Irish by

postponing to a substantive with its article some adverbs of place or, rather, locative
particles. Hence:
107
'this' = article + substantive + so/sa
(se/seo/sea after palatal consonant)
'the above mentioned' = article + substantive + sin
(Note that in both cases the s- is always unlenited)
'that near you, the yonder' = article + substantive + ucut
'that, the yonder' = article + substantive + tall
Examples of the first type are (i)na bó so 'of this cow' in Lessons 2 and 3 as
opposed to the palatalized in mboin se 'this cow (acc.sing.)' and forsin grellaig se 'on
this bog' (both in Lesson 3).
Examples of the second type are ind amsir sin 'at that time', a llá sin 'on that
day', in oidchi sin 'that night' (Lessons 1, 4, and 5), issind áth sin 'in that ford' (Lesson
4), and ba hiat sin 'it was them indeed' (Lesson 10).
For the third type cf. in fer ucut 'that yonder man, that man near you' in Lesson
8.
Emphasized forms are obtained by placing stressed -í (hí) before the enclitic
locative particle, cf. din Tháin í sin 'through this very cattle-raid' in Lesson 3. In such
cases, -siu replaces -so as in in fer (h)í-siu 'this very man'.
For the demonstrative pronouns, the sequences with í but without substantive
are used, e.g. int-í-siu or ind-í-siu 'this one', as°beir-som anísiu 'he says this', int-í-sin
or int-í-thall 'the above'. Cf. also cinnas conicfaesu anní sin? 'how will you be able to
do this?' in Lesson 4.
After prepositions, se is used for the accusative, siu for the dative, and sin with
those prepositions which admit both accusative and dative (cf. íar sin 'after that' in
Lesson 2).
A frequent anaphoric pronoun is su(i)de (yo-/-yā-stem) with the neuter sod(a)in
and side, neuter són in the enclitic forms. Cf. ol-ṡu(i)de 'said he' and as°bert side 'the
latter said', together with ocus óenchoss fo suidiu 'and a single leg under the just
mentioned', immach do suidiu 'outside with him' (both in Lesson 2), Cuirithir mac
Doborchon, éces side dno 'Cuirithir son of Doborchu, a poet himself as well' (Lesson 5),
firḟlaith cétamus: luithir side fri cach fó 'the true ruler in the first place: he is moved,
this one, toward every good thing', insoet a ṡlóig side 'his own (i.e. of the
aforementioned) hosts turn away' (both in Lesson 6).
30.2. Other Demonstrative Elements
The deictic stressed í can also be used enclitically after the forms of the article,
to express the antecedent of a following relative clause, as e.g. in frecre dondí
as°robrad 'an answer to what has been said'.
30.3. The Article

Old Irish has no indefinite article. From recently discovered Gaulish texts, it
appears that the creation of a definite article is an innovation isogloss shared by
Goidelic with Gaulish and Brittonic, even if the use of the definite article is still
avoided in the oldest Irish language and in poetry. It is also avoided whenever a
substantive is determined otherwise: by its semantic content (e.g. talam 'the earth', as
in i dalam 'on the earth' or in for aislingi fer talman 'upon the vision of all the men of
the earth', Lessons 1 and 10), by a possessive pronoun (cf. mo chúairt 'my tour' and ar
mac 'our son' in Lesson 5 or com chleittíniu 'with my javelin' in Lesson 4), or by a
genitive (as can be appreciated first of all in story titles such as Compert Con Culainn
108
'The Conception of Cu Chulainn', Táin Bó Regamna 'The Cattle Raid of the Important
Calf', Comrac Liadaine ocus Cuirithir 'The Encounter of Liadain and Cuirithir').
In Irish, its forms are suppletive: while nominative and accusative singular of the
neuter retain an older demonstrative saN, all other cases and genders are based on a
new compound stem sindo-, albeit more or less reduced due to its proclitic position.
Note that final -d# always becomes t before #s.
Singular Masculine Feminine Neuter

Nom. in(t) indL aN
Acc. (-s)inN (-s)inN (-s)aN
Gen. in(d)L (in)naH in(d)L
Dat. -(s)in(d)L -(s)in(d)L -(s)in(d)L
Plural Masculine Feminine Neuter

Nom. in(d)L (in)naH (in)naH
Acc. (in)naH, -snaH (in)naH, -snaH (in)naH, -snaH
Gen. (in)naN (in)naN (in)naN
Dat. -(s)naib -(s)naib -(s)naib
The nominative and accusative singular neuter may still be used as an

antecedens with the meaning 'that (which), what' before a leniting relative clause, cf.
an ro°scribus 'what I have written' and nebchretem a n-ad°ḟíadar 'not to believe what
is declared'.
109
Lesson 7
The selection of this lesson is taken from Immram Brain, 'Bran's Voyage', which
tells of Bran's journey to the Land of the Women. This short tale, consisting as in most
cases of prose and verse, has come down to us in various manuscripts from the 11th to
the 16th century A.D., but on linguistic grounds it can be dated to the early 8th
century A.D., being therefore the earliest representative of the Old Irish genre of
immrama or sea-voyages. The author is, as usual, unknown. The present text is based
on the edition of Séamus Mac Mathúna, who attempts to reconstruct the lost
archetype out of the evidence of the different manuscripts.
The term immram (lit. 'rowing about') denotes in Irish literature sea-voyages to
miraculous islands beyond the inhabited world, motivated by religious reasons (cf.
e.g. the Latin Navigatio Sancti Brendani) either of penitential nature or simply to come
closer to God by leaving one's country and family behind. Their central aspect,
however, is the rowing about between the various islands, each of them with its own
characteristics and clearly distinct from the others. They represent a kind of Golden
Age where the mortal inhabitants live in blissful harmony and free of sorrows,
awaiting Doomsday.
A closely related genre is that of the echtrae, which also relate voyages to and
subsequent adventures in the Otherworld, a miraculous place beyond the inhabited
world, often located under the sea, inside the Earth, or within the boundaries of a
magic mist. In the voyages of the echtrae type, there are no religious motives
involved, the place is usually just one instead of several, and the inhabitants are
immortals of supernatural qualities.
The version of Immram Brain as we know it contains elements of both genres,

and combines pre-Christian Irish beliefs with Christian ideas. However, as Bran's
voyage is referred to as an immram in the text itself, it is classified as belonging to the
first genre.
The text relates how a mysterious woman appearing in the fort of the
protagonist, Bran son of Febal, tells him about a magic apple-tree on the island of
Emain Ablach, a terrestrial paradise far away to the west of Ireland and abode of the
sea-god Manannán mac Lir, which she describes as a place
Cen brón, cen dubai, cen bás,

cen nach galar, cen indgas [...]
'Without sorrow, without grief, without death,
without any sickness, without debility from wounds' [...]
Subsequently, Bran sets out to find this island with three times nine
companions: on their way they encounter the sea-god, who directs them to an island
inhabited by laughing people, after which they reach a different island inhabited
exclusively by women. There, Bran and his retinue spend many blissful years, not
110
noticing the passing of time. When finally Nechtan, one of Bran's companions, is
overcome by homesickness, they decide to return to Ireland but are warned by the
queen of the island not to set foot on Irish soil. Upon their arrival, Nechtan disregards
the warning and immediately crumbles to dust, as they had spent so many years on
the magic island that they were well past their dying age; Bran on the contrary
remains on the boat and, after telling their adventures to some onlookers on the
shore, sets out again for new adventures.
Our selection from Immram Brain consists of several verses with which the
mysterious woman describes Emain Ablach to Bran (§ 4-8).
Fil inis i netarcéin
• fil -- verb; Middle Irish present impersonal singular, absolute, of substantive

verb <attá> is -- there is
• inis -- noun; nominative singular feminine, ī-stem, of <inis> island -- an island
• netarcéin -- noun; nasalized dative singular neuter of <etercían> far, distant,
remote -- the far distance
imme taitnet gabra réin,
• imme -- preposition; compound form of preposition <imbL, immL> around,

about; mutually + suffixed relative particle <-e> who, which -- around which
• taitnet -- verb; 3rd person plural present indicative, prototonic, of <do°aitni>
shines, is refulgent -- glisten
glisten
• gabra -- noun; nominative plural feminine, ā-stem, of <gabor> (white) horse,
mare -- horses
• réin -- noun; genitive singular masculine, o-stem, of <rían> course, route; sea,
ocean -- sea-
sea-
rith find friss toíbgel tonnat,
1. rith -- noun; nominative singular masculine, u-stem, of <rith> run, course -- as

a... course
2. find -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <find, finn> white, bright --
white
3. friss -- pronominalized preposition; 3rd person singular accusative neuter of
<frithL, friH> against, towards -- against it
4. toíbgel -- adjective; compound of <toíb> side + nominative singular masculine
of <gel> fair, white, bright -- white-
white-rimmed
5. tonnat -- verb; 3rd person plural present indicative active, prototonic, of
<do°sná> swims -- they swim
cetheoir cossa foslongat
• cetheoir -- numeral; nominative feminine of <ceth(a)ir, cethéoir> four -- four

• cossa -- noun; nominative plural feminine, ā-stem, of <coss, cos> foot, leg --
legs
111
• foslongat -- verb; 3rd person plural present indicative active, deuterotonic, of
<fo°loing> supports, sustains + infixed pronoun 3rd person singular feminine
<sN, s> she -- hold it up
Is lí súile, sreth íar mbúaid,

is
• lí -- noun; nominative singular feminine, guttural stem, of <lí> beauty, lustre,
glory; colour -- a delight
• súile -- noun; genitive plural feminine, i-stem, of <súil> eye -- to the eyes
• sreth -- noun; nominative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <sreth> strewing;
arrangement -- an arrangement
• íar -- preposition; <íarN, íarmL-> after -- beyond
• mbúaid -- noun; nasalized dative singular neuter, i-stem, of <boid, búaid>
victory; excellence, special quality; advantage -- excellence
a mmag for clechtat in tṡlúaig;
• a -- article; nominative singular neuter of <in, aN, indL> the -- the

• mmag -- noun; nasalized nominative singular neuter, s-stem, of <mag> plain,
field -- plain
• for -- preposition; <for> on, over -- upon which
• clechtat -- verb; 3rd person plural present indicative, conjunct, syntactically
relative, of <clechtaid> practices -- exercise
• in -- article; nominative plural masculine of <in, aN, indL> the -- the
• tṡlúaig -- noun; lenited nominative plural masculine, o-stem, of <slóg, slúag>
troop, host, army -- hosts
consna curach fri carpat
• consna -- verb; 3rd person singular present indicative, deuterotonic, of

<con°sní> contends, competes -- competes
• curach -- noun; nominative singular masculine, o-stem, of <curach> coracle,
skiff, boat -- the coracle
• fri -- preposition; <frithL, friH> against, towards -- against
• carpat -- noun; accusative singular masculine, o-stem, of <carpat> war-chariot,
wagon -- the chariot
isin maig des Findarcat.
• isin -- preposition; compound form of <in, iN> in, into + dative singular neuter
of article <in, aN, indL> the -- in the
• maig -- noun; dative singular neuter, s-stem, of <mag> plain, field -- plain
• des -- preposition; <dess> right, south of -- south of
• Findarcat -- toponym; dative singular of <Findarcat> White Silver -- Findargad
112
Cossa findruine foë;
• cossa -- noun; nominative plural feminine, ā-stem, of <coss, cos> foot, leg --
legs
• findruine -- noun; compound of <find, finn> white, bright + genitive singular
feminine, yā-stem, of <druine> skill in craftmanship, manual dexterity -- of fair
craftmanship
• foë -- pronominalized preposition; 3rd person singular feminine accusative of
<foL> under -- under it
taitni tre bithu gnóë;
• taitni -- verb; 3rd person singular present indicative, prototonic, of <do°aitni>

shines, is refulgent -- it shines
• bithu -- noun; accusative plural masculine, u-stem, of <bith> world; life; age,
period -- ages
• gnóë -- noun; genitive singular feminine, yā-stem, of <gnóe> beauty -- of
beauty
caín tír tre bithu batha
• caín -- adjective; nominative singular neuter of <caín> fine, excellent, beautiful

-- beautiful
• tír -- noun; nominative singular neuter, s-stem, of <tír> earth, territory, land --
a... country
• tre -- preposition; <triL, treL> through -- throughout
• bithu -- noun; accusative plural masculine, u-stem, of <bith> world; life; age,
period -- the ages
• batha -- noun; genitive singular neuter, u-stem, of <bath> sea, ocean -- of the
sea
for snig inna hilblátha.
• for -- preposition; <for> on, over -- on which

• snig -- verb; 3rd person singular present indicative, conjunct, syntactically
relative, of <snigid> pours down, flows, drops -- drops
• inna -- article; variant of nominative plural masculine of <in, aN, indL> the -- the
• hilblátha -- noun; compound of aspirated <il> many, numerous + nominative
plural masculine, u-stem, of <bláth> flower, blossom; bloom -- multitude of
blossoms
Fil and bile co mbláthaib
• fil -- verb; Middle Irish present impersonal singular, absolute, of substantive

verb <attá> is -- there is
in, into -- there
• bile -- noun; accusative singular neuter, yo-stem, of <bile> (ancient and
venerated) tree -- an ancient and venerated tree
113
• mbláthaib -- noun; nasalized dative plural masculine, u-stem, of <bláth>
flower, blossom; bloom -- blossoms
fors ngairet éoin do thráthaib,
• fors -- preposition; compound form of <for> on, over + infixed pronoun 3rd
person plural of <sN, s> she -- on which
• ngairet -- verb; nasalized 3rd person plural present indicative active, conjunct,
syntactically relative, of <gairid> calls -- call
• éoin -- noun; nominative plural masculine, o-stem, of <én> bird -- the birds
• thráthaib -- noun; lenited dative plural neuter, u-stem, of <tráth> period of
time, (canonical) hour -- the hours
is tre choicetal is gnáth

is
• choicetal -- noun; lenited accusative singular neuter, o-stem, of <co(i)cetal>
harmonious music -- harmonious music
• is -- verb; 3rd person singular present indicative, absolute, syntactically
relative, of copula <is> is -- that it is
• gnáth -- adjective; nominative singular neuter of <gnáth> usual, customary;
known -- usual
congairet uili cach tráth.
• congairet -- verb; 3rd person plural present indicative active, deuterotonic,

syntactically relative, of <con°gair> calls together -- that they... call together
• uili -- adjective; nominative plural masculine of <uile> all, whole -- all
• cach -- pronominal; accusative singular neuter of <cach, cech> each, every, any
-- every
• tráth -- noun; accusative singular neuter, u-stem, of <tráth> period of time,
(canonical) hour -- hour
Taitnet líga cach datha
• taitnet -- verb; 3rd person plural present indicative, prototonic, of <do°aitni>

shines, is refulgent -- shine
• líga -- noun; nominative plural feminine, guttural stem, of <lí> beauty, lustre,
glory; colour -- colours
• cach -- pronominal; genitive singular neuter of <cach, cech> each, every, any --
every
• datha -- noun; genitive singular neuter, u-stem, of <dath> colour; hue, tint --
of... hue
114
tresna maige moíthgnatha;
• tresna -- article; compound form of <triL, treL> through + accusative plural

neuter of <in, aN, indL> the -- throughout the
• maige -- noun; accusative plural neuter, s-stem, of <mag> plain, field -- plains
• moíthgnatha -- adjective; compound form of <moíth> gentle, tender +
accusative plural neuter, o-stem, of <gnáth> usual, customary; known --
famously smooth
is gnáth sube, sreth imm chéul,

• gnáth -- adjective; nominative singular neuter of <gnáth> usual, customary;
known -- continuous
• sube -- noun; nominative singular neuter, yo-stem, of <subae> joy, pleasure,
happiness -- joy
• sreth -- noun; nominative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <sreth> strewing;
arrangement -- a display
• imm -- preposition; <imbL, immL> around, about; mutually -- with
• chéul -- noun; lenited dative singular neuter, o-stem, of <céol> music -- music
isin maig des Arcatnéul.
• isin -- preposition; compound form of <in, iN> in, into + dative singular neuter
of article <in, aN, indL> the -- in the
• maig -- noun; dative singular neuter, s-stem, of <mag> plain, field -- plain
• des -- preposition; <dess> right, south of -- south of
• Arcatnéul -- toponym; dative singular of <Arcatnél> Silver Cloud -- Argadnel
Lesson Text
Fil inis i netarcéin
imme taitnet gabra réin,
rith find friss toíbgel tonnat,
cetheoir cossa foslongat
Is lí súile, sreth íar mbúaid,

a mmag for clechtat in tṡlúaig;
consna curach fri carpat
isin maig des Findarcat.
Cossa findruine foë;

taitni tre bithu gnóë;
caín tír tre bithu batha
for snig inna hilblátha.
Fil and bile co mbláthaib

fors ngairet éoin do thráthaib,
is tre choicetal is gnáth
congairet uili cach tráth.
115
Taitnet líga cach datha
tresna maige moíthgnatha;
is gnáth sube, sreth imm chéul,
isin maig des Arcatnéul.
Translation
There is an island in the far distance
Around which sea-horses glisten:
As a fair, white-rimmed course they swim against it,
Four legs hold it up.
It is a delight to the eyes, an arrangement beyond excellence,
The plain upon which the hosts exercise:
The coracle competes against the chariot
In the plain south of Findargad.
Legs of fair craftmanship under it,
It shines through ages of beauty:
A beautiful country throughout the ages of the sea,
On which the multitude of blossoms drops.
There is an ancient and venerated tree with blossoms there,
On which the birds call to the hours:
It is through harmonious music that it is usual
That they all call together every hour.
Colours of every hue shine
Throughout the famously smooth plains:
Joy is continuous, a display with music,
In the plain south of Argadnel.
Grammar
31. Negative Sentences
Negative sentences are introduced by:
• nícon(L)/nicon(L), a somewhat emphatic negative particle only used in

principal clauses: cf. nícon ḃíad 'I might not exist [at all]', nícon chotli 'he does
[indeed] not sleep', nico-t ḃia ícc 'there will be no cure [whatsoever] for you' in
Lessons 5, 6, and 4;
• ní/ni, the unmarked negative particle used in principal sentences (such as ni
cumgai 'you cannot' and ní ... noscarfamais 'we would not have parted' in
Lesson 3, ní chomraicfind 'I would not meet' in Lesson 8, ní chéla 'I may not
conceal' and ní dénaim 'let us not do' in Lesson 5) and also in some types of
subordinate clauses (such as air ní soí 'for he does not turn', ní ... nimderga
'that he may not redden', and ní cráidfed 'that there would not result torment'
in Lessons 6 and 5). Quite often it introduces a focussed element of the
sentence to which the rest is then attached by means of a relative clause: cf. ní
dam ass áil 'not with me that there is desire' in Lesson 8, meaning 'it is not me
who desires';
116
• ná/na, nád/nad, nách-/nach-, allomorphs of the specifically secondary
negative particle: they are used before the imperative (ná hapair 'don't tell!' in
Lesson 8) or after the conjunctions araN 'in order that'(ar ná loiti 'so that it
does not spoil' in Lesson 5), coN 'so that' (con-ná facbatis 'until they left
nothing' in Lesson 1), aN 'when, while', and, respectively, in relative and
interrogative clauses (cid na dénaim 'why don't we make?' in Lesson 5) and
before infixed pronouns; for nach cf. also cid nach é 'why it is not him?' and
úair nach dénaim 'since it is not that I do' in Lessons 2 and 9. The secondary
negative particle is also employed to introduce a negative disjunctive: e.g. ... na
fer ná lossa '... nor grass nor herbs', ní bid clad ná airbe 'there would not be a
dyke nor a fence', ní bó charat na choicéli 'it is not the cow of a friend nor of a
companion', ar-na bó co foill na forráin 'so that he may not break with neglect
or violence', nach in n-ech 'not with regard to the horse' in Lessons 1, 2, 6, 3.
Finite verbal forms always apppear in their conjunct inflections. Copula and the
substantive verb are either implicit in the negative particles (ní dír '[it is] not fitting',
ní fóelid '[it is] not happy', ní sechbaid '[it is] not wrong' in Lessons 2 and 8) or use
special forms. In particular, the substantive verb is mostly supplied by fil and related
forms, which govern the accusative of the logical subject since they correspond to W.
gwelet 'to see' (see Lesson 3, point 12.2); cf. ni-s-fil 'they are not' as opposed to ni-s-tá
'they have not'.
One of the expressions used for the autonomous negative is naicc as in Lesson 3:
naicc ní i n-neoch 'nothing anywhere'.
32. The Verb: Present Indicative
Apart from the usages of the present indicative most commonly known from
other Indo-European languages, Old Irish employs it as a narrative tense (praesens
historicum), cf. Inlaat noí cairptiu [] láa n-and 'One day then they yoke nine chariots'
and Fo-s-rumat ind euin remib 'The birds go before them' in Lesson 1 or Tíagait ass
árum 'They set out after this' in Lesson 2.
The present indicative can also be preceded by the preverb ro- in order to
indicate either an action already completed at the time another action takes place, or
a more general perfective present as in Lesson 6 is tre ḟir [...] ro-saig [...] mind 'it is
through justice that he attains the summit'. The preverb ro can also convey the
meaning of possibility, althought this is more often achieved by prefixing it to a
subjunctive (see point 37 in Lesson 8).
móraid 'magnifies':
Active Active
AI Absolute Conjunct Passive Absolute Passive Conjunct
1 Sg. mór(a)im(m) °mór(a)im(m)
2 Sg. mór(a)i °mór(a)i
mór(a)id/-
3 Sg. (a)ith °móra mórth(a)ir
Rel. móras(s) mórthar
117
General Form °mórthar
1 Pl. mórm(a)i °móram
Rel. mórm(a)e
°mór(a)id/-
2 Pl. mórth(a)e (a)ith
3 Pl. mór(a)it °mórat mór(a)itir/mórt(a)ir °móratar/°mórtar
móraite/-
Rel. ate/-ite móratar/mórtar
lécid 'leaves':
Active Passive
A II Active Absolute Conjunct Passive Absolute Conjunct
1 Sg. lécim(m) °lécim(m)
2 Sg. léci °léci
3 Sg. lécid/-ith °léci léicthir
Rel. léces(s) léicther
General Form °léicther
1 Pl. léicmi °lécem
Rel. léicme
2 Pl. léicthe °lecid/-ith
[other verbs with
ending -itir are °lécetar/(°air-
3 Pl. lécit °lécet attested] léicter)
Rel. léicde/léicte/lécite *lécetar/léicter
suidigedar 'sets':
Deponent Passive Passive

A II Deponent Absolute Conjunct Absolute Conjunct
[other verbs with
ending -iur are
1 Sg. attested] °suidigur
2 Sg. suidigther °suidigther
3 Sg. suidigidir °suidigedar suidigthir
Rel. suidigedar suidigther
General Form °suidigther
1 Pl. suidigmir °suidigmer
Rel. suidigmer
2 Pl. suidigthe °suidigid/-ith
°suidigetar/-
3 Pl. suidigitir eddar suidigtir °suidigter
Rel. suidigetar/-eddar suidigter
118
berid 'bears':
Active Passive Passive

BI Active Absolute Conjunct Absolute Conjunct
1 Sg. biru °biur
2 Sg. biri °bir
3 Sg. berid/-ith °beir ber(a)ir
Rel. beres(s) berar
General Form °berar
1 Pl. berm(a)i °beram
Rel. berm(a)e
2 Pl. *beirthe °berid/-ith
3 Pl. ber(a)it °berat bert(a)ir °bertar
Rel. berd(a)e/bert(a)e bertar
33. The Noun: Consonantal Stems
Roughly the same Indo-European consonantal-stem inflection is shared by Old

Irish:
• r-stems (a few nouns, masculine or feminine, indicating family members, such

as athir 'father', bráthir 'brother', máthir 'mother', i.a. in Lesson 8);
• n-stems (numerous nouns, of all three genders, belonging to historically
different subgroups, some of them productive; cf. ainm 'name', aride 'bench',
brú 'belly', deilm 'loud noise', Ériu 'Ireland', flathem 'ruler', forim 'chase', géim
'roaring', im 'butter', íriu 'land', talam 'earth', ursa 'door-post' in Lessons 3, 2,
3, 5, 1 and 9, 6, 1, 2, 10, 1, 1 and 10, 10);
• nt-stems (lexicalized participles such as carae 'friend' and a few other words
such as fiche 'twenty', respectively in Lesson 2 and 1; mostly masculine and
neuter, since the old feminines showed Common Celtic *-ntī);
• dental stems (masculine and feminine: agentive nouns such as are 'charioteer',
eirr 'chariot-fighter', genn 'wedge', tene 'fire', tuga 'thatch' in Lessons 1 and 6,
1, 2, 8, 10, together with some derivatives with productive suffixes such as
bethu 'life' in Lessons 3 and 6);
• guttural stems (masculine and feminine: originally just some extant Indo-
European root-nouns, such as lí 'beauty' or rig 'fore-arm' in Lessons 7 and 4
and rí 'king', from which the inflection analogically expanded to other stems).
119
For the inflection cf. respectively ath(a)ir 'father', brithem (masc.) 'judge' and
ainm (ntr.) 'name', car(a)e 'friend', teng(a)e 'tongue', rí 'king':
Singular 'father' 'judge' 'name' 'friend'

'friend' 'tongue' 'king'
Nom. ath(a)ir brithem ainm car(a)e teng(a)e rí
Voc. ath(a)ir brithem ainm car(a)e teng(a)e rí
Acc. ath(a)ir brithem(o)in/-main ainm car(a)it teng(a)id ríg
Gen. athar brithemon/-man anm(a)e carat tengad ríg
Dat. ath(a)ir brithem(o)in/-main anmaimm/ainm car(a)it teng(a)id ríg
Plural 'father' 'judge' 'name' 'friend' 'tongue' 'king'

brithemoin/-
Nom. a(i)thir main anman(n) carait teng(a)id ríg
cairtea/-
Voc. *aithrea brithemna dea
cairtea/-
Acc. aithrea/athra brithemna anman(n) dea tengtha ríg
brithemon/-
Gen. aithre/athr(a)e man anman(n)
carat tengad ríg
cairtib/-
Dat. aithrib/athr(a)ib brithemn(a)ib anman(na)ib dib tength(a)ib ríg(a)ib
Dual 'father' 'judge' 'name' 'friend' 'tongue' 'king'

brithemoin/
Nom/Acc. *athir -main ainm car(a)it teng(a)id ríg
brithemon/
Gen. athar -man carat tengad ríg
aithrib/ cairtib/
Dat. athr(a)ib brithemn(a)ib anman(na)ib -dib tength(a)ib ríg(a)ib
34. Comparison of the Adjective: the Equative Grade
The equative is a special grade of comparison which developed from an old Indo-
European comparative and came to signify that a person or thing has a quality in the
same grade as another one.
The normal equative suffix is -ithir, used after monosyllabic stems, whereas
polysyllables take -idir.
Cf. suthainidir from suthain 'lasting' as opposed to sithithir ... fri 'as long as' and
to fírithir 'as true', both in lesson 5.
120
34.2. Other Formations
Apart from a few irregular equatives like lir 'as many' and móir 'as big' to il and,
respectively, már/mór, an older type of equative is found, which Irish shares with
Gaulish and Brittonic: this is a compound formation, obtained by prefixing com- to
the genitive of a substantive and later on also to the nominative of an adjective; cf.
coimchliss ... friut 'as skilled as you' (lit. 'of the same skill [cless] to you') and,
respectively, comthrén friut 'as strong [trén] as you', together with many others in
Lesson 4.
34.3. Syntax
None of these forms shows any traces of inflection. Like the other comparison
grades, the equatives are also used only in nominative constructions and not as
attributes.
35. Pronouns Suffixed to Prepositions
Pronouns coalesce with prepositions in a way that makes the former almost
completely unrecognizable. While the traditional handbooks call the result
"conjugated prepositions," we prefer to speak, for the sake of clarity, of
"pronominalized prepositions." They are very frequent since, apart form introducing
the subject of verbal nouns (dóib 'with them' in Lesson 9) and the agent as well as all
kind of indirect objects (such as dam 'to me' and 'for me', duit and fort 'against you',
fri(u)t 'to you', immum 'for me' in Lessons 3, 2, 4, 8, 5) and other complements (i.a. airi
and de 'from it', cenae 'without him', dib 'from them' and 'of them', dit 'off you',
etarru 'between them', foa 'under it', fris 'with him', leu 'with them', re(i)mib 'before
them', trít 'through it' in Lessons 8, 3 and 4, 5, 1 and 9, 4, 1, 2, 5, 1, 1 and 2, 2), they are
also used as adverbs (cf. i.a. and 'there' and 'then' in Lessons 5, 7, 1, 8, ass 'out' in
Lesson 2, iarum/íarum 'afterwards' and 'then', but originally 'after it' in Lessons 2, 3,
5, 8) and even help to substitute the missing verb 'to have' (e.g. immi 'on him' and
impe 'around her' in Lesson 2, dam 'with me', duit 'with you' and dóib 'to them' in
Lessons 8 and 1, leu 'with them' and lé 'on her' in Lesson 1 and 2). In other cases they
can substitute a possessive pronoun (duit 'to you' in Lesson 2) or introduce the second
element of comparison after an equative (duit 'as you' in Lesson 4). Cf. also lem 'with
me' and let 'with you' meaning 'in my/your opinion' in Lesson 8, lem 'by me' meaning
'through my intervention' and úaim 'from me' meaning 'on my part' in Lesson 3 and
4, or dó 'to him' meaning 'that he belonged' in Lesson 5.
The inflection may be differentiated according to the case governed by the

preposition; in the following, la 'with' is given as an example of preposition governing
the accusative, di 'from' of those governing the dative, and for 'on' of those which can
govern both dative and accusative:
Singular 'with' 'from' 'on'

