Thermal Insulation Thickness for Steam Pipes

11-1 One approach used to determine the thermal conductivity of metals is to sandwich an electric heater
between two identical plates. Consider two pieces of a metal; each piece is 1-cm thick, 10-cm wide, and
10-cm long. All edges are heavily insulated, and the exposed faces have the same convective boundary
conditions. For an applied power input of 173 W to the heater, the temperatures of the inner and outer
faces of the metal plates are 42.3 ºC and 38.7 ºC, respectively. Determine the thermal conductivity of the
metal.
Approach:
We apply the conduction equation for steady, one-
dimensional conduction (Eq. 11-29).
Assumptions:
1. The processes are steady.
2. The conduction is one dimensional.
3. There is no internal heat generation.
4. The thermal conductivity is constant.
Solution:
Assuming steady, one-dimensional heat internal conduction with constant thermal conductivity, and as heat
generation, Eq. 11-29 is:
kA
Q= (T1 − T2 )
t
Solving for k , and recognizing that the heat input goes to both faces because of symmetry
Qt (173 W )( 0.01m ) W
k= = = 24.0 Answer
A (T1 − T2 ) 2 ( 0.10 m )( 0.10 m )( 42.3 − 38.7 ) K mK
11- 1
11-2 In an experiment, the boiling heat transfer coefficient is to be measured using the apparatus shown in the
figure below. Condensing steam at 120 °C is used to heat the end of the 304-stainless steel rod with a 25-
mm diameter. The outside perimeter of the rod is heavily insulated, and the temperature in the rod is
measured in two places, T4 = 91.19 °C and T3 = 100.20 °C. The boiling fluid is at 10 °C. The condensing
heat transfer coefficient is 7500 W/ m2·K. Determine:
a. the heat transfer rate (in W)
b. the temperatures (T2 and T5) on the two ends of the rod (in ºC)
c. the heat transfer coefficient on the test specimen end (in W/m2·K).
Approach:
We apply the conduction equation for steady, one-
dimensional conduction (Eq. 11-29).
Assumptions:
Solution:
a) Assuming steady, one-dimensional heat conduction, constant thermal conductivity, and no internal heat
generation, Eq. 11-29 is applicable between points, 3 and 4
kA
Q= (T3 − T4 )
L
From Appendix A-2 for 304 stainless steel, k = 14.9 W m K
(14.9 W m K )(π 4 )( 0.025 m )
2
Q= (100.20 − 91.19 ) K = 6.59 W Answer

0.01m
b) The same equation as used in part (a) can be used between points 4 and 5, and between points 2 and 3. Solving
for the two temperatures:
QL ( 6.59 W )( 0.005 m )
T5 = T4 − = 91.19 C − = 86.68 C Answer
(14.9 W m K )(π 4 )( 0.025 m )
2
k Ax
QL ( 6.59W )( 0.020m )
T2 = T3 + = 100.20 C + = 118.22 C Answer
(14.9 W m K )( π 4 )( 0.025m )
2
kA
c) Convective heat transfer is calculated with

Q = h A (T5 − T6 )
Solving for the heat transfer coefficient:
Q 6.59 W W
h= = = 175 2 Answer
A (T5 − T6 ) (π 4 )( 0.025 m )2 ( 86.68 − 10 ) K m K
11- 2
11-3 Large electrical currents are often carried in aluminum conductors. Consider a long, 2-cm diameter cable
covered by insulation 2-mm thick. For a particular application, the outside insulation temperature is limited
to 35 ºC, and none of the insulation can exceed 50 ºC. The cable is in an environment in which the
convective heat transfer coefficient is 25 W/m2·K, the air temperature is 24 ºC, the insulation thermal
conductivity is 0.10 W/m·K, and the electrical resistance per unit length of the wire is 3.9 × 10-4 Ω/m.
Determine the maximum current allowed (in A).
Approach:
This is a composite conduction problem in cylindrical
coordinates. The rate equation, Q = ∆T Rtot , can be used.
The heat transfer rate (current) must be calculated from
the given electrical resistance characteristics. Define the
system as the insulation and convective resistance.
Assumptions:
Solution:
For a steady, one-dimensional, constant thermal conductivity system with no internal heat generation:
∆T T1 − T f
Q= =
Rtot 1 ln ( D2 D1 )
+
h π D2 L 2π k L
The heat transfer rate per unit length is obtained from the electrical characteristics Q = I 2 R . Substituting this into
the rate equation, and solving for I :
0.5
⎧ ⎫
⎪ ⎪
⎪
I =⎨
( T1 − T f ) ⎪
⎬
⎪ ⎛ R ⎞ ⎡ 1 + ln ( D2 D1 ) ⎤ ⎪
⎪⎜ ⎟ ⎢ ⎥
2π k ⎦ ⎭⎪
⎩ ⎝ L ⎠ ⎣ h π D2
0.5
⎧ ⎫
⎪ ⎪
⎪⎪ ( 50 − 24 ) K ⎪⎪
=⎨ ⎬ = 285 A Answer
⎪⎛ ⎡ ln ( 0.024 0.020 ) ⎤ ⎪
−4 Ω ⎞ 1
⎪ ⎜ 3.9 × 10 m ⎟ ⎢ + ⎥⎪
⎪⎩ ⎝ ⎠ ⎢⎣ ( 25 W m 2 K ) π ( 0.024 m ) 2π ( 0.10 W mK ) ⎥⎦ ⎪
⎭
This current ensures that the inside insulation temperature does not exceed 50 C . To check if the outside surface
temperature does not exceed the allowable temperature, we can do the same calculation across only the convective
resistance:
0.5 0.5
⎧ ⎫ ⎧ ⎫
⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪
⎪ T1 − T f ⎪ ⎪ ( 35 − 24 ) ⎪
I =⎨ ⎬ =⎨ ⎬ = 231A Answer
⎪⎛ R ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎪ ⎪ 3.9 × 10−4 ⎡ 1 ⎤⎪
⎪ ⎝⎜ L ⎠⎟ ⎝⎜ h π D2 ⎠⎟ ⎪ ⎪( ) ⎢ ( 25) π ( 0.024 ) ⎥ ⎪
⎩ ⎭ ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
Any current greater than 231 A would cause the surface temperature to exceed the limit, so the maximum
allowable current is 231 A.
11- 3
11-4 For the design of a chemical processing plant in Hawaii, you need to determine the thickness of insulation
on several steam lines that would make the most sense economically. The steel steam lines have a total
length of 350 m, have an outside diameter of 2.5 cm, and carry saturated steam at 200 kPa. The design air
temperature is 27 °C. We assume we can obtain insulation with thickness in 1.0 cm increments. The
insulation thermal conductivity is 0.05 W/m·K, and costs $0.00015/cm3. From previous studies when you
took into account the prevailing wind, you developed a simple correlation for the heat transfer coefficient to
be h = 75(D/10)-0.38 where D is the outside diameter in cm and h is in W/m2·K. Natural gas is used in the
boiler (ηboiler = 87%) and costs $0.50/105 kJ. For a 20 year life, assuming the plant runs 8200 hrs/yr,
determine:
a. the recommended insulation thickness
b. the maximum savings compared to no insulation.
Approach:
A schematic of the system is shown below.
We need to determine the total energy loss for the required
time period. For this system radiation losses are ignored.
Thus, beginning with the rate equation, Q = ∆T Rtot , we
can integrate it with respect to time to get energy loss.
Because the pipe is steel we assume its thermal resistance
is negligible compared to that of the insulation; likewise,
we have saturated steam flowing inside the pipe and also
assume that the steam convective thermal resistance is
negligible compared to the insulation. Hence, the total
resistance, Rtot, consists of the conduction resistance
through the insulation and the convective resistance. With
the cost of energy, the boiler efficiency, and the total
energy loss, we can calculate the total cost of the lost
energy. The thickness of the insulation varies, and the cost
of it can be calculated with the given information. Total
cost consists of the sum of the insulation and energy costs
over the 20 year life of the processing plant.
Assumptions:
1 The heat transfer is one dimensional.
2. The system is steady.
Solution:
We assume we have a steady system, with constant properties. The rate equation is
∆T
Q=
Rtot
Integrating this with respect to time, where t is the total time period (20 years and 8200hr/year), and recognizing
that both the temperature difference and the thermal resistance are not functions of time), we obtain:
∆T
Q= t
Rtot
The driving temperature difference over the total resistance is from the steam temperature to the air
temperature. Hence, the temperature difference is ∆T = Tsteam − T∞ . From Appendix A-11 at 200 kPa, the
saturation temperature is Tsteam = 120.2 ºC.
The total resistance is Rtot = Rconv + Rins . The convective thermal resistance is
1 1
Rconv = =
hA 75 ( D2 2.5 )−0.38 (π D2 L )
1 0.000856 K
= =
( 75 W m K ) ( D cm 2.5)
2
2
−0.38
π ( D2 cm )( 350m )(1m 100cm ) ( D2 cm ) W
0.62
The insulation thermal resistance is that of a cylinder, so
11- 4
ln ( D2 D1 ) ln ( D2 cm 2.5cm ) K
Rins = = = ( 0.0091) ln ( D2 cm 2.5cm )
2π kL 2π ( 0.05 W mK )( 350m ) W
Energy cost must take into account the energy lost directly from the steam pipes and the inefficiency of the
boiler. Thus,
Q Q kJ
Qboiler = =
ηboiler 0.87
With Cenergy = $0.50/105 kJ
⎛ Q ⎞ ⎛ Q kJ ⎞⎛ $0.50 ⎞
⎟⎜ 5 ⎟ = $5.75 × 10 ( Q kJ )
−6
Energy cost = Qboiler Cenergy = ⎜ ⎟ Cenergy = ⎜
⎝ ηboiler ⎠ ⎝ 0.87 ⎠⎝ 10 kJ ⎠
With Cinsulation = $0.00015/cm3, the cost of the insulation is
π
= Vins Cinsulation =
4
(D
2
2 − D12 ) LCinsulation
Insulation cost
4
=
π
([ D cm] − [2.5cm] ) (350m ) ⎛⎜⎝ $0.00015
2
2 2
cm
⎟⎜ 3
⎠⎝ m ⎠
⎟ = $4.12 ([ D cm ] − 6.25 )
⎞ ⎛ 100cm ⎞
2
2
Therefore, the total cost is
Total cost = Energy cost + Insulation cost
The above equations can be entered into a spreadsheet, and the calculated values are given in the table below.
D2 (cm) 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6
Rcond 0 0.0016591 0.0030619 0.004277 0.00535 0.00631 0.00717 0.00797
(K/W)
Rconv 0.000485 0.000433 0.000394 0.000362 0.00034 0.00032 0.0003 0.00028
(K/W)
Rtot (K/W) 0.000485 0.00209 0.00346 0.00464 0.00569 0.00662 0.00747 0.00825
7 7 7 7 7 7 7
Q (kJ) 11.35×10 2.63×10 1.59×10 1.19×10 0.97×10 0.83×10 0.74×10 0.67×107
Energy 652.34 151.22 91.56 68.20 55.65 47.77 42.34 38.36
Cost ($)
Insulation 0.00 11.33 24.72 40.17 57.68 77.25 98.88 122.57
Cost ($)
Total Cost 652.34 162.55 116.28 108.37 113.33 125.02 141.22 160.93
($)
From the total cost, we can see that the optimum insulation diameter is 4 cm. The maximum savings would be
$652.34 - $108.37= $543.97. Answer
11- 5
11-5 Consider a solid cylindrical rod with radius R0, a uniform volumetric heat generation q ′′′ , a known outside
wall temperature Tw, and constant thermophysical properties. Using Example 11-3 as a guide and the
general conduction equation in cylindrical coordinates, develop the following expression for the steady
temperature profile in the rod:
q ′′′Ro2 ⎡ ⎛ r ⎞ ⎤
2
T = Tw + ⎢1 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
4k ⎢ ⎝ Ro ⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
Approach:
The conduction equation in cylindrical coordinates
must be used. First, we need to simplify the equation
by applying what we know about the system being
analyzed. Appropriate boundary conditions need to be
stated and used.
Assumptions:
2. Conduction is one-dimensional.
3. All properties are constant.
Solution:
The general conduction equation in cylindrical coordinates is
1 ∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞ 1 ∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞ ∂T
⎜k r ⎟+ ⎜k ⎟+ ⎜x ⎟ + q ′′′ = ρ cP
r ∂r ⎝ ∂r ⎠ r 2 ∂φ ⎝ ∂φ ⎠ ∂x ⎝ ∂x ⎠ ∂t
We assume steady, one-dimensional in the r-direction, and constant properties. Applying these assumptions, we
obtain
1 ∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞
⎜k r ⎟ + q ′′′ = 0
r ∂r ⎝ ∂r ⎠
Because this equation tells us that T is only a function of r , we can change this from a partial differential equation
to an ordinary one with k constant:
k d ⎛ dT ⎞
⎜r ⎟ + q ′′′ = 0
r dr ⎝ dr ⎠
We require two boundary conditions:
1) at r = Ro , T = Tw 2) at r = 0 , dT dr = 0
Separating the variables in the ODE and integrating:
d ⎡ dT ⎤ − q ′′′ r ⎡ dT ⎤ q ′′′ r dr
⎢ r
dr ⎣ dr ⎦ ⎥ =
k
⇒ ∫ d ⎢r
⎣ dr ⎦
⎥ = −∫
k
dT −q ′′′ r 2 dT −q ′′′ r C1
r = + C1 ⇒ = +
dr 2k dr 2k r
Separating the variables again and integrating
⎛ − q ′′′ r C1 ⎞
∫ dT = ∫ ⎜⎝ 2k + r ⎟⎠dr
−q ′′′ r 2
Therefore, the general temperature profile is: T= + C1 ln r + C2
4k
Applying the two boundary conditions:
− q ′′′ Ro2
at r = Ro Tw = + C1 ln Ro + C2
4k
− q ′′′ ( 0 ) C1
at r = 0 0= + ⇒ C1 = 0
2k 0
Solving for C2 = Tw + q ′′′ Ro2 4k . Substituting C1 and C2 into the temperature profile and simplifying:
q ′′′ Ro2 ⎡ ⎛ r ⎞ ⎤
2
T = Tw + ⎢1 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ Answer
4k ⎢ ⎝ Ro ⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
11- 6
11-6 Gargantuan Motors has developed a new rear window defogging system. The electric heating element is a
thin and transparent film applied to the entire inner surface of the rear window. The glass is 4-mm thick
with a thermal conductivity of 0.94 W/m·K. The design operating condition for the defogger is for an
outside condition of -10 ºC with a convective heat transfer coefficient of 65 W/m2·K and an inside
condition of -10 ºC with a convective heat transfer coefficient of 10 W/m2·K. The inner surface of the
window is to be maintained at 10 ºC. Determine:
a. the heat flux that must be supplied to the heater (in W/m2)
b. the temperature on the outside surface of the window (in ºC).
Approach:
An energy balance is done on the glass and heater. The
steady, one-dimensional heat transfer equation can be used
to evaluate the thermal resistances.
Assumptions:
5. Potential and kinetic energy effects are negligible.
Solution:
a) Apply an energy balance to the glass/heater combination. Assume steady, no potential or kinetic effects, and a
closed system:
Q −W = 0 → Q1 + Q2 − W = 0
W is the power input and is negative due to sign convention. The heat transfer rates are obtained by assuming
one-dimensional conduction, constant properties, and no internal heat generation in the glass. Conduction across
the electric heater is ignored because it is so thin. Therefore,
T f ,2 − Ts ,1 T f ,1 − Ts ,1
+ − ( −q ′′ A ) = 0
1 t 1
+
h2 A k A h1 A
Solving for the heat flux:
Ts ,1 − T f ,2 Ts ,1 − T f ,1 ⎡⎣10 − ( −10 ) ⎤⎦ K ⎡10 − ( −10 ) ⎤⎦ K W
q ′′ = + = +⎣ = 1218 2 Answer
1 t 1 1 0.004 m 1 m
+ +
h2 k h 65 W m 2 K 0.94 W mK 10 W m 2 K
b) The temperature on the outside surface, Ts ,2 , can be found with the one-dimensional conduction equation
kA Qt q ′′ t
Q=
t
(Ts,1 − Ts,2 ) → Ts ,2 = Ts ,1 −
Ak
= Ts ,1 −
k
⎛ W ⎞ ( 0.004 m )
Ts ,2 = 10 C − ⎜ 1218 2 ⎟ = 4.82 C Answer
⎝ m ⎠ ( 0.94 W m K )
Comments:
The surface temperature of the glass on the outside of the window will melt ice on the outside surface.
11- 7
11-7 An approach to determining the thermal conductivity of a material is to put a known material in series with
the unknown material, as shown in the figure below. A heat input is applied to one end of the assembly,
and the other end is cooled. Temperatures are measured at specific locations in both materials. Material A
is stainless steel with a thermal conductivity of 15.2 W/m·K. The specimens are rods 2-cm in diameter.
The rods are heavily insulated. In one test the following temperatures were measured:
T1 = 93.00 ºC T 2 = 82.57 ºC T 3 = 69.21 ºC T 4 = 66.28 ºC
Determine the thermal conductivity of the unknown material (in W/m·K).
Approach:
The same heat transfer rate flows through both materials.
We assume steady, one-dimensional conduction with
constant properties and use the appropriate conduction
equation.
Assumptions:
Solution:
With the heavily insulated circumference, heat flows only in the axial direction. Assuming steady, one-
dimensional conduction with constant thermal physical properties and no internal heat generation, Eq. 11-29 is
applicable.
kA
Q= ∆T
∆x
Equating the heat transfer in Material A to that in B
k A AA (T1 − T2 ) k B AB (T3 − T4 )
=
∆x A ∆xB
Noting that AA = AB and ∆x A = ∆xB , so that
T1 − T2 ⎛ W ⎞ ( 93.00 − 82.57 ) C
kB = k A = ⎜15.2 ⎟
T3 − T4 ⎝ m K ⎠ ( 69.21 − 66.28 ) C
W
k B = 54.1 Answer
mK
11- 8
11-8 When natural gas is burned, water vapor and other products of combustion are produced. These products
can mix with the water vapor to produce a dilute acid. To prevent acid attack on the chimney, the gases
should be kept above a minimum temperature. Consider a 304 stainless steel chimney 200-mm inside
diameter with walls 1-mm thick. Insulation (k = 0.075 W/m·K) 10-mm thick covers the outside of the
metal. The outside air is -5 ºC with a convective heat transfer coefficient of 25 W/m2·K. The inside
convective heat transfer coefficient is 15 W/m2·K. To avoid condensation forming on the inside surface of
the chimney, that surface temperature must be greater than 100 ºC. Determine the minimum required gas
temperature (in ºC).
Approach:
From the resistance network shown, we can calculate the
heat transfer rate using the rate
( )
equation Q = ∆T Rtot between T1 and T f 3 . Once we
have Q , then we use the same equation again, but this time
between T f ,3 and T1 ; the only unknown is T f ,3 , which is the
quantity we seek.
Assumptions:
Solution:
We assume steady, one-dimensional heat transfer and use the rate equation
∆T T1 − T f ,3
Q= =
Rtot ln ( D2 D1 ) ln ( D3 D4 ) 1
+ +
2π k L 2π k L h3 π D3 L
We can divide by L to obtain the heat transfer per unit length. From Appendix A-2, for 304 stainless steel,
k = 14.9 W m K . Therefore,
Q ⎡⎣100 − ( −5 ) ⎤⎦ C W
= = 407
L ln ( 0.202 0.20 ) ln ( 0.222 0.202 ) 1 m
+ +
⎛ W ⎞ ⎛ W ⎞ ⎛ W ⎞
2π ⎜14.9 ⎟ 2π ⎜ 0.075 ⎟ ⎜ 25 2 ⎟ π ( 0.222 m )
⎝ m K ⎠ ⎝ m K ⎠ ⎝ m K⎠
Now using the rate equation between T f ,1 and T1
Q=
T f ,1 − T1
⇒ T f ,1 = T1 +
(Q L )
1 h1 π D1
h1 π D1 L
( 407 W m )
T f ,1 = 100 C + = 143 C Answer
(15 W m2 K ) π ( 0.20 m )
11- 9
11-9 Consider an infinite plane wall 2L thick, with a uniform volumetric heat generation rate, q ′′′ . The wall
surfaces are maintained at T = T1 at x = − L and T = T2 at x = + L . For constant thermal conductivity k,
steady-state operating conditions, and defining the origin of the coordinate x from the centerline of the
plane, show that the solution of the general conduction equation for the temperature distribution in the wall
is:
q ′′′L2 ⎡ ⎛ x ⎞ ⎤ T2 − T1 ⎛ x ⎞ T1 + T2
2
T ( x) = ⎢ ⎜ ⎟ ⎥+
1 − ⎜ ⎟+
2k ⎣⎢ ⎝ L ⎠ ⎦⎥ 2 ⎝L⎠ 2
Approach:
We use the general conduction equation in rectangular
coordinates. With appropriate assumptions, we simplify the
partial differential equation to an ordinary differential
equation that can be solved by integration to give the
temperature distribution.
Assumptions:
1. The properties are constant.
2. The conduction is one-dimensional.
Solution:
The general heat conduction equation in rectangular coordinates is:
∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞ ∂T
⎜k ⎟+ ⎜k ⎟+ ⎜k ⎟ + q ′′′ = ρ cP
∂x ⎝ ∂x ⎠ ∂y ⎝ ∂y ⎠ ∂z ⎝ ∂z ⎠ ∂t
Assuming steady, one-dimensional in the x-direction, constant thermal conductivity k , and a uniform volumetric
heat generation rate, we reduce the governing equation to
∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞
⎜k ⎟ + q ′′′ = 0
∂x ⎝ ∂x ⎠
This shows that T is only a function of x , so we change this partial differential equation to an ordinary differential
equation. Removing k from the differential:
d 2T − q ′′′
=
dx 2 k
The two boundary conditions are:
1) at x = − L , T = T1
2) at x = + L , T = T2
Separating variables and integrating:
⎛ dT ⎞ ⎛ −q ′′′ ⎞ dT −q ′′′x
∫ d ⎜⎝ dx ⎟⎠ = ∫ ⎜⎝ k ⎟⎠dx ⇒ dx
=
k
+ C1
−q ′′′x 2
Separating variables again and integrating T= + C1 x + C2
2k
This is the general temperature profile. Applying the boundary conditions:
−q ′′′ ( − L )
2
1) T1 = + C1 ( − L ) + C2
2k
−q ′′′ ( L )
2
2) T2 = + C1 ( L ) + C2
2k
Solving for C1 and C2
T2 − T1 T + T q ′′′ L2
C1 = and C2 = 1 2 +
2L 2 2k
Substituting into the general temperature profile and simplifying
q ′′′ L2 ⎡ ⎛ x ⎞ ⎤ T2 − T1 ⎛ x ⎞ T1 + T2
2
T= ⎢1 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ + ⎜ ⎟+ Answer
2k ⎣⎢ ⎝ L ⎠ ⎦⎥ 2 ⎝L⎠ 2
11- 10
11-10 A large 2-kW electric heater (30-cm by 30-cm square by 0.1-cm thick) can be approximated as an infinite
plane wall of thickness 2L = 0.1 cm. The heater element is exposed on both sides to air at T∞ = 25 ºC and a
heat transfer coefficient h = 75 W/m2·K. The heater material has a thermal conductivity of k = 0.5 W/m·K.
We need to determine the maximum steady-state temperature in this heater. With the equation developed
in P 1-10, determine:
a. the maximum temperature inside the heater (in ºC)
b. the location at which it occurs.
Approach:
Using the temperature profile given in Problem P 11-9, by
inspection we can see that the highest temperature will occur
at the plate centerline. The surface temperature is needed, so
we will use what we know about the convective heat transfer
coefficient to calculate it.
Assumptions:
2. The conduction is two-dimensional.
Solution:
The temperature profile in the plane wall with internal heat generation is:
q ′′′ L2 ⎡ ⎛ x ⎞ ⎤ T2 − T1 ⎛ x ⎞ T1 + T2
2
T= ⎢1 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ + ⎜ ⎟+
2k ⎢⎣ ⎝ L ⎠ ⎥⎦ 2 ⎝L⎠ 2
For the specified conditions, this heater is symmetric around the centerline of the plate, x = 0 , and by inspection
the highest temperature will occur there. To use the temperature profile developed above we need to calculate the
surface temperature. The rate equation is
Q = h A (Tw − T f )
Note that Tw = T1 = T2 and A = 2WD , so that
Q Q 2000 W
Tw = T f + = Tf + = 25 C + = 173.1 C Answer
hA h 2WD ⎛ W ⎞
⎜ 75 2 ⎟ ( 2 )( 0.30 m )( 0.30 m )
⎝ m K⎠
Q
For the centerline temperature, x = 0 , q ′′′ =
2 LWD
q ′′′ L2 Q L2 QL
TCL = + T1 = + T1 = + T1
2k 2 LWD 2k 4 WD k
( 2000 W )( 0.0005 m )
= + 173.1 C = 178.7 C Answer
( 4 )( 0.30 m )( 0.30 m ) ⎛⎜ 0.5
W ⎞
⎟
⎝ mK⎠
11- 11
11-11 Water heaters are insulated to minimize heat losses. Consider an electric hot water heater that is 60-cm
inside diameter, 175-cm tall, 4-mm wall thickness tank made with 316 stainless steel, and covered with a 5-
cm layer of fiberglass. The basement where the tank is kept is at 15 ºC. The air side convective heat transfer
coefficient is 10 W/m2·K and that on the water side is 100 W/m2·K. If electricity is $0.05/kWhr, determine:
a. the cost required to maintain the water at 60 ºC for 24 hr when no water is removed or added to the
tank
b. the cost required to maintain the water at 60 ºC for 24 hr if 100 L of water is removed and replaced
with 100 L of 10 ºC water.
Approach:
The cost depends on the amount of energy used.
Therefore, the heat transfer rate can be calculated with
( )
the rate equation Q = ∆T Rtot . Multiplying this by
the time period will give the total energy used. When
water flows through the water heater, conservation of
energy also must be used to determined the total energy
charge.
Assumptions:
Solution:
a) Electricity cost is calculated by multiplying the energy used by the cost of energy ( C ) :
Electricity cost = (Wt ) C
where W = Q is the heat transfer rate and t is the time period of interest.
We assume steady, one-dimensional heat transfer and use the rate equation to calculate Q . Heat transfer
from the side and two ends must be taken into account
T f ,1 − T f ,3 T f ,1 − T f ,3
Q= +2
1 ln ( D2 D1 ) ln ( D3 D2 ) 1 1 t1 t2 1
+ + + + + +
h1 A1 2π k s L 2π kins L h3 A3 h1 AE ,1 k s AE ,1 kins AE ,3 h3 AE ,3
where A1 = π D1 L , AE ,1 = π D12 4 , A3 = π D3 L , and AE ,3 = π D32 4
From Appendix A-2 and A-4 k s = 13.4 W m K , kins = 0.046 W m K
AE ,1 = (π 4 )( 0.60 m ) = 0.283m 2 AE ,3 = (π 4 )( 0.708 ) = 0.394 m 2
2 2
A1 = π ( 0.60 m )(1.75 m ) = 3.30 m 2 A3 = π ( 0.708 m )(1.75 m ) = 3.89 m 2

