7.

Excavation design in massive

elastic rock
 7.1 General principles of excavation
design
• Mining excavation
1) Service openings
- Mine access, ore haulage drive, airway, crusher chambers…
- Duty life: mining life of the orebody
2) Production openings
- Ore sources, stopes, drill headings, stope access…
- Duty life: life of stope (as short as a few months)
• Excavation design in massive elastic rock
- The simplest design problem in mining rock mechanics
 7.1 General principles of excavation
design
• Two points in mine design
- Existence of an extensive damage zone or failure rock near the
boundary of the opening is common even in successful mining
practice
- Basic mining design objective is to avoid large, uncontrolled
displacement of rock in the excavation boundary.

• Logical framework for mine excavation design in massive rock

- Refer to Fig 7.2
 7.2 Zone of influence of an excavation

• Zone of influence
- A domain of significant disturbance of the pre-mining stress
field by an excavation
- Depends on excavation shape and pre-mining stresses
• Stress distribution around a circular hole (Kirsch equations)
- General case:
pé æ a2 ö æ a2 a4 ö ù
s rr = ê(1 + K ) ç1 - 2 ÷ - (1 - K ) ç1 - 4 2 + 3 4 ÷ cos 2q ú
2ë è r ø è r r ø û
pé æ a2 ö æ a4 ö ù
s qq = ê(1 + K ) ç1 + 2 ÷ + (1 - K ) ç1 + 3 4 ÷ cos 2q ú
2ë è r ø è r ø û
p æ a2 a4 ö
s rq = (1 - K ) ç1 + 2 2 - 3 4 ÷ sin 2q
2 è r r ø
 7.2 Zone of influence of an
excavation
- Hydrostatic stress case:
æ a2 ö 1.04
s rr = p ç1 - 2 ÷
è r ø
æ a2 ö 0.96
s qq = p ç1 + 2 ÷
è r ø
s rq =0

1) Openings of the same

radius
- DI , II ³ 6a
(within ±5% from
the field stresses)
 7.2 Zone of influence of an
excavation
2) Openings of the different radius
- Genera rule: openings lying outside one another’s zones of influence
can be designed by ignoring the presence of all others
- Boundary stresses around II can be obtained by calculating the state of
stress at the center of II which is adopted as the far-field stresses in the
Kirsch equations, prior to its excavation.
 7.2 Zone of influence of an
excavation
3) Elliptic opening
- General shapes of openings can be represented by ellipses inscribed in
the opening cross sections.
- Zone of influence of an elliptic excavation:
1/ 2
WI = H éë Aa q ( q + 2 ) - K ( 3 + 2q ) ùû
or
1/ 2
(
WI = H éa A ( K + q 2 ) + Kq 2 ù
ë û )
1/ 2
H I = H éë Aa K (1 + 2q ) - q ( 3q + 2 ) ùû
or
1/ 2
(
H I = H éa A ( K + q 2 ) + 1 ù
ë û)
q = W H , A = 100 2c ,
a = 1, if K < 1, and a =1 K , if K > 1
 7.3 Effect of planes of weakness on
elastic stress distribution
• Elastic analysis for the excavations with discontinuities
- In some cases, provides a perfectly valid basis for design
- or a basis for judgment of engineering significance of a
discontinuity.
• Basic assumption of discontinuities
- Zero tensile strength
- Non-dilatant in shear
- Shear strength follows
t = s n tan f
 7.3 Effect of planes of weakness on
elastic stress distribution
• Case 1: Horizontal discontinuity passing through the opening
center
- s rq = 0 for all r at q = 0 : no slip, s rr and s qq are principal stresses.
- The plane of weakness (discontinuity) has no effect on the
elastic stress distribution