1st lem(m)/lim(m)/leim/lium(m) dím form
2nd lat(t) dít fort
3rd masc. leiss/les(s)/lais(s) de for vs. foir/fair
121
3rd fem. lee di fuiri vs. forrae
3rd ntr. leiss/les(s)/lais(s) de for vs. foir/fair
Plural 'with' 'from' 'on'

1st linn/leinn/lenn dín(n) fornn
2nd lib díb fuirib/fo(i)rib
3rd leu diib/díib/díb for(a)ib vs. forru
122
Lesson 8
The present selection is taken from the Early Middle Irish Fingal Rónaín, 'The
Kin-slaying of Ronan'. Preserved in two manuscripts, one transcribed around 1160 and
the other from ca. 1500 A.D., the original seems to date back to the early 10th century
A.D. on account of linguistic evidence. Although the Irish author is, as usual,
unknown, we have shown the tale, which in the indigenous literary tradition is also
described as a well-known (irdairc) tragedy (Aided Maelfothartaig maic Rónaín 'The
tragedy of Maelfothartaig son of Ronan'), to go back to the Classical story of Phaedra
and Hippolytus, in the versions both by Euripides and Seneca, the latter one being the
more similar of the two. As is usual with medieval Irish "translations" from Classical
works, the Irish scholar extracts his materials from more than one source (this time
including Vergil and possibly even Apuleius), adapting the general setting to early
medieval Ireland and even attempting to characterize both the old king and the father
of his second young bride with two indigenous kings, albeit the time gap between the
two historical kings was ca. 200 years.
Beside no less than seventeen coincidences in the plot, also the names are
meaningful, given that an equivalent of the onomastic element Greek Hippo- appears
in the name Echaid (from ech 'horse') of the father of the evil queen, who is herself
nameless and always referred to as ingen Echdach 'the daugther of Eochaid (i.e.
Horseman)'. Moreover, the name Aedán, 'Son of Aed' of the killer of the prince reveals
him to be just a literary alter ego of king Rónán mac Aeda, 'Ronan son of Aed', surely
because the Irish scholar had to operate without the god Neptunus, who in the
Classical plot is the king's father and the prince's punisher.
Even if the extant and very short Fingal Rónaín is told in the usual ancient Irish
manner as a mixture of verse (94 lines) with prose and dialogues (176 lines on the
whole), its structure still bears witness of the original five acts, of which it seems to
have been a kind of abridged version used for theatrical improvisation. The 1st act
contains an introduction where the young prince is described as a mighty hunter and
the sweetheart of all young women; in the following four or perhaps even five scenes,
the king seeks a new bride, the bride is introduced to his son, and a maid is sent by the
new queen to arrange a date with the stepson. In the five scenes corresponding to the
2nd act, the maid goes to the prince, but only speaks to Congal, one of his foster-
brothers, who is shocked and offers to arrange a sexual encounter between Mael
Fotharthaig and the maid instead; the queen, to whom this is reported, at first decides
to accept the offer, as it will give the maid a chance to communicate the queen's
desire to her stepson personally, but afterwards grows impatient and threatens to kill
the maid unless she acts on her behalf; at her next encounter with the prince, the
maid tells him about the queen's desire and threats, while Mael Fotharthaig is
horrified and decides to leave the country. In the six scenes corresponding to the 3rd
act, the prince is asked back by his own people, visits the father of his stepmother,
dates the maid, and arranges with his stepbrothers a system to avoid meeting the
queen, while she is eager to meet him. The next group of five scenes, corresponding to
the 4th act, shows Congal chasing the queen away from the mock meeting-point, then
the queen accusing the stepson of attempted rape, which is allegedly proved with the
help of a riddle recited partly by Mael Fothartaig and partly by the queen, and
subsequently the killing of the prince by a warrior called Aedán as ordered by king
Rónán; before dying, the prince declares his innocence, accuses the queen, and tells
the wounded jester to mind the laughing audience. Only four scenes form the 5th act,
123
where the parents of the queen are killed, Rónán laments his son's death, the queen is
rueful and kills herself, and Mael Fothartaig is finally avenged by one of his sons (by
the name of Aed!) killing his murderer.
N.B. To give an idea of the dramatic fourth act of the tragedy, we quote here
both halves of the riddle together with the lament by king Ronan and the queen in the
poetic rendering of Ruth Lehmann (An Introduction to Old Irish, with Winfred P.
Lehmann: The Modern Language Association of America, New York, 1975). Note that
her rendering, which follows, is intended to convey the poetical devices employed by
the Irish author but not the literal content of the verses.
Mael Fothartaig: Cold in the whirlwind girding

for Aife's cattle herding.
Eochaid's daughter: Vain herding: no cows coming
nor anyone for loving.
Ronan and Eochaid's daughter after the prince's death --

Ronan: Cold the wind
past the warrior's house skimmed;
dear the warriors I would find
between me and winds that whined.
Sleep now, daughter of Eochaid,

bitterly winds are stinging;
woe is me, Mael Fothartaig
slain for a woman's sinning.
Sleep now, daughter of Eochaid,

I rest not till thou'rt sleeping,
looking on Mael Fothartaig
in his shirt of blood steeping.
Eochaid's daughter: Woe is me, corpse laid yonder

toward whom all eyes would wander;
what we committed of sin
was thy pain, since rejecting.
Ronan: Sleep now, daughter of Eochaid,

mad men might take thy scheming,
though thy damp cloak thou smearest,
not my dearest thou'rt keening.

Our selected passage corresponds to the last four scenes of the 2nd act. Note that the
words of Mael Fotharthaig when he gives gives vent to his indignation about the
proposal of his stepmother are very similar to those of Hippolytos in Seneca's Phaedra
(more details in P. de Bernardo Stempel, "Phaedra und Hippolytos in irischem
Gewand," Nachleben der Antike - Formen ihrer Aneignung: Festschrift Klaus Ley, ed.
B. Bosold DasGupta et al., Berlin: Weidler 2006, pp. 237-266).
124
Ní dam ass áil, or sí, acht do ingin Echdach rop áil Mael Fothartaig na cardess.

• dam -- pronominalized preposition; 1st person singular dative of <duL, doL> to -
- with me
• ass -- verb; 3rd person singular present indicative, absolute, relative of copula
<is> is -- that is
• áil -- noun; nominative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <áil> desire -- desire
• or -- indeclinable; variant of <ol> says, said -- said
it -- she
• acht -- preposition; <acht> except, only, save, but -- but
• do -- preposition; <duL, doL> to -- with
• ingin -- noun; dative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <ingen> daughter -- the
daughter
• Echdach -- proper name masculine; genitive singular of <Echaid> Echaid -- of
Echaid
• rop -- verb; 3rd person singular RO-present subjunctive, syntactically relative,
of copula <is> is -- that would be
• áil -- noun; nominative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <áil> desire -- desire
• Mael Fothartaig -- proper name masculine; accusative singular masculine of
<Mael Fothartaig> Mael Fothartaig -- for Mael Fothartaig
• na -- article; genitive plural of <in, aN, indL> the -- of the
• cardess -- noun; genitive plural masculine, u-stem, of <cardess, cairdes>
friendship, love, cohabitation -- sexual encounters
Ná hapair, a ben!, or Congal.

• hapair -- verb; aspirated 2nd person singular imperative active, prototonic, of
<as°beir> says, speaks -- do... say
• a -- particle; introduces vocative; <aL> o -- ...
• ben -- noun; vocative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <ben> woman, wife --
woman
• Congal -- proper name masculine; nominative singular of <Congal> Congal --
Congal
Bia marb dianat chluine Mael Fothartaig!
• bia -- verb; variant of 2nd person singular future indicative, absolute, of

substantive verb <attá> is -- you will be
• marb -- adjective; nominative singular feminine of <marb> dead -- dead
• dianat -- conjunction; compound form of conjunction <diaN> when; if + infixed
pronoun 2nd person singular <datL> you -- if... you
125
• chluine -- verb; lenited 3rd person singular present subjunctive active,
conjunct, of <ro°cluinethar> hears -- should hear
• Mael Fothartaig -- proper name masculine; nominative singular masculine of
<Mael Fothartaig> Mael Fothartaig -- Mael Fothartaig
Dogénsa do lessu féin frisseom chena, mad áil duit.
• dogénsa -- verb; compound form of 1st person singular future indicative

active, absolute, of <do°gní> does; makes + emphasizing particle 1st person
singular <se, sa> I -- indeed I shall do
• do -- possessive pronoun 2nd person singular <doL, tL> your -- your
• lessu -- noun; compound form of accusative singular masculine, u-stem, of
<les> remedy; advantage + emphasizing particle 2nd person singular <siu, so,
su> you -- bidding
• féin -- pronominal; <féin, feissin> -self, own -- own
• frisseom -- pronominalized preposition; 3rd person singular masculine
singular masculine <seom, som> he, it -- in respect to him
• chena -- adverb; <chena> besides -- though
• mad -- verb; compound form of adverb <má, ma> if + 3rd person singular
present subjunctive of copula <is> is -- if it should be
• áil -- noun; nominative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <áil> desire -- a desire
-- with you
Atbeir ind ócben friesi.
• atbeir -- verb; 3rd person singular present indicative active, deuterotonic, of

<as°beir> says, speaks + infixed pronoun 3rd person singular neuter <tL> this --
communicates this
• ócben -- noun; compound of adjective <oac, óc> young + nominative singular
feminine, ā-stem, of <ben> woman, wife -- maid
• friesi -- pronominalized preposition; compound form of 3rd person singular
feminine accusative of <frithL, friH> against, towards + emphasizing particle 3rd
person singular feminine <si> she -- to her
Is maith lem, or sisi, ar rolémasu a rád ind aithisc acht co comrís féin fris; ocus déna
mo lessa iarum friss.

is
• maith -- adjective; nominative singular neuter of <maith> good -- very well
• lem -- pronominalized preposition; 1st person singular accusative of <laH>
among, by, with -- with me
• sisi -- emphatic personal pronoun 3rd person singular feminine <(h)é, síL,
(h)ed> he, she, it -- she
126
• ar -- conjunction; <air, ar> for -- since
• rolémasu -- verb; 2nd person singular future indicative, deuterotonic, of
<ro°laimethar> dares + emphasizing particle 2nd person singular <siu, so, su>
you -- you will dare
• a -- possessive pronoun; 3rd person singular masculine <aL> his, its -- to him
• rád -- verbal noun; accusative singular masculine, o-stem, of <ráidid> saying,
uttering, speaking -- communicating
• ind -- article; genitive singular neuter of <in, aN, indL> the -- the
• aithisc -- noun; genitive singular neuter, o-stem, of <aithesc> message --
message
• acht -- preposition; <acht> except, only, save, but -- provided
• co -- conjunction; used as verbal particle; <con, coN> until; so that; and -- that
• comrís -- verb; 2nd person singular present subjunctive active, prototonic, of
<con°ricc> meets, encounters -- you should meet
• féin -- pronominal; <féin, feissin> -self, own -- yourself
• fris -- preposition; 3rd person singular masculine accusative of <frithL, friH>
against, towards -- with him
• déna -- verb; 2nd person singular imperative active, prototonic, of <do°gní>
does; makes -- you shall do
• lessa -- noun; compound form of accusative singular masculine, u-stem, of
<les> remedy; advantage + emphasizing particle 1st person singular <se, sa> I --
own bidding
• iarum -- pronominalized preposition; 3rd person singular neuter dative of
<íarN, íarmL-> after -- afterwards
afterwards
• friss -- pronominalized preposition; 3rd person singular masculine accusative
of <frithL, friH> against, towards -- to him
Dogníther.
• dogníther -- verb; 3rd person singular present indicative passive, deuterotonic,

of <do°gní> does; makes -- is done
Foid ind ócben leis .i. la Mael Fothartaig.
• foid -- verb; 3rd person singular present indicative active, absolute, of <foad,
foid, foaid> sleeps together -- sleeps with
• ócben -- noun; compound of adjective <oac, óc> young + nominative singular
feminine, ā-stem, of <ben> woman, wife -- maid
• leis -- pronominalized preposition; 3rd person singular masculine accusative of
<laH> among, by, with -- with him
• la -- preposition; <laH> among, by, with -- with
127
Maith tra, or sí, ní dingnesu mo lessa a fechtsa?
• maith -- adjective; used as adverb; <maith> good -- well

• tra -- adverb; <trá, tra> then, well, so, indeed, moreover -- then
it -- she
• dingnesu -- verb; compound form of 2nd person singular future indicative
active, prototonic, of <do°gní> does; makes + emphasizing particle 2nd person
singular <siu, so, su> you -- will you indeed... do
• lessa -- noun; compound form of accusative singular masculine, u-stem, of
<les> remedy; advantage + emphasizing particle 1st person singular <se, sa> I --
own bidding
• a -- article; accusative singular neuter of <in, aN, indL> the -- this
• fechtsa -- noun; compound form of accusative singular neuter, o-stem, of
<fecht> course, journey; time, occasion + emphasizing particle 1st person
singular <se, sa> I -- time
time
Is ferr let in fer ucut t' oenur?

it
• ferr -- adjective; comparative of <maith> good -- better
• let -- pronominalized preposition; 2nd person singular accusative of <laH>
among, by, with -- with you
• ucut -- adverb; <ucut> yonder -- yonder
• t' -- possessive pronoun; 2nd person singular of <doL, tL> your -- yours
• oenur -- noun; dative singular masculine, o-stem, of <oenar> one person, one
alone -- alone
Bet marbso dano limsa!
• bet -- verb; variant of 2nd person singular future indicative of copula <is> is --
you will be
• marbso -- adjective; compound form of nominative singular feminine of
<marb> dead + emphasizing particle 2nd person singular <siu, so, su> you --
dead
• limsa -- pronominalized preposition; 1st person singular accusative of <laH>
among, by, with + emphasizing particle 1st person singular <se, sa> I -- through
myself
128
Feccaid in ben laa nand ic coí fri Mael Fothartaig.
• feccaid -- verb; 3rd person singular present indicative active, absolute, of

<feccaid> begins -- starts
• in -- article; nominative singular feminine of <in, aN, indL> the -- the
• ben -- noun; nominative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <ben> woman, wife --
woman
• laa -- noun; accusative singular neuter, yo-stem, of <láaN, láN> day, daylight --
one day
• nand -- pronominalized preposition; nasalized 3rd person singular neuter
dative of <in, iN> in, into -- then
• ic -- preposition; variant of <oc> at, with, by -- to
• coí -- verbal noun; dative singular feminine of <caí> weeping -- cry
• fri -- preposition; <frithL, friH> against, towards -- in front of
Cid daí, a ben? or sé.
• cid -- stressed interrogative pronoun; neuter; <cidL, cedL> what; why -- why
• daí -- verb; 2nd person singular present indicative, conjunct, of substantive
verb <attá> is -- are you vexed
woman
• sé -- personal pronoun; 3rd person singular masculine <(h)é, síL, (h)ed> he, she,
it -- he
Ingen Echdach oc báig mo marbtha frim, olsi, uair nach dénaim a lles fritso, co
comairsed frit.
• ingen -- noun; nominative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <ingen> daughter --

the daughter
• Echdach -- proper name masculine; genitive singular of <Echaid> Echaid -- of
Echaid
• báig -- verbal noun; dative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <bág> threat --
threatening
• marbtha -- verbal noun; genitive singular masculine, u-stem, of <marbad>
killing, slaying -- killing
• frim -- pronominalized preposition; 1st person singular accusative of <frithL,
friH> against, towards -- to me
• olsi -- indeclinable; compound form of indeclinable <ol> says, said + personal
• uair -- conjunction; <úair, uair> since -- since
129
singular present indicative, conjunct, of copula <is> is -- it is not
• dénaim -- verb; 1st person singular present indicative active, prototonic,
syntactically relative, of <do°gní> does; makes -- that I do
• a -- possessive pronoun; 3rd person singular feminine <aH> her -- her
• lles -- noun; accusative singular masculine, u-stem, of <les> remedy; advantage
-- bidding
• fritso -- pronominalized preposition; compound form of 2nd person singular
accusative of <frithL, friH> against, towards + emphasizing particle 2nd person
singular <siu, so, su> you -- to you
• co -- conjunction; used as verbal particle; <con, coN> until; so that; and -- so
that
• comairsed -- verb; 3rd person singular preterite subjunctive active, prototonic,
of <con°ricc> meets, encounters -- she could meet
• frit -- pronominalized preposition; 2nd person singular accusative of <frithL,
friH> against, towards -- with you
Dóich dano, or sé.
• dóich -- adverb; <doích> likely -- likely

it -- he
Ní sechbaid duit, or sé, rogabais chommairchi.

• sechbaid -- noun; nominative singular, i-stem, of <sechbaid> excess; error --
wrong
-- of you
it -- he
• rogabais -- verb; 2nd person singular perfect indicative active, absolute, of
<gaibid> takes; proceeds; recites -- you took
• chommairchi -- noun; lenited accusative singular feminine, yā-stem, of
<commairche> protection, refuge -- protection
Dianom berthasa, a ben, or sé, i cualchlais tened fo thrí co ndernad min ocus luaith
dím, ní chomraicfind fri mnaí Rónáin, cid ed nommainsed airi sin uile.
• dianom -- conjunction; compound form of <diaN> when; if + infixed pronoun

1st person singular <domL, dumL> I -- even if I
• berthasa -- verb; compound form of 3rd person singular past subjunctive
passive, conjunct, of <berid> carries, brings + emphasizing particle 1st person
singular <se, sa> I -- myself were thrown
130
woman
it -- he
• i -- preposition; <in, iN> in, into -- into
• cualchlais -- noun; compound of <cúal> faggot + lenited accusative singular
feminine, ā-stem, of <clas, class> ditch, furrow; pit -- a faggot-
faggot-pit
• tened -- noun; genitive singular feminine, dental stem, of <tene, teine> fire --
of fire
• fo -- preposition; <foL> under -- times
times
• thrí -- numeral; lenited accusative singular masculine of <trí, tri, teoir> three --
three
• co -- conjunction; used as verbal particle; <con, coN> until; so that; and -- and
• ndernad -- verb; nasalized 3rd person singular perfect subjunctive, prototonic,
of <do°gní> does; makes -- were made
• min -- noun; nominative singular feminine of <men, min> powder, dust -- dust
• luaith -- noun; nominative singular feminine, i-stem, of <lúaith> ashes -- ashes
• dím -- pronominalized preposition; 1st person singular dative of <diL, deL>
from, of -- of me
• chomraicfind -- verb; variant of 1st person singular secondary future,
prototonic, of <con°ricc> meets, encounters -- I would... meet
• fri -- preposition; <frithL, friH> against, towards -- with
• mnaí -- noun; accusative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <ben> woman, wife --
the wife
• Rónáin -- proper name masculine; genitive singular of <Rónán> Ronan -- of
Ronan
• cid -- conjunction; compound form of conjunction <cía> although, even if +
enclitic present subjunctive of copula <is> is -- though it it be
• ed -- personal pronoun; 3rd person singular neuter of <(h)é, síL, (h)ed> he, she,
it -- it
• nommainsed -- verb; compound form of 3rd person singular past subjunctive
active, conjunct, syntactically relative, of <aingid> protects + infixed pronoun
1st person singular <mL, mmL> I -- that might save me
• airi -- pronominalized preposition; 3rd person singular neuter accusative <arL,
airL> before, for, in front of, east of -- from
• uile -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of <uile> all, whole -- all
131
Regatsa dano, or sé, for a himgabáil.
• regatsa -- verb; compound form of 1st person singular future indicative,

absolute, of <téit> goes + emphasizing particle 1st person singular <se, sa> I -- I
shall go
it -- he
• for -- preposition; <for> on, over -- in order to
• a -- possessive pronoun; 3rd person singular feminine <aH> her -- her
• himgabáil -- verbal noun; aspirated dative singular feminine, ā-stem, of
<imgabál, imgabáil> avoiding; evasion -- avoid
Lesson Text
Ní dam ass áil, or sí, acht do ingin Echdach rop áil Mael Fothartaig na cardess.
Ná hapair, a ben!, or Congal. Bia marb dianat chluine Mael Fothartaig! Dogénsa do
lessu féin frisseom chena, mad áil duit.
Atbeir ind ócben friesi.
Is maith lem, or sisi, ar rolémasu a rád ind aithisc acht co comrís féin fris; ocus
déna mo lessa iarum friss.
Dogníther.
Foid ind ócben leis .i. la Mael Fothartaig.
Maith tra, or sí, ní dingnesu mo lessa a fechtsa? Is ferr let in fer ucut t' oenur? Bet
marbso dano limsa!
Feccaid in ben laa nand ic coí fri Mael Fothartaig.
Cid daí, a ben? or sé.
Ingen Echdach oc báig mo marbtha frim, olsi, uair nach dénaim a lles fritso, co
comairsed frit.
Dóich dano, or sé. Ní sechbaid duit, or sé, rogabais chommairchi. Dianom berthasa, a
ben, or sé, i cualchlais tened fo thrí co ndernad min ocus luaith dím, ní chomraicfind
fri mnaí Rónáin, cid ed nommainsed airi sin uile. Regatsa dano, or sé, for a himgabáil.
132
Translation
"[It is] not with me that [there] is desire," said she, "but with the daughter of Echaid
that [there] would be desire for Mael Fothartaig, of the(ir) sexual encounters."
"Do not say [this], woman!" said Congal. "You will be dead if Mael Fothartaig should
hear you! Indeed I shall do your own bidding in respect to him, though, if it should be
a desire with you."
The maid communicates this to her (i.e. to her mistress).
"It is very well with me," said she, "since you will dare communicating the message to
him, provided that you yourself should meet with him, and you shall do my own
bidding to him afterwards."
[It] is done [then].
The maid sleeps with him, that is, with Mael Fothartaig.
"Well then," she said, "will you indeed not do my own bidding this time? Is it better
with you [that] the man yonder [be] yours alone? You will be dead then through
myself!"
One day then the woman starts to cry in front of Mael Fothartaig.
"Why are you vexed, woman?" said he.
"The daughter of Echaid at threatening my killing to me," said she, "since it is not
that I do her bidding to you so that she could meet with you."
"Likely then," said he. "[It was] not wrong of you," said he, "you took protection."
"Woman," said he, "even if I myself were thrown into a faggot-pit of fire three times,
and dust and ashes were made of me, I would not meet with the wife of Ronan,
though it be it that might save me from all that [burning]." "I shall go then," he said,
"in order to avoid her."
Grammar
36. Subordination
36.1. Temporal Clauses
In our selections, we find temporal clauses with
• ó 'since' and the perfect indicative (ó ro°scarus 'since I have parted' in Lesson
5);
• in 'when' and the present indicative (in-de cluinethar 'when he hears it' and
in-den aici 'when he sees it' in Lesson 6);
• aN 'when' and the preterite indicative (a m-boí 'when he was' in Lesson 2);
• in da(i)n 'at the time' and the preterite indicative (in dan m-bátar ann 'when
they were there' in Lesson 2) or the future indicative (in dain no-m-bia-su oc
comruc 'at the time when you will be in combat' in Lesson 4, where it is also
repeated as in n-attan ro-m-bia-su oc comruc 'another time when you will be
in combat'). In Middle Irish this conjunction is shortened to tan and used with
the past indicative, cf. tan tánuc 'when I came' in Lesson 10;
• coN 'until' and the preterite indicative (co m-boí hi 'until he was' in Lesson 5)
or the perfect (co-n-us°toracht 'until he came' in Lesson 9). With the perfective
present subjunctive (i.e. the present subjunctive prefixed with ro) it expresses
133
an action to be completed in the future, as in Lesson 3: coN rab dartaid in lóeg
'until the calf ... will have become a yearling'.
36.2. Causal Clauses

In our selections, causal clauses are introduced by ar and by uair, both with the
indicative:
• ar 'for' is attested with the present indicative in Lesson 6 (ar nícon chotli 'for
he does not sleep' and ar is dortuth fuiliche 'for bloodshed is the
destruction...'), with the preterite indicative in Lesson 1 (ar ba bes 'for it was
custom'), and with the future in Lesson 4 (ar bam escong-sa ocus fo chichiur
'for ... I will be an eel and I will throw ...') and Lesson 8 (ar ro°lema-su 'since
you will dare').
• uair 'since' as in Lesson 8 (uair nach dénaim 'since it is not that I do'), where it
is followed by a negated and hence prototonic present indicative, was
originally a temporal conjunction, being derived from the loanword
corresponding to Latin hora 'hour'.
36.3. Concessive Clauses

Concessive clauses are usually introduced by cíaL/céL 'although, even if', which
appears as ci before initial vowels and coalesces with the negative particle into
cení/ceni or cini.
In Lesson 5, the past subjunctive of the subordinate clause is linked to a preterite
indicative of the principal clause: ba he-som mo chrideserc cia no°charainn 'it was
him my heart's love, even if I might have loved ...' In Lesson 9, the irreality expressed
by both subordinate clauses in the past subjunctive (dia-nom bertha co n-dernad min
ocus luaith 'even if I were thrown ... and dust and ashes were made') is mirrored by
the use of the secondary future as a conditional in the principal clause: ní
chomraicfind 'I would not meet'.
Cia with the present subjunctive of the copula coalesces into cid, as in Lesson 3
where the present subjunctive of the subordinate clause is governed by a future
indicative in the principal clause: cid dorrignis bieith olc de 'whatever [it be that] you
may do ..., misfortune will result'. It is also often found in the sense of 'even' as in
Lesson 1: conná facbatis cid mecnu 'until they left not even roots' (lit. 'until they left
nothing, although it be roots').
37. The Verb: The Subjunctive

As already stated (Lesson 1, point 3.3), the stem of the subjunctive, from which
the present and the past subjunctive are formed, is independent from the present
stem.
This stem mostly takes the shape of a so-called a-subjunctive, but those strong
verbs whose root ends in a dental or guttural stop or spirant, or whose present or
preterite indicative has a geminated nn, show an s-subjunctive.
The inflection of the past subjunctive shows no special forms for deponentia and
is practically always used as a conjunct form.
The different formations are confronted in the following table (móraid
'magnifies', lécid 'leaves', suidigedar 'sets', berid 'bears', téit 'goes' and guidid 'prays'):
134
Present Subjunctive Active Absolute
AI A II (Act., Dep.) Strong Verbs

1 Sg. móra lécea, *suidiger bera, tíasu
2 Sg. mór(a)e léce, suidigther ber(a)e, tési
3 Sg. mór(a)id/-(a)ith lécid/-ith, suidigidir ber(a)id/-(a)ith, téis
Rel. móras(s) léces(s), suidigedar beras(s), tías
1 Pl. mórm(a)i/-(a)immi léicmi, suidigmir berm(a)i, tíasm(a)i

Rel. mórm(a)e léicme, suidigmer berm(a)e, tíasm(a)e
2 Pl. mórth(a)e léicthe, suidigthe berth(a)e, *téiste
3 Pl. mór(a)it lécit, suidigitir ber(a)it, tías(a)it
Rel. mórd(a)e/-t(a)e/ lé(i)cde/-te/ berd(a)e/-t(a)e, tíast(a)e
mór(a)ite lécite, suidigetar
Present Subjunctive Active Conjunct
AI A II (Act., Dep.) Strong Verbs

1 Sg. °mór °léic, °suidiger °ber, °tías
2 Sg. °mór(a)e °léce, °suidigther °ber(a)e, °téis
3 Sg. °móra °lécea, °suidigedar °bera, °téi/°té
1 Pl. °móram °lécem, °suidigmer °beram, °tíasam

2 Pl. °mór(a)id/-aith °lécid/-ith, °suidigid/-ith °ber(a)id/-(a)ith, °tésid
3 Pl. °mórat °lécet, °suidigetar °berat, °tíasat
Present Subjunctive Passive Absolute
AI A II (Act. = Dep.) Strong Verbs

3 Sg. mórth(a)ir suidigthir berth(a)ir, gessair
Rel. mórthar suidigther berthar, gessar
3 Pl. mórt(a)ir/mór(a)itir suidigtir bert(a)ir, ----
Rel. mórtar/móratar suidigter bertar, ----
Present Subjunctive Passive Conjunct

General Form °mórthar °suidigther °berthar, °gessar
3 Pl. °mórtar/°móratar °suidigter °bertar, °gessatar
Past Subjunctive Active

1 Sg. mór(a)in(n) suidigin(n) ber(a)in(n), gessin(n)
2 Sg. mórtha suidigthea bertha, gesta
3 Sg. mórad/-ath suidiged/-eth berad/-ath, gessed
1 Pl. mórm(a)is suidigmis berm(a)is, gesm(a)is

2 Pl. mórth(a)e suidigthe berth(a)e, gest(a)e
3 Pl. mórt(a)is suidigtis bert(a)is, gest(a)is
135
Past Subjunctive Passive

General Form mórth(a)e suidigthe berth(a)e, gest(a)e
3 Pl. mórt(a)is suidigtis bert(a)is, gest(a)is
The addition of ro to the subjunctive either strenghtens the semantic

component of possibility or ability (as in rop áil 'that would be desire' in Lesson 8 and
in ropud án 'he would be brilliant' in Lesson 5) or expresses completion of the
performed action (as in the coN rab dartaid 'until it will have become' of Lesson 3
discussed here under point 36.1).
38. Irregular Nouns

To the nouns with irregular declension belong the feminine bó 'cow' (in Lessons
2 to 4) and the masculine mí 'month' (in Lesson 5):

Nom. bó 'cow' baí baí
Acc. boin bú ---
Gen. bou/báu/báo/bó bou/báu/báo/bó bou/báu/báo/bó
Dat. boin buaib buaib

Nom. mí 'month' mís mí
Acc. mís mísa mí
Gen. mís mís ---
Dat. mís --- ---
Further substantives that may appear irregular at first sight, even if they are
quite regular from a historical point of view, are the ā-stem ben 'woman' (in Lessons 2
to 5, 8 and 9) and the neuter láa/lá 'day, daylight' (in Lessons 1, 4, 5, 9), which is
actually a short form of the neuter yo-stem la(i)the:

Nom/Voc. ben mná mnaí
Acc. bein/mnaí mná mnaí
Gen. mná ban ban
Dat. mnaí mnáib mnáib
Singular Plural
Nom/Acc. lae/laa/láa lae/lá
Gen. lai lae/lá
Dat. láu/láo/ló/lóu laïb
136
39. Comparison of the Adjective: the Superlative Grade
The normal superlative suffix is em, which palatalizes the preceding consonant
whereas am appears after consonants resisting palatalization: cf. sinem 'oldest' from
sen 'old' as opposed to ardam 'highest' from ard 'high'.
39.2. Irregular Formations

The superlative of some adjectives is formed from the same root as the positive
but without its suffix (i.a. máam and moam from már/mór 'great', síam from sír 'long',
tressam from trén 'strong'), while for other superlatives altogether different roots and
formations are used, such as messam 'worst' as opposed to olc 'bad' or dech/deg 'best'
as opposed to maith 'good'.
One should also not forget superlative compounds such as ad-amrae 'very wonderful'
and for-lán 'very full' in Lessons 6 and 10.
39.3. Syntax
None of these forms shows any traces of inflection. Like the other comparison
grades, the superlatives are only used in nominative constructions and not as
attributes.
40. Interrogative Pronouns and Sentences

Both direct and indirect interrogative clauses can be introduced:
• by an unstressed pronoun nom/acc. ce/ci/cía 'who or what?' (cich if there is
an infixed pronoun) with gen. coich 'whose?': it is invariant in gender and
number and requires the conjunct form of a full verb as in cía°beir 'who
carries?' and cía°acca 'whom didst thou see?'. When the subjunctive is used,
this pronoun supplies an indefinite pronoun. Cf. also cía° tíasam 'wherever we
go';
• by its stressed allomorphs cía 'who?', with ntr. cidL/cedL 'what?' and plural
citné 'who/what (is it) that they are?': these are mostly used with the relative
form of a verb (as in cía rannas dúib 'who [is it that] divides for you?' or cid as
dénti 'what is [that is] to be done?') or precede a substantive, in which case a
feminine requires cesíL and the 3rd person singular of the copula is implicit, cf.
cid leth 'which direction?' in Lesson 2. Cf. also cid do-t-ucai 'what brings you?',
cid arndid í 'why [is it] that it is her?', cid nach é 'why is it not him?', cid ná
dénaim-ni óentaid 'why don't we make a union?' and cid dai 'why are you
vexed?' in Lessons 2, 5 and 8.
• by coH 'how or (of) what sort?', with the conjunct form of the verb as in co°acci
in slúag 'how seest thou the host?', or by its equivalent cinnas 'how?' < cindas <
cía indas 'which manner or kind?', as in Lesson 4: cinnas conicfae-su 'how will
you be able?';
• by the interrogative particle iN, also requiring the conjunct form of the verb: cf.
in°n-aci 'seest thou?' or as°rubart i°m-boí 'he said, i.e. asked, whether there
was'. A double interrogative is introduced by in faL/fáL/baL and a negative
interrogative by in nád as in in-nád °n-accai 'seest thou not?', whereas an
interrogative expecting a positive answer is introduced by cani.
137
Dús introduces indirect interrogative clauses with the meaning of 'to know, to
ascertain if'.
138
Lesson 9
The text selection for this lesson is taken from Lebor Gabála Érenn, 'The Book of
the Taking of Ireland', in the edition of Stewart Macalister. Also known as 'The Book
of Invasions', it is a collection of poems and prose relating the mythical origin of the
Irish people and the history of Ireland through the successive waves of invasions. This
fictitious, pseudo-historical work was compiled in the 11th century and exists in over
a dozen manuscripts, representing five different recensions. The author is unknown,
but the work can be regarded as the result of the efforts of the medieval Irish clerics
to link pre-Christian history with Biblical accounts, so that we find elements of
Christian literature beside old Irish lore, whose heroes are portrayed as historical
persons of the remote past. This notwithstanding, up to the 17th century Lebor Gabála
Érenn was often regarded as authoritative by Irish annalists and historians.
Lebor Gabála Érenn begins with the creation of the world and continues with the
history of Ireland down to the time of its compilation. In its present form, in all the
principal redactions, the book falls into ten separate and independent sections: I.
From the Creation to the Dispersal of the Nations; II. The Ancestors of the Gaedil; III-
VII. The successive invasions of Cessair, Partholón, Nemed, the Fir Bolg, and the
Túatha Dé Danann; VIII. The invasion of the sons of Míl, i.e. of the Gaedil; IX. The Roll
of the Kings before Christianity; X. The Roll of the Kings after Christianity.
The first invasion mentioned is that of Cessair, a granddaughter of the Biblical
Noah who arrived with only three men and a multitude of women forty days before
the Flood but perished soon after together with all her followers except for Fintan
mac Bóchra, who survived the centuries in the shape of various animals and
witnessed the whole of Irish history. Also represented as a descendant of Noah,
Partholón came to Ireland from Sicily threehundred years after the Flood, via Greece,
Cappadocia, Gothia and Spain, landing at Inber Scéne (identified with Kenmare in
South Kerry); his followers, five thousand men and four tousand women, were killed
by a plague hundred and twenty years later and are supposed to be buried in a mass
grave at Tamlachta 'Pit of Tears' (Tallaght near Dublin?), their only survivor being
Tuan, Partholón's nephew, who also underwent a series of animal transformations
until he was finally reborn as son of a chieftain named Cairill and as such (i.e. Tuan
mac Cairill) told the story of his people. Thirty years after their extintion arrived
Nemed, great-grandson of a brother of Partholón's, but he and his followers were
attacked and in the end subjugated by the Fomoire, a warlike group of prehistoric
demons who had succesfully been fought by the Partholonians; the Nemedians were
eventually wiped out by a big flood, except for thirty warriors who managed to escape
by ship and were scattered to different corners of the world. From the group who
managed to escape to Greece descended the Fir Bolg, who arrived twohundred and
thirty years later, divided Ireland into five provinces and installed a king. From those
Nemedians who had escaped to far North descended the Túatha Dé Danann, a people
with magic powers who arrived thirtyseven years after the former and defeated first
the Fir Bolg and later the Fomoire, prior to being defeated themselves by the next and
last invaders, the sons of Míl, at Tailtiu onehundred and fifty years later and
subsequently retiring to live underground in the síde or fairy mounds. The
newcomers had been living in Scythia and later in Egypt before going to Spain, from
where the uncle of Míl , Íth , saw Ireland: enticed by her beauty, he decided to go and
live there, but was killed soon after his arrival, and his death was avenged by the
Milesians, who set out to conquer the island.
139
Our selection is taken out of section IV and is concerned with the invasions of
the Fomoire, twohundred men and six hundred women led by Cicul Gricen-choss, who
spent twohundred years 'at fishing and fowling', and of Partholón, who defeated them
and cleared four fields.
While many of the accounts of the invasions seem entirely fanciful, others may
reflect at least an historical core. Thus, while the Fomoire are said to have lived on
fish and fowl, the Partholonians are supposed to have brought with them important
agricultural devices and techniques, such as ploughs, oxen, husbandry, dairy farming,
etc. Since the Partolonians furthermore buried their dead in long graves made of
stone heaps, they might be identified with the Neolithic farmers as opposed to the
hunters-gatherers of the Mesolithic.
Furthermore, while the name of Partholón is not Irish and has been probably
influenced by the Christian Batholomaeus, Íth as in the existing several plains called
Mag Ítha, 'The field of Ith', mirrors the Old Celtic deity Itunos/Ituna and goes back to IE
*pi-tu and *pi-tu-s as in Oir. ith 'corn, grain' and, respectively, Skt. pitú- 'food'.
The first of the plains by the name of Mag Ítha mentioned in our selection,
where the mythical Cicul Gricen choss was killed, is supposed to refer to the plain
between Lough Foyle, Lough Swilly and the river Finn in Counties Donegal and Derry,
while the second one mentioned has been identified with the plain south of Arklow, in
Leinster. Mag nEthrige is supposed to be identical with Mag Tuired, anglicised as
'Moytura', near Cong in Co. Mayo, and Mag Lí to have bordered on the west bank of
the river Bann, Co. Derry, given that the territory of the Ui mic Úais between Bir (the
Moyola river) and Camus (Macosquin) was situated between Counties Derry and
Donegal. Mag Latharna in Dál Araide has been identified with the low maritime plain
near Larne, Co. Antrim, and Inber Domnand with Malahide Bay north of Dublin.
Is sund atfedar sechtgabáil, .i. gabáil rogab la Ciccul Gricenchoss an Inbiur Domnand:

is
• sund -- adverb; <sund> here -- here
• atfedar -- verb; 3rd person singular present indicative passive, deuterotonic,
syntactically relative, of <ad°fét> tells, relates -- that... is told
• sechtgabáil -- noun; compound of <sechtN> seven + nominative singular
feminine, ā-stem, of <gabál, gabáil> taking, conquest -- the Taking of the Seven
• gabáil -- noun; nominative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <gabál, gabáil> taking,
conquest -- the taking
• rogab -- verb; 3rd person singular perfect indicative active, conjunct,
syntactically relative, of <gaibid> takes; proceeds; recites -- which took place
• la -- preposition; <laH> among, by, with -- by
• Ciccul Gricenchoss -- proper name masculine; accusative singular of <Cicul
Gricen-choss> Cichol Clapperleg -- Cichol Gricen-
Gricen-choss
• N
an -- preposition; variant of <in, i > in, into -- in
• Inbiur Domnand -- toponym; dative singular of <Inber Domnann> Rivermouth
Domnann -- Inber Domnann
140
.i. cóica fer ocus trí cóica ban lín cecha cethraimthi díb, im Chicul mac Guil meic Gairb
meic Túathaigh meic Gúmóir a Sléib Émóir, ocus Luth Luamnach a máthair.

• cóica -- numeral; nominative singular masculine of <coíca> fifty -- fifty
• fer -- noun; genitive plural masculine, o-stem, of <fer> man -- men
• trí cóica -- numeral; compound form of masculine of <trí, tri, teoir> three +
nominative singular masculine of <coíca> fifty -- three times fifty
• ban -- noun; genitive plural feminine, ā-stem, of <ben> woman, wife -- women
• lín -- noun; nominative singular neuter, o-stem, of <lín> full number; number -
- the full number
• cecha -- pronominal; variant of genitive singular masculine of <cach, cech>
each, every, any -- of each
• cethraimthi -- noun; genitive singular masculine, yo-stem, of <cethraimthe>
quarter, fourth part -- fourth part
• díb -- pronominalized preposition; 3rd person plural dative of <diL, deL> from,
of -- of them
• im -- preposition; <imbL, immL> around, about; mutually -- with
• Chicul mac Guil meic Gairb meic Túathaigh meic Gúmóir -- proper name
masculine; lenited accusative singular of <Ciccul, Cic(h)ul mac Guil meic Gairb
meic Túathaigh meic Gúmóir> Cichol son of Goll of the son of Garb of the son
of Tuatach of the son of Gumor -- Cichol mac Guil meic Gairb meic Tuathaigh
meic Gumoir
• a -- preposition; <essH, asH, aH> out of, from -- from
• Sléib Émóir -- toponym; dative singular of <Slíab Émóir> Emoir Hill -- Sliab
Emoir
Emoir
• Luth Luamnach -- proper name feminine; dative singular of <Luth Luamnach>
the Fury of the Pilotage -- Loth Luamnach
• máthair -- noun; nominative singular feminine, r-stem, of <máthir, máthair>
mother -- mother
Dá cét bliadan dóib ar íascach ocus ar énach, conustoracht Partholón, co rofersat cath
Muighi hÍtha, dianidh comainm sechtgabáil.
• dá cét -- numeral; compound form of <dáL, díL, dáN> two + nominative plural
neuter, o-stem, of <cétN> hundred -- two hundred
• bliadan -- noun; genitive plural feminine, ī-stem, of <blíadain> year -- years
• dóib -- pronominalized preposition; 3rd person plural dative of <duL, doL> to --
with them
• ar -- preposition; <arL, airL> before, for, in front of, east of -- at
• íascach -- noun; dative singular masculine, o-stem, of <íascach> fishing --
fishing
141
• ar -- preposition; <arL, airL> before, for, in front of, east of -- at
• énach -- noun; variant of dative singular masculine, o-stem, of <enach> bird-
hunting, fowling -- fowling
• conustoracht -- verb; compound form of 3rd person singular perfect indicative
active, prototonic, of <do°roich> reaches + conjunction <con, coN> until; so that;
and + infixed pronoun 3rd person plural <sN, s> they -- until... came to them
• Partholón -- proper name masculine; nominative singular of <Partholón>
Partholon -- Partholon
• rofersat -- verb; 3rd person plural perfect indicative active, conjunct, of
<feraid> grants, affords, supplies, gives; performs; pours, sheds -- they fought
• cath -- noun; accusative singular masculine, u-stem, of <cath> battle, fight --
the battle
• Muighi hÍtha -- toponym; genitive singular of <Mag Ítha> the Field of Ith -- of
Mag Itha
• dianidh -- verb; compound form of preposition <diL, deL> from, of + relative
particle <(s)aN> that which, what + 3rd person singular present indicative,
conjunct, of copula <is> is -- from which originates
• comainm -- noun; nominative singular neuter, n-stem, of <comainm> name,
cognomen -- the name
• sechtgabáil -- noun; compound of <sechtN> seven + nominative singular
feminine, ā-stem, of <gabál, gabáil> taking, conquest -- Seven-
Seven-Taking
Co romarbad Cichul ann, ocus co rodíthaigit Fomoraig [...].
• romarbad -- verb; 3rd person singular perfect indicative passive, conjunct, of
<marbaid> kills -- was slain
• Cichul -- proper name masculine; nominative singular of <Cicul, Cichul, Ciccul>
Cichol -- Cichol
• ann -- adverb; <ann> there -- there
• co -- conjunction; used as verbal particle; <con, coN> until; so that; and -- so
• rodíthaigit -- verb; 3rd person plural Middle Irish perfect indicative passive,
conjunct, of <díthaigid> destroys -- were destroyed
• Fomoraig -- proper name masculine; nominative plural of <Fomorach>
Fomorach -- the Fomoraig
Ceithri moigi roslechtad la Partholón ind Érind, .i. Magh nEthrige la Condachto, Magh
nÍtha la Laigniu, .i. Ítha, gilla Parrtholóin do réighigh, Magh Latharna la Dál nAraidhi,
Mag Lii la hÚa mic Úais etir Bir ocus Chamus.
• ceithri -- numeral; nominative neuter of <ceth(a)ir, cethéoir> four -- four

• moigi -- noun; nominative plural neuter, s-stem, of <mag> plain, field -- fields
• roslechtad -- verb; 3rd person singular perfect passive, conjunct, of <sligid>
strikes, slays; clears -- were cleared
• la -- preposition; <laH> among, by, with -- by
• Partholón -- proper name masculine; accusative singular of <Partholón>
142
• ind -- preposition; <in, iN> in, into -- in
• Érind -- toponym; dative singular, n-stem, of <Ériu> Ireland -- Ireland
• Magh nEthrige -- toponym; nominative singular of <Mag nEthrige> the Field of
Ethrag -- the Field of Ethrag
• la -- preposition; <laH> among, by, with -- in the territory of
• Condachto -- proper name feminine; accusative plural of <Connacht> Connacht
-- the Connachtmen
• Magh nÍtha -- toponym; variant of nominative singular of <Mag Ítha> the Field
of Ith -- the Field of Ith
• Laigniu -- proper name masculine; accusative plural of <Laigni> Leinstermen,
Leinsterwomen -- the Leinstermen
• Ítha -- proper name masculine; genitive singular of <Íth> Ith -- of Ith
• gilla -- noun; genitive singular masculine, yo-stem, of <gillae> servant, armed
man -- the companion
• Parrtholóin -- proper name masculine; genitive singular of <Partholón>
Partholon -- of Partholon
• do -- preposition; <duL, doL> to -- in
• réighigh -- Middle Irish verbal noun; dative singular of <réidig> leveling,
smoothing; clearing (land) -- clearing the land
• Magh Latharna -- toponym; nominative singular of <Mag Latharna> the Field of
Lathairn -- the Field of Lathairn
• Dál nAraidhi -- toponym; accusative singular of <Dál Araide> the district of
Arad -- Dal Araide
• Mag Lii -- toponym; nominative singular of <Mag Lí> the Field of Beauty -- the
Field of Lii
• hÚa mic Úais -- proper name masculine; aspirated accusative plural of <Ó mac
Úais> the grandson of the son of the Noble one -- the Ui mic Uais
• etir -- preposition; <eter> between, among -- between
• Bir -- toponym; accusative singular of <Bir> Bir -- Bir
• Chamus -- toponym; lenited accusative singular of <Camus> Camus -- Camas
Secht mbliadna íar ngabáil hÉrenn do Phartholón, atbath in cét fer dia muindtir, .i.
Fea mac Tortán meic Srú meic Esrú, bráthair athar do Partholón.
• secht -- numeral; nominative plural of <sechtN> seven -- seven

• mbliadna -- noun; nasalized genitive plural feminine, ī-stem, of <blíadain> year
-- years
• íar -- preposition; <íarN, íarmL-> after -- after
• ngabáil -- noun; nasalized dative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <gabál, gabáil>
taking, conquest -- the conquest
• hÉrenn -- toponym; aspirated genitive singular of <Ériu> Ireland -- of Ireland
• do -- preposition; variant of <diL, deL> from, of -- by
• Phartholón -- proper name masculine; lenited dative singular of <Partholón>
143
• atbath -- verb; 3rd person singular preterite indicative active, deuterotonic, of
<at°baill> dies -- died
• cét -- adjective; <cét> first; fresh, new -- first
• dia -- preposition; compound form of preposition <diL, deL> from, of + suffixed
possessive pronoun 3rd person singular masculine <aL> his, its -- of his
• muindtir -- noun; dative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <muinter> family; party,
followers; retinue, company -- retinue
• Fea mac Tortán meic Srú meic Esrú -- proper name masculine; nominative
singular of <Fea mac Tortán meic Srú meic Esrú> Fea son of Tortan of the son
of Sru of the son of Esru -- Fea mac Tortan meic Sru meic Esru
• bráthair -- noun; nominative singular masculine, r-stem, of <bráthir, bráthair>
brother -- brother
• athar -- noun; genitive singular masculine, r-stem, of <athir, athair> father -- of
the father
• Partholón -- proper name masculine; dative singular masculine of <Partholón>
Lesson Text
Is sund atfedar sechtgabáil, .i. gabáil rogab la Ciccul Gricenchoss an Inbiur
Domnand: .i. cóica fer ocus trí cóica ban lín cecha cethraimthi díb, im Chicul mac Guil
meic Gairb meic Túathaigh meic Gúmóir a Sléib Émóir, ocus Luth Luamnach a
máthair. Dá cét bliadan dóib ar íascach ocus ar énach, conustoracht Partholón, co
rofersat cath Muighi hÍtha, dianidh comainm sechtgabáil. Co romarbad Cichul ann,
ocus co rodíthaigit Fomoraig [...].
Ceithri moigi roslechtad la Partholón ind Érind, .i. Magh nEthrige la Condachto, Magh
nÍtha la Laigniu, .i. Ítha, gilla Parrtholóin do réighigh, Magh Latharna la Dál nAraidhi,
Mag Lii la hÚa mic Úais etir Bir ocus Chamus.
Secht mbliadna íar ngabáil hÉrenn do Phartholón, atbath in cét fer dia muindtir,
.i. Fea mac Tortán meic Srú meic Esrú, bráthair athar do Partholón.
Translation
It is here that the Taking of the Seven is told, that is, the taking which took
place by Cichol Gricen-choss in Inber Domnand: that is, fifty men and three times fifty
women [was] the full number of each fourth part of them, with Cichol mac Guil meic
Gairb meic Tuathaigh meic Gumoir from Sliab Emoir, and Loth Luamnach, his mother.
Two hundred years with them at fishing and at fowling, until Partholon came to them
and they fought the battle of Mag Itha, from which originates the name 'Seven-
Taking'. And Cichol was slain there and so the Fomoraig were destroyed.
Four fields were cleared by Partholon in Ireland, that is the Field of Ethrag in
the territory of the Connachtmen, the Field of Ith in the territory of the Leinstermen -
- that is of Ith, the companion of Partholon in clearing the land --, the Field of
Lathairn in the territory of Dal Araide, the Field of Lii in the territory of the Ui mic
Uais, between Bir and Camas.
144
Seven years after the conquest of Ireland by Partholon, the first man of his
retinue died, that is Fea son of Tortan of the son of Sru of the son of Esru, brother of
the father to Partholon.
Grammar
41. Subordination
41.1. Final Clauses
Final clauses are mostly expressed by the subjunctive, either preceded
by coL/coN/con
•
or by araN, actually ar-aN, as in ar-na bó 'so that he might not break' in
•
Lesson 6.
The latter, however, can also occur with the indicative as in ar ná loiti mo
chuairt immum (Lesson 5) 'so that my tour is not spoiled for me'. The possibility of
expressing a final clause without a finite verb is demonstrated by the selection of
lesson 8, where the preposition for governs a verbal noun with a possessive adjective
expressing the direct object: for a h imgabáil 'in order to avoid her' (lit. 'for her
avoiding'). Cf. also do ḟégad a uird 'to observe its structure' (lit. 'to the observation of
its structure') in Lesson 10.
41.2. Consecutive Clauses
Consecutive clauses are introduced by coL/coN/con and expressed by the

indicative or the subjunctive, depending on the semantics of the whole sentence. In
our selections we find always the indicative, either preterite or even perfect (cf. co
riacht in n-airidin 'so that he reached the bench', co n-dechuid geinn trít 'so that a
wedge went through it', and co slíged lár 'so that it dragged on the ground', all in
Lesson 2) or future (cf. co m-ba éccomlonn mór 'so that it will be a very unequal
combat' and co m-mema do ṡúil 'so that your eye shall burst'), depending on the
perspective.
41.3. Related Speech
In our selections there are three examples of related speech:
• governed by an imperative and expressed by a negated subjunctive present

without further conjunctions, as in apair fris ní ... n-imderga... 'say to him that
he may not redden...' (Lesson 6);
• governed by a preterite indicative and expressed by a past subjunctive
introduced by araN, as in asbert ... ara scortis ... ocus ara cortis... 'he said that
they should unyoke ... and that they should put...' (Lesson 1);
• without finite verbal form, expressed by a verbal noun in the genitive
governed by the verbal noun of a verbum dicendi (i.e. of a verb of speaking,
uttering); cf. Ingen Echdach oc báig mo marbtha frim in Lesson 7, which
corresponds to *"E's daughter at threatening of my killing to me," but means
of course "E's daughter threatens me that she will kill me."
145
42. The Verb: Future Tense
As already stated in Lesson 1, point 3.3, the future tenses are formed from a
special stem which is independent from that of the present. Even if there is some
interference between the different types, with weak verbs showing typically strong
formations and strong verbs adopting the modern (i.e. exclusively Goidelic) f-future
stem, and also many cases of suppletive stems (such as rega- to téit 'goes', i.a. in
Lesson 8), weak verbs normally add a morpheme -f- to their basic form; their future
stem is hence called f-future.
Strong verbs usually form their future stem according to their root. As with the
subjunctive, those verbs whose root ends in a dental or guttural stop or spirant, or
show geminated -nn- in their present and preterite, have a sigmatic future stem; in
addition, some of them show reduplication of the root. All other strong verbs have an
asigmatic future stem, inflecting the root as an Indo-European ā-subjunctive; again,
some of them also show root reduplication. In many cases, what is left of the
reduplication is just a long root vowel -é-, so that from a descriptive point of view
there is also an é-future stem, which is moreover a productive type in later texts.
Only the first two types are presented in the following tables (léicid 'leaves',
suidigidir 'puts', guidid 'prays'), given that the inflection of the asigmatic future is
identical with that of the ā-subjunctive in all forms (see Lesson 8, point 37). Examples
of asigmatic future stems are didma- from daimid 'tames' (1 Sg. °didam, 2 Sg. °didmae,
3 Sg. °didma, 3 Pl. °didmat), íba- from ibid 'drinks' (1 Sg. íba, 2 Sg. °íb, 2 Sg. °íba, 3 Pl.
íbait), cech(a)na- from canid 'sings' (1 Sg. °cechan, 2. Sg. °cechnae, 3. Sg. °cechna etc.),
céla- from celid 'conceals', géba- from ga(i)bid 'takes' and also béra- from berid 'bears,
carries': Active 1 Sg. °bér, 2 Sg. °bér(a)e, 3 Sg. béraid vs. °béra, 3 Sg. Rel. béras, 1 Pl.
°béram, 2 Pl. bér(a)id, 3 Pl. °bérat; Passive General Form °bérthar, 3 Pl. °bértar;
Secondary future 3 Sg. bérad, 1 Pl. bérmais, 2 Pl. bérth(a)e, 3 Pl. bért(a)is.
Primitive Future Active Absolute
A II (Act. & Dep.) Strong Verbs (sigmatic)

1 Sg. léicfea, suidigfer *gigsea
2 Sg. léicfe, suidigfider ---
3 Sg. léicfid/-fith, suidigfithir/-fidir gigis
3 Sg. Rel. léicfes(s), *suidigfedar giges
1 Pl. léicfimmi, *suidigfimmir gigsim(m)i

1 Pl. Rel. léicfimme, *suidigfemmar *gigsim(m)e
2 Pl. *léicfithe/-fide, *suidigfide gigeste
3 Pl. léicfit, *suidigfitir gigsit
3 Pl. Rel. léicfite, *suidigfetar gigsite
146
Primitive Future Active Conjunct
A II (Act. & Dep.) Strong Verbs (sigmatic)

1 Sg. °léiciub, °suidigfer °gigius
2 Sg. °léicfe, *°suidigfider °gigis
3 Sg. °léicfea, *°suidigfedar *°gig
1 Pl. °léicfem, *°suidigfemmar °gigsem

2 Pl. *°léicfid, *°suidigfid °gigsid
3 Pl. °léicfet, °suidigfetar °gigset
Primitive Future Passive Absolute
A II (Act. = Dep.) Strong Verbs (sigmatic)

3 Sg. léicfidir [other verbs with ending -stir are attested]
3 Sg. Rel
Rel.. léicfider gigestar
3 Pl. léicfitir [other verbs with ending -saitir are attested]

3 Pl. Rel. léicfiter/-fetar ---
Primitive Future Passive Conjunct

General Form °léicfider [other verbs with ending -astar are attested]
3 Pl. °léicfiter/-fetar [other verbs with ending -siter/-satar are attested]
Secondary Future Active

1 Sg. léicfin(n) [other verbs with ending -sain are attested]
2 Sg. léicfeda ---
3 Sg. léicfed/-feth gigsed
1 Pl. léicfimmis ---

2 Pl. *léicfide/-fithe ---
3 Pl. léicfitis [other verbs with ending -saitis are attested]
Secondary Future Passive
A II (Act. = Dep.)
Dep.) Strong Verbs (sigmatic)
General Form léicfide/-fithe [other verbs with ending -astae are attested]
3 Pl. léicfitis [other verbs with ending -st(a)is are attested]
Many future forms appear in the reading selections of Lessons 3 and 4.
147
43. Nominal
Nominal Composition
One of the most archaic Indo-European composition patterns documented in our

selections is the dvandva or copulative compound gaisced (Lesson 4), in which the
substantives corresponding to 'spears' and 'shields' are simply juxtaposed to express
the collective 'weapons'. In crideṡerc 'heart's love' (Lesson 5), the substantive cride
'heart' is subordinated to another substantive (serc 'love') according to a well-known
type called tatpurusha in Sanskrit grammar.
Very frequent is the pattern found in firflaith 'the true rule' (Lesson 6), in which
an adjective specifies the following substantive, cf. also sencharpat, senfonnat,
bánaicde, dlumaicde (all in Lesson 6), findruine (in Lesson 7), and even lérgním and
mórthimchell in Lesson 10.
Although formally similar, allmar (literally equal to French outre-mer) in Lesson 6
belongs to a quite different type, given that the whole compound qualifies something
outside the compound itself, which is why they are called "exocentric compounds."
But while allmar as well as the other compounds listed up to now belong to the
inherited Indo-European type with the Determinatum (here the substantive muir 'sea')
being preceded by its Determinans (here the adjective all 'other'), the exocentric
compound toíbgel in Lesson 7 belongs to a more recent Celtic Layer, in which the
qualifier gel is postponed to the substantive to which it refers (toíb). It is noteworthy,
therefore, that the late text of selection 10 still uses compounds with the inherited
syntactic order: perhaps to add a learned, archaic flavor to the satire?
Another way of forming new words is by prefixing them, cf. in Lesson 7
co(i)cetal, equivalent to Latin concinnitas, from cétal 'song', or the negative compound
anflaith in Lesson 6, a negated form of flaith 'rule' (i.e. *un-rule) to convey the
meaning 'anarchy'.
44. Indefinite Pronouns
44.1. 'each, every'
There are basically three forms:
• a full stressed form which is used for 'everyone': cách (Nom/Acc/Dat.), cáich
(Gen.), as in ocus cách olchenae 'and everybody else' (Lesson 1) or in
no°charainn cách chenae 'I might have loved everybody else besides' (Lesson
5);
• the originally unstressed cach/cech, which is used adjectivally for 'each' and
whose initial stays unlenited in environments requiring lenition, cf. cech dán
'each man of art', cech lá 'each day', cach tráth 'each hour', fri cach fó 'toward
every good thing', liga cach datha 'colors of every hue' (Lessons 6, 5, 7, 6, 7).
The only marked forms are the genitive singular and the plural forms, all
ending in -a (cacha/cecha) as in dortut cecha flatho 'the destruction of all
rule', lín cecha cethraimthi 'the number of each fourth part', and do dálaib
cacha 'from all the encounters' (Lessons 6, 9, 5). With the numerals, it conveys
a distributive meaning, cf. cach fiche 'each unit of twenty' and cach dá én
'every two birds' in Lesson 2;
• the indeclinable substantival element cechtar 'each (of two)' as in cechtar in-
da rann 'each of the two parts'.
148
44.2. 'any'
This also has basically three forms:
• a full stressed form meaning 'someone/something, anyone/anything' and