1 1 K 1 1 K
= = 0.00303 = = 0.00353
h1 A1 (100 W m K )( 3.30 m )
2 2
W h1 AE ,1 (100 W m K )( 0.283m )
2 2
W
ln ( D2 D1 ) ln ( 0.608 0.60 ) K
= = 0.000090
2π k s L 2π (13.4 W m K )(1.25 m ) W
1 1 K 1 1 K
= = 0.0257 = = 0.254
h3 A3 (10 )( 3.89 ) W h3 AE ,3 (10 )( 0.394 ) W
ln ( D3 D2 ) ln ( 0.708 0.608 ) K
= = 0.301
2π kins L 2π ( 0.046 )(1.75 ) W
t2 ( 0.05 ) K t1 ( 0.004 ) K
= = 2.76 = = 0.0011
kins AE ,3 ( 0.046 )( 0.394 ) W kins AE ,1 (13.4 )( 0.283) W
11- 12
( 60 − 15 ) C ( 60 − 15) C
Q= +2
K K
( 0.00303 + 0.000090 + 0.301 + 0.0257 ) ( 0.0353 + 0.0011 + 2.76 + 0.254 )
W W
= 136 + 14.8 = 151W
⎛ $ 0.05 ⎞ ⎛ 1kw ⎞
Electricity cost = (151W )( 24 hr ) ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ = $ 0.181 Answer
⎝ kw hr ⎠ ⎝ 1000 W ⎠
b) We use conservation of energy for when water flows through the water heater. The control volume is defined
as shown. Assume the water in the tank remains at 60 C , and these are no potential or kinetic energy effects:
dU
= Q − W + min hin − mout hout
dt
The water temperature in the tank remains constant so dU dt = 0 . Solving for W
W = Q + m ( hin - hout )
The heat transfer rate calculated with the rate equation is always a positive number, but with heat transfer from the
water, for the energy equation it must be negative. Assuming an ideal liquid with constant specific heat so
that ∆h = cP ∆T and multiplying through by time t :
W t = Q t + m t cP (Tin − Tout ) = Q t + m cP (Tin − Tout )
From appendix A at Tavg = (10 + 60 ) 2 = 35 C , ρ = 993.9 kg m3 , cP = 4.175 kJ kg K
⎛ kg ⎞ ⎛ kJ ⎞ ⎛ 10-3 m3 ⎞ ⎛ 1Ws ⎞ ⎛ 1hr ⎞ ⎛ J ⎞

W t = − (151W )( 24 hr ) + ⎜ 993.9 3 ⎟ (100 L ) ⎜ 4.175 ⎟ (10 − 60 ) C ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ ⎜1000 ⎟
⎝ m ⎠ ⎝ kg K ⎠ ⎝ 1L ⎠⎝ 1J ⎠⎝ 3600 s ⎠⎝ kJ ⎠
= −3, 620 W hr − 5760 W hr = −9380 W hr = −9.38 kW hr
⎛ $ 0.05 ⎞
Electricity cost = ( 9.38 kW hr ) ⎜ ⎟ = $ 0.47 Answer
⎝ kW hr ⎠
11- 13
11-12 A plane wall has a thickness 0.1 m and a thermal conductivity of 25 W/m·K. One side is insulated and the
other side is exposed to a fluid at 92 ºC with a convective heat transfer coefficient of 500 W/m2·K. The
wall has a uniform volumetric heat generation rate of 0.3 MW/m3. The wall is at steady state. Using the
result given in Problem P 11-9, determine:
a. the maximum temperature in the wall (in ºC)
b. the location where it occurs.
Approach:
Because one side of this wall is insulated, this system is
equivalent to a symmetric wall with double the given wall
thickness. That is, in the situation presented in Problem P
11-9 a symmetrically cooled wall with uniform heat
generation – no heat flows across the wall centerline, so the
centerline acts as an insulted surface, identical to that shown
above.
Assumptions:
2. The heat transfer is one dimensional.
Solution:
The temperature profile given in Problem P 11-9 with T1 = T2 is:
q ′′′ L2 ⎡ ⎛ x ⎞2 ⎤
T ( x) = ⎢1 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ + T1
2k ⎣⎢ ⎝ L ⎠ ⎦⎥
By inspection, the maximum temperature occurs at x = 0 : Answer
q ′′′ L2
T= + T1
2k
The surface temperature, T1 , can be determined from the rate equation
Q = h A (T1 − T f )
Q q ′′′ L A q ′′′ L
T1 = T f + = Tf + = Tf +
hA hA h
= 92 o C+
( 300,000 W m ) ( 0.1m ) =152
3
o
C
500 W m 2 K
The maximum temperature is
T=
( 300000 W m ) ( 0.1m ) 3 2
+152 o C=212 o C Answer