pé æ a2 ö æ a2 a4 ö ù
s rr = ê(1 + K ) ç1 - 2 ÷ - (1 - K ) ç1 - 4 2 + 3 4 ÷ cos 2q ú
2ë è r ø è r r ø û
pé æ a2 ö æ a4 ö ù
s qq = ê(1 + K ) ç1 + 2 ÷ + (1 - K ) ç1 + 3 4 ÷ cos 2q ú
2ë è r ø è r ø û
p æ a2 a4 ö
s rq = (1 - K ) ç1 + 2 2 - 3 4 ÷ sin 2q
2 è r r ø
 7.3 Effect of planes of weakness on
elastic stress distribution
• Case 2: Vertical discontinuity passing through the opening center
1) At K ³ 13
- s rq = 0 for all r at q = 90o: no slip, s rr and s qq are principal stresses.
2) At K < 13
- De-stressed zone from Eq.6.24
æ 2K ö
s B = p ç K -1+ ÷=0
è q ø
2K æ W 2a ö
or q = ç q = = ÷
1- K è H Hø
æ 1 - 3K ö
Dh = a ç ÷
è 2 K ø
 7.3 Effect of planes of weakness on
elastic stress distribution
• Case 3: Horizontal discontinuity passing through the opening
- Normal & shear stresses at the intersections on boundary
s n = s qq cos 2 q
t = s qq sin q cos q
t = s n tan f ( slip occurrs )
® s qq sin q cos q = s qq cos 2 q tan f
sin (q - f )
tan q = tan f or s qq =0
cos f
- Slip occurs whenq = f or s qq = 0
- Intersection regions are either
de-stressed or at low confining
stress
 7.3 Effect of planes of weakness on
elastic stress distribution
• Case 4: Arbitrary discontinuity passing through the opening center
- Normal & shear stresses on the weak plane
p æ a2 ö
s n = s qq = 1.5 ç1 + 2 ÷
2 è r ø
0.357 = tan19.6o
p æ 2a 2 3a 4 ö
t = s rq = 0.5 ç1 + 2 - 4 ÷
2 è r r ø
- Slip does not occur if f > 19.6o
 7.3 Effect of planes of weakness on
elastic stress distribution
• Case 5: Horizontal discontinuity not intersecting the opening
- Normal & shear stresses on the weak plane
1 1
sn = (s rr + s qq ) + (s rr - s qq ) cos 2a
2 2
æ a2 ö
= p ç1 - 2 cos 2a ÷
è r ø
1
t = - (s rr - s qq ) sin 2a
2
a2
= p 2 sin 2a
r
- Slip does not occur
if f > 24o
 7.4 Excavation shape and boundary stresses

• Elliptic opening
æ 2W ö
s A = p(1 - K + 2q ) = pçç1 - K + ÷
÷
è rA ø
æ 2K ö æ 2W ö÷
s B = pçç K - 1 + ÷÷ = pçç K - 1 + K
è q ø è r B ÷ø
- q = W/H
- ρ : radius of curvature
1 x¢y¢¢ - x¢¢y¢
- = 3 : curvature of an ellipse
r (x¢ 2
+ y¢ 2
) 2

- Larger curvature makes higher stress concentration

 7.4 Excavation shape and boundary stresses

• Ovaloidal opening
- Applying the boundary stress
of an ellipse inscribed in the
ovaloid
æ 2 ´ 3H ö
- s A = pç1 - 0.5 + H 2 ÷÷ = 3.96 p
ç
è ø
æ 2H ö
ç
s B = pç 0.5 - 1 + 0.5 ÷ = -0.17 p
(3 H )2
2 H ÷
è ø

- By B.E.M: sA= 3.60p, sB = -0.15p

 7.4 Excavation shape and boundary stresses

• Square opening with rounded corners

- Applying the boundary stress of an ellipse whose curvature is
the same as those of the rounded corners
æ é
s A = p ç1 - 1 + ê
2(B 2 - 0 . (
4 2 - 1))
ù
12
ö
÷
- ç 0.2 B
ú ÷
è ë û ø
= 3.53 p

- By B.E.M: sA= 3.14p

- Boundary stress is dominated
by the local geometry:
St Venant’s Principle
 7.4 Excavation shape and boundary stresses

• Effect of changing the relative dimensions

- Sidewall stress 2.5p → 1.7p
- The maximum boundary stress can be reduced if the opening
dimension is increased in the direction of the major principal
stress.
 7.4 Excavation shape and boundary stresses

• Effect of local geometry of an opening

- Width/height = 2/3
- A, B, C are highly stressed due to their high level of curvature.
- D is at low state of stress
(tensile failure)
- Rock mass in compression may
behave as a stable continuum while
in a de-stressed state, small loads
can cause large displacement of
rock units.
 7.5 Delineation of zones of rock failure

- Estimation of the extent of fracture zones provides a basis for

prediction of rock mass performance, modification of excavation
design, or assessing support and reinforcement requirement.