'nobody/nothing' after the negative particle: nech (Nom/Acc. animate), ní
(Nom/Acc. neuter), neich (Gen.), neuch/neoch (Dat.), as in naicc ní i n-neoch
'nothing anywhere', literally 'not anything in any place' (Lesson 3), or in
co°gúalae ní 'he heard something' and co°n-accae ní 'and he saw something'
(Lesson 2);
• an originally unstressed nach with naH for the neuter, which is used as an
adjective for 'any' and whose only marked forms are the genitive feminine and
plural neuter nacha (cf. the accusative nach rainn 'any part' vs. the genitive
nacha rainne), all other cases being distinguished only by means of the sandhi
effects on the following substantive;
• the indeclinable substantival element nechtar 'either (of two)', which is always
followed by a genitive.
44.3. 'other'
This is expressed by the yo-stem adjective aile, which is postposed to the

substantive to which it refers, cf. do chill aili 'to another monastery' in Lesson 5.
The same element can be substantivized by means of the article or of the above
mentioned nach (e.g. int aile, nach aile 'the other, another').
There is also a reduplicated substantival form alaile with alaill for the neuter and
other variants.
45. The Expression of Reflexivity and Middle Voice
45.1. féin
One of the pronouns meaning 'own, self' is féin, which is found in Lesson 8 (do
lessu féin 'your own bidding' and acht co comrís féin fris 'provided that you should
meet yourself with him') and in Lesson 3 (ina charpait feissin 'onto his own chariot').
It does not distinguish different cases, but only person and, in part, gender:
1&2 Sg. féin

3 masc/ntr. fé(i)ssin/fe(i)ssin, fé(i)sin/fe(i)sin, féin
3 fem. fé(i)sine/fe(i)sine, féisne/feisne, féis(s)in/feis(s)in, fissin
1 Pl. fésine/fesine
2 Pl. féis(s)ne/feis(s)ne, fésin/fesin
3 Pl. fés(s)ine/fes(s)ine, féis(s)ne/feis(s)ne, fé(is)sin/fe(is)sin
Another pronoun of this type is fadéin, which appears in the later text of Lesson
10 as fodén, cf. i n-a beólu fodén 'into his own lips'.
149
45.2. imm
To express reciprocity, imm is usually added to a verb or substantive, cf.

imbúalad 'mutual smiting', imcháinid 'mutual complain', imchlaidbed 'fighting
mutually with swords', imdiupart 'mutual cheating', imḟrecrae 'correspondence',
imguin 'reciprocally wounding or slaying' and many others, each with a
corresponding verb as e.g. imm°freccair 'corresponds' or imm°goin 'fights (mutually)'.
45.3. Deponent Inflection
Among the Irish verbs with deponent inflection we find the same types which in
Indo-European languages tend to adopt the middle voice. One group is constituted by
the so-called verba sentiendi, such as ro°cluinethar 'hears', ro°fitir 'knows < *has seen',
midithir 'judges', do°moinethar 'thinks', mebraigidir 'remembers'; another is formed
by verbs expressing a change in the qualities of the subject, such as imdaigidir
'increases (intransitive)', whose future is in fact used for glossing the Latin deponens
uberabitur, and fris°dorchaigedar, which glosses Latin obtenebrari, or senaigidir 'grows
old'; in any case, they express a particular involvement of the subject, e.g.
ro°laimethar 'ventures, dares'. In such cases, many modern European languages
employ a reflexive pattern such as me atrevo 'I dare', me alegro 'I rejoice'.
150
Lesson 10
This selection is taken from the Middle Irish tale Aislinge Meic Con Glinne, 'The
Vision of Mac Con Glinne', most likely composed in the last quarter of the 11th
century A.D. The lost original version has come down to us in two recensions: the
shorter and more coherent recension H, though representing an earlier tradition, is
linguistically later, being preserved in a Trinity College Dublin manuscript from the
16th or 17th century. This is why the selection of the present lesson is taken from
recension B in the edition of Kenneth Jackson, which albeit greatly expanded (so
much so that the logic of the story has suffered in parts), was written down by a single
scribe between 1408 and 1411 A.D. and contains a number of rare words.
Aislinge Meic Con Glinne is a satire parodying the literature of visions. Its core
lies in the widespread tradition about a legendary land of abundance or 'Land of the
Living', an Earthly Paradise across the Ocean where the immortals feast eternally,
here intertwined with the popular belief about curing a person of a tape-worm by
starving the two and then luring the hungry worm out of the victim's mouth with
delicious food. In Aislinge Meic Con Glinne these motifs have been expanded into a
mockery of the Establishment of the time, and more specifically of lawyers, literary
men and, above all, monks. As usual, the author is unknown, but from his malicious
attitude towards the Church on the one hand and the absence of mockery regarding
the nobility on the other, it has been inferred that he must have been a disgruntled
cleric who had left the Church to become a poet and was hence employed by
noblemen.
The story as preserved in B tells how a wandering scholar named Ainiér Mac Con
Glinne, famous for his gifts of satire and eulogy, seeks out Cathal, king of Munster,
who was possessed by a demon of gluttony, but first comes to stay for a night in the
guesthouse of the monastery of Cork, a shabby place whose owners are outrageously
mean and do not treat their guest with the due hospitality. When Mac Con Glinne
satirizes the circumstances, Manchín, the abbott, sentences him to various kinds of
corporal punishment with subsequent crucifixion, yet Mac Con Glinne shrewdly
delays his execution by insisting on drinking a last ration of water drop by drop from
the pin of his brooch. As the evening is too far advanced to execute the sentence, Mac
Con Glinne is stripped naked and is tied to a pillar until the next morning, awaiting
crucifixion. But at midnight an angel appears to him and reveals a vision which on the
subsequent morning Mac Con Glinne relates to Manchín and his monks in the form of
a verse parody upon the popular voyage tales (cf. Immram Brain in Lesson 7), but
where everything is about food. As a consequence, Manchín sends him to Cathal at
once, since it has been revealed to him that the scholar's vision will cure the king of
his disease. Mac Con Glinne succeeds in freeing Cathal from the demon by reciting his
vision in two poems, to which he adds another parody mocking various elements and
genres of Irish literature and where again food is the central topic. Finally, the scholar
is richly rewarded by the king, and the story ends by stating the virtue of the vision as
revealed to and by the protagonist, and the reward to any person who might recite it.
151
In our selection (ll. 778-800), Mac Con Glinne is at Cathal's court, reciting his
vision of the Land of Abundance to the king. This takes place during a big feast,
ordered by Mac Con Glinne specifically for the purpose, during which the king, after
two nights of fasting, is tied to the wall and forced to look at the protagonist eating
the luscious food while he describes an edible house on a lake of milk.
"Maith, a Chathail," ar Mac Con Glinne, "aislinge domárfas, ocus itchuala it maithsiu
oc breith for aislingi."
• maith -- adjective; used as adverb; <maith> good -- well

• a -- particle; introduces vocative; <aL> o -- o
• Chathail -- proper name masculine; lenited vocative singular of <Cathal>
Cathal -- Cathal
• ar -- indeclinable; variant of <ol> says, said -- said
• Mac Con Glinne -- proper name masculine; nominative singular of <Mac Con
Glinne> Son of the Hound of the Valley -- Mac Con Glinne
• aislinge -- noun; nominative singular feminine, yā-stem, of <aislinge> vision,
dream -- a vision
• domárfas -- verb; past indicative passive singular, deuterotonic, of <do°adbat>
shows + infixed pronoun 1st person singular <mL, mmL> I -- has been shown to
me
• itchuala -- verb; 1st person singular past indicative active, deuterotonic, of
<at°chluin> hears -- I have heard
• it -- verb; 2nd person singular present indicative, absolute, of copula <is> is --
you are
• maithsiu -- adjective; compound form of nominative singular masculine of
<maith> good + emphasizing particle 2nd person singular <siu, so, su> you --
good yourself
• breith -- noun; dative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <breth> passing judgement,
interpreting -- passing judgement
• aislingi -- noun; accusative singular feminine, yā-stem, of <aislinge> vision,
dream -- a vision
"Do m' debroth," ol Cathal, "dia mbéraind for aislingi fer talman, ní béraind for th'
aislingise."

• m' -- possessive pronoun; 1st person singular, shortened from <moL, mL> my --
my
• debroth -- noun; compound form of <dé, día> god + dative singular feminine, u-
stem, of <bráth> judgment -- God's doom
• Cathal -- proper name masculine; nominative singular masculine of <Cathal>
Cathal -- Cathal
• dia -- conjunction; <diaN> when; if -- even if
152
• mbéraind -- verb; nasalized 1st person singular past subjunctive active,
conjunct, of <berid> carries, brings -- I would pass judgement
judgement
• for -- preposition; <for> on, over -- upon
dream -- the vision
• fer -- noun; genitive plural masculine, o-stem, of <fer> man -- of the men
• talman -- noun; genitive singular masculine/feminine, n-stem, of <talam>
earth, ground -- of the earth
• béraind -- verb; 1st person singular past subjunctive active, conjunct, of
<berid> carries, brings -- I would pass judgement
judgement
• th' -- possessive pronoun; 2nd person singular, variant of <doL, tL> your -- your
• aislingise -- noun; compound form of accusative singular feminine, yā-stem, of
<aislinge> vision, dream + emphasizing particle 1st person singular <se, sa> I --
vision myself
"Fortgillim," or Mac Con Glinne, "cen co rucasu, indisfither hí i t' ḟiadnaise."
• fortgillim -- verb; 1st person singular present indicative active, deuterotonic,

of <for-t-gella> affirms, calls to witness, invokes -- I swear
• Mac Con Glinne -- proper name masculine; nominative singular of <Mac Con
Glinne> Son of the Hound of the Valley -- Mac Con Glinne
• cen co -- conjunction; compound of preposition <cenL> without + conjunction
<con, coN> until; so that; and -- even if... not
• rucasu -- verb; compound form of 2nd person singular perfective RO-present
subjunctive active, conjunct, of <berid> carries, brings + emphasizing particle
2nd person singular <siu, so, su> you -- you should... pass judgement
• indisfither -- verb; future indicative passive singular, absolute, of <indis(s)id>
tells -- shall be told
• hí -- personal pronoun; 3rd person singular feminine of <(h)é, síL, (h)ed> he,
she, it -- she
• t' -- possessive pronoun; 2nd person singular of <doL, tL> your -- your
• ḟiadnaise -- noun; lenited dative singular feminine, yā-stem, of <fiadnaise>
presence -- presence
"Fóbrais trá a aislingi.
• fóbrais -- verb; 3rd person singular preterite indicative active, deuterotonic, of

<fóbair> begins, sets about -- he began
• trá -- adverb; <trá, tra> then, well, so, indeed, moreover -- then
dream -- vision
Is amlaid didiu ro indis ocus dá mír nó a trí sech bél Cathail i na beólu fodén.
153
is
• amlaid -- adverb; <samlaid, amlaid> thus, so, in this way -- so
• didiu -- particle; <didiu, didu> now, therefore, then -- then
• ro indis -- verb; Middle Irish past indicative active, conjunct, of <indis(s)id>
tells -- he told
• dá -- numeral; nominative dual masculine of <dáL, díL, dáN> two -- two
• mír -- noun; nominative dual masculine, o-stem, of <mír> morsel, mouthful,
portion -- morsels
• nó -- conjunction; <nó> or -- or
• a -- particle; introduces numeral; <aH>... -- ...
• trí -- numeral; nominative plural masculine of <trí, tri, teoir> three -- three
• sech -- preposition; <sech> past, beyond -- past
• bél -- noun; accusative singular masculine, o-stem, of <bél> lip; mouth, face --
mouth
• Cathail -- proper name masculine; genitive singular of <Cathal> Cathal --
Cathal's
• i -- preposition; <in, iN> in, into -- into
• na -- nasalized possessive pronoun; 3rd person singular masculine <aL> his, its -
- his
• beólu -- noun; accusative plural masculine, o-stem, of <bél> lip; mouth, face --
lips
• fodén -- indeclinable; <fodén> self, himself; own -- own
"Aislingi itchonnarc araír,

mo dul for fecht dís nó triúr,
co nacca in tech find forlán
i raba a lommnán do biúd.

dream -- a vision
• itchonnarc -- verb; 1st person singular past indicative active, deuterotonic, of
<ad°cí, at°chí> sees -- I saw
• araír -- adverb; <araír> last night -- last night
• dul -- verbal noun; nominative singular masculine, u-stem, of <téit> goes --
going
• fecht -- noun; accusative singular masculine, o-stem, of <fecht> course,
journey; time, occasion -- a journey
• dís -- personal numeral; dative singular feminine of <dias> two people, pair,
couple -- two
• nó -- conjunction; <nó> or -- or
• triúr -- personal numeral; dative singular masculine of <triar> three people --
three
• nacca -- verb; nasalized 1st person singular preterite indicative active,
prototonic, of <ad°cí, at°chí> sees -- I saw
• in -- article; accusative singular masculine of <in, aN, indL> the -- a
154
• tech -- noun; accusative singular masculine, s-stem, of <teg, tech> house,
dwelling -- house
• find -- adjective; accusative singular masculine of <find, finn> white, bright --
white
• forlán -- adjective; compound of preposition <for> on, over + accusative
singular masculine of <lán> full, ample -- very full
• raba -- verb; 3rd person singular perfect indicative, conjunct, syntactically
relative, of substantive verb <attá> is -- which was
• a -- article; variant of nominative singular masculine of <in, aN, indL> the -- an
• lommnán -- noun; nominative singular masculine of <lom(m)nán> abundance -
- abundance
• do -- preposition; variant of <diL, deL> from, of -- of
• biúd -- noun; dative singular masculine, o-stem, of <biad> food -- food
Co nacca in loch lemnachta

for lár muige find,
co nacca in tech lérgníma
iar na thugaid d' imm.
• loch -- noun; accusative singular masculine, u-stem, of <loch> lake, firth; pool -
- lake
• lemnachta -- noun; genitive singular masculine, i-stem, of <lemnacht>
new/fresh milk -- of milk
• for -- preposition; <for> on, over -- in
• lár -- noun; dative singular masculine, o-stem, of <lár> floor, surface; middle --
the middle
• muige -- noun; genitive singular masculine, s-stem, of <mag> plain, field -- of
a... field
• find -- adjective; genitive singular masculine of <find, finn> white, bright --
white
• tech -- noun; accusative singular masculine, s-stem, of <teg, tech> house,
dwelling -- house
• lérgníma -- noun; compound of adjective <léir> diligent + genitive singular
masculine, u-stem, of <gním> action, work -- of diligent activity
• iar -- preposition; <íarN, íarmL-> after -- under
• na -- possessive pronoun; nasalized 3rd person singular masculine <aL> his, its -
- its
• thugaid -- noun; lenited dative singular feminine, dental stem, of <tuga> thatch
-- thatch
• d' -- preposition; variant of <diL, deL> from, of -- of
• imm -- noun; dative singular masculine, n-stem, of <im(m)> butter -- butter
butter
155
Tan tánuc 'na mórthimchell
do ḟégad a uird,
maróca ar na cétberbad
ba hiat sin a scuilb.
• tan -- noun; used as conjunction; accusative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <tan,

tain> time -- when
• tánuc -- verb; 1st person singular past indicative, prototonic, of <do°icc, tic(c),
tig> approaches; gets; comes -- I came
• 'na -- preposition; compound of <in, iN> in, into + possessive pronoun 3rd
person singular masculine <aL> his, its -- into its
• mórthimchell -- adverb; dative singular masculine, o-stem, of <mórthimchell>
great circuit -- perimeter
perimeter
• ḟégad -- verbal noun; lenited dative singular masculine, u-stem/o-stem, of
<fégaid> looking at, scanning, observing -- observe
• a -- possessive pronoun; 3rd person singular masculine <aL> his, its -- its
• uird -- noun; genitive singular masculine, o-stem, of <ord> arrangement --
structure
• maróca -- noun; nominative plural feminine, ā-stem, of <maróc> sausage --
sausages
• ar -- preposition; variant of <íarN, íarmL-> after -- upon
• na -- possessive pronoun; nasalized 3rd person plural <aN> their -- their
• cétberbad -- verbal noun; compound of numeral <cét> first; fresh, new + dative
singular of <berbad> boiling, cooking -- recent boiling
• ba -- verb; 3rd person singular preterite indicative, absolute, of copula <is> is --
it was
• hiat -- personal pronoun; aspirated 3rd person plural <iat> they -- them
aforementioned -- indeed
• scuilb -- noun; nominative plural masculine, o-stem, of <scolb> splinter, wattle
-- thatch-
thatch-rods
A dí ersaind bocai brechtáin,

a léibend do gruth is d' imm,
imdadai do blonaig bladaig,
scéith iumdai do thanaig thimm. ...
• dí -- numeral; nominative dual feminine of <dáL, díL, dáN> two -- two
• ersaind -- noun; nominative dual feminine, n-stem, of <ursa(n), ersa> door-post
-- door-
door-posts
• bocai -- adjective; nominative dual feminine of <boca> soft -- soft
• brechtáin -- noun; genitive singular masculine, o-stem, of <brechtán> butter,
fat, relish -- custard
• léibend -- noun; nominative singular masculine, o-stem, of <léibend, léibenn>
level surface -- platform
156
• gruth -- noun; dative singular masculine of <gruth> curds, cheese -- curds
• is -- verb; variant of participle present of copula <is> is -- and
• d' -- preposition; variant of <diL, deL> from, of -- of
• imm -- noun; dative singular masculine, n-stem, of <im(m)> butter -- butter
• imdadai -- noun; variant of nominative plural feminine, yā-stem, of <imdae>
bed, couch -- the beds
• blonaig -- noun; dative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <blonac> fat, lard, grease -
- lard
• bladaig -- adjective; dative singular feminine of <bladach> famous, renowned;
splendid -- splendid
• scéith -- noun; nominative plural masculine, o-stem, of <scíath> shield, wing --
the... shutters
• iumdai -- adjective; nominative plural masculine of <im(m)da> many, abundant
-- many
• thanaig -- noun; lenited dative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <tanach> pressed
cheese -- pressed cheese
• thimm -- adjective; dative singular feminine of <timm> soft, pliant; feeble --
pliant
Lesson Text
"Maith, a Chathail," ar Mac Con Glinne, "aislinge domárfas, ocus itchuala it maithsiu
oc breith for aislingi." "Do m' debroth," ol Cathal, "dia mbéraind for aislingi fer
talman, ní béraind for th' aislingise." "Fortgillim," or Mac Con Glinne, "cen co rucasu,
indisfither hí i t' ḟiadnaise." "Fóbrais trá a aislingi. Is amlaid didiu ro indis ocus dá mír
nó a trí sech bél Cathail i na beólu fodén.
"Aislingi itchonnarc araír,

mo dul for fecht dís nó triúr,
co nacca in tech find forlán
i raba a lommnán do biúd.
Co nacca in loch lemnachta

for lár muige find,
co nacca in tech lérgníma
iar na thugaid d' imm.
Tan tánuc 'na mórthimchell

do ḟégad a uird,
maróca ar na cétberbad
ba hiat sin a scuilb.
A dí ersaind bocai brechtáin,

a léibend do gruth is d' imm,
imdadai do blonaig bladaig,
scéith iumdai do thanaig thimm. ...
157
Translation
"Well, o Cathal," said Mac Con Glinne, "a vision has been shown to me and I have
heard you are good yourself at passing judgement on a vision." "To my God's doom,"
said Cathal, "even if I would pass judgement upon the vision of [all] the men of the
earth, I would not myself pass judgement on your vision." "I swear," said Mac Con
Glinne, "even if you should not pass judgement, she (i.e. the vision) should be told in
your presence." Then he began his vision. It is so then he told [it], and two morsels or
three past Cathal's mouth into his own lips.
"A vision I saw last night,
My going on a journey, two or three [of us],
And I saw a house, white and very full,
In which was an abundance of food.
And I saw a lake of milk
In the middle of a white field,
And I saw a house of diligent activity
Under its thatch of butter.
When I came into its perimeter
To observe its structure:
Sausages upon their recent boiling,
It was them indeed its thatch-rods.
Its two soft door-posts of custard,
Its platform of curds and of butter,
The beds of splendid lard,
The many shutters of pliant pressed cheese. ..."
Grammar
46. Conditional Clauses
There are basically three ways of introducing conditional clauses:
• with maL/máL 'if'; it coalesces into mad with the 3rd singular present
subjunctive of the copula, as in do°gén-sa do lessu..., mad áil duit 'I shall do
your bidding ..., if it should be a desire with you' (Lesson 8), where the apodosis
has the indicative future. When negated, it appears as mani, cf. nico-t ḃia ícc ...,
mani-m ḋ e°r°gais-siu 'there won't be a cure for you ..., unless you ask my
pardon' (Lesson 4), where a perfective present subjunctive in the protasis is,
again, linked to an indicative future in the apodosis. Otherwise it takes the
indicative present whenever the condition is past or present, and the past
subjunctive when the condition is unfulfilled or very doubtful;
• with diaN 'if' in positive conditional clauses requiring the subjunctive; cf. día tís
ar mo chend..., do°regsae lat 'if you might come for me..., I shall come with
you' (Lesson 5) and bia marb, dia-nat chluine 'you will be dead, if he should
hear you' (Lesson 8), both with subjunctive present in the protasis and
indicative future in the apodosis;
• with acht 'if only, provided that' with doubtful or unfulfilled conditions as in
acht ro°feisind..., ní ... no°scarfamais 'if only I had known..., we would not have
parted...' (Lesson 3), where the protasis is expressed in the past subjunctive
and the apodosis in the secondary future of the indicative.
158
47. The Verb: Imperative
In Old Irish, the imperative mood is normally formed from the present stem and
without further tense distinctions (only few strong verb form it from their sigmatic
subjunctive stem).
Like many other paradigmatical categories, the imperative does not distinguish
a special absolute inflection. Moreover, in compound verbs it is always prototonic,
unless the first element is followed by an infixed pronoun.
As in other languages, there are only few instances of the 1st person singular. Cf.
in the following the forms of móraid 'magnifies', lécid 'leaves', suidigidir 'places',
beirid 'bears', and ro°clu(i)nethar 'hears':
Imperative Active
AI A II (Act., Dep.) B I (Act.,

(Act., Dep.)
1 Sg. --- ---, --- biur, ---
2 Sg. mór léic, suidigthe beir, cluinte
3 Sg. mórad/-ath léced/-eth, suidiged/-eth *bered/-eth, cluined/-eth
1 Pl. móram lécem, suidigem beram, cluinem

2 Pl. mór(a)id/-(a)ith lécid/-ith, suidigid/-ith berid/-ith, cluinid/-ith
3 Pl. mórat lécet, *suidigetar berat, cluinetar
Imperative Passive
AI A II (Act. = Dep.) B I (Dep. = Act.)

General Form mórthar suidigther berar (vs. ta°barr from do°beir)
3 Pl. mórtar suidigter bertar
48. Some Productive Noun-

Noun-Suffixes
Abstract and collective nouns are often expressed by derivatives in -acht/-echt

and -e, cf. ógacht 'chastity', marcadacht 'cavalry' and daire 'oak wood; grove', orbbae
'heritage'; abstracts from adjectives are also expressed by derivatives in -(i)us/-es, cf.
goirtius 'bitterness' from goirt 'bitter'. Collective formations can also be formed by
adding a feminine suffixoid -rad, as in the ā-stems marcrad 'horsemen, cavalry' and
rígrad 'troupe royale'.
To the semantic category of nomina actionis belong derivatives in -ad/-ed, -(i)ud,

-igud/-ugud, -t(i)u, and later also -á(i)l: cf. marbad 'killing' in Lesson 8 and techtad
'having, possessing', cotlud 'sleeping' in Lesson 2 (from the verb con°tu(i)li),
bláthugud 'blossoming', toimtiu 'act of thinking, opinion' (from the verb
do°moinethar 'thinks') and aicsiu 'act of seeing' in Lesson 1 (from the verb ad°cí),
baccáil 'hindering' (from the verb baccaid 'hinders').
159
Nomina essendi are mostly expressed by derivatives in -as/-es, cf. banas
'condition of a woman, womanliness', cennas 'leadership', marcachas 'horsemanship'.
Nomina agentis are mainly formed by means of suffixes such as -aige, -em (with
genitive -emón) or -id, to which Latin loan suffixes such as -(a)ire, -óir, -atóir, -
denmaid have to be added: cf. cathaige 'fighter, warrior', flaithem 'ruler' in Lesson 6,
selgaid 'hunter' (from selg 'the hunt'), fíachaire 'bird-seer' (from fíach 'raven'),
loingseóir 'seaman' (from loinges 'ship'), glantóir 'purifier', feóldenmaid 'carnifex'.
Diminutives can be formed by adding the suffixes -ín, -án: cf. mírín 'small
morsel', lebrán 'little book' (from mír and, respectively, lebor).
Very seldom is the suffix -es for deriving feminines (laíches 'laywoman',
mainches 'nun'), which are rather expressed by prefixing ban- 'woman-' to a
masculine substantive, cf. banéces 'poetess' in Lesson 5.
Quite often one can appreciate a whole string of suffixes in one and the same
word, cf. oentaigech 'agreed' from oentaige 'agreement', which is itself derived from
oentach 'agreed', a derivative of the abstract oentu 'unity, consent' from oen/oín
'one'.
49. Word Formation of the Adjectives
Regarding the morphology of adjectives, five inflection classes can be

distinguished, with only minor differences with respect to the substantive declension:
o-/ā-stems, yo-/-yā-stems, i-stems, u-stems, and consonantal stems.
To the first group belong also those adjectives which are derived by means of
the suffix -ach/-ech: originally, they were possessional adjectives derived from a
substantive, like clothach 'famous' from cloth 'fame'; cf. also bennach 'horned' or
corpach, which glosses Latin corpulentus and is opposed to corpdae, glossing Latin
corporalis.
The latter loan-blend is in fact derived by means of the suffix -(i)de, which
belongs to the yo-/-yā-stems and originally designates something that possesses the
same quality as the substantive from which it is derived; cf. also fáelda 'wolfish' from
fáel 'wolf' or ferdae 'male'.
Less productive though still quite numerous are the adjectives formed with
suffixoids such as -mar 'big' and -(*s)amail 'like': cf. compounds such as linnmar
'abounding in pools' (linn 'pool'), which led to forming adjectives like ágmar 'warlike,
valorous' from the substantive ág 'fight, battle', and later on to adjectives like
lonnmar 'fierce, vigorous' from the adjective lonn 'fierce, strong'. The latter suffixoid
is found in adjectives such as mnáamail 'female', laithemail 'daily', lasamail 'flaming',
respectively from ben 'woman', laithe 'day', lasaid 'takes fire, blazes'.
160
50. The Necessity of Reading: Some References
Cid glic fri halchi úara,

cid saer ac imirt béla,
cid binn a dord fri dúana,
do chúala as borb nat léga.
Though one be clever at cold splinters of rock,

though one be a master at handling an axe,
though his voice is sweet in singing,
I have heard that he who does not read is ignorant.
The text of this short Irish poem has been taken, together with the translation
given by Ruth P.M. Lehmann, from her collection Early Irish Verse (Austin, 1982:
University of Texas Press), where it is found as No. 58 on pp. 63 and 110, under the
title "The Necessity of Reading."
50.1. Handbooks
• Meid, Wolfgang. Die keltischen Sprachen und Literaturen: ein Überblick. Innsbruck
and Budapest, 1997: Archaeolingua, Series Minor.
• Russell, Paul. An Introduction to the Celtic Languages. London & New York, 1995:
Longman, Linguistics Library.
• Lewis, Henry, and Holger Pedersen. A Concise Comparative Celtic Grammar.
Göttingen, 1974: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht.
• Thurneysen, Rudolf. A Grammar of Old Irish. Dublin, 1946 and reprints: Dublin
Institute of Advanced Studies.
• Pokorny, Julius. Altirische Grammatik. Berlin, 1969: Sammlung Göschen 896.
• Strachan, John, and Osborn Bergin. Old-Irish Paradigms and Selections from the
Old-Irish Glosses. Dublin, 1949 and reprints: Royal Irish Academy.
• de Bernardo Stempel, Patrizia. Nominale Wortbildung des älteren Irischen:
Stammbildung und Derivation. Tübingen, 1999: Max Niemeyer, Buchreihe der
Zeitschrift für celtische Philologie no. 15.
50.2. Dictionaries
• (Contributions to a) Dictionary of the Irish Language. Dublin, 1913-1976: Royal Irish

Academy.
• Vendryes, Joseph, Edouard Bachellery, and Pierre-Yves Lambert. Lexique
étymologique de l'irlandais ancien. Dublin & Paris, 1959ff. : D.I.A.S. and C.N.R.S.
• Green, Anthony. Old Irish Verbs and Vocabulary. Somerville, 1995: Cascadilla
Press.
50.3. Further Readings for Beginners
• Lehmann, Ruth P.M. & Winfred. An Introduction to Old Irish. New York, 1975: The
Modern Language Association of America.
161
• Meid, Wolfgang. Die Romanze von Froech und Findabair: Táin Bó Froích. Innsbruck,
1970: Innsbrucker Beiträge zur Kulturwissenschaft, Sonderheft 30.
• Strachan, John, and Osborn Bergin. Stories from the Táin. Dublin, 1944 and
reprints: Royal Irish Academy.
• O'Rahilly, Cecile. Táin Bó Cúailnge: Recension I [Irish text with English
translation]. Dublin, 1976: D.I.A.S.
50.4. Further Bibliography
• Bromwich, Rachel. Medieval Celtic Literature: A Select Bibliography. Toronto, 1974:

University of Toronto Press (Toronto Medieval Bibliographies 5).
• CSANA Celtic Studies Bibliography
(http://www.humnet.ucla.edu/humnet/celtic/csanabib.html)
162
Master Glossary
This Master Glossary page lists, in an alphabetical order suitable to Old Irish and
the script employed for it, every unique word form that appears in lesson texts and,
for each word, its unique glosses. In addition to the gloss information, sans contextual
translation, links are provided to every appearance, in every numbered lesson, of the
word/gloss in question. With this index one may perform a quick "word look-up" and,
in addition, study how words are used in context by clicking on their links.
A word may be spelled in different ways, and therefore be listed in separate

entries, due to the different writing policies followed in the original manuscripts and
edited texts from which the text selections have been taken.
a
article; accusative singular neuter of <in, aN, indL> the -- 8.138
a
article; nominative singular neuter of <in, aN, indL> the -- 7.62
a
article; variant of nominative singular masculine of <in, aN, indL> the -- 10.120
a
particle; introduces numeral; <aH>... -- 10.86
a
particle; introduces vocative; <aL> o -- 5.81, 8.29, 8.191, 8.253, 10.6
a
possessive pronoun; 3rd person singular feminine <aH> her -- 8.213, 8.291
a
possessive pronoun; 3rd person singular masculine <aL> his, its -- 5.220, 6.291,
6.295, 8.86, 9.39, 10.69, 10.163, 10.172, 10.181, 10.186
a
preposition; <essH, asH, aH> out of, from -- 9.35
acht
conjunction; <acht> if only, provided that -- 3.100
acht
preposition; <acht> except, only, save, but -- 1.190, 8.11, 8.90
adamraib
adjective; dative plural feminine of <adamrae> very wonderful -- 6.168
adfiadar
verb; present indicative impersonal singular, deuterotonic, of <ad°fét> tells,
relates -- 5.252
admestar
verb; 3rd person singular present subjunctive active, deuterotonic, of
<ad°midethar> estimates, evaluates -- 6.124, 6.137, 6.150, 6.163
H
a
possessive pronoun; 3rd person singular feminine <aH> her -- 2.246, 2.312, 3.88
aH
preposition; <essH, asH, aH> out of, from -- 3.176
aici
verb; 3rd person singular present indicative active, prototonic, of <ad°cí,
at°chí> sees -- 6.277
aidilcni
163
noun; accusative plural feminine, yā-stem, of <aidilcne> necessity, need --
6.296
aili
pronominal; dative singular feminine of <aile> other -- 5.156
ailithri
noun; dative singular feminine, yā-stem, of <ailithre> pilgrimage -- 5.209
air
preposition; <arL, airL> before, for, in front of, east of -- 6.297
airḃe
noun; nominative singular neuter, yo-stem, of <airbe> hedge, fence -- 1.180
airḋirciusa
adjective; compound form of comparative of <airdirc> obvious; renowned +
emphasizing particle 1st person singular <se, sa> I -- 3.219
airi
pronominalized preposition; 3rd person singular neuter accusative <arL, airL>
before, for, in front of, east of -- 8.276
aislinge
noun; nominative singular feminine, yā-stem, of <aislinge> vision, dream --
10.10
aislingi
noun; accusative singular feminine, yā-stem, of <aislinge> vision, dream --
10.19, 10.35, 10.70, 10.102
aislingise
noun; compound form of accusative singular feminine, yā-stem, of <aislinge>
vision, dream + emphasizing particle 1st person singular <se, sa> I -- 10.42
aiss
noun; accusative singular feminine of <aiss, ais> back, hinder part -- 2.280
aithisc
noun; genitive singular neuter, o-stem, of <aithesc> message -- 8.89
aL
particle; introduces vocative; <aL> o -- 2.358
L
a
possessive pronoun 3rd person singular masculine <aL> his, its -- 1.102, 2.61,
2.64, 2.67, 2.222
allmaraib
adjective; dative plural feminine of <allmar> foreign -- 6.167
amlaid
adverb; <samlaid, amlaid> thus, so, in this way -- 10.79
amne
emphatic particle; <amae, amin, amne> thus, in that way, so, then -- 2.135
amsir
noun; accusative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <aimser, amsir> time, period,
season -- 1.188
aN
article; accusative singular neuter of <in, aN, indL> the -- 2.12, 4.187
aN
conjunction; <aN> as, when -- 2.5
aN
possessive pronoun 3rd person plural <aN> their -- 1.55, 1.59, 1.325, 3.235, 3.238
an
164
preposition; variant of <in, iN> in, into -- 9.14
an
relative pronoun; <anL> what, that what -- 5.236
anair
adverb; <anair> from the front, before -- 2.224
anba
noun; accusative singular feminine, yā-stem, of <anba> vast quantity -- 2.357
and
pronominalized preposition; 3rd person singular neuter dative of <in, iN> in,
into -- 1.294, 5.165, 7.142
anflaith
noun; compound of <an-> non- + lenited nominative singular feminine, i-stem,
of <flaith> rule; domain; ruler -- 6.232
aníarthúaiḋ
adverb; <aníarthúaid> from the north-west, in the north-west -- 2.134
ann
adverb; <ann> there -- 2.171, 9.75
anní
demonstrative particle; neuter; <anní> this, that -- 4.7
antúaiḋ
adverb; <antúaid> from the north -- 2.89
apair
verb; 2nd person singular imperative active, prototonic, of <as°beir> says,
speaks -- 6.98
ar
conjunction; <air, ar> for -- 1.82, 4.19, 6.35, 6.104, 8.84
ar
conjunction; introduces relative; <ar-aN> so that, in order that, that -- 5.96,
5.110
ar
indeclinable; variant of <ol> says, said -- 10.8
ar
possessive pronoun; 1st person plural <arN> our -- 5.94
ar
preposition; <arL, airL> before, for, in front of, east of -- 5.125, 9.51, 9.54
ar
preposition; variant of <íarN, íarmL-> after -- 10.166
ara
conjunction; <ar-aN> so that, in order that, that -- 1.323, 1.328
araír
adverb; <araír> last night -- 10.104
araL
preposition; compound form of preposition <arL, airL> before, for, in front of,
east of + suffixed possessive pronoun 3rd person singular masculine <aL> his,
its -- 2.82
aranécath
verb; compound form of 3rd person singular imperative active, prototonic, of
<*ar°éci> observes + infixed pronoun 3rd person singular masculine <aN> he --
6.25
arcat
165
noun; accusative singular neuter, o-stem, of <arcat, argat> silver -- 6.151
Arcatnéul
toponym; dative singular of <Arcatnél> Silver Cloud -- 7.225
are
noun; nominative singular masculine, dental stem, of <are, arae, ara>
charioteer -- 6.38
aret
noun; nominative singular neuter, o-stem, of <aret, airet> length, interval,
space (of time) -- 3.191
argit
noun; genitive singular masculine, o-stem, of <arcat, argat> silver -- 1.224,
1.258
arid
noun; accusative singular masculine, dental stem, of <are, arae, ara> charioteer
-- 6.26
L
ar
preposition; <arL, airL> before, for, in front of, east of -- 1.23, 2.49
armm
noun; accusative singular neuter, o-stem, of <arm, armm> armour, weapon --
2.68
arna
negative; compound form of <ar-aN> so that, in order that, that + dependent
negative particle <ná, na> not, nor -- 6.66
arndiḋ
preposition; compound form of preposition <arL, airL> before, for, in front of,
east of + relative particle <-aN, -saN> that which, what + 3rd person singular
present indicative, conjunct, of copula, <-did> is -- 2.371
asa
preposition; compound form of <essH, asH, aH> out of, from + possessive
pronoun 3rd person singular neuter <aL> his, its -- 6.126, 6.139, 6.152, 6.165
asbert
verb; 3rd person singular preterite indicative active, deuterotonic, of <as°beir>
says, speaks -- 1.319
asbert
verb; 3rd person singular preterite indicative active, deuterotonic,
syntactically relative, of <as°beir> says, speaks -- 5.166
ass
pronominalized preposition; 3rd person singular neuter dative of <essH, asH, aH>
out of, from -- 2.157
ass
verb; 3rd person singular present indicative, absolute, relative of copula <is> is
-- 8.7
L
assa
preposition; compound form of preposition <essH, asH, aH> out of, from +
suffixed possessive pronoun 3rd person singular masculine <aL> his, its -- 2.27
atatLchoṁnaic
verb; compound form of 2nd person singular preterite indicative,
deuterotonic, syntactically relative of <ad°cumaing> strikes, cuts; happens,
chances + infixed pronoun 2nd person singular <totL, tatL, tL> you -- 3.57
atáusa
166
verb; compound form of 1st person singular present indicative, deuterotonic,
syntactically relative, of substantive verb <attá> is + emphasizing particle 1st
person singular <se, sa> I -- 3.159
atbath
verb; 3rd person singular preterite indicative active, deuterotonic, of <at°baill>
dies -- 9.131
atbeir
verb; 3rd person singular present indicative active, deuterotonic, of <as°beir>
says, speaks + infixed pronoun 3rd person singular neuter <tL> this -- 8.68
atfedar
verb; 3rd person singular present indicative passive, deuterotonic,
syntactically relative, of <ad°fét> tells, relates -- 9.7
athar
noun; genitive singular masculine, r-stem, of <athir, athair> father -- 9.140
atomLġláḋathar
verb; compound form of 3rd person singular present indicative, deuterotonic,
syntactically relative of <ad°gládathar> addresses, speaks to + infixed pronoun
1st person singular <domL, dumL> I -- 2.375, 2.390
áil
noun; nominative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <áil> desire -- 8.8, 8.16, 8.59
áinius
noun; accusative singular masculine, u-stem, of <áinius> pleasure -- 5.232
án
adjective; nominative singular masculine of <án> splendid, brilliant; splendour
-- 5.93
áth
noun; accusative singular masculine, u-stem, of <áth> ford -- 4.44
áth
noun; dative singular masculine, u-stem, of <áth> ford -- 4.196
átho
noun; genitive singular masculine, u-stem, of <áth> ford -- 4.67, 4.155
áuderg
adjective; compound of <áu> ear + nominative singular feminine of adjective
<derg> red -- 4.145
H
ḃa
verb; 3rd person singular preterite indicative, absolute, syntactically relative,
of copula <is> is -- 1.117
ḃáissiu
noun; compound form of lenited genitive singular neuter, o-stem, of <bás>
death + emphasizing particle 2nd person singular <siu, so, su> you -- 3.158
ḃen
noun; lenited nominative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <ben> woman, wife --
2.62, 2.319, 2.362, 2.374, 3.56, 3.78, 3.146, 4.11
ḃia
verb; 3rd person singular future indicative, conjunct, of substantive verb
<attá> is -- 4.70, 4.127
ḃó
noun; lenited nominative singular feminine irregular of <bó> cow, ox -- 2.295
ḃraí
167
noun; lenited nominative dual feminine, u-stem, of <brú, brá> eyebrow, brow --
2.242
Ḃroġo
toponym; genitive singular masculine, u-stem, of <brug, bruig> region, district
-- 1.285
ba
verb; 3rd person singular preterite indicative, absolute, of copula <is> is --
5.267, 10.169
ba
verb; 3rd person singular preterite indicative, absolute, relative, of copula <is>
is -- 5.312
baH
verb; 3rd person singular preterite indicative, absolute, of copula <is> is -- 1.51,
1.83, 1.200, 1.203, 3.41
baH
verb; 3rd person singular preterite indicative, absolute, syntactically relative,
of copula <is> is -- 1.295
baí
noun; nominative plural feminine, irregular, of <bó> cow, ox -- 2.344
bam
verb; 1st person singular future indicative, absolute, of copula <is> is -- 4.36
ban
noun; genitive plural feminine, ā-stem, of <ben> woman, wife -- 9.28
banéces
noun; compound of <ben> woman, wife + nominative singular masculine, o-
stem, of <éces, éices> scholar, sage, poet -- 5.21
batha
noun; genitive singular neuter, u-stem, of <bath> sea, ocean -- 7.122
báig
verbal noun; dative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <bág> threat -- 8.205
bánaicdib
noun; compound of <bán> white, shiny + dative plural feminine, yā-stem, of
<aicde> artefact, article -- 6.155
bása
verb; 1st person singular preterite indicative, absolute, of substantive verb
<attá> is + emphasizing particle 1st person singular <se, sa> I -- 5.261
bátar
verb; 3rd person plural preterite indicative relative of substantive verb <attá>
is -- 1.255
beḋ
verb; 3rd person singular preterite subjunctive, absolute, relative, of copula
<is> is -- 3.102
beḋg
noun; accusative singular masculine, o-stem, of <bedg> start, leap -- 3.7
ben
noun; nominative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <ben> woman, wife -- 2.232,
5.17, 8.175
ben
noun; vocative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <ben> woman, wife -- 8.30, 8.192,
8.254
168
beólu
noun; accusative plural masculine, o-stem, of <bél> lip; mouth, face -- 10.93
berthae
verb; 3rd person singular preterite indicative active, absolute, relative of
<berid> carries, brings -- 2.63
berthasa
verb; compound form of 3rd person singular past subjunctive passive,
conjunct, of <berid> carries, brings + emphasizing particle 1st person singular
<se, sa> I -- 8.252
bet
verb; variant of 2nd person singular future indicative of copula <is> is -- 8.162
bethu
noun; dative singular masculine, dental stem, of <bethu> life, existence -- 6.153
bél
noun; accusative singular masculine, o-stem, of <bél> lip; mouth, face -- 10.89
béraind
verb; 1st person singular past subjunctive active, conjunct, of <berid> carries,
brings -- 10.39
bés
noun; nominative singular masculine, u-stem, of <bés> custom, habit -- 1.84
bia
verb; 1st person singular future indicative, absolute, of substantive verb <attá>
is -- 3.240, 4.85
bia
verb; 1st person singular future indicative, absolute, syntactically relative, of
substantive verb <attá> is -- 3.161
bia
verb; variant of 2nd person singular future indicative, absolute, of substantive
verb <attá> is -- 8.40
biaṁ
verb; 1st person singular future indicative, absolute, of substantive verb <attá>
is -- 3.218, 4.142
bias
verb; 3rd person singular future indicative, absolute, relative, of substantive
biasu
verb; compound form of 2nd person singular future indicative, absolute,
syntactically relative, of substantive verb <attá> is + emphasizing particle 2nd
person singular <siu, so, su> you -- 3.192
bieith
verb; 3rd person singular future indicative, absolute, of substantive verb <attá>
is -- 3.119
bile
noun; accusative singular neuter, yo-stem, of <bile> (ancient and venerated)
tree -- 7.143
Bir
toponym; accusative singular of <Bir> Bir -- 9.114
bithu
noun; accusative plural masculine, u-stem, of <bith> world; life; age, period --
7.109, 7.121
169
biúd
noun; dative singular masculine, o-stem, of <biad> food -- 10.123
bíad
verb; 3rd person singular conditional, conjunct, syntactically relative, of
bíḋ
verb; 3rd person singular consuetudinal present, absolute, of substantive verb
<attá> is -- 1.177
bladaig
adjective; dative singular feminine of <bladach> famous, renowned; splendid --
10.196
bliadan
noun; genitive plural feminine, ī-stem, of <blíadain> year -- 9.49
blíadain
noun; accusative singular feminine, ī-stem, of <blíadain> year -- 5.189
blonaig
noun; dative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <blonac> fat, lard, grease -- 10.195
bocai
adjective; nominative dual feminine of <boca> soft -- 10.184
boí
verb; 3rd person singular preterite indicative of substantive verb <attá> is --
1.5
boíL
verb; 3rd person singular preterite indicative, syntactically relative, of
borb
noun; nominative singular masculine, o-stem, of <borb> oaf -- 6.199
Bó
see Táin Bó Cúailngi
bó
noun; genitive singular feminine, irregular, of <bó> cow, ox -- 2.284, 2.315,
3.204
bó
noun; nominative singular feminine, irregular, of <bó> cow, ox -- 2.328
bó
verb; 3rd person singular present subjunctive active, conjunct, of <bongid>
breaks -- 6.67
bratt
noun; nominative singular masculine, o-stem, of <bratt> cloak, mantle -- 2.237,
2.247
bráth
noun; accusative singular masculine, u-stem, of <bráth> Doomsday -- 3.75, 4.75,
4.132
bráthair
noun; nominative singular masculine, r-stem, of <bráthir, bráthair> brother --
9.139
brechtáin
noun; genitive singular masculine, o-stem, of <brechtán> butter, fat, relish --
10.185
Breġa
170
toponym; accusative singular of <Brega> Brega -- 1.168
breith
noun; dative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <breth> passing judgement,
interpreting -- 10.17
bréit
noun; accusative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <bréit> strip; cloth; shred -- 4.93
Bricriu
proper name masculine; nominative singular of <Bricriu> Bricriu -- 1.147
brisfea
verb; 1st person singular future indicative active, absolute, of <brissid> breaks,
destroys; defeats -- 3.237
bríg
noun; dative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <bríg> strength, value -- 6.154
broinn
noun; dative singular feminine, n-stem, of <brú> belly, womb -- 3.202
brón
noun; nominative singular masculine, o-stem, of <brón> sorrow -- 6.188
L
bus
verb; 3rd person singular future indicative, absolute, relative, of copula <is> is -
- 4.163
cach
pronominal; accusative singular neuter of <cach, cech> each, every, any --
6.269, 7.179
cach
pronominal; genitive singular neuter of <cach, cech> each, every, any -- 7.190
cach
pronominal; nominative singular masculine of <cach, cech> each, every, any --
1.226, 1.236
cacha
pronominal; dative plural feminine of <cach, cech> each, every, any -- 5.301
caille
noun; genitive singular feminine, ī-stem, of <caill> wood, forest -- 5.279
cairptiu
noun; accusative plural masculine, o-stem, of <carpat> war-chariot, wagon --
1.70
caisel
noun; nominative singular masculine, o-stem, of <caisel> stone wall, rampart --
1.182
caín
adjective; nominative singular masculine of <caín> fine, excellent, beautiful --
1.204
caín
adjective; nominative singular neuter of <caín> fine, excellent, beautiful --
7.118
cardess
noun; genitive plural masculine, u-stem, of <cardess, cairdes> friendship, love,
cohabitation -- 8.19
carpat
noun; accusative singular masculine, o-stem, of <carpat> war-chariot, wagon --
7.78
171
cath
noun; accusative singular masculine, u-stem, of <cath> battle, fight -- 9.60
Cathail
proper name masculine; genitive singular of <Cathal> Cathal -- 10.90
Cathal
proper name masculine; nominative singular masculine of <Cathal> Cathal --
10.31
cách
pronominal; accusative singular masculine of <cách> everybody, everyone --
5.318
cách
pronominal; nominative singular masculine of <cách> everybody, everyone --
1.138
cech
pronominal; nominative singular masculine of <cach, cech> each, every, any --
6.86
cech
pronominal; nominative singular neuter of <cach, cech> each, every, any --
5.182
cecha
pronominal; genitive singular feminine of <cach, cech> each, every, any --
6.107
cecha
pronominal; variant of genitive singular masculine of <cach, cech> each, every,
any -- 9.30
ceithri
numeral; nominative neuter of <ceth(a)ir, cethéoir> four -- 9.87
cen
preposition; <cenL> without -- 5.231
cen co
conjunction; compound of preposition <cenL> without + conjunction <con, coN>
until; so that; and -- 10.53
cenae
pronominalized preposition; 3rd person singular masculine accusative of
<cenL> without -- 5.335
cetheoir
numeral; nominative feminine of <ceth(a)ir, cethéoir> four -- 7.39
cethraimthi
noun; genitive singular masculine, yo-stem, of <cethraimthe> quarter, fourth
part -- 9.31
céol
noun; nominative singular neuter, o-stem, of <céol> music -- 5.278
cét
see dá cét
cét
adjective; <cét> first; fresh, new -- 9.133
cétamus
adverb; <cétamus> firstly -- 6.265
cétberbad
172
verbal noun; compound of numeral <cét> first; fresh, new + dative singular of
<berbad> boiling, cooking -- 10.168
cétN
numeral; nominative singular neuter, o-stem, of <cétN> hundred -- 4.167
chaingen
noun; lenited nominative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <caingen> deal, bargain
-- 5.234
Chamus
toponym; lenited accusative singular of <Camus> Camus -- 9.116
charat
noun; lenited genitive singular masculine, nt-stem, of <carae> friend -- 2.329
charpait
noun; lenited genitive singular masculine, o-stem, of <carpat> war-chariot,
wagon -- 2.176, 2.212, 2.252, 2.265
charpat
noun; lenited accusative singular masculine, o-stem, of <carpat> war-chariot,
wagon -- 3.9
charput
noun; lenited dative singular masculine, o-stem, of <carpat> war-chariot,
wagon -- 1.100, 2.85, 2.235
Chathail
proper name masculine; lenited vocative singular of <Cathal> Cathal -- 10.7
chela
verb; lenited 1st person singular subjunctive active, conjunct, of <celid>
conceals, hides -- 5.311
chena
adverb; <chena> besides -- 8.57
chenae
pronominalized preposition; lenited 3rd person singular neuter accusative of
<cenL> without -- 5.319
chend
noun; lenited accusative singular neuter, o-stem, of <cenn> head, front; end --
5.127
chenn
noun; lenited nominative singular neuter, o-stem, of <cenn> head, front; end --
4.193
chéul
noun; lenited dative singular neuter, o-stem, of <céol> music -- 7.214
Chicul mac Guil meic Gairb meic Túathaigh meic Gúmóir
proper name masculine; lenited accusative singular of <Ciccul, Cic(h)ul mac
Guil meic Gairb meic Túathaigh meic Gúmóir> Cichol son of Goll of the son of
Garb of the son of Tuatach of the son of Gumor -- 9.34
chill
noun; lenited dative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <cell> cloister, monastic
settlement -- 5.155
chinn
noun; lenited dative singular neuter, o-stem, of <cenn> head, front; end -- 2.83,
4.124
chíanaib
173
noun; lenited dative plural feminine, ā-stem, of <cían> long time; period --
5.176
chleittíniu
noun; lenited dative singular masculine, yo-stem, of <cleittíne> javelin, dart --
4.118
chlothaib
noun; lenited dative plural masculine, o-stem, of <cloth> fame, reputation --
6.223
chluine
verb; lenited 3rd person singular present subjunctive active, conjunct, of
<ro°cluinethar> hears -- 8.43
choicetal
noun; lenited accusative singular neuter, o-stem, of <co(i)cetal> harmonious
music -- 7.167
choicéli
noun; lenited genitive singular masculine, yo-stem, of <coicéle, coicéile>
companion, friend; friendship -- 2.331
choiṁchliss
adjective; lenited compound form of preposition <comL, coN> with + lenited
genitive singular neuter, o-stem, of <cless> feat, skill -- 4.164
chommairchi
noun; lenited accusative singular feminine, yā-stem, of <commairche>
protection, refuge -- 8.243
chomraicfind
verb; variant of 1st person singular secondary future, prototonic, of <con°ricc>
meets, encounters -- 8.269
Chonnachtaib
proper name feminine; lenited dative plural of <Connacht> inhabitant of
Connacht -- 5.55
Chorco Duibne
toponym; lenited dative singular masculine, yo-stem, of <Corco Duibne>
Corkaguiney -- 5.19
chossa
noun; lenited accusative plural feminine, ā-stem, of <coss, cos> foot, leg -- 4.42
chotli
verb; lenited 3rd person singular present indicative, prototonic, of <con°tuili>
sleeps -- 6.37
chotluḋ
noun; lenited dative singular masculine, u-stem, of <cotlud> sleeping, sleep --
2.24
chóri
noun; lenited dative singular feminine, yā-stem, of <córe, córae> peace -- 6.245
chrideṡerc
noun; lenited compound of <cride> heart + lenited nominative singular
feminine, ā-stem, of <serc> love -- 5.315
chridesae
noun; lenited accusative singular neuter, yo-stem, of <cride> heart +
chroíḃ
174
noun; lenited dative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <cróeb, cráeb> branch; tree,
bush -- 3.45
chuindchiḋ
verbal noun; lenited dative singular masculine, i-stem, of <cuingid, cuindchid>
seeking, requesting -- 1.332
Chuirithir
proper name masculine; lenited accusative singular of <Curithir, Cuirithir>
Cuirithir -- 5.298
Chuirithir
proper name masculine; lenited genitive singular of <Curithir, Cuirithir>
Cuirithir -- 5.265
Chulainn
see Cú Chulainn
Chú
proper name masculine; lenited vocative singular of <Cú> Hound -- 2.359
chúairt
noun; lenited accusative singular masculine, i-stem, of <cúairt> circle; tour,
journey -- 5.114
Ciccul Gricenchoss
proper name masculine; accusative singular of <Cicul Gricen-choss> Cichol
Clapperleg -- 9.13
Cichul
proper name masculine; nominative singular of <Cicul, Cichul, Ciccul> Cichol --
9.74
ciḋ
conjunction; compound form of conjunction <cía> although, even if + suffixed
enclitic present subjunctive of copula <is> is -- 1.36, 3.116
L
ciḋ
stressed interrogative pronoun; neuter; <cidL, cedL> what; why -- 2.97, 2.123,
2.370, 2.385
cid
conjunction; compound form of conjunction <cía> although, even if + enclitic
present subjunctive of copula <is> is -- 8.273
cid
stressed interrogative pronoun; neuter; <cidL, cedL> what; why -- 5.77, 8.189
Cill Letrech
toponym; dative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <Cell Letrech> Cloister Letrech --
5.203
cinnas
adverb; <cinnas> how -- 4.5
cía
conjunction; <cía> although, even if -- 5.316
claḋ
noun; nominative singular masculine, o-stem, of <clad> ditch, dyke -- 1.178
clechtat
verb; 3rd person plural present indicative, conjunct, syntactically relative, of
<clechtaid> practices -- 7.65
clí
adjective; accusative singular feminine of <clé> left -- 4.100
cluinethar
175
verb; 3rd person singular present indicative active, conjunct, of
co
see cen co
co
conjunction; used as verbal particle; <con, coN> until; so that; and -- 5.200, 8.91,
8.216, 8.262, 9.58, 9.72, 9.77, 10.112, 10.131, 10.140
co
preposition; <comL, coN> with -- 6.68, 6.287, 7.144
coH
preposition; <coH> to, until -- 1.271, 2.159, 3.74, 4.74, 4.131
coimthecht
noun; dative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <coimthecht> company -- 5.263
coí
verbal noun; dative singular feminine of <caí> weeping -- 8.179
colluḋ
verbal noun; dative singular neuter, u-stem/s-stem, of <collud> damaging,
destroying -- 1.58
coṁchiníuil
adjective; compound form of preposition <comL, coN> with + genitive singular
neuter, o-stem, of <cenél> race, tribe; descent -- 4.32
coṁchliss
adjective; compound form of preposition <comL, coN> with + lenited genitive
singular neuter, o-stem, of <cless> feat, skill -- 4.29
coṁchrotha
adjective; compound form of preposition <comL, coN> with + lenited genitive
singular masculine, u-stem, of <cruth> form, appearance -- 4.28
coṁéscaiḋ
adjective; compound form of preposition <comL, coN> with + adjective <éscaid>
alert, eager; swift -- 4.31
coṁḟobaiḋ
adjective; compound form of preposition <comL, coN> with + lenited adjective
<fobaid> quick, prompt, active -- 4.30
coṁghaisciḋ
masculine, o-stem, of <gaisced> weapons, armour; prowess -- 4.33
L
coṁ
preposition; compound form of preposition <comL, coN> with + suffixed
possessive pronoun 1st person singular <moL, mL> my -- 4.117
coṁruc
noun; dative singular neuter, o-stem, of <comrac> encounter; combat;
collision; sexual relation -- 4.24, 4.160
coṁthrén
adjective; compound form of preposition <comL, coN> with + lenited adjective
<trén> strong -- 4.27
comainm
noun; nominative singular neuter, n-stem, of <comainm> name, cognomen --
9.63
comairsed
176
verb; 3rd person singular preterite subjunctive active, prototonic, of
<con°ricc> meets, encounters -- 8.217
comath
verb; 3rd person singular imperative active, prototonic, of <con°oí> keeps,
preserves -- 6.5
comméte
feminine, yā-stem, of <méit> greatness, magnitude, size -- 4.34
comrac
noun; nominative singular masculine/neuter, o-stem, of <comrac> encounter;
combat; collision; sexual relation -- 5.5
comrís
verb; 2nd person singular present subjunctive active, prototonic, of <con°ricc>
meets, encounters -- 8.92
Con
see Mac Con Glinne
coN
conjunction; used as verbal particle; <con, coN> until; so that; and -- 2.21, 2.29,
2.58, 2.78, 2.189, 2.216, 2.254, 3.195, 4.45, 4.119
Conall
proper name masculine; nominative singular of <Conall> Conall -- 1.134
conbiḃsustar
verb; 3rd person singular future indicative passive, deuterotonic, of
<con°boing> breaks; defeats; violates -- 4.183
Conchuḃur
proper name masculine; nominative singular of <Conchubur, Conchobar>
Conchobar -- 1.6, 1.95, 1.320
conda
conjunction; compound form of conjunction <con, coN> until; so that; and +
infixed pronoun 3rd person singular feminine <daH> she -- 3.179
Condachto
proper name feminine; accusative plural of <Connacht> Connacht -- 9.97
congairet
verb; 3rd person plural present indicative active, deuterotonic, syntactically
relative, of <con°gair> calls together -- 7.177
Congal
proper name masculine; nominative singular of <Congal> Congal -- 8.32
congbále
noun; genitive singular feminine, yā-stem, of <congbál> occupation, holding --
6.286
N
co gúalae
verb; 3rd person singular preterite indicative active, deuterotonic, of
coNgúalatar
verb; 3rd person plural preterite indicative active, deuterotonic, of
conicci
preposition; <conicci> as far as, up to, to, till -- 4.97
conicfaesu
177
verb; compound form of 2nd person singular future indicative, deuterotonic,
of <con°icc> can, is able + emphasizing particle 2nd person singular <siu, so, su>
you -- 4.6
coniḋ
conjunction; compound form of conjunction <con, coN> until; so that; and +
infixed pronoun 3rd person singular masculine <idL> he -- 2.25
N
co naccaesiuṁ
verb; compound form of 3rd person singular preterite indicative active,
deuterotonic, of <ad°cí, at°chí> sees + emphasizing particle 3rd person singular
masculine <seom, som> he, it -- 3.39
Connacht
toponym; genitive plural feminine, ā-stem, of <Connacht> inhabitant of
Connacht -- 5.35
conná
conjunction; compound form of conjunct particle <con, coN> until; so that; and
+ dependent negative particle <ná, na> not, nor -- 1.34
consaíḋfea
verb; 3rd person singular future indicative active, deuterotonic, syntactically
relative, of <con°saídi> stirs up, excites -- 3.209
consna
verb; 3rd person singular present indicative, deuterotonic, of <con°sní>
contends, competes -- 7.75
conustoracht
verb; compound form of 3rd person singular perfect indicative active,
prototonic, of <do°roich> reaches + conjunction <con, coN> until; so that; and +
infixed pronoun 3rd person plural <sN, s> they -- 9.56
cor
verbal noun; accusative singular masculine, o-stem, of <cor> putting; throwing;
letting go -- 1.330
corastar
verb; 3rd person singular preterite indicative active, prototonic, of <fo°ceird>
sets, puts; throws -- 2.26
cortis
verb; 3rd person plural past subjunctive active, conjunct, of <fo°cuirethar>
puts, throws -- 1.329
cossa
noun; nominative plural feminine, ā-stem, of <coss, cos> foot, leg -- 7.40, 7.97
cotenocaib
verb; 3rd person singular present indicative active, deuterotonic, of
<con°ocaib> truly raises, truly exalts + archaic infixed pronoun 3rd person
singular feminine <deH, den> she -- 6.275
cotnocéba
verb; compound form of 3rd person singular future indicative active,
deuterotonic, of <con°ocaib> truly raises, truly exalts + infixed pronoun 3rd
person singular masculine <tN> he -- 6.17
cotnofathar
verb; compound form of 3rd person singular future indicative active,
deuterotonic, of <con°oí> keeps, preserves + infixed pronoun 3rd person
singular masculine <tN> he -- 6.7
cóica
178
see trí cóica
cóica
numeral; nominative singular masculine of <coíca> fifty -- 9.24
cráidfed
verb; 3rd person singular conditional active, conjunct, of <cráidid> torments,
vexes, afflicts -- 5.296
crích
noun; accusative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <crích> boundary, territory --
5.34
Crúachan
toponym; genitive singular of <Crúachu, Crúachain> Cruachain -- 3.178
cualchlais
noun; compound of <cúal> faggot + lenited accusative singular feminine, ā-
stem, of <clas, class> ditch, furrow; pit -- 8.258
cuing
noun; nominative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <cuing> yoke, chain -- 1.257
Cuirithir
proper name masculine; accusative singular of <Curithir, Cuirithir> Cuirithir --
5.69, 5.249, 5.282
Cuirithir
proper name masculine; genitive singular of <Curithir, Cuirithir> Cuirithir --
5.8
Cuirithir
proper name masculine; nominative singular of <Curithir, Cuirithir> Cuirithir -
- 5.84
Cuirithir mac Doborchon
proper name masculine; nominative singular of <Cuirithir mac Doborchon>
Cuirithir son of Doborchu -- 5.43
cuirm
noun; nominative singular neuter, i-stem, of <cuirm> ale, beer; ale-feast,
entertainment -- 5.66
culgaire
noun; accusative singular neuter, yo-stem, of <culgaire> noise, rumble of a
chariot -- 2.174
Culgairi
see Grellchae Culgairi
cuṁgai
verb; 2nd person singular present indicative, prototonic, of <con°icc> can, is
able -- 3.130
cuṁgaiṁ
verb; 1st person singular present indicative, prototonic, of <con°icc> can, is
able -- 3.142
curach
noun; nominative singular masculine, o-stem, of <curach> coracle, skiff, boat --
7.76
curu
verbal noun; accusative plural masculine, o-stem, of <cor> putting; throwing;
letting go -- 4.40
Cú Chulainn
179
proper name masculine; nominative singular of <Cú Chulainn> Hound of
Culann -- 2.7, 2.100, 2.126, 2.148, 2.300, 2.348, 2.377, 3.6, 3.59, 3.108, 3.134, 3.226,
4.62, 4.114
Cúailngi
see Táin Bó Cúailngi
Cúailngi
toponym; genitive singular of <Cúailnge> Cuailnge -- 3.183
cúairt
noun; dative singular masculine, i-stem, of <cúairt> circle; tour, journey -- 5.32
ḋerġa
adjective; lenited nominative dual feminine of <derg> red -- 2.243
ḋergaissu
verb; 2nd person singular RO-present subjunctive active, prototonic, of
<do°guid> entreats, asks pardon + emphasizing particle 2nd person singular
<siu, so, su> you -- 4.77, 4.134
ḋiaiḋ
noun; lenited accusative singular neuter, o-stem, of <dead, diad> end -- 4.172
ḋiaiḋ
noun; lenited dative singular neuter, o-stem, of <dead, diad> end -- 2.70
ḋiaiḋse
noun; lenited compound form of accusative singular neuter, o-stem, of <dead,
diad> end + emphasizing particle 1st person singular <se, sa> I -- 4.179
ḋía
noun; lenited dative singular masculine, o-stem, of <dé, día> god -- 4.58, 4.110
ḋóitind
noun; lenited compound form of <dóe> arm + dative singular neuter, o-stem, of
<ind> end -- 4.95
d'
preposition; variant of <diL, deL> from, of -- 10.148, 10.191
da
see hÁth da Ḟerta
dain
noun; nasalized accusative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <tan, tain> time -- 4.21
daingni
noun; dative singular feminine, yā-stem, of <daingne> firmness -- 6.140
daí
verb; 2nd person singular present indicative, conjunct, of substantive verb
<attá> is -- 8.190
dalaṁ
noun; nasalized dative singular masculine, n-stem, of <talam> earth, ground --
1.43
daṁ
pronominalized preposition; 1st person singular dative of <duL, doL> to -- 3.132
daṁsa
pronominalized preposition; compound form of 1st person singular dative of
<duL, doL> to + emphasizing particle 1st person singular <se, sa> I -- 2.342
dam
pronominalized preposition; 1st person singular dative of <duL, doL> to -- 8.6
dan
180
noun; nasalized accusative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <tan, tain> time --
2.169
dano
enclitic emphatic particle; <dano, dono> again, now, then -- 1.96, 1.148, 1.311,
8.164, 8.227, 8.287
dartaiḋ
noun; nominative singular masculine, i-stem, of <dartaid> heifer, bull calf --
3.197
datha
noun; genitive singular neuter, u-stem, of <dath> colour; hue, tint -- 7.191
dá
numeral; nominative dual masculine of <dáL, díL, dáN> two -- 10.83
dá cét
numeral; compound form of <dáL, díL, dáN> two + nominative plural neuter, o-
stem, of <cétN> hundred -- 9.48
Dáiri maic Ḟiachnai
proper name masculine; genitive singular of <Dáire mac Fiachnai> Daire son of
Fiachnae -- 3.187
dáL
numeral; accusative dual masculine of <dáL, díL, dáN> two -- 1.227
dáL
numeral; nominative dual masculine of <dáL, díL, dáN> two -- 1.253
Dál nAraidhi
toponym; accusative singular of <Dál Araide> the district of Arad -- 9.109
dálaib
noun; dative plural feminine, ā-stem, of <dál> meeting, encounter -- 5.300
dán
noun; nominative singular masculine, o-stem, of <dán> craftsman, man of art --
6.87
de