2 ( 25 W m K )
11- 14
11-13 The curing of concrete is an exothermic reaction; that is, the curing process produces heat. If a concrete
slab is large enough, the temperature can rise to the point where the magnitude of thermal stresses may
cause cracking. Consider a large slab of concrete 1-m thick. Both sides are maintained at 20 ºC. The
curing process produces a uniform internal heat generation rate of 60 W/m3. If the thermal conductivity of
the concrete is 1.1 W/m·K and using the results from Problem P 11-9 determine the steady temperature at
the centerline of the slab.
Approach:
Direct application of the equation given in Problem P 11-9
will give us the centerline temperature of this slab.
Assumptions:
3. The heat transfer is one-dimensional.
Solution:
We assume that the heat generation rate is uniform and the thermal conductivity is constant in this curing
problem. With T1 = T2 and x = 0 (centerline), the temperature is
q ′′′ L2
T= + T1
2k
⎛ W⎞
⎜ 60 3 ⎟ ( 0.5 m )
2
⎝ m ⎠
= + 20 C = 26.8 C Answer
⎛ W ⎞
2 ⎜ 1.1 ⎟
⎝ mK⎠
11- 15
11-14 A large steel plate is exposed to 800 ºC combustion gases on one side; the heat transfer coefficient is 300
W/m2·K, and the plate is 25-mm thick with a thermal conductivity of 40 W/m·K. The other side of the
plate is to be insulated so that the insulation’s outside temperature does not exceed 35 ºC. To save money,
two layers of insulation are to be used. An expensive, high-temperature insulation (k = 0.055 W/m·K) is to
be applied to the steel, and the second layer is a less expensive insulation (k = 0.071 W/m·K). The
maximum allowable temperature for the less expensive insulation is 350 ºC. The heat transfer coefficient
on the insulation surface is 10 W/m2·K, and the ambient air temperature is 30 ºC. Determine the thickness
of each of the layers of insulation.
Approach:
Using the given information, a circuit diagram
can be drawn. The basic heat transfer rate
( )
equation can be used Q = ∆T Rtot to determine
the required thicknesses.
Assumptions:
3. The heat transfer is one-dimensional.
Solution:
A circuit diagram of the system is shown above. We have assumed one-dimensional, steady heat transfer with
perfect contact between the layers. The same heat transfer rate flows through all the resistances. From point 5 to
6, every thing is known, so we can calculate the heat flux, q ′′ = Q A :
Q = h A (T5 − T6 ) → q ′′ = Q A = h (T5 − T6 ) = (10 W m 2 K ) ( 35 − 30 ) K = 50 W m 2
Now, equating this known q ′′ to conduction from point 4 to point 5
k3 (T4 − T5 ) k3 (T4 − T5 ) ( 0.071W m K )( 350 − 35 ) K
q ′′ = → t3 = = = 0.447 m
t3 q ′′ 50 W m 2
Likewise, from point 1 to point 4
T1 − T4
q ′′ =
1 t1 t2
+ +
h1 k1 k2
Solving for t2 :
⎡T − T 1 t ⎤
t2 = k 2 ⎢ 1 4 − − 1 ⎥
⎣ q ′′ h1 k1 ⎦
⎛ W ⎞ ⎡ ( 800 − 350 ) K 1 0.025 m ⎤
= ⎜ 0.055 ⎟⎢ 2
− 2
− ⎥
⎝ m K ⎠⎣ 50 W m 300 W m K 40 W mK⎦
⎛ W ⎞ ⎡ Km 2 Km 2 Km 2 ⎤
= ⎜ 0.055 ⎟ ⎢9 − 0.00333 − 0.000625 ⎥ = 0.495 m Answer
⎝ m K ⎠⎣ W W W ⎦
Comment:
Note that the resistances due to the convection resistance of the hot gas and conduction resistance through the
steel are negligible.
11- 16
11-15 A brass rod 0.2-in. in diameter and 3-in. long with k = 64 Btu/hr·ft·ºF connects two plates, each of which is
at 150 ºF. Air at 75 ºF flows over the rod with h = 40 Btu/hr·ft2·ºF. Determine:
a. the temperature of the rod midway between the two plates (in ºF)
b. the total heat transfer rate from the rod (in Btu/hr).
Approach:
This is a fin problem. By inspection, because of
symmetry, no heat flows through the plane midway
between the two walls. Therefore, we analyze this as a
pin fin with an insulated tip.
Assumptions:
1. The process is steady.
Solution:
a) Assuming steady, one-dimensional conduction with constant properties and a uniform heat transfer coefficient,
the solution for a fin with an adiabatic tip is given in Table 11-5:
cosh ⎡⎣ m ( L − x ) ⎤⎦
T ( x ) − T f = (Tb − T f )
cosh m L
3
For the tip, x = L and L = = 0.125ft
( 2 ×12 )
0.5 0.5 0.5
⎛ hP ⎞ ⎛ hπ D ⎞ ⎛ 4h ⎞
m L = L⎜ ⎟ = L ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = L⎜ ⎟
⎝ k (π 4 ) D
2
⎝ k Ax ⎠ ⎠ ⎝kD⎠
0.5
⎡ ⎛ Btu ⎞ ⎤
⎢ 4 ⎜ 40 ⎟ ⎥
hr ft 2 F ⎠ ⎥
m L = ( 0.125ft ) ⎢ ⎝ = 1.531
⎢ ⎛ 64 Btu ⎞ ⎛ 0.2 ⎞ ⎥
⎢⎜ ⎟⎜ ft ⎟ ⎥
⎣⎢ ⎝ hr ft F ⎠ ⎝ 12 ⎠ ⎦⎥
cosh ( 0 )
T ( L ) = 75 F + (150-75 ) F = 106 F Answer
cosh (1.531)
b) The heat transfer from the whole rod is twice that from one fin. Again, from Table11-5
Q = (Tb − T f ) h p k Ax tanh ( m L )
0.5
⎡⎛ 40 Btu ⎞ ⎛ 0.2 ⎞ ⎛ 64 Btu ⎞ π ⎛ 0.2 ⎞ 2 ⎤
= (150 − 75 ) F ⎢⎜ ⎟π ⎜ ft ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ft ⎟ ⎥ tanh (1.531)
⎣⎢⎝ hr ft F ⎠ ⎝ 12 ⎠ ⎝ hr ft F ⎠ 4 ⎝ 12 ⎠ ⎦⎥
Btu
= 11.7 for 1 fin
hr
Therefore, for whole rod (2 fins)
⎛ Btu ⎞ Btu
Q = 2 ⎜ 11.7 ⎟ = 23.4 Answer
⎝ hr ⎠ hr
11- 17
11-16 A solar collector is constructed as shown on the figure below. The plate that absorbs the incident solar heat
flux is copper and 2-mm thick, and the space between the absorber plate and the glass cover plate is
evacuated so there are no convective heat transfer losses. The tubes for the water flow are spaced 20-cm
apart, and the water flowing in the tubes is at 50 ºC. Because of excellent conduction, the temperature of
the absorber plate directly above the tubes is at the same temperature as the water. For a net steady-state
radiation heat flux of 900 W/m2 absorbed by the plate, what is the maximum temperature on the plate?
Develop the differential equation for this geometry similar to what was done for a convecting fin, and then
solve the equation.
Approach:
As was done for the convecting fin, an energy balance
can be performed on a differential element in this
assembly. The resulting differential equation is solved
for the temperature profile.
Assumptions:
Solution:
We assume steady, one-dimensional conduction in the fin, with constant properties. We assume the temperature
at x = 0 is known Tb . An energy balance on an element, assuming steady, no work, and negligible potential and
kinetic energy effects:
⎛ dT ⎞ ⎛ dT ⎞
−Qcond, x + q ′′ ∆xW +Qcond,x+∆x = 0 → − ⎜ − k Ax ⎟ + q ′′ ∆xW + ⎜ − k Ax ⎟=0
⎝ dx x ⎠ ⎝ dx x + ∆x ⎠
With Ax = W t and simplifying, we obtain:

dT dT
−
dx dx q ′′W d 2T q ′′
x +∆x x
− =0 → − =0
∆x kW t dx 2 k t
Separating variables and integrating once
⎛ dT ⎞ q ′′ dT − q ′′ x
∫ d ⎜⎝ dx ⎟⎠ = − ∫ k t dx ⇒
dx
=
kt
+ C1
Integrating a second time

⎡ − q ′′ x ⎤ − q ′′ x 2
∫ dT = ∫ ⎢⎣ k t + C1 ⎥⎦ dx ⇒ T=
2k t
+ C1 x + C2
The two boundary conditions are:

1) At the base, x = 0 , T = Tb
2) The centerline between two tubes is a line of symmetry, so that plane is an adiabatic surface x = L , dT dx = 0
Applying the two boundary conditions and solving for C1 and C2 : C1 = q ′′L kt and C2 = Tb
−q ′′ x 2 q ′′ L x
T ( x) = + + Tb
2k t kt
By inspection, the maximum temperature will occur at the midline between two tubes, x = L . Substituting this in
and simplifying: T ( L ) = q ′′ L2 2 k t + Tb . For the given data, with kcopper = 401W m K from Appendix A-2:
T ( L) =
( 900 W m ) ( 0.10 m )
2 2
+ 50 C=55.6 C Answer
2 ( 401W m K )( 0.002 m )
11- 18
11-17 Baseboard convectors using hot water are used to heat rooms in houses. A common design is to attach
annular fins to a horizontal tube and use natural convection to add heat to the room. Consider a design that
has 75-mm diameter fins attached to a 25-mm outside diameter tube. The fins are 1-mm thick and are
spaced 5-mm apart; the tube is 3-m long with a wall thickness of 2-mm. The water is at 55 ºC and has a
convective heat transfer coefficient of 1250 W/m2·K. Assume the temperature decrease of the water is
small. The room air is at 20 ºC and has a convective heat transfer coefficient of 10 W/m2·K. Determine the
heat transfer rate to the air (in W).
Approach:
We assume this is a one-dimensional steady heat transfer
problem. The heat transfer rate (with constant water and
air temperatures) is calculated with the basic rate
equation, Q = ∆T Rtot . We need to evaluate all the
thermal resistances.
Assumptions:
Solution:
Assuming steady, one-dimensional conduction, with uniform heat transfer coefficients, constant properties, no
radiation, constant water temperature, and no heat generation, the heat transfer rate can be determined from:
∆T Tw - Ta
Q= =
Rtot Rwater + Rtube + R fin
The thermal resistance due to the water is:
1 1 1 K
Rwater = = = = 4.04 × 10−3
h A h 2π r W (1250 W m 2 K ) 2π ( 0.0105 m )( 3m ) W
The conduction resistance in the tube, using from Appendix A-2, kalum = 177 W m 2 K
ln ( r2 r1 ) ln ( 0.0125 0.0105 ) K
Rtube = = = 5.23 × 10−5
2 π kW 2π (177 W m K )( 3m ) W
On the fin side
1 N Af
R fin =
ηo ha Atot
where ηo = 1 −
Atot
(1 − η f )
We will use Figure 11-17 to obtain the fin efficiency. The total area requires the number of fins, N, over the total
length W
W −S 3m − 0.005 m
W = N (S + t) + S ⇒ N= = = 499.2
S +t 0.005 m + 0.001m
Therefore, N = 499 (an integer number)
The total area is (taking into account tip area using the corrected length):
r2 c = r2 + t 2 = 0.0375m + 0.001m 2 =0.0380m
Af = 2π ( r22c − r12 ) = 2π ⎡( 0.038m ) - ( 0.0125m ) ⎤ =8.09×10-3 m 2
2 2
Area of one fin:
⎣ ⎦
Atot = 2π r0 (W − N t ) + N Af
Total Area
= 2π ( 0.0105m ) ⎡⎣3m − ( 499 )( 0.001m ) ⎤⎦ + ( 499 ) ( 8.09 × 10−3 m 2 ) = 4.202 m 2
Now for the parameters on Fig. 11-17
r2 c 0.0380 m
= = 3.62
r1 0.0105 m
11- 19
t 0.001m
L* = L + = 0.025m+ = 0.0255 m
2 2
Ap = L* t = ( 0.0255 m )( 0.001m ) = 2.55 × 10−5 m 2
0.5 0.5
⎛ h ⎞ ⎡ 10 W m 2 K ⎤
= ( 0.0255 m )
32
L*3 2
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎢ ⎥ = 0.192
⎝ k Ap ⎠ ⎢⎣ (177 W mK ) ( 2.55 × 10−5 m 2 ) ⎥⎦
From the figure, η f 0.94
Therefore, the overall surface efficiency is
( 499 ) (8.09 ×10−3 m 2 )
ηo = 1 − (1 − 0.94 ) = 0.942
4.202 m 2
1 K
R fin = = 0.02525
( 0.942 ) ⎛⎜10 2 ⎞⎟ ( 4.202 m 2 )
W W
⎝ m K⎠
( 55 − 20 ) K
Q= = 1190 W Answer
K
( 4.04 ×10 −3
+ 5.23 × 10−5 + 0.02525 )
W
11- 20
11-18 In a heat transfer experiment, the objective is to determine the convective heat transfer coefficients on three
fins. Each of the three fins (one of which is shown below) is a solid rod 15-cm long with a diameter of 1-
cm. The first fin is a pure copper, the second is 2024-T6 aluminum, and the third is 304 stainless steel.
Small electric heaters are attached to the bases of the fins, and the power is adjusted such that the base
temperature is 100 ºC when the room temperature is 25 ºC. The measured powers are: copper rod, 4.1 W;
aluminum rod, 4.0 W; 304 SS, 2.7 W. Estimate:
a. the convective heat transfer coefficient on each of the three fins (in W/m2·K)
b. the tip temperature on each fin (in ºC).
Approach:
This is a pin fin. Since the heat transfer rate and the base
temperature are given, if we assume one-dimensional
conduction, then we can use the equations given in Table
11-5 to calculate the heat transfer coefficient and the tip
temperature.
Assumptions:
Solution:
a) Assuming steady, one-dimensional conduction, constant properties, uniform heat transfer coefficient, and no
radiation, for a fin with an adiabatic tip:
cosh ⎡⎣ m ( L − x ) ⎤⎦
T ( x ) = T f + (Tb − T f ) (1)
cosh ( m L )
Q = (Tb − T f ) h p k Ax tanh ( m L ) (2)
where m = ( h p k Ax ) . The geometry of all three fins is the same. The thermal conductivity, Q , and h are
12
different. Equation (2) is solved for the heat transfer coefficient, and then Eq. (1) is solved for the tip temperature.
We use a corrected length to account for convection from the tip.
p = π D = π ( 0.01m ) = 0.0314 m Ax = π D 2 4 = π ( 0.01m ) 4 π = 7.85 × 10−5 m 2
2
L* = L + Ax p = 0.15 m + 7.85 × 10−5 m 2 0.0314 m = 0.1525 m

From Appendix A-2 for copper, k = 401W m 2 K , aluminum, k = 177 W m 2 K , 304 SS, k = 14.9 W m 2 K
⎡ ( h W m 2 K ) ( 0.0314 m ) ⎤
12
12
⎛h⎞
m=⎢ ⎥ = 20.0 ⎜ ⎟ m -1
⎢⎣ ( k W m K ) ( 7.85 × 105 m 2 ) ⎥⎦ ⎝k⎠
Q = (100 − 25 ) K ⎡⎣( h W m 2 K ) ( 0.0314m )( k W mK ) ( 7.85 × 10 −5 m 2 ) ⎤⎦ tanh ⎡⎣ m ( 0.1525m ) ⎤⎦

For each rod, we solve these two equations for the heat transfer coefficient. The results are:
Copper h = 3.71W m 2 K
Aluminum h = 3.75 W m 2 K Answers
304 SS h = 4.14 W m K2
cosh ⎡⎣ m ( L − L ) ⎤⎦
b) For the tip temperature: T ( L ) = 25 C + (100 − 25 ) K
cosh ⎡⎣ m ( 0.1525 m ) ⎤⎦
For each rod: Copper T ( L ) = 96.9 C
Aluminum T ( L ) = 93.2 C Answers
304 SS T ( L ) = 53.9 C
Comments:
As you can see, the fin material has a significant effect on the temperature distribution.
11- 21
11-19 Electronic equipment is to be encased in an aluminum box whose temperature must be limited to 60 ºC.
Vertical rectangular pure aluminum fins are to be attached to the box top to aid heat removal. Air at 25 ºC
will flow over the fins with a convective heat transfer coefficient of 50 W/m2·K. If 10 fins spaced 1-cm
apart are used that are 25-mm long, 250-mm high, and 2-mm thick, what is the heat transfer from the top of
the box (in W)?
Approach:
Assuming one-dimensional heat conduction in these fins,
( )
the rate equation Q = ηo h Atot ∆T can be used to
calculate the heat transfer from this finned surface. The
overall surface efficiency ηo needs to be determined.
Assumptions:
5. There is no radiation.
Solution:
Assuming steady, one-dimensional, constant properties, uniform heat transfer coefficient, and no radiation, the
heat transfer from this finned surface can be calculated.
Q = ηo h Atot (Tb − T f )
We will assume an adiabatic tip fin and use the corrected fin length,
L* = L + t 2 = 0.025 + 0.002 2 = 0.026m
The total area is:
Atot = N 2 L* H + ( N + 1) S H = (10 )( 2 )( 0.026 m )( 0.25 m ) + (10 + 1)( 0.01m )( 0.25 m ) = 0.158 m 2
The overall surface efficiency is
N Af
ηo = 1 −
Atot
(1 − η f )
The area of one fin is
Af = 2 L* H = 2 ( 0.026 m )( 0.25 m ) = 0.013m 2
From Table 11-5, the fin efficiency is
tanh ( m L* ) hp h 2H
ηf = where m= =
m L* k Ax ktH
From Appendix A-2, for pure aluminum, k = 237 W m K
⎡ ( 2 ) ( 50 W m 2 K ) ⎤
12
m=⎢ ⎥ = 14.52 m -1
⎢⎣ ( 237 W m K )( 0.002 m ) ⎥⎦
m L* = (14.52 m -1 ) ( 0.026 m ) = 0.378

tanh ( 0.378 )
ηf = = 0.954
0.378
(10 ) ( 0.013m 2 )
ηo = 1 − (1 − 0.954 ) = 0.962
0.158 m 2
Q = ( 0.962 ) ( 50 W m 2 K )( 0.158 m 2 ) ( 60 − 25 ) K = 266 W Answer
11- 22
11-20 The failure rate of integrated chips increases rapidly with higher operating temperatures. The ability to
pack more components into smaller areas results in higher power and, therefore, more severe cooling
requirements. One way to improve cooling is to add fins to chips to increase surface area. Consider a 12.5-
mm by 12.5-mm chip. A 4 × 4 array of pure copper circular pin fins, 1.5-mm in diameter and 10-mm long
is attached to the outer surface of the chip. The surface has a maximum operating temperature of 75 ºC,
and the heat transfer coefficient (with air cooling) around the fins is 200 W/m2·K. The design air
temperature is 35 ºC. Determine:
a. the maximum power dissipation from the surface if no fins were used (in W)
b. the maximum power dissipation from the surface if the pin fins are used (in W)
Approach:
For steady heat transfer, the basic rate equation,
Q = ∆T Rtot , can be used to determine the maximum chip
power. The resistance without fins is simply 1 hA ; with fins,
the resistance is 1 ηo h Atot .
Assumptions:
2. The conduction is steady and one-dimensional.
Solution:
a) The basic heat transfer rate equation for the no-fin case is:
∆T Tb − T f
Q= =
Rtot (1 h A )
Everything is known, so
( 75 − 35) K
Q= = 1.25 W Answer
⎡( 200 W m 2 K ) ( 0.0125 m )2 ⎤
−1
⎣ ⎦
b) With fins, assuming steady, one-dimensional, uniform heat transfer coefficient, and no radiation, the heat
transfer rate can be calculated with:
Tb − T f
Q=
( ηo h Atot )
1
Assuming an adiabatic tip and using a corrected fin length to account for convection from the tip, the overall
surface efficiency and fin efficiency are
tanh ( m L )
12
N Af ⎛hp⎞
ηo = 1 − (1 − η )
f ηf = where m=⎜ ⎟
Atot mL ⎝ k Ax ⎠
From Appendix A-2, for copper, k = 401W m K
Evaluating the parameters in the above equations
Ax = π D 2 4 = π ( 0.0015 m ) 4 = 1.767 × 10−6 m 2 p = π D = π ( 0.0015 m ) = 4.712 × 10−3 m
2
L* = L + Ax p = L + D 4 = 0.01m + 0.0015 m 4 = 0.01038 m