- The solution procedure suggested here examines only the initial,

linear component of the problem. For mining engineering
purposes, the suggested procedure is usually adequate.

• Extent of boundary failure

- Applicable compressive strength at boundary is sci.
- Tensile strength of rock mass is taken to be zero.
 7.5 Delineation of zones of rock failure

- Case of a circular excavation having

sci of 16 MPa:
s qq = p [1 + K + 2(1 - K ) cos 2q ]
7.5 [1.3 + 1.4 cos 2q ] ³ 16 ( compressive )
® - 26o £ q £ 26o or 154o £ q £ 206o
7.5 [1.3 + 1.4 cos 2q ] £ 0 ( tensile )
® 79o £ q £ 101o or 259o £ q £ 281o

- Change in shape, installation of

support/reinforcement, or increase the
height of the opening can be used.
 7.5 Delineation of zones of rock failure

• Extent of failure zones in rock mass

- Close to the boundary (within a radius):
the constant deviator stress criterion is useful.

- Example of an circular opening in

Lac du Bonnet granite: the maximum
deviator stress contour of 75 MPa
predicted well the failure domain.
 7.5 Delineation of zones of rock failure

- General cases including interior zones of rock mass:

Hoek-Brown criterion with scd

1) Principal stress contour method

a. Calculate various values of (s 3 , s 1f )
b. Contour plots of s1 and s3 are
superimposed.
c. Find the intersections of s1 and s3
isobars satisfying the failure
criterion.
 7.5 Delineation of zones of rock failure

2) Direct comparison with the failure criterion

a. Calculate the state of stress (principal stress)
b. Compare with the failure criterion.
c. Display failure locations throughout the rock mass.
 7.6 Support and reinforcement of massive rock
• Explanation of the effect of support
(1) Elastic rock medium
- Stress before support:
s A = 170.2 MPa , s B = -8.0 MPa
- Stress after support
s A1 = s A 2 + s A3
æ 8 ö
= 1 + 19ç1 - + 8 ÷ = 161.0 MPa
è 19 ø
s B1 = s B 2 + s B 3
æ8 2´8 1 ö
= 0 + 19ç - 1 + ´ ÷ = -7.0 MPa
è 19 19 4 ø

- Support pressure does not significantly modify the elastic

distribution around an underground opening
 7.6 Support and reinforcement of massive rock
(2) Elastic rock mass with a failed rock annulus
- Rock mass strength is assumed to follow Coulomb’s criterion:
1 + sin f 2c cos f
s1 = s 3 + ® s 1 = bs 3 + C0 : Rock Mass
1 - sin f 1 - sin f
1 + sin f f
s1 = s 3 f
® s 1 = ds 3 : Fractured rock Mass
1 - sin f

- Equilibrium equations in fractured rock (c.f. Sec.2.11)

ds rr s qq - s rr s
= = (d - 1) rr
dr r r
d -1 d -1
ærö ærö
® s rr = pi ç ÷ , s qq = dpi ç ÷
èaø èaø
d -1 1 ( d -1)
ær ö æ p1 ö
p1 = pi ç e ÷ or re = açç ÷÷
èaø è pi ø
 7.6 Support and reinforcement of massive rock

- Stress in elastic zone (c.f. Eqn.6.8)

æ re2 ö re2 æ re2 ö re2
s qq = pçç1 + 2 ÷÷ - p1 2 , s rr = pçç1 - 2 ÷÷ + p1 2
è r ø r è r ø r
- At the inner boundary of the elastic zone (r = re)
s qq = 2 p - p1 , s rr = p1
- Applying to Coulomb’s criterion ( s 1 = bs 3 + C0 )
2 p - C0
2 p - p1 = bp1 + C0 ® p1 =
1+ b
1 ( d -1)
é 2 p - C0 ù
® re = a ê ú
ë (1 + b ) piû

- At f = f f = 35o , pi = 0.05 p, C0 = 0.5 p

® re = 1.99a