pronominalized preposition; 3rd person singular neuter dative of <diL, deL>
from, of -- 3.121, 3.220, 4.73, 4.130
debroth
noun; compound form of <dé, día> god + dative singular feminine, u-stem, of
<bráth> judgment -- 10.29
debuith
noun; nominative singular feminine, i-stem, of <debuith> conflict -- 6.243
deéci
verb; 3rd person singular present indicative active, deuterotonic, of <de°éci,
do°écai> looks -- 6.63
Deichtire
proper name feminine; nominative singular of <Deichtire, Deichtine> Deichtire
-- 1.104
deilm
noun; nominative singular neuter, n-stem, of <deilm> loud, rumbling noise --
5.327
deiss
adjective; dative singular feminine of <dess> right, south of -- 4.96
deni
noun; dative singular feminine, yā-stem, of <dene, deine> strength -- 6.141
181
derg
adjective; nominative singular masculine of <derg> red -- 2.203, 2.233, 2.238
des
preposition; <dess> right, south of -- 7.88, 7.224
desiul
noun; dative singular masculine, o-stem, of <desel, deisel> right-hand side --
6.53
déci
verb; 3rd person singular present indicative active, prototonic, of <de°éci,
do°écai> looks -- 6.48, 6.50
déna
verb; 2nd person singular imperative active, prototonic, of <do°gní> does;
makes -- 8.96
dénaim
verb; 1st person singular present indicative active, prototonic, syntactically
relative, of <do°gní> does; makes -- 8.212
dénaimni
verb; 1st person plural imperative active, prototonic, of <do°gní> does; makes +
emphasizing particle 1st person plural <ni> we -- 5.106
dénaimni
verb; 1st person plural present indicative active, prototonic, of <do°gní> does;
makes + emphasizing particle 1st person plural <ni> we -- 5.79
di
preposition; <diL, deL> from, of -- 5.175
dia
conjunction; <diaN> when; if -- 10.32
dia
preposition; compound form of preposition <diL, deL> from, of + suffixed
possessive pronoun 3rd person singular masculine <aL> his, its -- 9.135
H
dia
preposition; compound form of preposition <duL, doL> to + suffixed possessive
pronoun 3rd person singular feminine <aH> her -- 1.119
diaiḋ
noun; accusative singular neuter, o-stem, of <dead, diad> end -- 2.258
N
dia
pronoun 3rd person plural <aN> their -- 1.71, 1.161
dianat
conjunction; compound form of conjunction <diaN> when; if + infixed pronoun
2nd person singular <datL> you -- 8.42
dianidh
verb; compound form of preposition <diL, deL> from, of + relative particle
<(s)aN> that which, what + 3rd person singular present indicative, conjunct, of
copula <is> is -- 9.62
dianom
conjunction; compound form of <diaN> when; if + infixed pronoun 1st person
singular <domL, dumL> I -- 8.251
didiu
particle; <didiu, didu> now, therefore, then -- 10.80
didu
182
particle; <didiu, didu> now, therefore, then -- 5.199
diL
numeral; accusative dual feminine of <dáL, díL, dáN> two -- 2.249
L
di
numeral; nominative dual feminine of <dáL, díL, dáN> two -- 2.241
dingnesu
verb; compound form of 2nd person singular future indicative active,
prototonic, of <do°gní> does; makes + emphasizing particle 2nd person singular
<siu, so, su> you -- 8.135
dinL
preposition; compound form of preposition <diL, deL> from, of + dative singular
feminine of article <in, aN, indL> the -- 3.221
L
dit
pronominalized preposition; 2nd person singular dative of <diL, deL> from, of --
4.194
dixit
Latin; <dixit> said -- 5.223
dí
numeral; nominative dual feminine of <dáL, díL, dáN> two -- 10.182
día
conjunction; <diaN> when; if -- 5.123
díanechtair
adverb; <díanechtair> from outside -- 6.289
díḃ
pronominalized preposition; 3rd person plural dative of <diL, deL> from, of --
1.270
díb
pronominalized preposition; 3rd person plural dative of <diL, deL> from, of --
9.32
dídin
noun; dative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <díden> end -- 3.156
dím
pronominalized preposition; 1st person singular dative of <diL, deL> from, of --
8.267
dír
adjective; nominative singular neuter of <dír> proper, fit, necessary -- 2.309,
2.341
dís
personal numeral; dative singular feminine of <dias> two people, pair, couple --
10.109
dísi
pronominalized preposition; 3rd person singular feminine dative of <duL, doL>
to + emphasizing particle 3rd person singular feminine <(h)é, síL, (h)ed> he,
she, it -- 5.67
dlúmaicdib
noun; compound of <dlúm> mass, density + dative plural feminine, yā-stem, of
<aicde> artefact, article -- 6.142
dno
shortened from enclitic particle; <dano, dono> again, now, then -- 5.46
do
183
possessive pronoun 2nd person singular <doL, tL> your -- 8.53
do
preposition; <duL, doL> to -- 5.18, 5.54, 5.154, 6.114, 6.178, 6.189, 6.200, 6.211,
6.222, 6.233, 6.244, 6.255, 7.156, 8.12, 9.105, 9.141, 10.27, 10.161
do
preposition; variant of <diL, deL> from, of -- 5.299, 9.129, 10.122, 10.188, 10.194,
10.199
Doborchon
see Cuirithir mac Doborchon
dochell
noun; nominative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <dochell> niggardliness,
inhospitality -- 6.221
dofunn
verbal noun; nasalized dative singular neuter, o-stem, of <tafann> hunting,
pursuing, expelling -- 1.72
dogénsa
verb; compound form of 1st person singular future indicative active, absolute,
of <do°gní> does; makes + emphasizing particle 1st person singular <se, sa> I --
8.52
dogníther
verb; 3rd person singular present indicative passive, deuterotonic, of <do°gní>
does; makes -- 5.64, 8.108
doíḃ
noun; nasalized dative singular masculine, o-stem, of <tóeb> side -- 2.178
doL
possessive pronoun; 2nd person singular <doL, tL> your -- 4.98, 4.121, 4.192
doL
preposition; <duL, doL> to -- 1.331, 2.47, 3.157, 4.57, 4.109
Dolluḋ
toponym; nominative singular, o-stem, of <Dollud> distress, damage, havoc --
3.68
Dolluiḋ
see Grellach Dolluiḋ
doltachL
adjective; nominative singular feminine of <doltach> pernicious, hurtful -- 3.55
doluid
verb; 3rd person singular preterite indicative, deuterotonic, of <do°tét, do°téit>
comes; goes -- 5.217
dom
pronoun 1st person singular <moL, mL> my -- 5.129
domárfas
verb; past indicative passive singular, deuterotonic, of <do°adbat> shows +
infixed pronoun 1st person singular <mL, mmL> I -- 10.11
doménainn
verb; 1st person singular past subjunctive active, deuterotonic, of
<do°moinethar> thinks -- 5.294
Domnand
see Inbiur Domnand
Donn
184
adjective; nominative singular masculine of <donn> brown -- 3.182
dono
emphatic particle; <dano, dono> again, now, then -- 3.69, 4.87, 4.146
doraġ
verb; 1st person singular future indicative, deuterotonic, of <do°tét, do°téit>
comes; goes -- 4.149
dorche
noun; nominative singular neuter, yo-stem, of <dorche, dorchae> darkness --
6.177
doregsae
verb; 1st person singular future indicative active, deuterotonic, of <do°tét,
do°téit> comes; goes + emphasizing particle 1st person singular <se, sa> I --
5.131
dorigenus
verb; 1st person singular perfect indicative active, deuterotonic, syntactically
dorísi
adverb; <dorísi, dorís> again, once more -- 5.128
dorrignis
verb; 2nd person singular perfect indicative active, deuterotonic, syntactically
dortuth
noun; nominative singular masculine, u-stem, of <dortuth, dórtad> pouring
out; destruction -- 6.106
dotL
preposition; compound form of preposition <diL, deL> from, of + suffixed
possessive pronoun 2nd person singular <totL, tatL, tL> you -- 4.94
L
dot ucai
verb; 3rd person singular perfect indicative active, deuterotonic, of <do°beir>
brings + infixed pronoun 2nd person singular <totL, tatL, tL> you -- 2.98
doucussa
verb; compound form of 1st person singular perfect indicative active,
deuterotonic, of <do°beir> brings -- 3.170
dó
pronominalized preposition; 3rd person singular masculine dative of <duL, doL>
to -- 5.56
dóer
noun; nominative singular masculine, o-stem, of <dóer> unfree person -- 6.210
dóiḃ
pronominalized preposition; 3rd person plural dative of <duL, doL> to -- 1.222,
1.244, 1.334
dóib
pronominalized preposition; 3rd person plural dative of <duL, doL> to -- 9.50
dóich
adverb; <doích> likely -- 8.226
duḃ
adjective; nominative singular masculine of <dub> black -- 3.43
Duibne
see Chorco Duibne
duit
185
pronominalized preposition; 2nd person singular dative of <duL, doL> to --
2.310, 2.332, 4.165, 8.60, 8.239
duitsiu
pronominalized preposition; compound form of 2nd person singular dative of
<duL, doL> to + emphasizing particle 2nd person singular <siu, so, su> you -- 4.89
dul
verbal noun; nominative singular masculine, u-stem, of <téit> goes -- 10.106
Echdach
proper name masculine; genitive singular of <Echaid> Echaid -- 8.14, 8.203
ecnu
adjective; dative singular masculine, yo-stem, of <ecne, ecnae> wise -- 6.201
ed
personal pronoun; 3rd person singular neuter of <(h)é, síL, (h)ed> he, she, it --
3.190, 8.274
Edṁuinn
toponym; accusative singular of <Edmann> Edmonn, Edmand -- 1.166
eich
noun; genitive singular masculine, o-stem, of <ech> horse -- 2.215
Eṁuin
toponym; dative singular feminine, i-stem of <Emain, Emuin> Emain Macha --
1.24
erriḋ
noun; nominative plural masculine, dental stem, of <eirr, err> chariot-fighter,
champion, warrior -- 1.128
ersaind
noun; nominative dual feminine, n-stem, of <ursa(n), ersa> door-post -- 10.183
escongsa
noun; compound form of nominative singular feminine, of <escong> eel +
Esrú
see Fea mac Tortán meic Srú meic Esrú
etarru
pronominalized preposition; 3rd person plural accusative of <eter> between,
among -- 1.259
eter
preposition; <eter> between, among -- 1.225, 2.248
etercertaisu
verb; compound form of 2nd person singular present indicative active,
deuterotonic, of <eter°certa> interprets; decides, determines + emphasizing
particle 2nd person singular <siu, so, su> you -- 2.356
etir
preposition; <eter> between, among -- 9.113
é
personal pronoun; 3rd person singular masculine of <(h)é, síL, (h)ed> he, she, it
-- 2.387, 3.208
éccoṁlonn
noun; nominative singular masculine, o-stem, of <éccomlonn> unequal
combat, unfair odds -- 4.47
éces
186
noun; nominative singular masculine, o-stem, of <éces, éices> scholar, sage,
poet -- 5.44
écin
adverb; dative singular feminine, ā-stem, of noun <écen> necessity, compulsion
-- 3.143
éim
emphatic particle; <ém, éim> truly, indeed, then -- 2.311, 2.343, 3.174
éit
noun; nominative singular feminine, yā-stem, of <éit> cattle -- 4.176
Émóir
see Sléib Émóir
én
noun; accusative dual masculine, o-stem, of <én> bird -- 1.228
én
noun; genitive plural masculine, o-stem, of <én> bird -- 1.87, 1.221
én
noun; nominative dual masculine, o-stem, of <én> bird -- 1.254
énach
noun; variant of dative singular masculine, o-stem, of <enach> bird-hunting,
fowling -- 9.55
énḟlaith
noun; compound of <én> bird + lenited nominative singular feminine, i-stem,
of <flaith> rule; domain; ruler -- 1.21
éoin
noun; nominative plural masculine, o-stem, of <én> bird -- 7.155
Érind
toponym; dative singular, n-stem, of <Ériu> Ireland -- 9.93
étach
noun; accusative singular neuter, o-stem, of <étach> clothing, garment -- 2.65
étain
noun; genitive singular masculine, o-stem, of <étan, édan> front, brow,
forehead -- 2.223
éuin
noun; nominative plural masculine, o-stem, of <én> bird -- 1.159
ḟarraḋ
adverb; lenited; <farrad> beside, along with -- 3.47
ḟáilti
noun; lenited dative singular feminine, yā-stem, of <fáilte> joy, happiness --
6.190
ḟeirt
noun; lenited accusative dual feminine, ā-stem, of <fert> shaft, pole -- 2.250
Ḟerta
see hÁth da Ḟerta
ḟégad
verbal noun; lenited dative singular masculine, u-stem/o-stem, of <fégaid>
looking at, scanning, observing -- 10.162
Ḟiachnai
see Dáiri maic Ḟiachnai
ḟiadnaise
187
noun; lenited dative singular feminine, yā-stem, of <fiadnaise> presence --
10.59
ḟini
noun; lenited dative singular feminine, yā-stem, of <fine> kin -- 6.113
ḟir
noun; lenited accusative singular neuter, o-stem, of <fír> truth; right; justice --
6.83
ḟír
noun; lenited dative singular neuter, o-stem, of <fír> truth; right; justice --
6.256
ḟírḟlaith
noun; compound of lenited <fír> truth; right; justice + lenited dative singular
feminine, i-stem, of <flaith> rule; domain; ruler -- 6.234
ḟlaith
noun; lenited dative singular feminine, i-stem, of <flaith> rule; domain; ruler --
6.115
ḟorníamaib
noun; lenited dative plural feminine, ā-stem, of <forníam> ornament,
decoration -- 6.166
fail
noun; dative singular feminine, i-stem, of <fail> place, spot -- 4.153
fairce
noun; genitive singular feminine, yā-stem, of <fairrge> sea -- 5.285
fácbatis
verb; 3rd person plural imperfect indicative active, prototonic, of <fo°ácaib>
leaves -- 1.35
Fea mac Tortán meic Srú meic Esrú
proper name masculine; nominative singular of <Fea mac Tortán meic Srú
meic Esrú> Fea son of Tortan of the son of Sru of the son of Esru -- 9.138
feccaid
verb; 3rd person singular present indicative active, absolute, of <feccaid>
begins -- 8.173
fecht
noun; accusative singular masculine, o-stem, of <fecht> course, journey; time,
occasion -- 10.108
fechtsa
noun; compound form of accusative singular neuter, o-stem, of <fecht> course,
journey; time, occasion + emphasizing particle 1st person singular <se, sa> I --
8.139
feissin
pronominal; 3rd person singular masculine of <féin, feissin> -self, own -- 3.10
fer
noun; accusative singular masculine, o-stem, of <fer> man -- 3.34, 4.26, 4.162
fer
noun; genitive plural masculine, o-stem, of <fer> man -- 9.25, 10.36
fer
noun; nominative singular masculine, o-stem, of <fer> man -- 2.260, 2.389,
8.151, 9.134
feraiḃ
noun; dative plural masculine, o-stem, of <fer> man -- 1.298
188
feraiḋ
verb; 3rd person singular present indicative active, absolute, of <feraid> grants,
affords, supplies, gives; performs; pours, sheds -- 1.307
ferN
noun; genitive plural masculine, o-stem, of <fer> man -- 4.185
ferr
adjective; comparative of <maith> good -- 8.148
Fertai Loíg
toponym; dative singular feminine of <Fertae Loíg> Laeg's tumulus -- 2.88
féin
pronominal; <féin, feissin> -self, own -- 8.55, 8.93
fér
noun; accusative singular neuter, o-stem, of <fér> grass -- 1.39
fiche
numeral; nominative singular masculine, nt-stem, of <fiche> twenty -- 1.237
fichit
numeral; nominative plural masculine, nt-stem, of <fiche> twenty -- 1.220
fil
verb; 3rd person singular present indicative, absolute, relative, of substantive
fil
verb; Middle Irish present impersonal singular, absolute, of substantive verb
<attá> is -- 7.5, 7.141
find
adjective; accusative singular masculine of <find, finn> white, bright -- 10.116
find
adjective; genitive singular masculine of <find, finn> white, bright -- 10.139
find
adjective; nominative singular masculine of <find, finn> white, bright -- 7.28
Findarcat
toponym; dative singular of <Findarcat> White Silver -- 7.89
findruine
noun; compound of <find, finn> white, bright + genitive singular feminine, yā-
stem, of <druine> skill in craftmanship, manual dexterity -- 7.98
finn
adjective; nominative singular feminine of <find, finn> white, bright -- 4.144
finnchuill
noun; compound of <find, finn> white, bright + lenited genitive singular
masculine, o-stem, of <coll> hazel-tree -- 2.278
finnN
adjective; genitive plural feminine of <find, finn> white, bright -- 4.169
fír
noun; nominative singular neuter, o-stem, of <fír> truth; right; justice -- 4.184
fírḟlaith
noun; compound of <fír> truth; right; justice + lenited dative singular feminine,
i-stem, of <flaith> rule; domain; ruler -- 6.264
fírinni
noun; accusative singular feminine, yā-stem, of <fírinne> truth -- 6.6, 6.272
fírithir
adjective; equative of <fír> true -- 5.251
189
flainne
adjective; genitive singular feminine of <flann> blood red -- 5.286
flaith
noun; nominative singular feminine, i-stem, of <flaith> rule; domain; ruler --
6.285
flathemon
noun; nasalized genitive singular masculine, n-stem, of <flathem, flaithem>
ruler -- 6.84
flatho
noun; genitive singular feminine, i-stem, of <flaith> rule; domain; ruler -- 6.108
fo
preposition; <foL> under -- 8.260
foa
pronominalized preposition; 3rd person singular masculine dative of <foL>
under -- 2.204
foceird
verb; 3rd person singular present indicative active, deuterotonic, of <fo°ceird>
fodén
indeclinable; <fodén> self, himself; own -- 10.94
fodrethat
verb; compound form of 3rd person plural present indicative, deuterotonic,
syntactically relative, of <fo°reith> runs under + infixed pronoun 3rd person
singular masculine <idN, dN, -N> he -- 6.73
foë
pronominalized preposition; 3rd person singular feminine accusative of <foL>
under -- 7.99
fogur
noun; accusative singular masculine, o-stem, of <fogur> sound -- 5.284
foid
verb; 3rd person singular present indicative active, absolute, of <foad, foid,
foaid> sleeps together -- 8.116
foill
noun; dative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <foll, faill> neglect -- 6.69
foit
verb; 3rd person plural present indicative active, absolute, of <foad, foid, foaid>
sleeps together -- 5.140
foL
preposition; <foL> under -- 1.240, 2.207
folam
adjective; nominative singular masculine of <folam> empty, vain -- 6.109
foLchichiur
verb; 1st person singular future indicative active, deuterotonic, of <fo°ceird>
fomchanad
verb; 3rd person singular imperfect indicative active, deuterotonic, of
<fo°cain> accompanies with song, sings to, chants + infixed pronoun 1st person
singular <mL, mmL> I -- 5.280
Fomoraig
proper name masculine; nominative plural of <Fomorach> Fomorach -- 9.79
190
fonnath
noun; accusative plural neuter, o-stem, of <fonnat> wheel-rim -- 6.72
for
preposition; <for> on, over -- 1.297, 2.35, 5.31, 5.219, 7.64, 7.130, 8.290, 10.18,
10.34, 10.40, 10.107, 10.136
foraiḃ
pronominalized preposition; 3rd person plural dative of <for> on, over -- 1.310
forbbtha
noun; genitive singular feminine, i-stem, of <forbbaid> covering; shroud --
2.274
foriṁ
verbal noun; nominative singular neuter, n-stem, of <forim> chase -- 1.86
forlán
adjective; compound of preposition <for> on, over + accusative singular
masculine of <lán> full, ample -- 10.117
forráin
noun; dative singular feminine ā-stem, of <forrán> violence -- 6.71
fors
preposition; compound form of <for> on, over + infixed pronoun 3rd person
plural of <sN, s> she -- 7.153
forsinL
preposition; preposition <for> on, over + dative singular feminine of article <in,
aN, indL> the -- 3.44, 3.71
fortatnesaḃsu
verb; compound form of 1st person singular future indicative active,
deuterotonic, of <for°nesa> strikes, kicks, crushes + infixed pronoun 2nd
person singular <totL, tatL, tL> you + emphasizing particle 2nd person singular
<siu, so, su> you -- 4.63
fortgillim
verb; 1st person singular present indicative active, deuterotonic, of <for-t-
gella> affirms, calls to witness, invokes -- 10.50
fortongu
verb; 1st person singular present indicative, deuterotonic, of <for°toing>
swears, attests -- 4.56
fortsu
pronominalized preposition; compound form of 2nd person singular dative of
preposition <for> on, over + emphasizing particle 2nd person singular <siu, so,
su> you -- 4.186
fosaḋ
noun; accusative singular masculine/neuter, o-stem, of <fossad, fosad> plain
surface -- 2.221
foscath
noun; accusative singular neuter, o-stem, of <foscath, foscad> shade,
protection -- 6.111
foslongat
verb; 3rd person plural present indicative active, deuterotonic, of <fo°loing>
supports, sustains + infixed pronoun 3rd person singular feminine <sN, s> she --
7.41
fosruṁat
191
verb; variant of 3rd person plural present indicative, deuterotonic, of
<for°ruimi> sets, places; goes -- 1.157
Fothartaig
see Mael Fothartaig, Mael Fothartaig
fó
noun; accusative singular neuter of <fó> good -- 6.270
fóbrais
verb; 3rd person singular preterite indicative active, deuterotonic, of <fóbair>
begins, sets about -- 10.67
fóe
pronominalized preposition; 3rd person singular masculine accusative of <foL>
under -- 2.188
fóeliḋ
adjective; nominative singular feminine of <fóelid> happy -- 2.293
fri
preposition; <frithL, friH> against, towards -- 5.179, 5.184, 5.188, 6.268, 7.77,
8.180, 8.270
L
fria
preposition; compound form of preposition <frithL, friH> against, towards +
suffixed possessive pronoun 3rd person singular masculine <aL> his, its -- 1.321,
2.279
friesi
pronominalized preposition; compound form of 3rd person singular feminine
singular feminine <si> she -- 8.71
H
fri
preposition; <frithL, friH> against, towards -- 2.101, 2.220, 4.25, 4.64, 4.161
frim
preposition; compound form of preposition <frithL, friH> against, towards +
suffixed possessive pronoun 1st person singular <moL, mL> my -- 5.297
frim
pronominalized preposition; 1st person singular accusative of <frithL, friH>
against, towards -- 8.208
fris
preposition; 3rd person singular masculine accusative of <frithL, friH> against,
towards -- 8.94
fris
pronominalized preposition; 3rd person singular masculine dative of <frithL,
friH> against, towards -- 6.99
friss
pronominalized preposition; 3rd person singular accusative neuter of <frithL,
friH> against, towards -- 7.29
friss
<frithL, friH> against, towards -- 8.100
frisseom
<frithL, friH> against, towards + emphasizing particle 3rd person singular
frissom
192
<frithL, friH> against, towards + emphasizing particle 3rd person singular
fristibi
verb; 3rd person singular present indicative, deuterotonic, of <fris°tibi> smiles
on -- 6.271
frit
pronominalized preposition; 2nd person singular accusative of <frithL, friH>
fritso
pronominalized preposition; compound form of 2nd person singular
accusative of <frithL, friH> against, towards + emphasizing particle 2nd person
singular <siu, so, su> you -- 8.215
friut
pronominalized preposition; 2nd person singular accusative of <frithL, friH>
fuiliche
noun; nominative singular feminine, yā-stem, of <fuiliche> bloodiness,
bloodshed -- 6.116
Fúait
see Slíaḃ Fúait
fúan
noun; nominative singular neuter, o-stem, of <fúan> tunic -- 2.273
ġelltis
verb; 3rd person plural imperfect indicative active, conjunct, of <gelid> grazes,
devours -- 1.33
ġrellaiġ
noun; lenited dative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <grellach> bog, mire -- 3.72
gaḃallorg
noun; compound of <gabul, gabal> fork + nominative singular feminine, ā-stem,
of <lorg> stick, shaft -- 2.277
gabáil
noun; nominative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <gabál, gabáil> taking,
conquest -- 9.10
gabra
noun; nominative plural feminine, ā-stem, of <gabor> (white) horse, mare --
7.18
gair
adjective; accusative singular neuter, i-stem, of <gair> short; a short time --
5.260
Gairb
see Chicul mac Guil meic Gairb meic Túathaigh meic Gúmóir
gairptiu
noun; nasalized accusative plural masculine, o-stem, of <carpat> war-chariot,
wagon -- 1.326
garpat
noun; nasalized accusative singular masculine, o-stem, of <carpat> war-
chariot, wagon -- 2.193, 3.28
garptiḃ
193
noun; nasalized dative plural masculine, o-stem, of <carpat> war-chariot,
wagon -- 1.132
geinn
noun; nominative singular feminine, dental stem, of <genn, geinn> wedge,
block -- 2.218
gend
noun; nasalized accusative singular neuter, o-stem, of <cenn> head, front; end -
- 1.283
géḃa
verb; 1st person singular future indicative active, absolute, of <gaibid> takes;
proceeds; recites -- 4.92
géiṁ
verbal noun; accusative singular neuter, n-stem, of <géim> roaring (of cattle) --
2.110
géna
verb; 1st person singular future indicative active, absolute, of <gonaid> slays,
kills, wounds -- 3.234
géttair
verb; 3rd person singular future indicative passive, absolute, of <gataid> takes
away, removes; steals -- 4.191
gilla
noun; genitive singular masculine, yo-stem, of <gillae> servant, armed man --
9.103
glaisslecca
noun; compound form of adjective <glass, glas> greenish, blue, grey +
accusative plural feminine, ā-stem, of <lecc> rock, stone -- 4.65
glass
adjective; nominative singular feminine of <glass, glas> greenish, blue, grey --
4.88
Glinne
see Mac Con Glinne
gnássa
noun; nominative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <gnás> intercourse +
emphasizing particle emphasizing particle 1st person singular <se, sa> I --
5.270
gnáth
adjective; nominative singular neuter of <gnáth> usual, customary; known --
7.169, 7.210
gnóë
noun; genitive singular feminine, yā-stem, of <gnóe> beauty -- 7.110
goṁair
adverb; nasalized; <comair> in front of -- 2.263
gó
noun; nominative singular feminine, ā-stem, <gáu, gó> falsehood, false
judgement -- 6.254
Grellach Dolluiḋ
toponym; nominative singular of <Grellach Dolluid> Bog of Distress -- 3.86
Grellchae Culgairi
toponym; genitive singular of <Grellach Culgairi> Bog of the Chariot-rumble --
2.179
194
Gricenchoss
see Ciccul Gricenchoss
gruth
noun; dative singular masculine of <gruth> curds, cheese -- 10.189
Guil
Gúmóir
haḋaiġ
noun; aspirated nominative singular feminine, yā-stem, of <adaig> night --
1.296
haidchi
noun; aspirated accusative singular feminine, yā-stem, of <adaig> night -- 1.272
hainm
noun; aspirated nominative singular neuter, n-stem, of <ainm> name -- 3.89
hapair
verb; aspirated 2nd person singular imperative active, prototonic, of <as°beir>
says, speaks -- 8.28
harae
noun; aspirated nominative singular masculine, dental stem, of <are, arae, ara>
charioteer -- 1.118
hathair
noun; aspirated dative singular masculine, r-stem, of <athir, athair> father --
1.120
hálaind
adjective; aspirated nominative singular masculine of <álaind> beautiful, lovely
-- 1.201
hÁth da Ḟerta
toponym; aspirated accusative singular of <Áth da Ḟerta> Ford of the Two
Mounds -- 2.160
hetercert
noun; aspirated nominative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <etercert>
interpretation, discussion, judgement, decision -- 2.313
hénsi
noun; compound form of aspirated nominative singular masculine, o-stem, of
<én> bird + emphasizing particle 3rd person singular feminine <(h)é, síL, (h)ed>
he, she, it -- 3.42
hÉrenn
toponym; aspirated genitive singular of <Ériu> Ireland -- 9.128
hésom
personal pronoun; 3rd person singular masculine of <(h)é, síL, (h)ed> he, she, it
+ emphasizing particle 3rd person singular masculine <seom, som> he, it --
5.313
héuin
noun; aspirated nominative plural masculine, o-stem, of <én> bird -- 1.269
hi
preposition; <in, iN> in, into -- 5.33, 5.202, 5.262
hiat
personal pronoun; aspirated 3rd person plural <iat> they -- 10.170
hilblátha
195
noun; compound of aspirated <il> many, numerous + nominative plural
masculine, u-stem, of <bláth> flower, blossom; bloom -- 7.133
himgabáil
verbal noun; aspirated dative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <imgabál, imgabáil>
avoiding; evasion -- 8.292
himmáin
verbal noun; aspirated dative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <immáin> driving;
roaming, wandering about -- 2.298
hí
personal pronoun; 3rd person singular feminine of <(h)é, síL, (h)ed> he, she, it -
- 10.56
hÍtha
see Muighi hÍtha
hUltu
proper name; aspirated accusative plural masculine, o-stem, of <Ulaid>
Ulidians, Ulstermen -- 1.54
hume
noun; accusative singular neuter, yo-stem, of <(h)ume, (h)umae> copper --
6.138
hÚa mic Úais
proper name masculine; aspirated accusative plural of <Ó mac Úais> the
grandson of the son of the Noble one -- 9.112
.i.
abbreviation of <ed-ón> that is -- 1.133, 3.185, 5.20, 8.120, 9.9, 9.23, 9.94, 9.101,
9.137
i
preposition; <in, iN> in, into -- 5.204, 7.7, 8.257, 10.57, 10.91, 10.118
iar
preposition; <íarN, íarmL-> after -- 10.145
iarn
noun; accusative singular neuter, o-stem, of <iarn> iron -- 6.125
iarum
pronominalized preposition; 3rd person singular neuter dative of <íarN, íarmL->
after -- 8.99
ic
preposition; variant of <oc> at, with, by -- 8.178
ille
adverb; <illei, ille> hither; since; moreover -- 3.92
Iṁriḋ
see nDún Iṁriḋ
im
preposition; <imbL, immL> around, about; mutually -- 9.33
imḋai
noun; dative singular feminine, yā-stem, of <imdae> bed, couch -- 2.28
imdadai
noun; variant of nominative plural feminine, yā-stem, of <imdae> bed, couch --
10.193
imdích
<im(m)°dích> defends, protects -- 6.64
196
imdídnathar
<im(m)°dídnathar> protects, releases, exempts -- 6.65
imL
imL
preposition; compound form of preposition <in, iN> in, into + possessive
pronoun 1st person singular <moL, mL> my -- 4.171, 4.178
imm
noun; dative singular masculine, n-stem, of <im(m)> butter -- 10.149, 10.192
imm
immach
adverb; <immach> out of, out -- 2.46
immáin
verbal noun; dative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <immáin> driving; roaming,
wandering about -- 2.282
imme
preposition; compound form of preposition <imbL, immL> around, about;
mutually + suffixed relative particle <-e> who, which -- 7.16
immi
<imbL, immL> around, about; mutually -- 2.275
L
immot
preposition; compound form of preposition; <imbL, immL> around, about;
mutually + possessive pronoun 2nd person singular <doL, tL> your -- 4.41
immum
pronominalized preposition; 1st person singular accusative of <imbL, immL>
around, about; mutually -- 5.115
impe
pronominalized preposition; 3rd person singular feminine accusative of <imbL,
immL> around, about; mutually -- 2.239
iN
preposition; <in, iN> in, into -- 1.10, 1.42, 1.97, 1.185, 1.282, 2.8, 2.177, 2.262, 3.21,
3.193, 4.152
in
article; accusative singular feminine of <in, aN, indL> the -- 5.141
in
article; accusative singular masculine of <in, aN, indL> the -- 10.114, 10.133,
10.142
in
article; nominative plural masculine of <in, aN, indL> the -- 7.66
in
article; nominative singular feminine of <in, aN, indL> the -- 5.233, 8.174
in
article; nominative singular masculine of <in, aN, indL> the -- 1.205, 1.208, 2.388,
3.181, 3.198, 8.150, 9.132
H
ina
article; genitive singular feminine of <in, aN, indL> the -- 3.203
inaH
197
preposition; compound form of preposition <in, iN> in, into + suffixed
possessive pronoun 3rd person singular feminine <aH> her -- 2.257, 3.201
inaL
possessive pronoun 3rd person singular masculine <aL> his, its -- 2.33, 2.69,
2.84, 3.8, 3.46
inaN
possessive pronoun 3rd person plural <aN> their -- 2.145
Inbiur Domnand
toponym; dative singular of <Inber Domnann> Rivermouth Domnann -- 9.15
ind
article; accusative singular feminine of <in, aN, indL> the -- 1.187
ind
article; genitive singular neuter of <in, aN, indL> the -- 8.88
ind
article; nominative singular feminine of <in, aN, indL> the -- 4.175, 8.69, 8.117
ind
preposition; <in, iN> in, into -- 9.92
inde
conjunction; compound form of conjunction <in, iN> when + archaic infixed
pronoun 3rd person singular feminine <deH, den> she -- 6.273
inden
conjunction; compound form of conjunction <in, iN> when + archaic infixed
pronoun 3rd person singular feminine <deH, den> she -- 6.276
indis
see ro indis
indisfither
verb; future indicative passive singular, absolute, of <indis(s)id> tells -- 10.55
indL
article; genitive singular masculine of <in, aN, indL> the -- 2.214, 4.66, 4.154
L
ind
article; nominative plural masculine of <in, aN, indL> the -- 1.158
inġen
noun; nominative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <ingen> daughter -- 1.103
ingen
noun; nominative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <ingen> daughter -- 8.202
ingin
noun; dative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <ingen> daughter -- 8.13
inis
noun; nominative singular feminine, ī-stem, of <inis> island -- 7.6
inL
article; genitive singular masculine of <in, aN, indL> the -- 1.284, 2.175, 2.211,
2.251, 2.264
L
in
article; nominative singular feminine of <in, aN, indL> the -- 2.294, 2.318, 2.361,
2.373, 3.77, 3.145, 4.10
inlaat
verb; 3rd person plural present indicative active, deuterotonic, of <in°lá>
undertakes, arranges, adjusts -- 1.68
198
inN
article; accusative singular feminine of <in, aN, indL> the -- 2.168, 3.171, 4.20
inN
article; accusative singular masculine of <in, aN, indL> the -- 2.31, 2.192
N
in
preposition; <in, iN> in, into -- 3.24, 3.27, 3.30, 3.33, 3.36, 4.156
inna
article; variant of nominative plural masculine of <in, aN, indL> the -- 7.132
inna
innaL
possessive pronoun 3rd person singular masculine <aL> his, its -- 1.99, 1.238
innaN
possessive pronoun 3rd person plural <aN> their -- 1.131
inneltiu
adjective; dative singular masculine of preterite indicative passive participle
<inneltae> yoked, harnessed -- 2.86
insnádat
verb; 3rd person plural present indicative active, deuterotonic, of <in°snádi>
defers, puts off -- 6.294
insoet
verb; 3rd person plural present indicative active, deuterotonic, of <in°soí>
turns, returns -- 6.290
is
verb; 3rd person singular present indicative, absolute, of copula <is> is -- 1.115,
1.293, 2.340, 3.67, 3.154, 3.189, 3.207, 5.164, 5.250, 6.81, 6.105, 7.49, 7.165, 7.209,
8.79, 8.147, 9.5, 10.78
is
verb; 3rd person singular present indicative, absolute, syntactically relative, of
is
verb; variant of participle present of copula <is> is -- 10.190
isin
preposition; compound form of <in, iN> in, into + dative singular neuter of
article <in, aN, indL> the -- 7.86, 7.222
L
issind
preposition; compound form of preposition <in, iN> in, into + accusative
singular masculine of article <in, aN, indL> the -- 4.43
issindL
preposition; compound form of preposition <in, iN> in, into + dative singular
masculine of article <in, aN, indL> the -- 4.195
L
issin
masculine of article <in, aN, indL> the -- 2.234
issinL
neuter of article <in, aN, indL> the -- 2.112
199
issinN
singular feminine of article <in, aN, indL> the -- 4.150
issinN
singular masculine of article <in, aN, indL> the -- 4.180
it
verb; 2nd person singular present indicative, absolute, of copula <is> is -- 10.14
itchonnarc
verb; 1st person singular past indicative active, deuterotonic, of <ad°cí, at°chí>
sees -- 10.103
itchuala
verb; 1st person singular past indicative active, deuterotonic, of <at°chluin>
hears -- 10.13
itL
possessive pronoun 2nd person singular <doL, tL> your -- 4.123
iumdai
adjective; nominative plural masculine of <im(m)da> many, abundant -- 10.198
í
demonstrative particle; <í> this, these, those -- 3.223
íar
preposition; <íarN, íarmL-> after -- 7.53, 9.126
íarairsom
noun; accusative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <íarar, íarair> search +
emphasizing particle; 3rd person singular masculine <seom, som> he, it -- 5.221
íarmo
adverb; <íarmo> behind -- 6.49
íarN
preposition; <íarN, íarmL-> after -- 2.44
íaruṁ
after -- 2.158, 2.172, 3.11, 3.23, 3.40, 3.87
íarum
after -- 5.153
íascach
noun; dative singular masculine, o-stem, of <íascach> fishing -- 9.52
ícc
noun; nominative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <ícc> cure; solution -- 4.71,
4.128
íL
personal pronoun; 3rd person singular feminine of <(h)é, síL, (h)ed> he, she, it -
- 2.60, 2.372
Ítha
proper name masculine; genitive singular of <Íth> Ith -- 9.102
la
preposition; <laH> among, by, with -- 5.281, 5.283, 6.110, 8.121, 9.12, 9.90, 9.96,
9.99, 9.108, 9.111
laa
200
noun; accusative singular neuter, yo-stem, of <láaN, láN> day, daylight -- 8.176
H
la
preposition; <laH> among, by, with -- 1.53
Laigniu
proper name masculine; accusative plural of <Laigni> Leinstermen,
Leinsterwomen -- 9.100
lat
pronominalized preposition; 2nd person singular accusative of <laH> among,
by, with -- 5.132
Latharna
see Magh Latharna
lá
noun; nominative singular neuter, yo-stem, of <láaN, láN> day, daylight -- 5.183
láaN
noun; accusative singular neuter, yo-stem, of <láaN, láN> day, daylight -- 1.73
lár