Area of one fin
Af = π D L* = π ( 0.0015 m )( 0.01038 m ) = 4.89 × 10−5 m 2
Total area
Atot = W 2 + N π D L* = ( 0.0125 m ) + (16π )( 0.0015 m )( 0.01038 m ) = 9.39 × 10−4 m 2
2
0.5
⎡⎛ W ⎞ ⎤
⎢ ⎜ 200 m 2 K ⎟ ( 4.712 × 10 m ) ⎥
−3
m = ⎢⎝ ⎠ ⎥ = 36.47 m -1
⎢ ⎛ 401 W ⎞ 1.767 × 10−6 m 2 ⎥
⎢ ⎜⎝ ⎟( )⎥
⎣ mK⎠ ⎦
m L* = ( 36.47 m -1 ) ( 0.01038 m ) = 0.379
11- 23
Fin efficiency
tanh ( 0.379 )
ηf = = 0.955
0.379
Overall surface efficiency
(16 ) ( 4.89 × 10−5 m 2 )
ηo = 1 − (1 − 0.955 ) = 0.962
9.39 × 10-4 m 2
Heat transfer rate
( 75 − 35 ) K
Q= = 7.23 W Answer
⎡( 0.962 ) ( 200 W m 2 K )( 9.39 × 10−4 m 2 ) ⎤
−1
⎣ ⎦
Comment:
The addition of fins increased the heat transfer by 480%. This demonstrates well the effect of extended surfaces.
11- 24
11-21 Air flows over a plane wall with a convective heat transfer coefficient of 40 W/m2·K. Insufficient heat
transfer is obtained from this situation, so aluminum alloy fins (alloy 2024-T6) of rectangular profile are
attached to the plane wall. The fins are 50 mm long, 0.5 mm thick, and are equally spaced at a distance of
4 mm (250 fins/m). With the fins, the convective heat transfer coefficient is reduced to 30 W/m2·K. What
percentage increase in heat transfer is obtained with the fins compared to the plane wall arrangement
without fins?
Approach:
We can calculate the relative increase in heat transfer with
fins compared to without fins by using the appropriate rate
equations. The fin efficiency must be taken into account.
Only the area associated with one fin needs to be taken into
account.
Assumptions:
Solution:
The heat transfer rate for the surface without fins can be obtained for a unit cell; that is, a representative area that
encompasses the same base area as associated with one fin is used:
Qw/o = hw/o A (Tb - T f ) = hw/o S W (Tb - T f )
For the surface with fins we use Eq 11-94:
⎡ N Af ⎤
Qw = ηo hAtot (Tb − T f ) = ⎢1 − (1 − η f )⎥ h Atot (Tb − T f )
⎣ Atot ⎦
The relative increase in heat transfer is
⎡ N Af ⎤
Qw
⎢1 -
A
( 1 - h f ) ⎥ hw Atot (Tb - T f )
=⎣ tot ⎦
Qw/o hw/o S W (Tb - T f )
Note that the temperature different cancels.
The fin efficiency must be calculated. Assuming a rectangular fin with an adiabatic tip (using adjusted
lengths) and obtaining the thermal conductivity from Appendix A-2
L* = L + t 2 = 0.050 m + 0.0005 m 2 = 0.05025 m
2 ( 30 W m 2 K )
12
h p ⎛ h 2W ⎞
12
⎛ 2h ⎞
12
⎡ ⎤
m= =⎜ ⎟ =⎜ ⎟ =⎢ ⎥ = 26.04 m -1 → m L* = 1.308
k Ax ⎝ k W t ⎠ ⎝ kt ⎠ ⎢⎣ (177 W m K )( 0.0005 m ) ⎥⎦
tanh ( m L ) tanh (1.308 )
ηf = = = 0.66
mL 1.308
The other parameters in the equations are: N = 1 , Af = 2W ( L* ) , Ab = W ( S − t ) , Atot = Ab + N Af
Substituting all these expressions into the heat transfer ratio and canceling terms, we obtain:
⎡ 2 L* ⎤
⎢1 − (1 − η ) ⎥ hw ⎡⎣( S − t ) + 2 L* ⎤⎦
( )
f
Qw ⎢ ⎡
⎣ S − t + 2 L*
⎤
⎦ ⎥
=⎣ ⎦
Qw/o hw/o S
⎡ 2 ( 0.05025m ) ⎤
(1 − 0.66 )⎥ ⎜⎛ 30 2 ⎟⎞ ⎡⎣0.004 − 0.0005 + 2 ( 0.05025 )⎤⎦
W
⎢1 −
( 0.004 − 0.0005 ) + 2 ( 0.05025 ) ⎝ m K⎠
=⎣ ⎦
⎛ W ⎞
⎜ 40 2 ⎟ ( 0.004 m )
⎝ m K⎠
= 13.10 or 1210% increase Answer
11- 25
11-22 Motorcycle engines often are air-cooled with annular fins attached to the cylinder head. Consider a
cylinder (k = 55 W/m·K) with an inside diameter of 100-mm and a wall thickness of 6-mm. Over the
cylinder a fin assembly is interference fit so that there is negligible contact resistance between the cylinder
and the fin assembly. The fin assembly (k = 230 W/m·K) has a base thickness of 4-mm; the 6 fins are 25-
mm long, 2-mm thick, and spaced 2-mm apart. A heat flux (assumed constant) of 105 W/m2 is imposed at
the inside surface of the cylinder. Air outside the engine is at 30 ºC with a convective heat transfer
coefficient of 100 W/m2·K. Determine:
a. cylinder wall temperature (in ºC)
b. the interface temperature between the cylinder and the base of the fin assembly (in ºC)
c. the fin base temperature (in ºC).
Approach:
We assume this is a one-dimensional heat transfer
problem. With the imposed heat flux, the temperatures
can be calculated with the basic rate equation,
Q = ∆T Rtot . We need to evaluate all the series thermal
resistances.
Assumptions:
3. Radiation is ignored.
Solution:
a) Assuming steady, one-dimensional conduction, with uniform heat transfer coefficient, constant properties no
radiation, no resistance between the cylinder wall and fin assembly, the rate equation from the inside cylinder wall
to the air is
∆T T1 - T f
Q= =
Rtot Rwall + Rbase + R fins
Solving for the inside wall temperature
T1 = T f + Q ⎡⎣ Rwall + Rbase + R fins ⎤⎦
Evaluating each term:
The total height H is
H = N ( s + t ) + s = 6 ( 0.002 + 0.002 ) m + 0.002 m = 0.026 m
Q = q ′′ A1 = q ′′2π r1 H = (105 W m 2 ) 2π ( 0.050 m )( 0.026 m ) = 816.8 W
ln ( r2 r1 ) ln ( 0.056 0.050 ) K
Rwall = = = 0.0126
2π kwall H 2π ( 55 W m K )( 0.026 m ) W
ln ( r3 r2 ) ln ( 0.060 0.056 ) K
Rbase = = = 0.00184
2π kfin H 2π ( 230 W m K )( 0.026 m ) W
For the fin side
1 N Af
R fins =
ηo h Atot
where ηo = 1 −
Atot
(1 − η f )
We will use Figure 11-17 to obtain the fin efficiency. The total area is
Atot = 2π r3 ( H − Nt ) + NAf
r4C = r4 + t 2 = 0.085 + 0.002 2 = 0.086m
Af = 2π ( r42C − r32 ) = 2π ⎡( 0.086 m ) − ( 0.060 m ) ⎤ = 0.02385 m 2
2 2
Area of one fin:
⎣ ⎦
Total area: Atot = 2π ( 0.060 m ) ⎡⎣ 0.026 m − ( 6 )( 0.002 m ) ⎤⎦ + 6 ( 0.02385 m 2 ) = 0.1484 m 2
Now for the parameters in Fig. 11-17.
11- 26
r4C 0.086
= = 1.43
r3 0.060
L* = L + t 2 = ( 0.085 − 0.60 ) + 0.002 2 = 0.026 m
AP = L*t = ( 0.026 m )( 0.002 m ) = 5.2 × 10−5 m 2
0.5 0.5
⎛ h ⎞ ⎡ 150 W m 2 K ⎤
= ( 0.026 m )
*3 2 32
L ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎢ ⎥ = 0.469
⎝ k Ap ⎠ ⎢⎣ ( 230 W m K ) ( 5.2 × 10 m ) ⎥⎦
−5 2
From Fig 11-17, η f 0.84

The overall surface efficiency is
6 ( 0.02385 m 2 )
ηo = 1 − (1 − 0.84 ) = 0.846
0.1484 m 2
1 K
R fins = = 0.0797
( 0.846 ) (100 W m K )( 0.1484 m
2 2
) W
Finally, the inside wall temperature is:
K
T1 = 30 + ( 816.8 W ) [ 0.0126 + 0.00184 + 0.0797 ] = 106.9 C Answer
W
Because the total heat transfer rate is the same through all resistances:
b) At the interface between cylinder and fin assembly:
T2 = 30 + ( 816.8 ) [ 0.00184 + 0.0797 ] = 96.6 C Answer
c) At the base of the fins:
T3 = 30 + ( 816.8 ) [ 0.0797 ] = 95.1 C Answer
Comment:
Note that if no fin assembly were placed over the cylinder wall
⎡ ln ( r2 r1 ) 1 ⎤
T1 = T f + Q ⎢ + ⎥
⎣ 2π K H h 2π r2 H ⎦
⎡ K 1 ⎤
T1 = 30 o C+ ( 816.8W ) ⎢0.0126 + ⎥ =933 o C
⎢⎣ W (100 W m K ) 2π ( 0.056m )( 0.026m ) ⎥⎦
2
11- 27
11-23 A densely populated circuit board has 113 electronic devices attached to it. Forty of the devices dissipate
0.3 W each, 30 dissipate 0.2 W each, and the rest dissipate 0.15 W each. Because this is a critical
installation, the circuit board, 3-mm thick, is constructed of a high thermal conductivity material (k = 15.6
W/m·K) so that the heat from the devices is spread out evenly over the 10-cm by 20-cm area of the board.
The backside of the board is cooled with air at 25 ºC with a heat transfer coefficient of 25 W/m2·K. To
obtain a worse-case estimate, no heat transfer credit is taken for convection from the device side of the
circuit board. Determine:
a. the temperature of the surface of the circuit board cooled by air (in ºC)
b. the temperature of the surface of the circuit board cooled by air if 500 pin fins, 0.2-cm diameter and
2-cm long, are attached to an aluminum plate (2-mm thick, k = 177 W/m·K) that is epoxied to the
circuit board. The epoxy (k = 2 W/m·K) is 0.1-mm thick.
Approach:
Assuming steady, one-dimensional heat
transfer, the basic rate equation,
Q = ∆T Rtot , can be used to calculate
the surface temperature of the circuit
board, TCB .
Assumptions:
2. Heat transfer is one dimensional.
Solution:
Assuming steady, one-dimensional heat transfer, with uniform heat transfer coefficient constant properties, and
no radiation, the governing equation is:
∆T TCB − T f
Q= =
Rtot Rtot
and Q = 40 ( 0.3 W ) + 30 ( 0.2 W ) + 43 ( 0.15 ) = 24.5 W
a) Without fins, the equation to solve is

TCB − T f ⎡ t 1 ⎤
Q= ⇒ TCB = T f + Q ⎢ 1 + ⎥
t1 1 ⎣ k1 ACB h1 ACB ⎦
+
k1 ACB h1 ACB
t1 0.003m K
= = 0.00962
k1 ACB (15.6 W m K )( 0.1m )( 0.2 m ) W
1 1 K
= = 2.00
h1 ACB ( 25 W m K ) ( 0.1m )( 0.2 m )
2
W
⎡ K K⎤
TCB = 25 C + ( 24.5 W ) ⎢ 0.00962 + 2.00 ⎥ = 74.2 C Answer
⎣ W W⎦
b) With fins, we have four resistances to take into account:

TCB − T f
Q=
t1 t t 1
+ 2 + 3 +
k1 ACB k2 ACB k3 ACB ηo h Atot
t2 0.0001 m K
= = 0.0025
k2 ACB ( 2 W m K )( 0.1m )( 0.2 m ) W
t3 0.002 m K
= = 0.000565
k3 ACB (177 W m K )( 0.1m )( 0.2m ) W
For the fin resistance, assuming an adiabatic tip and using a corrected fin length to account for convection from
the tip, the overall surface efficiency and fin efficiency are
11- 28
tanh ( m L )
12
N Af ⎛hp⎞
ηo = 1 − (1 − η f ) where η f = and m=⎜ ⎟
Atot mL ⎝ k Ax ⎠
Evaluating the parameters in the above equations:
π D 2 π ( 0.002m )
2
Ax = = = 3.142 × 10−6 m 2
4 4
p = π D = π ( 0.002 m ) = 6.283 × 10−3 m
L* = L + Ax p = L + D 4 = 0.02 + 0.002 4 = 0.0205 m
Area of one fin: Af = π D L* = π ( 0.002 m )( 0.0205 m ) = 1.288 × 10 −4 m 2
Total area: Atot = W S + N π D L* = ( 0.1m )( 0.2 m ) + ( 500 ) π ( 0.002 m )( 0.0205 m ) = 8.44 × 10−2 m 2
⎡ ( 25 W m 2 K )( 6.283 × 10−3 m ) ⎤
12
m=⎢ ⎥ = 16.81m -1
⎢⎣ (177 W m K ) ( 3.142 × 10−6 m 2 ) ⎥⎦
m L* = (16.81m -1 ) ( 0.0205 m ) = 0.3445

tanh ( 0.3445 )
Fin efficiency ηf = = 0.9622
0.3445
( 500 ) (1.288×10-4 m 2 )
Overall surface efficiency ηo = 1 − (1 − 0.9622 ) = 0.971
8.44×10-2 m 2
1 1 K
= = 0.488
ηo h Atot ( 0.971) ( 25 W m 2 K )(8.44 ×10−2 m 2 ) W
K
TCB = 25 o C+ ( 24.5 W ) [ 0.00962+0.0025+0.000565+0.488] =37.3 o C Answer
W
Comment:
As can be seen, the addition of fins dramatically reduces the circuit board temperature. Care must be taken to
minimize contact resistance.
11- 29
11-24 In many new homes, hot water pipes are encased in the floors to provide uniform heating in the winter.
Consider 2.5-cm hot water pipes located at the midplane of a 10-cm thick concrete floor (k = 1.1 W/m·K).
The pipes are spaced 20-cm apart. The air temperature is 23 ºC, and its convective heat transfer coefficient
is 10 W/m2·K. The water is at 60 ºC, and assume the heat transfer coefficient inside the pipes is very high.
Determine:
a. the heat transfer rate per unit length of the pipe (in W/m)
b. the surface temperature of the concrete (in ºC).
Approach:
This is a steady conduction problem. The
two-dimensional heat transfer in the concrete
will be treated as one-dimensional through the
use of the conduction shape factor, S . The
basic rate equation, Q = ∆T Rtot , is used to
determine the heat transfer rate and the
outside wall temperature.
Assumptions:
Solution:
a) Assuming steady, constant properties, and the water side heat transfer coefficient is very large (zero thermal
resistance), the circuit diagram of this geometry is shown above.
The conduction resistance is Rcond = 1 k S . From Table 11-1, for this geometry, the shape factor is:
2π L
S=
⎡⎛ 2 x ⎞ ⎛ π t ⎞⎤
ln ⎢⎜ ⎟ sinh ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎣⎝ π D ⎠ ⎝ x ⎠⎦
This is the conduction resistance for heat transfer out both walls. Because of symmetry, the heat transfer is the
same out of the top and bottom surfaces. Therefore,
Tw − T f
Qin =
1 1
+
hA kS
where A = 2 x L is representative of every pipe.
2π L
S= = 4.225 L
⎡ ⎪⎧ 2 ( 0.20 m ) ⎪⎫ ⎧ π ( 0.05 m ) ⎫⎤
ln ⎢ ⎨ ⎬ sinh ⎨ ⎬⎥
⎢⎣ ⎪⎩ π ( 0.025 m ) ⎪⎭ ⎩ 0.20 m ⎭⎥⎦
Therefore, the heat transfer per unit length per tube is
Q ( 60 − 23) K W
= = 79.5
L 1 1 m
+
(10 W m2 K ) ( 2 )( 0.20 m ) (1.1W m K )( 4.225)
b) The wall temperature, Ts , can be calculated with
Q hA (Q L )
L
=
L
(Ts − T f ) ⇒ Ts = T f +
h ( A L)
79.5 W m
Ts = 23 C + = 42.9 C Answer
(10 W m K ) ( 2 )( 0.20 m )
2
11- 30
11-25 Liquid nitrogen is stored in a 3-m sphere buried in the earth (k = 0.17 W/mK), with its center 4-m below the
surface. A 10-cm thick layer of insulation (k = 0.05 W/mK) covers the sphere. The nitrogen is at –180 ºC,
and the surface of the earth is at 10 ºC. Nitrogen vaporizes (and the vapor is vented to the surface) because
of heat transfer from the earth to the tank, thus maintaining a constant temperature and pressure in the
nitrogen. The enthalpy of vaporization of the nitrogen is 198.6 kJ/kg. Determine:
a. the heat transfer rate to the nitrogen (in W)
b. the nitrogen vaporization rate (in kg/hr).
Approach:
This is a steady conduction problem. The two-dimensional
heat transfer through the earth will be treated as one
dimensional by using a conduction shape factor. The heat
transfer rate is determined with the basic rate equation,
Q = ∆T Rtot . The vaporization rate can be determined from
an energy and mass balance on the nitrogen.
Assumptions:
5. The system does no work, and potential and kinetic
energy effects are negligible.
Solution:
a) Assuming steady constant properties, and one-dimensional heat transfer (except through the earth which is
handled by a conduction shape factor), the heat transfer rate can be calculated with
∆T T −T Ts − Tins
Q= = s ins =
Rtot REarth + Rins 1 D2 − D1
+
k Earth S 4 D1 D2 π kins
From Table 11-1 for a sphere in a semi-infinite solid
2π D 2π ( 3.20 m )
S= = = 25.1m
D 3.20 m
1− 1−
4z 4(4 m)
⎡⎣10 − ( −180 ) ⎤⎦ K
Q= = 711W Answer
1 3.20 m − 3.00 m
+
( 0.17 W m K )( 25.1m ) 4 ( 3m )( 3.20 m ) π ( 0.05 W m K )
b) The nitrogen vaporization rate is determined from an energy and mass balance on the nitrogen. Defining the
control volume as shown, and assuming no work and negligible potential and kinetic energy effects, the mass and
energy balance equations result in
⎛ 1J ⎞
( 711W ) ⎜ ⎟
m=
Q
= ⎝ 1Ws ⎠ = 3.58 × 10−3 kg Answer
h fg ⎛ kJ ⎞ ⎛ 1000 J ⎞ s
⎜ 198.6 ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ kg ⎠⎝ 1kJ ⎠
11- 31
11-26 Hot water is pumped between two buildings in an office complex. The 2-in. inside diameter pipe is buried
1.5 ft below the earth’s surface (k = 0.10 Btu/hr·ft·ºF). Insulation 1-in. thick (k = 0.02 Btu/hr·ft·ºF) covers
the carbon steel pipe whose wall thickness is 0.25 in. The water has a convective heat transfer coefficient
of 2350 Btu/hr·ft2·ºF. If the soil surface temperature is 10 ºF and the water enters the pipe at 170 ºF,
determine the initial heat transfer per unit length (in Btu/hr·ft) when the water enters the pipe.
Approach:
This is a steady conduction problem. The two-dimensional
heat transfer through the earth will be treated as one
dimensional by using a conduction shape factor. The heat
transfer rate is determined with the basic rate equation,
Q = ∆T Rtot .
Assumptions:
Solution:
Assuming steady, constant properties, and one-dimensional conduction, except for that in the earth, the governing
equation is:
∆T T1 − Ts
Q= =
Rtot Rconv + Rcond ,1 + Rcond ,2 + Rcond ,3
The convective resistance is
1 1 0.00081 hr ft F
Rconv = = =
h A ( 2350 Btu hr ft F ) π ( 0.167 ft ) L L Btu
For carbon steel pipe, from Appendix B-2, k1 = 35 Btu hr ft F , so across the steel pipe
ln ( D2 D1 ) ln ( 0.208 0.167 ) 0.00100 hr ft F
Rcond ,1 = = =
2π k1 L 2π ( 35 Btu hr ft F ) L L Btu
Across the insulation
ln ( D3 D2 ) ln ( 0.375 0.208 ) 4.690 hr ft F
Rcond ,2 = = =
2π k2 L 2π ( 0.02 Btu hr ft F ) L Btu
Through the earth, from Table 11-1, with z D
2π L 2π L
S= = = 2.266 L
ln ( 4 z D ) ln ⎡⎣ 4 (1.5 ) 0.375⎤⎦
1 1 4.413 hr ft F
Rcond ,3 = = =
k S ( 0.10 Btu hr ft F ) ( 2.266 L ) L Btu
Substituting in each resistance, and dividing out L
Q (170 − 10 ) F Btu
= = 17.6 Answer
L hr ft F hr ft
( 0.00081 + 0.00100 + 4.690 + 4.413)
Btu
Comments:
The convective resistance and the conduction resistance through the steel pipe are negligible in this case. The two
other resistances dominate the problem.
11- 32
11-27 A very long electrical conductor is buried in a large trench filled with sand (k = 0.03W/m·K) to a centerline
depth of 0.5 m. The conductor has an outer diameter of 25 mm, and the current flow and resistance of the
cable cause a dissipation of 1 W per meter of length. The conductor is covered with an insulating sleeve of
thickness 3 mm with k = 0.01 W/m·K. At the surface a 25 °C wind blows such that the heat transfer
coefficient is 75 W/m2·K. Determine the temperature at the interface between the conductor and the
insulating sleeve. (Note: you will need to make an assumption about the convective resistance, and you
will need to justify it.)
Approach:
This is a multi-dimensional conduction problem. Assuming
we can solve this as a one-dimensional problem with the
appropriate conduction shape factor, the interface
temperature can be determined with this basic rate equation
( )
Q = k S ∆T .
Assumptions:
2. The conduction is steady and multi-dimensional.
Solution:
The basic heat transfer rate equation is
∆T T f − TI
Q= =
Rtot ln ( D2 D1 ) 1 1
+ +
2π kins L ksand S h A
For the conduction shape factor from Table 11-1, with z >> D
2π L
S=
ln ( 4 z D )
For the conduction resistance, A = LW , where W is some “width” on the surface. Because there is no
obvious length to use, we will use 1 m and check the magnitude of the convective resistance. Substituting these
expressions into the main equation
T f − TI
Q=
ln ( D2 D1 ) ln ( 4 z D ) 1
+ +
2π kins L 2π k sand L h LW
ln ( D2 D1 ) ln ( 0.031 0.025 ) 3.42 m K W
= =
2π kins L 2π ( 0.01W m K ) L L
ln ( 4 z D ) ln ⎡⎣ 4 ( 0.5 m ) 0.031m ⎦⎤ 22.11m K W
= =
2π k sand L 2π ( 0.03 W m K ) L L
1 1 0.0133m K W
= =
h LW ( 75 W m K ) (1m ) L
2
L
Note that the convective resistance is negligible compared to the other two resistances, so an exact evaluation of
W is unimportant. Factoring out L and solving for TI
Q ⎡ ln ( D2 D1 ) ln ( 4 z D ) 1 ⎤
TI = T f + ⎢ + + ⎥
L ⎣ 2π kins 2π ksand hW⎦
⎛ W⎞ mK
= 25 C + ⎜ 1 ⎟ [3.42 + 22.11 + 0.0133] = 50.5 C Answer
⎝ m⎠ W
11- 33
11-28 Your next door neighbor decides to construct a small underground room in his backyard. The room will be
8-ft tall and 12-ft square. He will construct it of concrete and bury it under 2-ft of earth (k = 0.62
Btu/hr·ft·ºF). He wants to buy a heater that will maintain the room at 65 ºF when the outdoor temperature is
0 ºF and asked you to tell him how big the heater should be. Determine:
a. the steady-state heat transfer rate from the room (in Btu/hr)
b. the steady-state heat transfer rate if 5-in. of insulation (k = 0.02 Btu/hr·ft·ºF) is added to the outside
of the room (in Btu/hr).
Approach:
This is a multi-dimensional steady conduction problem.
Using the rate equation, Q = ∆T Rtot , and a conduction
shape factor, the heat transfer rate can be determined.
Assumptions:
Solution:
a) Assuming constant properties, uniform block temperature, and multi-dimensional conduction, the heat transfer
rate is
T −T
Q= 1 2
1
kearth S
From Table 11-1, the conduction shape factor is:
−0.59 0.078 −0.59 0.078
⎡ ⎛ z ⎞⎤ ⎛b⎞ ⎡ ⎛ 2 ⎞⎤ ⎛8⎞
S = 2.756 a ⎢ ln ⎜ 1 + ⎟ ⎥ ⎜ ⎟ = 2.756 (12 ft ) ⎢ln ⎜1 + ⎟ ⎥ ⎜ ⎟ = 111ft
⎣ ⎝ L ⎠⎦ ⎝z⎠ ⎣ ⎝ 12 ⎠⎦ ⎝2⎠
( 65 − 0 )
F Btu
Q= = 4, 480 Answer
1 hr
( 0.62 Btu hr ft F) (111ft )
b) If insulation is added to all the inside surfaces then the heat transfer rate equation has a second term:
T1 − T2
Q=
1 ∆x
+
kearth S kins A
where ∆x = 4in. = 0.333ft
A = 4b L + 2 L a = 4 ( 8ft )(12 ft ) + 2 (12 ft )(12 ft ) = 672 ft 2
( 65 − 0 ) F Btu
Q= = 1, 650 Answer
1
+
( 0.333ft ) hr
( 0.62 Btu hr ft F ) (111ft ) ( 0.02 Btu hr ft F )( 672 ft 2 )
Comments:
The thermal resistance of the concrete ( k 5.2 Btu hr ft F ) is negligible compared to the other two resistances, so
that resistance has been ignored.
11- 34
11-29 Molds for plastics and other materials sometimes are heated by the insertion of electrical resistance heaters
at appropriate locations on the body. Consider a 150-mm long, 12.5 mm diameter, 100 W electric heater
inserted into a hole drilled perpendicular to the surface of a large mold whose thermal conductivity is 10
W/m·K. The surface temperature of the mold is maintained at 25 ºC a long way from the heater, estimate
the steady-state temperature of the heater.
Approach:
This is a steady conduction problem in two dimensions. We
will assume we can treat this as a one-dimensional problem
(
through the use of a conduction shape factor. Q = k S ∆T . )
Assumptions:
2. The conduction is steady and two-dimensional.
Solution:
Assuming steady with constant properties, and a mold that is large relative to the heater depth, the heater
temperature (assumed uniform) can be determined from:
Q
Q = k S (TH − Tm ) ⇒ TH = Tm +
kS
From Table 11-1, for a vertical cylinder in a semi-infinite solid
2π L 2π ( 0.15 m )
S= = = 0.243m
⎛ 4L ⎞ ⎡ 4 ( 0.15 ) ⎤
ln ⎜ ⎟ ln ⎢ ⎥
⎝ D ⎠ ⎣ 0.0125 ⎦
The temperature of the heater is
100 W
TH = 25 C + = 66.1 C Answer
⎛ W ⎞
⎜ 10 ⎟ ( 0.243m )
⎝ mK⎠
11- 35
11-30 A thin electronic component 20-mm square is epoxied to a large 2024-T6 aluminum heat sink. The thermal
resistance of the epoxy is 0.35 × 10-4 m2·K/W. The temperature of the aluminum block far away from the
electronic component is 25 ºC. The top of the component is swept by air at 25 ºC with a convective heat
transfer coefficient of 50 W/m2·K. If the maximum component temperature is 75 ºC, what is its maximum
allowable operating power (in W)?
Approach:
An energy balance is performed on the chip to calculate
the maximum chip power. For the heat transfer rates, we
( )
assume the basic rate equation Q = ∆T Rtot can be used.
The conduction into the heat sink is evaluated through the
use of a conduction shape factor.
Assumptions:
Solution:
For a closed system control volume around only the chip and assuming steady state, conservation of energy gives:
Q −W = 0 → W = Q = −Qair - Qsink
Using the circuit diagram and assuming one-dimensional heat transfer with constant properties (ignoring heat
transfer from sides of chip)
Tc − T f Tc − Tsink
W =− −
1 R ′′ 1
+
hA A kS
From Appendix A-2, for aluminum k = 177 W m K
πL π ( 0.02 m )
From Table 11-1, for a thin rectangular plate on the surface S = = = 0.0453m
ln ( 4 L L ) ln ( 4 )
W =−
( 75 − 25 ) C
−
( 75 − 25 C )
−4
1 0.35 × 10 m K W 2
1
+
( 50 W m K ) ( 0.02 m )
2 2
( 0.02 m )
2
(177 W m K )( 0.0453m )
= −1.0 W − 235.6 W = −236.6 W Answer
Comment:
The minus sign is because power is added to the chip, which is consistent with the sign convention we adopted for
work in the conservation of energy.
11- 36
11-31 You are late preparing for a party; the soft drinks should have been placed into the refrigerator much
sooner. It is only 2 ½ hours until the party. When the party has started, will the drinks have reached 5 ºC?
The can is 6-cm in diameter and 12-cm high and is initially at 20 ºC. The air in the refrigerator is at 0 ºC,
and you estimate h ≈ 4 W/m2·K. Assume the properties of the drink can be approximated as those of water
and the can’s contribution to the transient is negligible. Determine:
a. the estimated time required for the drink to reach 5 ºC
b. a method to speed up the cooling process.
Approach:
We will assume (initially) that the lumped systems analysis
method is valid. We check the Biot number, and then
proceed from there.
Assumptions:
3. The metal can contributes little to the process.
4. The drink’s properties are assumed equal to those of
water.
Solution:
a) To determine if a lumped systems analysis is valid we need to evaluate the Biot number, Bi = hLchar k . The
characteristic length is
( 0.12m )( 0.06 m )
2
V H π D2 4
Lchar = = = = 0.012 m
A π D H + 2π D 2 4 4 ( 0.06 m )( 0.12 m ) + 2 ( 0.06 m )2
Assuming the drink’s properties are the same as water and are constant, and the metal can contributes little to the
process, the water properties from Appendix A-6 at (5 + 20)/2 = 12.5 °C are: ρ = 999.3kg m3 ,
cP = 4.191kJ kg K , k = 0.591W m K
Bi =
( 4 W m K ) ( 0.012 m ) = 0.081 <∼ 0.1
2
0.591W mK
T (t ) − Tf ⎛ −h A ⎞
The lumped systems method is valid. The governing equation is: = exp ⎜ t⎟
Ti − T f ⎝ ρ V cP ⎠
Solving for t and letting V A = Lchar
− ρ cP Lchar ⎡ T − T f ⎤
t= ln ⎢ ⎥
h ⎣⎢ Ti − T f ⎥⎦
⎛ kg ⎞ ⎛ kJ ⎞ ⎛ J ⎞
− ⎜ 999.3 3 ⎟⎜ 4.191 ⎟ ( 0.012 m ) ⎜ 1000 ⎟
⎝ m ⎠⎝ kg K ⎠ ⎝ kJ ⎠ ⎛ 5−0 ⎞
= ln ⎜ ⎟ = 17, 400s = 4.84 hr Answer
⎛ W ⎞ ⎝ 20 − 0 ⎠
⎜4 2 ⎟
⎝ m K⎠
Based on this time, the drinks do not cool down fast enough.
b) If we raise the convective heat transfer coefficient, the time required will decrease. Placing the cans in an ice-
water bath does not change the outside temperature but h increases significantly. Because time is inversely
proportional to h , an increase in h (going from natural convection in air to water) would decrease the time.
11- 37
11-32 You are designing a radiant energy test facility and need to determine how long it will take a test specimen
to reach a steady temperature. Initially, a 3-cm thick brass plate is at a uniform temperature of 50 ºC. At
time zero, one side of the plate is exposed to a radiant heat flux of 6,000 W/m2 and the other side is
exposed to air at 20 ºC with h = 75 W/m2·K. Determine:
a. the steady-state temperature of the plate (in ºC)
b. the temperature of the plate 15 min after the start of heating (in ºC)
c. the time to reach steady state if steady state is when 99% of the difference between the final plate
temperature and the air temperature is achieved (in s).
Approach:
The first part is solved simply by applying the rate
equation, Q = h A ∆T . The second part is a transient
conduction problem. The Biot number should be checked
first to determine if the lumped systems method can be used.
If it cannot, then a new analysis will need to be developed
for this system.
Assumptions:
2. The heat transfer coefficient is uniform and constant.
Solution:
a) The steady-state rate equation is
Q = h A (TS − T f ) → Ts = T f + Q h A = T f + q ′′ h
2
6000 W m
Ts = 20 C + = 100 C Answer
75 W m 2 K
b) For the transient problem, first evaluate the Biot number.
h Lchar V LA
Bi = where Lchar = = =L
k A A
From Appendix A-2, for brass ρ = 8530 kg m3 , cP = 380 J kg K , k = 110 W m K
Bi =
( 75 W m K ) ( 0.03m ) = 0.02 < 0.1
2
110 W m K
Therefore, a lumped systems analysis is valid. Using the analysis given in Example 11-5,
T − Tf + W h A ⎛ hA ⎞
= exp ⎜ − t⎟
Ti − T + W h A ⎝ m cP ⎠
where m = ρ V = ρ L A and W = − q ′′ A where the minus sign is used because heat is into the system.
Substituting these into the main equation and solving for T
q ′′ ⎡ q ′′ ⎤ ⎛ h ⎞
T = T f + + ⎢Ti − T f − ⎥ exp ⎜ − t⎟
h ⎣ h⎦ ⎝ ρ L c P ⎠
6000 W m 2 ⎡ 6000 ⎤ ⎡ − ( 75 W m 2 K ) ( 900s ) ⎤