noun; accusative singular neuter, o-stem, of <lár> floor, surface; middle -- 2.256
lár
noun; dative singular masculine, o-stem, of <lár> floor, surface; middle --
10.137
lár
noun; dative singular neuter, o-stem, of <lár> floor, surface; middle -- 2.36
le
preposition; <laH> among, by, with -- 5.68
leis
pronominalized preposition; 3rd person singular masculine accusative of <laH>
among, by, with -- 8.119
leith
noun; dative singular neuter, s-stem, of <leth> side, direction -- 1.241
leṁ
pronominalized preposition; 1st person singular accusative of <laH> among, by,
with -- 3.184
lem
with -- 8.81
lemnachta
noun; genitive singular masculine, i-stem, of <lemnacht> new/fresh milk --
10.135
les
noun; accusative singular masculine, o-stem, of <les> yard -- 2.50
lessa
noun; compound form of accusative singular masculine, u-stem, of <les>
remedy; advantage + emphasizing particle 1st person singular <se, sa> I -- 8.98,
8.137
lessu
noun; compound form of accusative singular masculine, u-stem, of <les>
remedy; advantage + emphasizing particle 2nd person singular <siu, so, su> you
-- 8.54
let
201
pronominalized preposition; 2nd person singular accusative of <laH> among,
by, with -- 8.149
leth
noun; nominative singular neuter, s-stem, of <leth> side, direction -- 2.124
Letrech
see Cill Letrech
leu
pronominalized preposition; 3rd person plural accusative of <laH> among, by,
with -- 1.149, 1.211
leusoṁ
pronominalized preposition; 3rd person plural accusative of <laH> among, by,
with + emphasizing particle 3rd person plural <seom, som> he, it -- 1.85
lé
pronominalized preposition; 3rd person singular feminine accusative of <laH>
among, by, with -- 2.244
léibend
noun; nominative singular masculine, o-stem, of <léibend, léibenn> level
surface -- 10.187
lérgníma
noun; compound of adjective <léir> diligent + genitive singular masculine, u-
stem, of <gním> action, work -- 10.144
Liadaine
proper name feminine; genitive singular of <Líadain> Liadain -- 5.6
liḃ
pronominalized preposition; 2nd person plural accusative of <laH> among, by,
with -- 2.296
Lii
see Mag Lii
limsa
with + emphasizing particle 1st person singular <se, sa> I -- 8.165
linn
noun; accusative singular feminine, yā-stem, of <linn> pool, lake, sea -- 4.151
lí
noun; nominative singular feminine, guttural stem, of <lí> beauty, lustre, glory;
colour -- 7.50
Líadain
proper name feminine; accusative singular of <Líadain> Liadain -- 5.180
Líadain
proper name feminine; nominative singular of <Líadain> Liadain -- 5.16, 5.247
Líadain
proper name feminine; vocative singular of <Líadain> Liadain -- 5.82
líga
noun; nominative plural feminine, guttural stem, of <lí> beauty, lustre, glory;
colour -- 7.189
lín
noun; nominative singular neuter, o-stem, of <lín> full number; number -- 9.29
llá
noun; nasalized accusative singular neuter, yo-stem, of <láaN, láN> day, daylight
-- 4.188
202
lles
noun; accusative singular masculine, u-stem, of <les> remedy; advantage --
8.214
loch
noun; accusative singular masculine, u-stem, of <loch> lake, firth; pool --
10.134
loiti
verb; 3rd person singular present indicative active, conjunct, of <lottid>
injures, spoils, destroys -- 5.112
Loíg
see Fertai Loíg
lommnán
noun; nominative singular masculine of <lom(m)nán> abundance -- 10.121
lossa
noun; accusative plural masculine, u-stem, of <luss, lus> herb, plant, vegetable
-- 1.41
lotir
verb; 3rd person plural preterite indicative of <luith, luid> moves; flies -- 1.280
Lóeġuire
proper name masculine; nominative singular of <Lóegaire, Lóeguire> Loegaire -
- 1.136
Lóeg
proper name masculine; accusative singular of <Lóeg> Laeg -- 2.81, 2.102
Lóeg
proper name masculine; nominative singular of <Lóeg> Laeg -- 2.115, 2.137
lóeg
noun; nominative singular masculine, o-stem, of <lóeg> calf -- 3.199
luaith
noun; nominative singular feminine, i-stem, of <lúaith> ashes -- 8.266
Luamnach
see Luth Luamnach
luid
verb; 3rd person singular preterite indicative, absolute, of <téit> goes -- 5.29,
5.197
luirg
noun; nominative plural masculine, o-stem, of <lorg> trail, path, course -- 1.243
luithir
verb; 3rd person singular present indicative passive, absolute, of <luith, luid>
moves; flies -- 6.266
lurg
noun; dative singular masculine, o-stem, of <lorg> trail, path, course -- 1.239
Luth Luamnach
proper name feminine; dative singular of <Luth Luamnach> the Fury of the
Pilotage -- 9.38
ṁacḋacht
indeclinable; <macdacht> adult -- 1.107
ṁaiġ
noun; dative singular neuter, s-stem, of <mag> plain, field -- 2.113
ṁuintir
203
noun; accusative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <muinter> family; party,
followers; retinue, company -- 1.322
m'
possessive pronoun; 1st person singular, shortened from <moL, mL> my -- 10.28
mac
see Cuirithir mac Doborchon, Chicul mac Guil meic Gairb meic Túathaigh meic
Gúmóir, Fea mac Tortán meic Srú meic Esrú
mac
noun; nominative singular masculine, o-stem, of <macc, mac> son -- 5.95
Mac Con Glinne
proper name masculine; nominative singular of <Mac Con Glinne> Son of the
Hound of the Valley -- 10.9, 10.52
mad
verb; compound form of adverb <má, ma> if + 3rd person singular present
subjunctive of copula <is> is -- 8.58
Mael Fothartaig
proper name masculine; accusative singular masculine of <Mael Fothartaig>
Mael Fothartaig -- 8.17, 8.122, 8.181
Mael Fothartaig
proper name masculine; nominative singular masculine of <Mael Fothartaig>
Mael Fothartaig -- 8.44
maġ
noun; accusative singular neuter, s-stem, of <mag> plain, field -- 1.22
Mag Lii
toponym; nominative singular of <Mag Lí> the Field of Beauty -- 9.110
Magh Latharna
toponym; nominative singular of <Mag Latharna> the Field of Lathairn -- 9.107
Magh nEthrige
toponym; nominative singular of <Mag nEthrige> the Field of Ethrag -- 9.95
Magh nÍtha
toponym; variant of nominative singular of <Mag Ítha> the Field of Ith -- 9.98
maic
see Dáiri maic Ḟiachnai
maiġe
noun; accusative plural neuter, s-stem, of <mag> plain, field -- 1.191
maig
noun; dative singular neuter, s-stem, of <mag> plain, field -- 7.87, 7.223
maige
noun; accusative plural neuter, s-stem, of <mag> plain, field -- 7.200
maith
adjective; nominative singular feminine of <maith> good -- 5.268
maith
adjective; nominative singular neuter of <maith> good -- 8.80
maith
adjective; used as adverb; <maith> good -- 8.130, 10.5
maithi
noun; nominative plural masculine, i-stem, of adjective <maith> good -- 1.8
maithsiu
adjective; compound form of nominative singular masculine of <maith> good +
emphasizing particle 2nd person singular <siu, so, su> you -- 10.15
204
manimL
conjunction; compound form of negative conjunction <mani> if not + infixed
pronoun 1st person singular <mL, mmL> I -- 4.76, 4.133
marb
adjective; nominative singular feminine of <marb> dead -- 8.41
marbso
adjective; compound form of nominative singular feminine of <marb> dead +
emphasizing particle 2nd person singular <siu, so, su> you -- 8.163
marbtha
verbal noun; genitive singular masculine, u-stem, of <marbad> killing, slaying -
- 8.207
maróca
noun; nominative plural feminine, ā-stem, of <maróc> sausage -- 10.165
már
noun; accusative singular neuter, o-stem, of <már, mór> big, great -- 6.101
máthair
noun; nominative singular feminine, r-stem, of <máthir, máthair> mother --
9.40
mba
verb; nasalized 3rd person singular future indicative, conjunct, of copula <is> is
-- 4.46
mbátar
verb; nasalized 3rd person plural preterite indicative, syntactically relative, of
mbethu
noun; dative singular masculine, dental stem, of <bethu> life, existence -- 3.194
mbéraind
verb; nasalized 1st person singular past subjunctive active, conjunct, of <berid>
carries, brings -- 10.33
mbláthaib
noun; nasalized dative plural masculine, u-stem, of <bláth> flower, blossom;
bloom -- 7.145
mbliadna
noun; nasalized genitive plural feminine, ī-stem, of <blíadain> year -- 9.125
mboin
noun; nasalized accusative singular feminine, irregular, of <bó> cow, ox -- 3.37,
3.172
mboí
verb; nasalized 3rd person singular preterite indicative of substantive verb
<attá> is -- 2.6, 5.201
mbó
noun; nasalized genitive plural feminine, irregular, of <bó> cow, ox -- 4.168
mbu
verb; nasalized 3rd person singular preterite indicative, conjunct, of copula
<is> is -- 2.59
mbúaid
noun; nasalized dative singular neuter, i-stem, of <boid, búaid> victory;
excellence, special quality; advantage -- 7.54
mecnu
noun; accusative plural masculine, o-stem, of <mecon, mecan> root -- 1.37
205
meic
see Chicul mac Guil meic Gairb meic Túathaigh meic Gúmóir, Fea mac Tortán
meic Srú meic Esrú
meṁais
verb; 3rd person singular future indicative, absolute, of <maidid> breaks,
bursts -- 4.174
mé
independent personal pronoun; 1st person singular <mé> I -- 5.246
mic
see hÚa mic Úais
min
noun; nominative singular feminine of <men, min> powder, dust -- 8.264
mind
noun; accusative singular neuter, o-stem, of <mind> crown, diadem, summit --
6.89
mí
noun; accusative singular masculine, s-stem, of <mí> month -- 5.185
mí
noun; nominative singular masculine, s-stem, of <mí> month -- 5.187
mír
noun; nominative dual masculine, o-stem, of <mír> morsel, mouthful, portion -
- 10.84
mmag
noun; nasalized nominative singular neuter, s-stem, of <mag> plain, field --
7.63
mmeṁa
verb; 3rd person singular future indicative, conjunct, of <maidid> breaks,
bursts -- 4.120
mnaí
noun; accusative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <ben> woman, wife -- 8.271
mnaí
noun; nasalized accusative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <ben> woman, wife --
3.25
mo
possessive pronoun; 1st person singular of <moL, mL> my -- 5.113, 5.126, 5.264,
5.269, 5.314, 5.330, 8.97, 8.136, 8.206, 10.105
mochtide
adjective; nominative singular masculine of <mochtide> great, mighty -- 6.88
moigi
noun; nominative plural neuter, s-stem, of <mag> plain, field -- 9.88
moíthgnatha
adjective; compound form of <moíth> gentle, tender + accusative plural neuter,
o-stem, of <gnáth> usual, customary; known -- 7.201
mór
adjective; nominative singular masculine of <már, mór> big, great -- 1.309,
2.261, 4.48
mórchathu
noun; compound form of adjective <már, mór> big, great + lenited accusative
plural masculine, u-stem, of <cath> battle, fight -- 3.239
mórthimchell
206
adverb; dative singular masculine, o-stem, of <mórthimchell> great circuit --
10.160
muige
noun; genitive singular masculine, s-stem, of <mag> plain, field -- 10.138
Muighi hÍtha
toponym; genitive singular of <Mag Ítha> the Field of Ith -- 9.61
muindtir
noun; dative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <muinter> family; party, followers;
retinue, company -- 9.136
'na
preposition; compound of <in, iN> in, into + possessive pronoun 3rd person
singular masculine <aL> his, its -- 10.159
na
article; genitive plural of <in, aN, indL> the -- 5.206, 8.18
na
dependent negative particle; <ná, na> not, nor -- 1.38, 2.330, 6.70
na
nasalized possessive pronoun; 3rd person singular masculine <aL> his, its --
10.92
na
possessive pronoun; nasalized 3rd person plural <aN> their -- 10.167
na
possessive pronoun; nasalized 3rd person singular masculine <aL> his, its --
10.146
nacca
verb; nasalized 1st person singular preterite indicative active, prototonic, of
<ad°cí, at°chí> sees -- 10.113, 10.132, 10.141
naccae
verb; nasalized 3rd person singular preterite indicative active, prototonic, of
<ad°cí, at°chí> sees -- 2.79
naccatar
verb; nasalized 3rd person plural preterite indicative active, prototonic, of
<ad°cí, at°chí> sees -- 2.190
nach
negative particle; compound form of negative <nad> not + 3rd person singular
present indicative, conjunct, of copula <is> is -- 2.386, 3.26, 3.29, 3.32, 3.35,
8.211
naH
article; genitive singular feminine of <in, aN, indL> the -- 2.283, 2.314, 3.242
naicc
negative particle; <naicc> no, not -- 3.19
naicsiu
verbal noun; nasalized nominative singular feminine, n-stem, of <aicsiu>
seeing -- 1.56
nairlise
noun; nasalized genitive plural feminine, yā-stem, of <airlise> forecourt,
enclosure -- 6.102
L
na
verbal particle; compound form of verbal particle <no> (introduces imperfect)
+ infixed pronoun 3rd person singular neuter <aL> it -- 1.32
207
nand
pronominalized preposition; nasalized 3rd person singular neuter dative of
<in, iN> in, into -- 1.74, 8.177
nAraidhi
see Dál nAraidhi
nariḋin
noun; nasalized accusative singular masculine, n-stem, of <aride, airide> bench
-- 2.32
nattan
noun; nasalized dative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <attan, attain> another
time -- 4.157
ná
dependent negative particle; <ná, na> not, nor -- 1.40, 1.179, 1.181, 5.78, 5.111,
8.27
nánradu
noun; nasalized accusative plural masculine, o-stem, of <ánrad> hero, warrior,
champion -- 3.236
náth
noun; nasalized accusative singular masculine, u-stem, of <áth> ford -- 4.181
náuderg
adjective; nasalized compound of <áu> ear + genitive plural feminine of
adjective <derg> red -- 4.170
ndaiṁ
noun; nasalized dative singular feminine, u-stem, of <dom, dam> house, home -
- 1.162
ndechuiḋ
verb; nasalized 3rd person singular perfect indicative, prototonic, of <téit>
goes -- 2.217
ndegae
noun; nasalized genitive plural feminine, i-stem, of <daig> flame, fire; pang --
5.328
ndernad
verb; nasalized 3rd person singular perfect subjunctive, prototonic, of <do°gní>
does; makes -- 8.263
ndénainn
verb; 1st person singular past subjunctive active, prototonic, syntactically
nDésse
proper name; nasalized genitive plural masculine, i-stem, of <déis> vassal --
5.207
ndiaiḋ
noun; nasalized accusative singular neuter, o-stem, of <dead, diad> end -- 2.146
ndís
verb; nasalized 2nd person singular present subjunctive active, prototonic, of
<do°icc, tic(c), tig> approaches; gets; comes -- 5.97
ndíuchrastar
verb; nasalized 3rd person singular preterite indicative, prototonic, of
<do°fíuch(t)ra> wakes up -- 2.22
nDún Iṁriḋ
toponym; nasalized dative singular of <Dún Imrid> Fort Imrid -- 2.9
208
nech
noun; nasalized accusative singular masculine, o-stem, of <ech> horse -- 3.31
nEṁuin
toponym; nasalized dative singular feminine, i-stem, of <Emain, Emuin> Emain
Macha -- 1.11
netarcéin
noun; nasalized dative singular neuter of <etercían> far, distant, remote -- 7.8
nEthrige
see Magh nEthrige
nÉre
toponym; nasalized dative singular feminine, n-stem, of <Ériu> Ireland -- 1.186
ngabáil
noun; nasalized dative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <gabál, gabáil> taking,
conquest -- 9.127
ngairet
verb; nasalized 3rd person plural present indicative active, conjunct,
syntactically relative, of <gairid> calls -- 7.154
ngéim
verbal noun; nasalized accusative singular neuter, n-stem, of <géim> roaring
(of cattle) -- 2.13
ni
independent negative particle; <ní, ni> not -- 3.129
nicotL
independent negative; compound form of negative particle <nícon, nicon> not
+ infixed pronoun 2nd person singular <totL, tatL, tL> you -- 4.69, 4.126
nimderga
verb; nasalized 3rd person singular present subjunctive active, prototonic,
nasalizing relative, of <im(m)°derga> reddens -- 6.103
ní
indefinite pronoun; accusative singular neuter of <ní> something, anything --
2.11, 2.80, 2.191, 3.20
ní
independent negative particle; <ní, ni> not -- 1.176, 2.292, 2.308, 2.327, 3.104,
5.105, 5.295, 5.310, 6.100, 6.298, 8.5, 8.134, 8.237, 8.268, 10.38
nícon
independent negative particle; <nícon, nicon> not -- 5.333, 6.36
nírenn
noun; nasalized genitive singular feminine, n-stem, of <íriu> land, earth, soil --
1.60
nÍtha
see Magh nÍtha
nneoch
indefinite pronoun; nasalized dative singular neuter of <ní> something,
anything -- 3.22
no
verbal particle; introduces imperfect; <no>... -- 1.19
nocharainn
verb; 1st person singular past subjunctive active, conjunct, of <caraid> loves --
5.317
noí
209
indeclinable numeral; <noí> nine -- 1.69, 1.219, 1.242
nombiasu
verb; 2nd person singular future indicative, conjunct, syntactically relative, of
substantive verb <attá> is + emphasizing particle 2nd person singular <siu, so,
su> you -- 4.22
nommainsed
verb; compound form of 3rd person singular past subjunctive active, conjunct,
syntactically relative, of <aingid> protects + infixed pronoun 1st person
singular <mL, mmL> I -- 8.275
noscarfamais
verb; 1st person plural secondary future indicative active, conjunct,
syntactically relative, of <scaraid> separates, parts -- 3.106
notLḃenaḃsu
verb; compound form of verbal particle <no>... + infixed pronoun 2nd person
singular <totL, tatL, tL> you + 1st person singular future indicative active,
conjunct, of <benaid> beats, strikes, slays, wounds + emphasizing particle 2nd
person singular <siu, so, su> you -- 4.115
nó
conjunction; <nó> or -- 10.85, 10.110
nuile
adjective; nasalized genitive plural masculine of <uile> all, whole -- 2.346
oc
preposition; <oc> at, with, by -- 1.57, 2.87, 2.281, 3.155, 4.23, 4.159, 8.204, 10.16
H
oca
preposition; compound form of preposition <oc> at, with, by + suffixed
possessive pronoun 3rd person singular feminine <aH> her -- 2.297
ocbath
verb; 3rd person singular imperative active, prototonic, of <ocaib> raises,
exalts -- 6.15
ocus
conjunction; <ocus> and -- 1.7, 1.101, 1.135, 1.137, 1.202, 1.207, 1.327, 2.66, 2.205,
2.209, 2.236, 2.240, 2.245, 2.259, 2.276, 3.38, 3.160, 3.188, 3.206, 4.38, 4.68, 4.91,
4.125, 4.148, 4.166, 4.173, 4.182, 4.190, 5.7, 5.222, 8.95, 8.265, 9.26, 9.37, 9.53, 9.76,
9.115, 10.12, 10.82
oenur
noun; dative singular masculine, o-stem, of <oenar> one person, one alone --
8.154
oidchi
noun; accusative singular feminine, yā-stem, of <adaig> night -- 5.142
ol
indeclinable; <ol> says, said -- 2.99, 2.114, 2.125, 2.136, 2.147, 2.299, 2.317, 2.347,
2.360, 2.376, 3.58, 3.76, 3.107, 3.133, 3.144, 3.225, 4.9, 4.61, 4.113, 5.83, 5.108,
10.30
olc
noun; accusative singular neuter, o-stem, of <olc> evil, wrong; misfortune --
3.131
olc
noun; nominative singular neuter, o-stem, of <olc> evil, wrong; misfortune --
3.120
olchenae
210
adverb; <olchenae> besides -- 1.130, 1.139
olsi
indeclinable; compound form of indeclinable <ol> says, said + personal
pronoun 3rd person singular feminine <(h)é, síL, (h)ed> he, she, it -- 8.209
olsissi
indeclinable; compound form of indeclinable <ol> says, said + emphatic
personal pronoun 3rd person singular feminine <(h)é, síL, (h)ed> he, she, it --
4.147
olsí
indeclinable; compound form of indeclinable <ol> says, said + personal
pronoun 3rd person singular feminine <(h)é, síL, (h)ed> he, she, it -- 3.118,
3.162, 3.175, 4.90
or
indeclinable; variant of <ol> says, said -- 8.9, 8.31, 8.82, 8.132, 8.193, 8.228, 8.240,
8.255, 8.288, 10.51
os
verb; participle present of copula <is> is -- 1.105
ó
conjunction; <ó> since -- 5.177
ó
preposition; <óL, úaL> from, by -- 6.112
ócben
noun; compound of adjective <oac, óc> young + nominative singular feminine,
ā-stem, of <ben> woman, wife -- 8.70, 8.118
óenchoss
noun; compound of <óen-> one, single + nominative singular feminine, ā-stem,
of <coss, cos> foot, leg -- 2.206
óenech
noun; compound of <óen-> one, single + nominative singular masculine, o-
stem, of <ech> horse -- 2.202
óentaid
noun; accusative singular masculine, dental stem, of <oentu> unity, alliance,
sexual union -- 5.80
óL
preposition; <óL, úaL> from, by -- 3.90
ón
indeclinable; demonstrative pronoun neuter singular <ón> this, that -- 5.65,
5.107
ór
noun; accusative singular neuter, o-stem, of <ór> gold -- 6.164
Parrtholóin
proper name masculine; genitive singular of <Partholón> Partholon -- 9.104
Partholón
proper name masculine; accusative singular of <Partholón> Partholon -- 9.91
Partholón
proper name masculine; dative singular masculine of <Partholón> Partholon --
9.142
Partholón
proper name masculine; nominative singular of <Partholón> Partholon -- 9.57
Phartholón
211
proper name masculine; lenited dative singular of <Partholón> Partholon --
9.130
raḃ
verb; 3rd person singular RO-present subjunctive, conjunct, of copula <is> is --
3.196
raba
verb; 3rd person singular perfect indicative, conjunct, syntactically relative, of
rád
verbal noun; accusative singular masculine, o-stem, of <ráidid> saying,
uttering, speaking -- 8.87
regatsa
verb; compound form of 1st person singular future indicative, absolute, of
<téit> goes + emphasizing particle 1st person singular <se, sa> I -- 8.286
reiṁiḃ
pronominalized preposition; 3rd person plural dative of <reN> before -- 2.194
reṁiḃ
pronominalized preposition; 3rd person plural dative of <reN> before -- 1.160,
1.256, 1.281
remi
adverb; <remi> ahead -- 6.47
réiḋi
adjective; accusative plural neuter of <réid> smooth, even, level -- 1.192
réighigh
Middle Irish verbal noun; dative singular of <réidig> leveling, smoothing;
clearing (land) -- 9.106
réin
noun; genitive singular masculine, o-stem, of <rían> course, route; sea, ocean --
7.19
riacht
verb; 3rd person singular perfect indicative active, prototonic, of <ro°saig>
reaches -- 2.30
riġiḋ
noun; accusative singular feminine, dental stem, of <rig> fore-arm -- 4.99
rith
noun; nominative singular masculine, u-stem, of <rith> run, course -- 7.27
ro indis
verb; Middle Irish past indicative active, conjunct, of <indis(s)id> tells -- 10.81
rocharus
verb; 1st person singular perfect indicative active, conjunct, syntactically
relative, of <caraid> loves -- 5.237
rocharussa
verb; 1st person singular perfect indicative active, conjunct, syntactically
relative, of <caraid> loves + emphasizing particle 1st person singular <se, sa> I -
- 5.248
rocráidius
verb; 1st person singular perfect indicative active, conjunct, of <cráidid>
torments, vexes, afflicts -- 5.238
rodart
212
verb; 3rd person singular perfect indicative active, conjunct, of <dairid> bulls --
3.180
rodíthaigit
verb; 3rd person plural Middle Irish perfect indicative passive, conjunct, of
<díthaigid> destroys -- 9.78
rofeisind
verb; variant of 1st person singular preterite subjunctive active, deuterotonic,
of <ro°fitir> knows -- 3.101
rofersat
verb; 3rd person plural perfect indicative active, conjunct, of <feraid> grants,
affords, supplies, gives; performs; pours, sheds -- 9.59
rofess
verb; perfect impersonal singular, deuterotonic, of <ro°fitir> knows -- 5.332
rogab
verb; 3rd person singular perfect indicative active, conjunct, syntactically
relative, of <gaibid> takes; proceeds; recites -- 9.11
rogabais
verb; 2nd person singular perfect indicative active, absolute, of <gaibid> takes;
proceeds; recites -- 8.242
L
ro chúala
verb; 1st person singular perfect indicative active, deuterotonic, syntactically
relative, of <ro°cluinethar> hears -- 2.111
rolémasu
verb; 2nd person singular future indicative, deuterotonic, of <ro°laimethar>
dares + emphasizing particle 2nd person singular <siu, so, su> you -- 8.85
romarbad
verb; 3rd person singular perfect indicative passive, conjunct, of <marbaid>
kills -- 9.73
rombiasu
verb; compound form of nasalized 2nd person singular RO-future indicative,
conjunct, syntactically relative, of substantive verb <attá> is + emphasizing
particle 2nd person singular <siu, so, su> you -- 4.158
rond
noun; nominative singular masculine, u-stem, of <rond, ronn> chain, bond --
1.223
rop
verb; 3rd person singular RO-present subjunctive, syntactically relative, of
ropud
verb; 3rd person singular perfect subjunctive, conjunct, of copula <is> is -- 5.92
rosaig
verb; 3rd person singular present indicative active, perfective, conjunct,
syntactically relative, of <saigid> seeks, obtains -- 6.85
roscarus
verb; 1st person singular perfect indicative active, conjunct, of <scaraid>
separates, parts -- 5.178
roslechtad
verb; 3rd person singular perfect passive, conjunct, of <sligid> strikes, slays;
clears -- 9.89
rotethainn
213
verb; 3rd person singular perfect indicative active, conjunct, of <teinnid,
tennaid> cuts, cracks, breaks -- 5.329
Rónáin
proper name masculine; genitive singular of <Rónán> Ronan -- 8.272
rucad
verb; 3rd person singular perfect passive, deuterotonic, of <do°beir> brings --
5.151
rucasu
verb; compound form of 2nd person singular perfective RO-present
subjunctive active, conjunct, of <berid> carries, brings + emphasizing particle
2nd person singular <siu, so, su> you -- 10.54
ṡin
anaphoric demonstrative pronoun; lenited; <sin> this, that, those, the
aforementioned -- 3.91
ṡlóig
noun; nominative plural masculine, o-stem, of <slóg, slúag> troop, host, army -
- 6.292
ṡorchi
noun; lenited dative singular feminine, yā-stem, of <sorche, sorchae> light,
brightness -- 6.179
ṡóer
noun; lenited dative singular masculine, o-stem, of <sóer> free man -- 6.212
ṡuiḋiu
anaphoric demonstrative pronoun; lenited dative singular masculine of <sude,
suide> this one, the aforementioned -- 2.48, 2.208
ṡuiḋiu
verbal noun; lenited dative singular neuter, o-stem, of <sude, suide> sitting --
2.34
ṡúil
noun; lenited nominative singular feminine, i-stem, of <súil> eye -- 4.122
saṁaiscse
noun; nominative singular feminine, ī-stem, of <samaisc> heifer + emphasizing
particle 1st person singular <se, sa> I -- 4.143
saṁlaiḋ
adverb; <samlaid, amlaid> thus, so, in this way -- 1.252, 3.105
sceo
conjunction; <sceo> and -- 6.52, 6.54
scéith
noun; nominative plural masculine, o-stem, of <scíath> shield, wing -- 10.197
scortis
verb; 3rd person plural past subjunctive active, conjunct, of <scuirid> unyokes
-- 1.324
scuilb
noun; nominative plural masculine, o-stem, of <scolb> splinter, wattle -- 10.173
se
demonstrative pronoun; <se> this, these -- 3.73, 3.173
sech
preposition; <sech> past, beyond -- 10.88
sechaṁ
214
pronominalized preposition; 1st person singular accusative of <sech> past,
beyond -- 4.116
sechbaid
noun; nominative singular, i-stem, of <sechbaid> excess; error -- 8.238
secht
numeral; nominative plural of <sechtN> seven -- 9.124
sechtair
adverb; <sechtair> outside -- 6.301
sechtgabáil
noun; compound of <sechtN> seven + nominative singular feminine, ā-stem, of
<gabál, gabáil> taking, conquest -- 9.8, 9.64
sencharpait
noun; compound form of <sen> old + lenited genitive singular masculine, o-
stem, of <carpat> war-chariot, wagon -- 6.27
senḟonnith
noun; compound form of <sen> old + lenited genitive singular neuter, o-stem,
of <fonnat> wheel-rim -- 6.39
sethnu
preposition; <sethnu, sethno> through, across -- 2.213
sé
personal pronoun; 3rd person singular masculine <(h)é, síL, (h)ed> he, she, it --
8.194, 8.229, 8.241, 8.256, 8.289
side
anaphoric demonstrative pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <sude,
suide> this one, the aforementioned -- 5.45, 6.267, 6.293
sin
anaphoric demonstrative pronoun; <sin> this, that, those, the aforementioned
-- 1.189, 2.45, 3.224, 4.8, 4.189, 4.197, 5.143, 8.277, 10.171
sise
she, it -- 5.109
sisi
she, it -- 8.83
sithithir
adjective; equative of <síth> long -- 5.181, 5.186
sium
emphasizing particle; 3rd person singular masculine <seom, som> he, it -- 5.198
sí
personal pronoun 3rd person singular feminine of <(h)é, síL, (h)ed> he, she, it --
5.30, 5.218, 8.10, 8.133
síar
adverb; <síar> backwards, back -- 2.253
síḋ
noun; dative singular neuter, s-stem, of <síd> fairy fort -- 3.177
síL
personal pronoun 3rd person singular feminine of <(h)é, síL, (h)ed> he, she, it --
1.106, 1.116
síthḃe
noun; nominative singular neuter, yo-stem, of <síthbe> pole, shaft -- 2.210
215
Sléib Émóir
toponym; dative singular of <Slíab Émóir> Emoir Hill -- 9.36
sliġeḋ
verb; 3rd person singular imperfect indicative active, conjunct, of <sligid>
strikes, slays; clears -- 2.255
Slíaḃ Fúait
toponym; accusative singular of <Slíab Fúait> Wooden Hill -- 1.164
slógaib
noun; dative plural masculine, o-stem, of <slóg, slúag> troop, host, army --
6.288
snechtae
noun; nominative singular masculine, yo-stem, of <snechtae, snechta> snow --
1.308
snig
verb; 3rd person singular present indicative, conjunct, syntactically relative, of
<snigid> pours down, flows, drops -- 7.131
so
demonstrative pronoun; <so> this, these -- 2.316, 3.205
soḋsa
noun; nominative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <sod, sad> bitch, wolf-bitch +
soithcedach
adjective; nominative singular masculine of <soithcedach> prosperous,
fortunate -- 6.300
soí
verb; 3rd person singular present indicative active, conjunct, of <soith> turns -
- 6.299
som
emphasizing particle; 3rd person singular masculine <seom, som> he, it --
5.152, 5.167
sreth
noun; nominative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <sreth> strewing; arrangement
-- 7.52, 7.212
Srú
sube
noun; nominative singular neuter, yo-stem, of <subae> joy, pleasure, happiness
-- 7.211
suḋiu
verbal noun; dative singular neuter, yo-stem, of <sude, suide> sitting -- 1.98
suíthi
noun; genitive singular masculine, yo-stem, of <suíthe> wisdom, knowledge --
6.90
sund
adverb; <sund> here -- 9.6
súile
noun; genitive plural feminine, i-stem, of <súil> eye -- 7.51
t'
possessive pronoun; 2nd person singular of <doL, tL> your -- 8.153, 10.58
tacarthaib
216
noun; dative plural neuter, yo-stem, of <tacre, tacrae> pleading, declaration,
dispute -- 6.129
tair
adverb; <tair> in front -- 6.51
taitnet
verb; 3rd person plural present indicative, prototonic, of <do°aitni> shines, is
refulgent -- 7.17, 7.188
taitni
verb; 3rd person singular present indicative, prototonic, of <do°aitni> shines, is
refulgent -- 7.107
talman
noun; genitive singular masculine/feminine, n-stem, of <talam> earth, ground
-- 10.37
tan
noun; used as conjunction; accusative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <tan, tain>
time -- 10.157
tar
preposition; <tar> across, over -- 1.163, 1.165, 1.167
tarḃ
noun; nominative singular masculine, o-stem, of <tarb> bull -- 3.186
tathigtis
verb; 3rd person plural imperfect indicative active, conjunct, of <taithigid>
frequents, practices -- 1.20
Táin
noun; dative singular feminine, i-stem, of <Táin> Tain, cattle-raid -- 3.222
Táin Bó Cúailngi
noun; accusative singular feminine, i-stem, of <Táin Bó Cúailnge> Cattle-Raid
of Cuailnge -- 3.210
Táno
noun; genitive singular feminine, i-stem, of <Táin> Tain, cattle-raid -- 3.243
tánuc
verb; 1st person singular past indicative, prototonic, of <do°icc, tic(c), tig>
approaches; gets; comes -- 10.158
tech
noun; accusative singular masculine, s-stem, of <teg, tech> house, dwelling --
10.115, 10.143
tened
noun; genitive singular feminine, dental stem, of <tene, teine> fire -- 8.259
ténaṁar
noun; compound of <én> bird + nominative singular masculine, o-stem, of
<amar> singing, song -- 1.209
ténlorg
noun; compound of <én> bird + nominative singular masculine, o-stem, of
<lorg> trail, path, course -- 1.206
th'
possessive pronoun; 2nd person singular, variant of <doL, tL> your -- 10.41
thanaig
noun; lenited dative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <tanach> pressed cheese --
10.200
thig
217
noun; lenited dative singular neuter, s-stem, of <teg, tech> house, dwelling --
5.130
thimm
adjective; dative singular feminine of <timm> soft, pliant; feeble -- 10.201
thír
noun; lenited accusative singular neuter, s-stem, of <tír> earth, territory, land -
- 1.184
thoichib
noun; lenited dative plural neuter of <toich> natural, proper -- 6.127
thráthaib
noun; lenited dative plural neuter, u-stem, of <tráth> period of time,
(canonical) hour -- 7.157
thrí
numeral; lenited accusative singular masculine of <trí, tri, teoir> three -- 8.261
thugaid
noun; lenited dative singular feminine, dental stem, of <tuga> thatch -- 10.147
tiġḃae
adjective; nominative singular masculine of <tigbae> surviving -- 3.241
tiġe
noun; genitive singular neuter, s-stem, of <teg, tech> house, dwelling -- 1.333
tíaġait
verb; 3rd person plural present indicative, absolute, of <téit> goes -- 2.156,
2.187
tír
noun; dative singular neuter, s-stem, of <tír> earth, territory, land -- 5.205
tír
noun; nominative singular neuter, s-stem, of <tír> earth, territory, land -- 7.119
tís
verb; 2nd person singular present subjunctive, prototonic, of <do°icc, tic(c),
tig> approaches; gets; comes -- 5.124
tochoṁracht
verbal noun; nominative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <tochomracht> distress,
weariness, vexation -- 1.52
toingte
verb; 3rd person plural present indicative, absolute, relative of <tongaid>
swears, takes an oath -- 4.111
toingthe
verb; 3rd person plural present indicative, absolute, relative of <tongaid>
swears, takes an oath -- 4.59
toíbgel
adjective; compound of <toíb> side + nominative singular masculine of <gel>
fair, white, bright -- 7.30
toléci
verb; 3rd person singular present indicative active, deuterotonic, of <do°léici>
yields -- 6.176, 6.187, 6.198, 6.209, 6.220, 6.231, 6.242, 6.253
tongusa
verb; 1st person singular present indicative, absolute, of <tongaid> swears,
takes an oath + emphasizing particle 1st person singular <se, sa> I -- 4.108
tonnat
218
verb; 3rd person plural present indicative active, prototonic, of <do°sná>
swims -- 7.31
Tortán
toscartha
verb; 3rd person plural preterite indicative passive, deuterotonic, of
<do°scara> overthrows, ruins -- 1.267
tra
adverb; <trá, tra> then, well, so, indeed, moreover -- 8.131
trá
adverb; <trá, tra> then, well, so, indeed, moreover -- 10.68
tráth
noun; accusative singular neuter, u-stem, of <tráth> period of time, (canonical)
hour -- 7.180
tre
preposition; <triL, treL> through -- 6.82, 7.108, 7.120, 7.166
tresna
article; compound form of <triL, treL> through + accusative plural neuter of <in,
aN, indL> the -- 7.199
L
triana
preposition; compound form of preposition <triL, treL> through + suffixed
triúr
personal numeral; dative singular masculine of <triar> three people -- 10.111
trí
numeral; nominative plural masculine of <trí, tri, teoir> three -- 10.87
trí cóica
numeral; compound form of masculine of <trí, tri, teoir> three + nominative
singular masculine of <coíca> fifty -- 9.27
tríH
numeral; nominative plural masculine of <trí, tri, teoir> three -- 1.268
trít
pronominalized preposition; 3rd person singular masculine accusative of <triL,
treL> through -- 2.219
trócairi
noun; accusative singular feminine, yā-stem, of <trócaire> mercy -- 6.16
tṡlúaig
noun; lenited nominative plural masculine, o-stem, of <slóg, slúag> troop, host,
army -- 7.67
tú
personal pronoun; 2nd person singular <tú> you -- 3.103
túaithbiul
noun; dative singular masculine, o-stem, of <túaithbel> left-hand side -- 6.55
túath
noun; genitive plural feminine, ā-stem, of <tóth, túath> tribe, people -- 6.128
Túathaigh
uair
conjunction; <úair, uair> since -- 8.210
ucut
219
adverb; <ucut> yonder -- 8.152
uile
adjective; accusative singular neuter of <uile> all, whole -- 8.278
uile
adjective; nominative singular feminine of <uile> all, whole -- 4.177
uili
adjective; nominative plural masculine of <uile> all, whole -- 7.178
uird
noun; genitive singular masculine, o-stem, of <ord> arrangement -- 10.164
UlaḋN
noun; genitive plural masculine, o-stem, of <Ulaid> Ulidians, Ulstermen -- 1.9,
1.129, 1.299, 2.345
Ulaiḋ
proper name; nominative plural masculine, o-stem, of <Ulaid> Ulidians,
Ulstermen -- 4.60, 4.112
úaimLse
pronominalized preposition; compound form of 1st person singular dative of
<óL, úaL> from, by + emphasizing particle 1st person singular <se, sa> I -- 4.72,
4.129
Úais
see hÚa mic Úais
220