= 20 C + + ⎢ 50 − 20 − ⎥ K exp ⎢ ⎥ = 75.0 C Answer
⎢⎣ ( 8530 kg m ) ( 0.03m )( 380 J kg K ) ⎥⎦
2
75 W m K ⎣ 75 ⎦ 3
c) When T − T f = 0.99 (T − T f ) = 0.99 (100 − 20 ) K = 79.2 K . Solving the main equation for time
steady
− ρ LcP ⎡ T − T f − q ′′ h ⎤
t= ln ⎢ ⎥
h ⎢⎣ Ti − T f − q ′′ h ⎥⎦
− ( 8530 kg m3 ) ( 0.03m )( 380 J kg K ) ⎡ 79.2 − 6000 75 ⎤
= ln ⎢ ⎥ = 5360s = 1.49 hr Answer
⎣ 50 − 20 − 6000 75 ⎦
2
75 W m K
11- 38
11-33 In some lumped systems, different parts of the surface may be exposed to different conditions. Consider
the exhaust pipe of an automobile engine. Just before the engine starts, the exhaust pipe is at a uniform
temperature Ti. When the engine starts at t = 0, exhaust gases at Tg (assumed constant with time) flow
through the tube with a convective heat transfer coefficient of hg. Outside the pipe, the air is at Ta with a
convective heat transfer coefficient of ha. Using a lumped system analysis, develop an expression for the
pipe temperature as a function of time.
Approach:
We solve this problem similar to Example 11-5. While there
is no power addition, there are two heat transfer rates that
must be taken into account.
Assumptions:
2. The heat transfer coefficient is uniform and constant.
3. The lumped systems approach is valid.
Solution:
We define a control volume that encompasses just the exhaust pipe (not including the fluids). For this closed
system, we assume no potential or kinetic energy effects or work, so that
dU du
=m =Q
dt dt
Assuming the pipe is an ideal solid with constant specific heat so that du = c dT cP dT , and describing the heat
transfer in terms of convective heat transfer only:
dT
m cP = − ha Aa (T − Ta ) − hg Ag (T − Tg )
dt
Rearranging this equation in preparation to separating the variables
dT ⎡ ha Aa Ta + hg Ag Tg ⎤
m cP = T ( −ha Aa − hg Ag ) + ha Aa Ta + hg Ag Tg = − ( ha Aa + hg Ag ) ⎢T − ⎥
dt ⎣⎢ ha Aa + hg Ag ⎦⎥
ha Aa Ta + hg Ag Tg dT
Let γ 1 = ha Aa + hg Ag and γ2 = so that m cP = −γ 1 [T − γ 2 ]
ha Aa + hg Ag dt
Separating variables and integrating
T dT t γ dt ⎡ T − γ 2 ⎤ −γ 1 t
∫Ti T − γ 2 = −∫ 0 m cP → ⎥=
1
ln ⎢
⎣ Ti − γ 2 ⎦ m cP
Exponentiating both sides:
T −γ2 ⎛ −γ t ⎞
= exp ⎜ 1 ⎟ Answer
Ti − γ 2 ⎝ m cP ⎠
Comments:
Note that if ha Aa = hg Ag , and Ta = Tg then γ 1 = 2 h A = h Atot and γ 2 = (Ta + Tg ) 2 = T f . Substituting these into
the equation and simplifying, the equation collapses to the original lumped systems analysis equation:
T − Tf ⎛ hA ⎞
= exp ⎜ − t⎟
Ti − T f ⎝ m cP ⎠
11- 39
11-34 Steel balls with a diameter of 2 cm are annealed by heating them uniformly to 950 ºC and then cooling
them to 125 ºC in air at 35 ºC. The convective heat transfer coefficient is 25 W/m2·K. For 347 stainless
steel balls, determine the time required for the cooling process (in s).
Approach:
This is a transient cooling problem. First we check the
Biot number. If it is small enough, then we will use the
lumped systems method. If lumped systems is not valid,
then we will use a one-dimensional transient solution.
Assumptions:
2. The heat transfer coefficient is uniform.
Solution:
The Biot number is
h Lchar V π D3 6 D
Bi = with Lchar = = =
k A π D2 6
From Appendix A-2, for 347 stainless steel at Tavg = ( 950 + 125 ) 2 = 537.5 C , ρ = 7978 kg m3 ,
k = 21.5 W m K , cP = 585 J kg K
Bi =
( 25 W m K ) ( 0.02 m 6 ) = 0.0038 <∼ 0.1
2
21.9 W m K
So, the lumped systems approach is valid, and the governing equation is
T (t ) − Tf ⎡ −h A ⎤
= exp ⎢ t⎥
Ti − T f ⎢⎣ ρVc p ⎥⎦
Solving for time and letting V A = Lchar = D 6
− ρ cP Lchar ⎡ T − T f ⎤
t= ln ⎢ ⎥
h ⎣⎢ Ti − T f ⎥⎦
− ( 7978 kg m3 ) ( 585 J kg K )( 0.02 m 6 ) ⎡ 125 − 35 ⎤
= ln ⎢ ⎥ = 1440s Answer
25 W m 2 K ⎣ 950 − 35 ⎦
11- 40
11-35 During the start-up of a new natural gas furnace, the test engineers want to monitor the exhaust gas
temperature to assess the unit’s performance. A 1-mm diameter copper constantan thermocouple is used to
make the temperature measurement. Before they use the thermocouple, they want to determine its response
characteristics and estimate the heat transfer coefficient on the thermocouple. They develop the following
experiment. Initially, the thermocouple is at 25 ºC. They insert it quickly into a gas stream that is at 200 ºC
and has the same velocity as the stream they want to monitor. In 8.3 s, the thermocouple reads 199 ºC.
Determine the heat transfer coefficient (in W/m2·K). (Assume the properties of the thermocouple are the
same as copper.)
Approach:
Ignoring radiation and assuming the heat transfer coefficient
is low enough so that the lumped system approach is valid,
we use the lumped system approach to calculate the heat
transfer coefficient. Once it is calculated, we need to
calculate the Biot number to check the validity of the
assumption.
Assumptions:
Solution:
The governing equation for the lumped system solution is
T (t ) − Tf ⎡ hA ⎤ ⎡ h ⎤
= exp ⎢ − t ⎥ = exp ⎢ − t⎥
Ti − T f ⎣ ρ V c P ⎦ ⎣ ρ c L
P char ⎦
V π D2 6 D
where Lchar = = = . Solving for h :
A π D2 6
⎡ T − Tf ⎤
ρ cP D
h=− ln ⎢ ⎥
6t ⎣⎢ Ti − T f ⎥⎦
For copper from Appendix A-2, ρ = 8933kg m3 , cP = 385 J kg K , k = 401W m K
− ( 8933kg m3 ) ( 385 J kg K )( 0.001m ) ⎡199 − 200 ⎤ W
h= ln ⎢ ⎥ = 357 2 Answer
6 ( 8.3s ) ⎣ 25 − 200 ⎦ m K
Now checking the Biot number
h Lchar ( 357 W m K ) ( 0.001m 6 )
2
Bi = = = 0.00015 < 0.1

k 401W mK
Therefore, because the Biot number is less than 0.1, the approach is valid.
11- 41
11-36 An electronic device that dissipates 30 W is used infrequently. Its maximum allowable operating
temperature is limited to 65 ºC; as soon as 65 ºC is reached, the device must be shut off. The device and an
attached heat sink have a combined mass of 0.25 kg, surface area of 56.3 cm2, and an effective specific heat
of 800 J/kg·K. If the device is initially at a uniform temperature of 25 ºC in air at 25 ºC with a heat transfer
coefficient of 10 W/m2·K, determine:
a. the steady-state operating temperature (in ºC)
b. the time required to reach the maximum operating temperature (in s)
c. if a heat sink is to be added to the device so that the operating time is to be doubled, what additional
mass and area are needed? Assume the mass to area ratio of the added material is the same as that of
the original device.
Approach:
Because we know little about the shape of this device and we
do not know its effective thermal conductivity, we are forced
to assume that the lumped system approach is valid. We use
the equation developed in Example 11-5 to find the required
time.
Assumptions:
2. The lumped systems approach is valid.
Solution:
Assuming the lumped system analysis is valid, the solution to a transient problem with internal heat generation is
given in Example 11-5:
T − Tf + W h A ⎡ hA ⎤
= exp ⎢ − t⎥
Ti − T f + W h A ⎣ m cP ⎦
W ⎡ ⎛ −h A ⎞ ⎤
With Ti = T f and rearranging the equation T − Tf = − ⎢1 − exp ⎜ t ⎟⎥
hA⎣ ⎝ m cP ⎠ ⎦
a) The steady state temperature occurs when t → ∞ , so using the above equation
( -30 W )(100 cm m )
2
W
T = Tf − = 25 o C- =557.8 o C Answer
hA (10 W m2 K )( 56.3cm2 )
b) Solving the above equation for time:
m cP ⎡ (T − T f ) h A ⎤ − ( 0.25 kg )( 800 J kg K )(100 cm 1m )
2
t=− ln ⎢1 + ⎥=
hA ⎢
⎣
W ⎥⎦ (10 W m2 K )( 56.3cm2 )
⎡ ( 65 − 25 ) K (10 W m 2 K )( 56.3cm 2 ) (1m 100 cm )2 ⎤
× ln ⎢1 + ⎥ = 277 s Answer
⎢ −30 W ⎥
⎣ ⎦
2
m 0.25 kg ⎛ 100 cm ⎞ kg
(c) We want t = 2 ( 277 s ) = 554s . From the given data, = 2 ⎜ ⎟ = 44.4 2 = C
A 56.3cm ⎝ m ⎠ m
WC⎡ ⎛ −h m t ⎞⎤
Let m = CA , and substituting into the governing equation T − Tf = − ⎢1 − exp ⎜ ⎟⎥
hm ⎣ ⎝ C m cP ⎠⎦
Solving for m (the total mass required to double the operating time)
−W C ⎡ ⎛ −h t ⎞ ⎤ − ( −30 W ) ( 44.4 kg m 2 ) ⎡ ⎛ − (10 W m 2 K ) ( 554s ) ⎞ ⎤
m= ⎢1 − exp ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎥ = ⎢1 − exp ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ = 0.481kg
h (T − T f ) ⎢⎣ ⎝ C c p ⎠ ⎥⎦ (10 W m K ) ( 65 − 25 ) K ⎣⎢
2
⎝ ( 44.4 kg m ) ( 800 J kg K ) ⎠ ⎦
⎜ 2 ⎟⎥
So additional mass is ( 0.472 − 0.25 ) kg = 0.222 kg Answer

2
⎛ 0.481kg ⎞ ⎛ 100 cm ⎞
Additional area is ⎜ 2 ⎟⎜ ⎟ − 56.3cm = 52.0 cm
2 2
Answer
⎝ 44.4 kg m ⎠⎝ m ⎠
11- 42
11-37 To obtain a hard surface on a metal plate with a somewhat softer core for toughness, heat treatment is
required. Often the hot metal plate is plunged into a much colder bath so that the surface temperature drops
very rapidly. The rapid temperature drop results in a favorable grain structure that causes a very hard
surface material. The slower cooling of the core of the plate results in a softer core material. Consider a
large stainless steel slab, initially at a uniform temperature of 1250 ºF. It is to be plunged into a heat
treatment bath which is at 150 ºF. The research engineers state that from their studies, the correct surface
hardness will be reached if the temperature at a depth of 0.2 in. in the slab reaches 700 ºF in less than 35
sec. The steel has a thermal diffusivity of α = 0.135 ft2/hr and a thermal conductivity of k = 7 Btu/hr·ft·ºF.
Determine:
a. the time required for the temperature to reach 700 ºF at a depth of 0.2 in. if you assume a very large
heat transfer coefficient
b. the time required for the temperature to reach 700 ºF at a depth of 0.2 in. if the heat transfer
coefficient is 250 Btu/hr·ft2·F.
Approach:
We are told this is a large slab, no thickness is given, and the
location of interest is close to the surface, so this transient
conduction problem can be treated as a semi-infinite solid. For
part (a) with the very large heat transfer coefficient, we have a
step change in the surface temperature. Part (b) must be solved
with a finite heat transfer coefficient.
Assumptions:
2. The conduction is one-dimensional in a semi-infinite solid.
Solution:
a) The temperature transient in a semi-infinites solid with a step change in surface temperature is:
T ( x, t ) − T f ⎛ x ⎞
= 1 − erfc ⎜ ⎟
Ti − T f ⎜2 αt ⎟
⎝ ⎠
⎧ ⎫
700 − 150 ⎪ 0.0162 ft ⎪
Substituting in the known values: = 1 − erfc ⎨ 12 ⎬
⎩ ⎣(
1250 − 150 ⎪ 2 ⎡ 0.135ft hr ) t ⎤⎦ ⎪
2
⎭
The only unknown is time, t , so solving this equation using information given in Table 11-4 or appropriate
software:
t = 0.00226 hr = 8.1s Answer
b) For a step change in surface convection, the governing equation is:
T − Tf ⎛ x ⎞ ⎡ ⎛ h x h2 α t ⎞⎤ ⎡ ⎛ x h α t ⎞⎤
= 1 − erfc ⎜ ⎟ + ⎢exp ⎜ + 2 ⎟ ⎥ ⎢ erfc ⎜ + ⎟⎥
Ti − T f ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ k ⎠⎟ ⎦⎥
⎝2 αt ⎠ ⎣ ⎝ k k ⎠ ⎦ ⎣⎢ ⎝2 αt
Substituting in what is known:
h x ( 250 Btu hr ft F ) ( 0.0167 ft )
2
x 0.0167 ft 0.02273
= = = = 0.595
2 α t 2 ⎡ 0.135ft 2 hr t ⎤
12
t1 2 k 7 Btu hr ft F
⎣ ⎦
12
⎛ Btu ⎞ ⎛ ft 2 ⎞
⎜ 250 0.135 t⎟
h 2 α t ( 250 Btu hr ft F ) ( 0.135 ft hr ) t
2 2 2 ⎟ ⎜
h αt ⎝ hr ft 2 F ⎠ ⎝ hr ⎠
= = 172.2 t = = 13.12 t1 2
( 7 Btu hr ft F) ⎛ Btu ⎞
2
k k
⎜7 ⎟
⎝ hr ft F ⎠
⎛ 0.02273 ⎞ ⎡ ⎛ 0.02273 ⎞⎤
0.5 = 1 − erfc ⎜ 12 ⎟ + ⎡⎣exp ( 0.595 + 172.2 t ) ⎤⎦ ⎢erfc ⎜ 12
+ 13.12 t1 2 ⎟ ⎥
⎝ t ⎠ ⎣ ⎝ t ⎠⎦
Solving with appropriate software: t = 0.0132 hr = 47.5s Answer

11- 43
11-38 Heat treating furnaces are heavily insulated on their outer surfaces and are lined with fireclay bricks that are
10-cm thick. Initially, the bricks are at a uniform temperature of 25 ºC. After start-up, the furnace walls
are exposed to 1300 ºC gases with a combined convective/radiative heat transfer coefficient of 50 W/m2·K.
Determine the temperature (in ºC) of:
a. the outer surface of the bricks after 30 min
b. the outer surface of the bricks after 4 hrs
c. the temperature next to the insulation after 30 min and 4 hr.
Approach:
Because the outer wall is heavily insulated, this system is
equivalent to a symmetrically heated wall with thickness 2L;
in the symmetrically heated wall, no heat crosses the
centerline of the wall. Brick is a poor conductor, so we will
analyze this transient conduction problem as a one-
dimensional transient in an infinite plane wall.
Assumptions:
2. The conduction is one-dimensional in an infinite wall.
Solution:
The governing equation for one-dimensional transient conduction in an infinite plane wall is
T ( x, t ) − T f ⎛ x⎞
= C1 exp ( −λ12 τ ) cos ⎜ λ1 ⎟ τ > ∼ 0.2
Ti − T f ⎝ L⎠
We want T ( L, t ) , so we need to calculate Bi and obtain λ1 and C1 from Table 11—2. From Appendix A-3, for
fireclay brick, ρ = 2645 kg m3 , cP = 960 J kg K , k = 1.5 W m K , and α = k ρ c p = 5.91× 10−7 m 2 s
h L ( 50 W m K ) ( 0.10 m )
2
Bi = = = 3.33
k 1.5 W m K
By interpolation λ1 = 1.2165 and C1 = 1.2164
a) For the outer surface temperature at 30 min τ =

αt
=
( 5.91×10 −7
m 2 s ) (1800s )
= 0.1064
L2 ( 0.10 m )
2
This does not quite satisfy the requirement for the one term approximation, but Figure 11-7 will not give any
better results, so we will use the one-term approximation with the understanding of considerable uncertainty
T ( L, t ) = 1300 C + ( 25 − 1300 ) K (1.2165 ) exp ⎡ − (1.2165) ( 0.1064 ) ⎤ cos (1.2165 ) = 840 C
2
⎣ ⎦
Answer
b) For the outer surface temperature at 4 hr = 14,400 s τ=

( 5.91×10 ) (14, 400 ) = 0.8510 for which
−7
( 0.10 )
2
τ > ∼ 0.2
T = 1300 + ( 25 − 1300 )(1.2165 ) exp ⎡ − (1.216 J ) ( 0.8510 ) ⎤ cos (1.2165 ) = 1147 C
2
⎣ ⎦
Answer
c) For the temperature next to the insulation after 30 min
T = 1300 + ( 25 − 1300 )(1.2165 ) exp ⎡ − (1.2165 ) ( 0.1064 ) ⎤ cos ( 0 ) = −25 C
2
⎣ ⎦
This is physically impossible. The result is a consequence of violating the restriction that the one-term
approximation is valid when τ > ∼ 0.2 . In this situation we can conclude that after 30 minutes, the wall
temperature next to the insulation is still probably about 25 C .
For the temperature next to the insulation after 4 hours
T = 1300 + ( 25 − 1300 )(1.2165 ) exp ⎡ − (1.2165 ) ( 0.8170 ) ⎤ cos ( 0 ) = 837 C
2
⎣ ⎦
Answer
Comments:
The one-term approximation was used even though parts of the solution did not meet the validity criterion.
Hence, some of the answers must be interpreted and used with caution.
11- 44
11-39 Hot metals are quenched in cold fluids to change material properties. Consider a long 7.5-cm diameter
cylinder of 316 stainless steel that is taken out of a furnace at 500 ºC and plunged into a cold bath at 25 ºC.
The convective heat transfer coefficient is 1000 W/m2·K. Determine:
a. the centerline temperature of the cylinder 90 s after it is quenched (in ºC)
b. the surface temperature of the cylinder 5 min after it is quenched (in ºC)
c. the time required for the centerline temperature to reach 50 ºC (in s).
Approach:
This is a transient conduction problem. We first check the
Biot number to determine if the lumped systems method is
valid. If not, because the cylinder is very long, we can treat
this as one-dimensional transient in an infinite cylinder.
Assumptions:
2. The conduction is one-dimensional in an infinite wall.
Solution:
Lπ D 2 4
The Biot number is defined as Bi = hLchar k where Lchar = V A = = D 4 . From Appendix A-2
π DL
for 316 stainless steel (assuming, Tavg ≈ 600K ) ρ = 8238 kg m 2 , cP = 550 J kg K , k = 18.3 W m K ,
α = k ρ c p = 4.04 × 10−6 m 2 s
Bi =
(1000 W m K ) ( 0.075m 4 ) = 1.02 > 0.1
2
18.3 W m K
So the lumped systems approach not valid, and a one-dimensional transient analysis is used.
a) For an infinite cylinder, the governing equation for the temperature transient is
T ( r, t ) − Tf ⎛ r⎞
= c1 exp ( −λ12 τ ) J ⎜ λ1 ⎟ τ > ∼ 0.2
Ti − T f ⎝ ro ⎠
We want to determine T ( 0,90s ) . Recalculating Bi so we can obtain (by interpolation) λ1 and C1 from Table 11-
2:
h ro (1000 )( 0.075 2 )
Bi = = = 2.05 → λ1 = 1.609 C1 = 1.3424
K 18.3
With J o ( 0 ) = 1 and τ =
αt
=
( 4.04 ×10 −6
m 2 s ) ( 90s )
= 0.258
ro2 ( 0.075 m 2 )
2
This is greater than 0.2, so the one-term approximation is applicable.

T ( r , t ) = 25 C + ( 500 − 25 ) K (1.3424 ) exp ⎡ − (1.609 ) ( 0.258 ) ⎤ = 351.5 C
2
⎣ ⎦
Answer
b) Using the same equation for time of 5 min:
α t ( 4.04 × 10 ) ( 300s )
−6
τ= 2 = = 0.862
( 0.075 2 )
2
ro
From Table 11-3 (by interpolation) J o ( λ1 r ro ) = J o ( λ1 ro ro ) = 0.450
T ( ro ,300s ) = 25 C + ( 500 − 25 ) K (1.3424 ) exp ⎡ − (1.609 ) ( 0.862 ) ⎤ ( 0.450 ) = 55.8 C

2
⎣ ⎦
Answer
c) Solving the general equation for τ with J o ( 0 ) = 1
1 ⎛ T ( r, t ) − Tf ⎞ −1 ⎡ 50 − 25 ⎤
τ =− ln ⎜ ⎟= ln ⎢ ⎥ = 1.251
λ 2
⎜ (Ti − T f ) C1 ⎟ (1.609 ) 2
⎢⎣ ( 500 − 25 )(1.3424 ) ⎥⎦
1 ⎝ ⎠
τ ro2 (1.251)( 0.075m 2 )
2
αt
τ= ⇒ t= = = 435s Answer
ro2 α 4.04 × 10−6 m 2 s
11- 45
11-40 An 8-cm-diameter potato (ρ = 1100 kg/m3, cp = 3900 J/kg·K, k = 0.6 W/m·K), initially at a uniform
temperature of 25 ºC, is baked in an oven at 170 ºC until a temperature sensor inserted to the center of the
potato indicates a temperature of 70 ºC. The potato is then taken out of the oven and is wrapped into thick
towels so that no heat is lost from the potato. Assume the heat transfer coefficient in the oven to be 25
W/m2·K. Determine:
a. how long the potato is baked (in min)
b. the surface temperature of the potato before it is wrapped in the towel (in ºC)
c. the final equilibrium temperature of the potato (in ºC).
Approach:
This is a transient conduction problem. We assume the
potato is spherical has constant properties, and radiation is
not present. We check the Biot number to determine if the
lumped system approach is valid. If not, we can solve this
as a one-dimensional transient in a sphere
Assumptions:
2. Conduction is one-dimensional transient in a sphere.
3. Moisture is ignored in the potato.
Solution:
V π D2 6 D
The Biot number is Bi = hLchar k where Lchar = = =
A π D2 6
Bi =
( 25 W m K ) ( 0.08 m 6 ) = 0.56 >~ 0.1
2
0.6 W m K
So, a lumped systems approach is not valid.
a) We will assume that the one-dimensional transient solution for a sphere is applicable. Assuming constant
properties, the governing equation using the one-term approximation is:
T ( r, t ) − Tf sin ( λ1 r ro )
= C1 exp ( −λ12 τ ) when τ > ~ 0.2
Ti − T f λ1 r ro
The criterion τ > ~ 0.2 needs to be checked.
sin ( λ1 r ro ) αt
At the centerline r = 0 , and = 1 . Solving for τ = 2
λ1 r ro r
1 ⎡ T − Tf ⎤
τ =− ln ⎢ ⎥
λ ⎢⎣ C1 (Ti − T f ) ⎥⎦
2
1
To evaluate λ1 and C1 in Table 11-2, we need the Biot number

h ro ( 25 )( 0.08 2 )
Bi = = = 1.667 By interpolation, λ1 = 1.878 C1 = 1.411
k 0.6
1 ⎡ 70 − 170 ⎤
τ =− ln ⎢ ⎥ = 0.203 > ~ 0.2
(1.878 ) ⎢⎣ ( 25 − 170 )(1.411) ⎥⎦
2
So, the one-term approximation is valid. Therefore,

τ r 2 ( 0.203)( 0.04 m )
2
t= o = = 2322s = 38.7 min Answer

α 1.40 × 10−7 m 2 s
b) The surface temperature is
sin ( λ1 ro ro )
T = T f + (Ti − T f ) C1 exp ( −λ12 τ )
λ1 ro ro
sin (1.878 )
T = 170o C+ ( 25-170 ) K (1.411) exp ⎡- (1.878 ) ( 0.203) ⎤
2
⎣ ⎦
=119.2 o C Answer
1.878
11- 46
c) The final equilibrium temperature can be calculated by recognizing that if the potato had a uniform temperature
throughout its volume, the heat transfer to it would be equal to
Q
Q = m cP (Tavg − Ti ) ⇒ Tavg = Ti +
m cP
Because there is a non-uniform temperature, we use Eq. 11-63 to calculate the actual heat transfer
Q ⎡ sin λ1 − λ1 cos λ1 ⎤
= 1 − 3θ o, sphere ⎢ ⎥
Qmax ⎣ λ13 ⎦
kg ⎞ ( 0.08 m )
3
⎛
m = ρ V = ⎜1100 3 ⎟ π = 0.295 kg
⎝ m ⎠ 6
⎛ J ⎞ ⎛ 1kg ⎞
Qmax = m cP (T f − Ti ) = ( 0.295 kg ) ⎜ 3900 ⎟⎜ ⎟ (170 − 25 ) K = 166.8 kJ
⎝ kg K ⎠⎝ 1000 J ⎠
⎡ ⎛ 70 − 170 ⎞ sin (1.878 ) − 1.878cos (1.878 ) ⎤
Q = (166.8 kJ ) ⎢1 − 3 ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ = 87.5 kJ
(1.878 )
3
⎢⎣ ⎝ 25-170 ⎠ ⎥⎦
(87.8 kJ ) ⎛⎜
1000 J ⎞
⎟
Tavg = 25 o C+ ⎝ 1 kJ ⎠ =101.1 o C Answer
⎛ J ⎞
( 0.295 kg ) ⎜ 3900 ⎟
⎝ kg K ⎠
11- 47
11-41 In the manufacturing of laminated wood table tops, a more expensive and attractive wood surface layer
(1.5-mm thick) is glued to a less expensive structural wood. Heat is applied to the surface of the table to
speed the curing of the glue. A heater consists of a massive plate maintained at 150 °C by an imbedded
electrical heater. The glue will cure sufficiently if heated above 50 °C for at least 2 min, but its temperature
should not exceed 120 °C to avoid deterioration of the glue. Assume the laminate and structural wood have
an initial temperature of 25 °C and that they have equivalent thermophysical properties of k = 0.15 W/m·K
and ρcp = 1.5 × 106 J/m3·K. Determine:
a. how long will it take to heat the glue
b. the glue temperature at the end of the 2 min curing time
c. the energy removed from the heater during the time it takes to cure the glue if the heater has a square
surface area of 250 mm to the side (in kJ).
Approach:
The table top is very large relative to the depth of
interest, so this transient conduction problem can
be analyzed as one-dimensional conduction into
a semi-infinite solid with a step change in the
surface temperature:
Assumptions:
1. The properties are constant and uniform
throughout the laminate.
2. The heat transfer coefficient is uniform and
constant.
3. One-dimensional transient conduction in a
semi-infinite solid is valid.
Solution:
a) Assuming the properties of all the materials are the same, the glue thickness is negligible compared to the
laminate and structural wood, and one-dimensional transient conduction into a semi-infinite solid is applicable,
the temperature transient for a step change in surface temperature is given by:
T ( x, t ) − T f ⎛ x ⎞
= 1 − erfc ⎜ ⎟
Ti − T f ⎜2 αt ⎟
⎝ ⎠
2
k 0.15 W m K −7 m
From the given information, α = = = 1 × 10
ρ cP 1.5 × 106 J m3 K s
We want the time required for the glue to reach 50 C , so substituting in known quantities
⎛ ⎞
50 − 150 0.0015 m
= 1 − erfc ⎜⎜ ⎟
0.5 ⎟
25 − 150 ⎜ 2 ⎡(1× 10 m s ) t ⎤ ⎟
−7 2
⎝ ⎣ ⎦ ⎠
0.8 = 1 − erfc ⎡⎣ 2.3717 t ⎤⎦
−0.5
→ 2.3717t −0.5 = 0.906
t = 6.85s Answer
b) At the end of 2 minutes of curing, the glue temperature would be
⎡ ⎛ x ⎞⎤
T = T f + (Ti − T f ) ⎢1 − erfc ⎜ ⎟⎥
⎜ 2 α t ⎟⎥
⎣⎢ ⎝ ⎠⎦
With t = 2 ( 60s ) + 6.85s = 126.85s
⎡ ⎛ ⎞⎤
⎢ ⎜ 0.0015 m ⎟ ⎥ = 135 C
T = 150 C + ( 25 − 150 ) K ⎢1 − erfc ⎜ 0.5 ⎟ ⎥
Answer
⎜ 2 ⎡(1× 10 m s ) (126.85s ) ⎤ ⎟ ⎥
−7 2
⎣⎢ ⎝ ⎣ ⎦ ⎠⎦
This is above the temperature at which the glue deteriorates. Because of uncertainties in the thermal physical
properties, the actual temperature could be higher or lower than the calculated value. Therefore, a cooler heater
should be used.
11- 48
c) The energy removed from the heater is equal to that which enters the table top. We can integrate the power
over time to find the energy:
t t
Q = ∫ Q dt = ∫ q ′′ A dt
0 0
The heat flux at the surface is given by

k (T f − Ti )
q ′′ ( 0, t ) =
παt
t k (T f − Ti ) 2k (T f − Ti ) At 0.5
Q=∫ A dt =
0
παt πα
2 ( 0.15 W m K )(150 − 25 ) K ( 0.250 m ) (126.85s )
2 12
Q= = 47,100 J Answer
⎡π (1× 10−7 m 2 s ) ⎤
0.5
⎣ ⎦
If the heater operated continuously during the curing, the power required would be approximately
Q 47100 J J
W≈ ≈ = 371 = 371W Answer
t 126.85s s
11- 49
11-42 You have built your dream cabin and now need to lay a water line from the well to the cabin. You need to
estimate how deep the water line should be placed. From historical records, you discover that there has
never been a cold spell of –10 ºC weather for longer than 4 weeks, but often the temperature is as low as 0
°C for 12 weeks. Through the fall, you note that the ground temperature for a reasonable depth is
approximately uniform at about 10 ºC. You assume that if the ground temperature at depth does not reach
0 ºC in 12 weeks of –10 ºC weather (this includes a factor of safety), then the water in the pipes will not
freeze. The soil on your property has k = 2.1 W/m·K and α = 7 × 10-7 m2/s. How deep should you lay the
water pipe?
Approach:
Because the earth’s radius is large compared to the depth of
the water line, we will analyze this problem as transient
conduction in a semi-infinite medium with a step change in
surface temperature. We assume the surface temperature is
fixed and the properties constant.
Assumptions:
2. The conduction is one-dimensional in a semi-infinite
solid.
3. Neglect any freezing of water in the soil.
Solution:
The equation governing the temperature transient in a semi-infinite solid with a step change in surface temperature
is:
T − Tf ⎛ x ⎞
= 1 − erfc ⎜ ⎟
Ti − T f ⎜2 αt ⎟
⎝ ⎠
We assume properties are constant and neglect any freezing of water in the earth above the water line.
Substituting in what is known:
⎡ ⎤
0 − ( −10 ) x
= 1 − erfc ⎢ ⎥
10 − ( −10 ) ⎢ ⎡ 0.5 ⎥
⎣⎢ ⎣(
2 7 × 10 m s )( 7.258 × 10 s ) ⎦ ⎥
−7 2 6
⎤
⎦
Using Table 11.-4 for the erfc:
x
= 0.477
4.508
Solving for x
x = 2.15 m Answer
Comments:
This depth for the water line is very deep. The factor of safety mentioned in the problem statement may be too
large.
11- 50
11-43 When cold weather reaches into Florida, if the air temperature remains below freezing (0 ºC) for an
extended period of time, the orange, lime, and other citrus fruit crops can be severely damaged. Consider
an 8-cm orange, whose properties can be approximated as those of water. If the orange is initially at 10 ºC
and the air temperature drops suddenly to –5 ºC, determine how long it will take for any part of the orange
to begin to freeze (ignore radiation):
a. if it is a relatively still night and the heat transfer coefficient is 10 W/m2·K
b. if it is a windy night and the heat transfer coefficient is 40 W/m2·K.
Approach:
The first location that will freeze is the surface. We check
the Biot number to determine of the lumped systems method
can be used. If not, we will use one-dimensional transient
conduction in a sphere.
Assumptions:
Solution:
a) The Biot number is:
h Lchar V π D2 6 D
Bi = where Lchar = = =
k A π D2 6
Assuming constant properties that are those of water from Appendix A-6 at Tavg = (10 + 0 ) 2 = 5 C ,
ρ = 999.9 kg m3 , cP = 4.203kJ kg K , k = 0.578 W m K α = 1.371× 10−7 m 2 s
Bi =
(10 W m K ) ( 0.08 m 6 ) = 0.230 > 0.1
2
so the lumped system method is valid

0.578 W m K
With the higher h in part (b), Bi is even larger, so we will assume the one-term approximation for one-
dimensional transient conductor is valid. Assuming constant properties, no heat generation, and uniform heat
transfer coefficient:
T ( r, t ) − Tf sin ( λ1r ro )
= C1 exp ( −λ12τ ) when τ > 0.2
Ti − T f λ1r ro
αt 1 ⎞ ( λ1r ro ) ⎤
⎡ 1 ⎛ T − Tf
Solving for τ= =− ln ⎢ ⎜⎟⎟ ⎥
⎜
λ ⎠ sin ( λ1r ro ) ⎦⎥
⎣⎢ C1 ⎝ Ti − T f
2 2
r o 1
Let r = ro , and recalculate the Biot number so that we can evaluate λ1 and C1 from Table 11-2.
h ro (10 )( 0.08 2 )
Bi = = = 0.692
k 0.578
By interpolation, λ1 = 1.3446 and C1 = 1.1954 .
1 ⎡ 1 ⎛ 0 − ( −5 ) ⎞ (1.3446 ) ⎤
τ =− ln ⎢ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎥ = 0.528 > 0.2
(1.3446 ) ⎣⎢ (1.1954 ) ⎝ 10 − ( −5 ) ⎠ sin (1.3446 ) ⎦⎥
2
( 0.08 m 2 ) ( 0.528 )
2
ro2 τ
So, the one-term approximation is valid t= = = 6170s = 1.71hr Answer
α 1.371× 10−7 m 2 s
b) With h = 40 W m 2 K , Bi = 2.77 ⇒ λ1 = 2.229 and C1 = 1.590
1 ⎡ 1 ⎛ 0 − ( −5 ) ⎞ ( 2.229 ) ⎤ ( 0.08 2 ) ( 0.106 )
2
τ =− ln ⎢ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎥ = 0.106 t = = 1240s = 0.34 hr Answer