Gramática de Antiguo Irlandés

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Gramática de Antiguo Irlandés

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Old Irish Grammar

Irish is one of the so-called Celtic languages, a sub-family of Indo-European. The

The First Celtic-

1.the specific linguistic features (isoglosses) of Common Celtic, but also

An important group of stories is centered on the dynasty of the Ulaid in

While the stories contain various mythological elements, the geographical

Reading and Textual Analysis

Boí Conchuḃur ocus maithi UlaḋN iN nEṁuin.

No tathigtis énḟlaith maġ arL Eṁuin.

• no -- verbal particle; introduces imperfect; <no>... -- ...

NaL ġelltis conná fácbatis ciḋ mecnu na fér ná lossa iN dalaṁ.

• naL -- verbal particle; compound form of verbal particle <no> (introduces

BaH tochoṁracht laH hUltu aN naicsiu oc colluḋ aN nírenn.

Inlaat noí cairptiu diaN dofunn láaN nand.

• inlaat -- verb; 3rd person plural present indicative active, deuterotonic, of

Ar baH bés leusoṁ foriṁ én.

• ar -- conjunction; <air, ar> for -- for

• Conchuḃur -- proper name masculine; nominative singular of <Conchubur,

Is síL ḃaH harae diaH hathair.

• is -- verb; 3rd person singular present indicative, absolute, of copula <is> is -- it

• Bricriu -- proper name masculine; nominative singular of <Bricriu> Bricriu --

• fosruṁat -- verb; variant of 3rd person plural present indicative, deuterotonic,

• ní -- independent negative particle; <ní, ni> not -- not

Noí fichit én dóiḃ, rond argit eter cach dáL én.

• noí -- indeclinable numeral; <noí> nine -- nine

• cach -- pronominal; nominative singular masculine of <cach, cech> each, every,

Saṁlaiḋ dáL én bátar reṁiḃ, cuing argit etarru.

• saṁlaiḋ -- adverb; <samlaid, amlaid> thus, so, in this way -- thus

Toscartha tríH héuin díḃ coH haidchi.

• toscartha -- verb; 3rd person plural preterite indicative passive, deuterotonic,

Is and baH haḋaiġ for feraiḃ UlaḋN.

• is -- verb; 3rd person singular present indicative, absolute, of copula <is> is -- is

Feraiḋ snechtae mór foraiḃ dano.

• feraiḋ -- verb; 3rd person singular present indicative active, absolute, of

• asbert -- verb; 3rd person singular preterite indicative active, deuterotonic, of

1. Spelling and Pronunciation

1.1. The Phonological System and its Orthographical Representations

The Old Irish phonological system is made up of the following phonemes:

Vowels and Diphthongs

Labial Dental Palato-

Depending on their vocalic environment, consonants can have either palatal or

• p represents [p] and [b]

The phonetic value of those letters which represent several phonemes is

As can be inferred from the reduction of unstressed syllables (viz. word-internal

2.1. The Basic Word Order of Old Irish

2.2. Word Order in Nominal Syntagms and Compounds

In nominal syntagms, the verbal or predicate element is placed at the head of

In nominal compounds, such as the determinative compounds énlorg 'flight of

2.3. Residues of the Older SOV Structure

3.1. Sentences without Verb

3.2. Nominal Forms of the Verb

3.3. Inflected Verbal Forms

Three moods are distinguished. The indicative is used in declarative statements,

In the indicative, five tenses are distinguished: present, imperfect, preterite,

Inflection may be either absolute or conjunct. Absolute inflection is employed

3.4. Impersonal Constructions

Old Irish distinguishes three grammatical genders, masculine, feminine, and

Prepositions introduce prepositional phrases, comparable to those in English,

Reading and Textual Analysis

• aN -- conjunction; <aN> as, when -- when

ÍarN sin immach doL ṡuiḋiu arL les.

• íarN -- preposition; <íarN, íarmL-> after -- after

"CiḋL dotLucai?" ol Cú Chulainn friH Lóeg.