( 2.229 ) ⎣⎢ (1.590 ) ⎝ 10 − ( −5 ) ⎠ sin ( 2.229 ) ⎦⎥ 1.37 × 10−7
2
Comment:
Note that the criterion for using the one-term approximation is not satisfied for part b. Because the figures do not
have sufficient detail to provide a better answer, and because of other approximations in the problem solution, a
more involved solution is not justified.
11- 51
11-44 Stainless steel (AISI 304) ball bearings, which have been uniformly heated in an oven to 850 ºC, are
hardened by quenching them in an oil bath that is maintained at about 40 ºC by removing warm oil from the
top of the bath and adding cool oil at the bottom. The ball diameter is 20 mm. The balls move through the
bath on a conveyor belt at a velocity of 0.15 m/s. Assume the oil has cp = 1960 J/kg·K, and its convective
heat transfer coefficient is 1230 W/m2·K. Determine:
a. how long the balls must be in the bath until their surface temperature reaches 100ºC
b. the center temperature at the conclusion of the cooling
c. what oil flow is required if the oil temperature cannot rise more than 5 ºC and 10,000 balls per hour
are to be quenched.
Approach:
This is a transient conduction problem. The Biot number
should be checked first to determine if the lumped systems
method can be used. If it cannot, then we will use a one-
dimensional transient solution for a sphere.
Assumptions:
3. The conduction is one-dimensional transient in an
sphere.
Solution:
a) The Biot number for a sphere is
h Lchar π D3 6 D
Bi = where Lchar = V A = =
k π D2 6
From Appendix A-2, for 304 stainless steel at ∼ 800 K , ρ = 7900 kg m3 , k = 22.6 W m K , cP = 582 J kg K ,
α = k ρ c p = 4.92 × 10−6 m 2 s
Bi =
(1230 W m K ) ( 0.020 m 6 ) = 0.181 > 0.1
2
22.6 W m K
So, we cannot use the lumped systems approach, so we will use a one-dimensional solution. Assuming constant
properties and heat transfer coefficient, the one-term approximation for a sphere is:
T − Tf sin ( λ1r ro )
= C1 exp ( −λ12τ ) τ >∼ 0.2
Ti − T f λ1r ro
We will need to check τ for the validity of the method. To obtain C1 and λ1 from Table 11-2, we need
h ro (1230 )( 0.02 2 )
Bi = = = 0.54 by interpolation, λ1 = 1.2093 and C1 = 1.1561 .
k 22.6
Solving for τ with r = ro
1 ⎡ λ ⎞⎤
⎛ T − Tf 1 ⎡ 1.2093 ⎛ 100 − 40 ⎞ ⎤
τ =− ln ⎢ 1
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎥ = − ln ⎢ ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ = 1.703 > 0.2
λ ⎣⎢ C1 sin λ1 ⎝ Ti − T f (1.2093) ⎢⎣ (1.1561)( sin1.2093) ⎝ 850 − 40 ⎠ ⎥⎦
2 2
1 ⎠ ⎦⎥
So, the approach is valid. Solving τ for the time
τ ro2 (1.703)( 0.01m )
2
t= = = 34.6s Answer
α 4.92 × 10−6 m 2 s
sin ( λ1 r ro )
b) The center temperature is obtained with same equation. Noting that with r = 0 , →1
λ1 r ro
T = T f + (Ti − T f ) C1 exp ( −λ12 τ )
= 40 C + ( 850 − 40 ) K (1.1561) exp ⎡ − (1.2093) (1.703) ⎤ = 117.6 C

2
⎣ ⎦
Answer
c) The heat transfer to the oil can be determined from an energy balance on it. Assume steady, no work,
negligible potential and kinetic energy effects, and an ideal liquid with constant specific heat so that ∆h = cP ∆T :
11- 52
Qoil
Qoil = m cP (Tout - Tin ) ⇒ m=
cP (Tout - Tin )
The heat transfer rate is determined from the number of balls cooled per hour, N ball/hr, and the energy per
ball Q
QB = N Q
Note that Qoil = −Qballs
For a sphere
Q sin λ1 − λ1 cos λ1
= 1 − 3θ o , sphere
Qmax λ13
Qmax = m cP (T f − Ti ) = ρ V cP (T f − Ti )
J ⎞ π ( 0.02 m )
3
⎛ kg ⎞ ⎛
= ⎜ 7900 3 ⎟ ⎜ 582 ⎟ ( 40 − 850 ) K = −15, 600 J
⎝ m ⎠⎝ kg K ⎠ 6
Q ⎡117.6 − 40 ⎤ sin (1.2093 ) − (1.2093) cos (1.2093)
= 1− 3 ⎢ ⎥ = 0.918
⎣ 850 − 40 ⎦ (1.2093)
3
Qmax
Q = 0.918 ( −15600 J ) = −14320 J
⎛ 10000 balls ⎞⎛ −14320 J ⎞ ⎛ 1hr ⎞ J
QB = ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ = −39800
⎝ hr ⎠⎝ ball ⎠ ⎝ 3600s ⎠ s
J
39800
s kg
m= = 4.06 Answer
⎛ J ⎞ s
⎜ 1960 ⎟ (5 K )
⎝ kg K ⎠
11- 53
11-45 For a large party celebrating your graduation from college, your parents buy a case of frozen steaks.
Before you can throw the steaks onto the grill, they need to be thawed at room temperature of 77 ºF with an
estimated convective heat transfer coefficient of 5 Btu/hr·ft2·ºF on both sides of the steak. The very large 1-
in. thick steaks initially are at 10 ºF, and they are thawed when the centerline temperature is at 32 ºF.
Assume the steak’s properties can be approximated as that of water, and you can neglect the energy
associated with the melting phase change. Determine:
a. the time required for the steaks to thaw (in min)
b. the time required if you speed up the thawing by hanging the steaks on hooks and blowing air over
them with a fan such that the heat transfer coefficient is increased to 50 Btu/hr·ft2·ºF (in min).
Approach:
For this transient conduction problem we first check the Biot
number to determine of the lumped system method is valid.
If not, we will use a one-dimensional transient in an infinite
plane wall. (The steak is “large” compared to its thickness.)
Assumptions:
3. The conduction is one-dimensional transient in an
infinite plane wall.
Solution:
a) The Biot number is
Bi = hLchar k where Lchar = V A = 2 L A A = 2 L
Assuming the steak properties can be approximated as water, evaluate the properties from Appendix B-6 at
Tavg = ( 32 + 77 ) 2 = 54.5 F, ρ = 62.3lbm ft 3, cP = 1.00 Btu lbm F, k = 0.336 Btu hrft F , α = 5.47 × 10−3 ft 2 hr
Bi =
( 5 Btu hr ft 2
F ) ( 2 )( 0.0833ft )
= 2.48 > 0.1
0.336 Btu hr ft F
so the lumped systems approach is not valid. With the higher h in part (b), Bi is even larger, so we assume the
one-term approximation for one-dimensional transient conduction in an infinite plane wall is applicable.
Assuming constant properties, no heat generation, and a uniform heat transfer coefficient, and ignoring the effects
of phase change (ice to liquid), the governing equation is
T − Tf ⎛λ x⎞
= C1 exp ( −λ12τ ) cos ⎜ 1 ⎟ τ >∼ 0.2
Ti − T f ⎝ L ⎠
⎡ 1 ⎛ T − Tf 1 ⎞⎤
At the centerline x = 0 , so cos(0) = 1 . Solving for τ = α t L2 ln ⎢ ⎜ → τ =− ⎟⎟ ⎥
λ ⎢⎣ C1 ⎜⎝ Ti − T f
2
1 ⎠ ⎥⎦
Reevaluate the Biot number so that we can obtain λ1 and C1 from Table 11-2.
( 5 )( 0.0833)
Bi = = 1.24 By interpolation, λ1 = 0.9123 and C1 = 1.1336
0.336
1 ⎡ 1 ⎛ 32 − 77 ⎞ ⎤
τ =− ln ⎢ ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ = 0.712 > 0.2
( 0.9123) ⎣⎢ (1.1336 ) ⎝ 10 − 77 ⎠ ⎦⎥
2
( 0.0833ft ) ( 0.712 )
2
L2 τ
So the one-term approximation is valid: t= = = 0.90 hr = 54 min Answer
α 5.47 × 10−3 ft 2 hr
b) With h = 50 Btu hr ft 2 F → Bi = 12.4 → λ1 = 1.445 and C1 = 1.2639
( 0.0833) ( 0.303)
2
1 ⎡ 1 ⎛ 32 − 77 ⎞ ⎤
τ =− ln ⎢ ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ = 0.303 → t = = 0.38 hr = 23min Answer
(1.445 ) ⎣⎢ (1.2639 ) ⎝ 10 − 77 ⎠ ⎦⎥ 5.47 × 10 −3 ft 2 hr
2
Comment:
Freezing/thawing requires much energy, so ignoring the change of phase in this problem significantly
underestimates the time required to thaw the steak.
11- 54
11-46 One method to experimentally determine thermal conductivity is to measure the temperature response of a
thick slab when it is subjected to a step change in surface temperature. Consider a solid with ρ = 2500
kg/m3 and cp = 630 J/kgK. The solid’s temperature, initially a uniform 25 ºC, is measured with a
thermocouple embedded 6-mm from the surface. Boiling water at 100 ºC is brought into contact with the
surface and the heat transfer coefficient is very large. After 90 s the thermocouple reads 73 ºC. Determine
the thermal conductivity of the solid (in W/mK).
Approach:
This is transient heat conduction in a semi-infinite medium.
Because of the very large convective heat transfer
coefficient, when boiling water is brought into contact with
the surface, there is a step change in the surface temperature.
Equation 11-64 can be used to obtain the thermal
conductivity.
Assumptions:
3. The conduction is one-dimensional transient in a semi-
infinite solid.
Solution:
The equation governing conduction in a semi-infinite solid subject to a step change in its surface temperature is
T ( x, t ) − T f ⎛ x ⎞
= 1 − erfc ⎜ ⎟
Ti − T f ⎜2 αt ⎟
⎝ ⎠
Solving for the complementary error function:
⎛ x ⎞ T ( x, t ) − T f 73 − 100
erfc ⎜ ⎟ = 1− = 1− = 0.64
⎜2 αt ⎟ Ti − T f 25 − 100
⎝ ⎠
Interpolating in Table 11-4 at this value of erfc (or using appropriate software):
Z − 0.32 0.64 − 0.6509
=
0.34 − 0.32 0.6306 − 0.6509
x
Z= = 0.3308
2 αt
k
With α = and solving for k :
ρ cP
⎛ kg ⎞ ⎛ J ⎞
( 0.006 m )
2
⎜ 2500 3 ⎟⎜ 630 ⎟
x2 ρ c ⎝ m ⎠⎝ kg K ⎠ W
k= 2 P = = 1.44 Answer
( 0.3308) ( 4 )( 90s )
2
Z 4t mK
11- 55
11-47 Curing of the epoxy in a laminated material can be accelerated by the application of heat. Consider an
electric heater that is pressed tightly against a thick slab of a laminated material whose properties are
estimated to be ρ = 1200 kg/m3, cp = 1350 J/kg·K, and k = 1.3 W/m·K. The laminate initially is at a
uniform 25 ºC. The heater has a heat flux of 350 W/m2. Determine: a) the temperature at the surface of the
laminate 3 min after the heat is applied (in ºC), and b) the temperature 5-mm into the laminate 3 min after
the heat is applied (in ºC).
Approach:
Because the laminate is “thick”, we will analyze this
transient conduction problem as a semi-infinite medium with
a step change in applied surface heat flux.
Assumptions:
2. The heat flux is uniform.
3. The conduction is one-dimensional transient in a semi-
infinite solid.
Solution:
a) The temperature transient equation for a step change in the surface heat flux into a semi-infinite medium with
constant properties is:
T ( x, t ) − Ti 2 ⎛ − x2 ⎞ x2 ⎛ x ⎞
= exp ⎜ ⎟− erfc ⎜ ⎟
( q′′ k ) α t π ⎝ 4α t ⎠ αt ⎝ 2α t ⎠
We want to determine T ( 0,180s ) . From the given properties
2
k 1.3 W m K −7 m
α= = = 8.02 × 10
ρ cP (1200 kg m3 ) (1350 J kg K ) s
Because x = 0
2 ( 350 W m 2 ) ⎡ ( 8.02 × 10−7 m 2 s ) (180s ) ⎤
12
2q ′′ α t
T ( 0,180s ) = Ti + = 25 C + ⎢ ⎥ = 28.7 C Answer
k π 1.3 W m K ⎢ π ⎥⎦
⎣
b) Using the same general equation with x = 0.005 m
( 0.005 m )
2
x2
= = 0.0433
4α t 4 ( 8.02 × 10−7 m 2 s ) (180s )
x2
= 4 ( 0.0433) = 0.1732
αt
x 0.005
= = 17.32
2α t 2 ( 8.02 × 10−7 ) (180 )
12
q ′′ 350 W m 2 ⎡⎛ −7 m ⎞
2
⎤
(α t ) = ⎟ (180s ) ⎥
12
⎢⎜ 8.02 × 10 = 3.25 K
k 1.3 W m K ⎣⎝ s ⎠ ⎦
⎡ 2 ⎤
T ( x, t ) = 25 C + ( 3.25 K ) ⎢ exp ( −0.0433) − ( 0.1732 ) erfc (17.32 ) ⎥ = 28.5 C
12
Answer
⎣ π ⎦
11- 56
11-48 A consulting engineer is asked to investigate a suspicious fire. A room paneled with thick oak planks
burned very quickly. The insurance company wants an estimate of the time required for the surface of the
oak planks to reach their ignition temperature of 400 ºC. Initially, the wood was at 25 ºC. The temperature
of the hot gases from the fire was estimated to be 850 ºC with a heat transfer coefficient of 25 W/m2·K.
Determine:
a. the time required to reach the ignition temperature (in s)
b. the temperature 1 cm inside the wall at this time
c. comment on the influence of radiation.
Approach:
We will treat this problem as a one-dimensional
transient conduction problem because the oak is thick
(but not specified) and ignition will begin at the
surface.
Assumptions:
3. The conduction is one-dimensional transient in a
semi-infinite solid.
Solution:
a) The solution for one-dimensional transient conductor in a semi –infinite medium with a step change in surface
convection is given by Eq. 11-66:
T ( x, t ) − T f ⎛ x ⎞ ⎡ ⎛ hx h 2α t ⎞ ⎤ ⎡ ⎛ x h α t ⎞⎤
= 1 − erfc ⎜ ⎟ + ⎢ exp ⎜ + 2 ⎟ ⎥ ⎢erfc ⎜⎜ + ⎟⎥
Ti − T f ⎝ 2 αt ⎠ ⎣ ⎝ k k ⎠ ⎦ ⎣⎢ ⎝ 2 αt k ⎟⎠ ⎦⎥
From Appendix A-3 for oak, k = 0.17 W m K , ρ = 545 kg m3 , cP = 2385 J kg K , and
2
k 0.17 W m K −7 m
α= = = 1.308 × 10
ρ cP ( 545 kg m3 ) ( 2385 J kg K ) s
Calculating what is known at the surface with x = 0:
T − Tf 400 − 850 x hx
= = 0.545 =0 =0
Ti − T f 25 − 850 2 αt k
h 2α t ( 25 W m K ) (1.308×10 m s ) t
2 2-7 2
= = 0.002829t
k2 ( 0.17 W mK )
2
h α t ( 25 W m K ) ⎡⎣(1.308×10 m s ) t ⎤⎦
0.5
2 -7 2
= = 0.05319t 0.5
k 0.17 W mK
Substituting these into the main equation:
0.545 = 1 − erfc ( 0 ) + ⎡⎣exp ( 0 + 0.002829t ) ⎤⎦ ⎡⎣erfc ( 0 + 0.05319t 0.5 ) ⎤⎦
Using appropriate software, we solve for t 151s Answer
b) For the temperature 1 cm inside the wall at this time ( t 151s ), using the same equation but with:
( 25 W m K ) ⎡⎣(1.308×10 m 2 s ) (151s ) ⎤⎦
0.5
2 -7
x 0.01m h αt
= = 1.125 = = 0.654
2 αt 2 ⎡⎣(1.308 × 10-7 m 2 s ) (151s ) ⎤⎦
0.5
k 0.17 W mK
hx ( 25 W m K ) ( 0.01m ) h 2α t ( 25 W m K ) (1.308×10 m s ) (151s )

2 2 2 -7 2
= = 1.47 = = 0.4271
k2 ( 0.17 W mK )
2
k 0.17 W mK
{
= 850 + ( 25 − 850 ) 1 − erfc (1.125 ) + ⎡⎣ exp (1.47 + 0.4271) ⎤⎦ ⎡⎣ erfc (1.125 + 0.654 ) ⎤⎦ = 51.5o C } Answer
c) Because of the high combustion temperature, radiation will have an influence, and the ignition time will be
shorter than that calculated above. Answer
11- 57
11-49 For proper heat treatment of metals, the temperature distribution in the metal must be carefully controlled.
Consider the annealing of a large slab of 304 stainless steel. Initially, the slab is at 150 ºC. It is placed in
an oven in which the air temperature is 1040 ºC and a heat transfer coefficient of 450 W/m2·K. The
average temperature of the slab must be raised to 800 ºC, but the surface temperature should not rise above
900 ºC. Determine:
a. the maximum slab thickness that can be processed (in cm)
b. the time required for the annealing process (in s and min).
Approach:
Assuming that the lumped systems method is not valid,
we will use the one-dimensional transient in an infinite
plane wall. With neither time nor thickness given, an
iterative procedure probably will be required.
Assumptions:
3. The conduction is one-dimensional in a infinite plane
wall.
Solution:
Assuming constant properties, uniform heat transfer coefficient, and no internal heat generation, the equations
governing one-dimensional transient heat transfer in an infinite plane wall are:
T ( x, t ) − T f ⎛λ x⎞
= C1 exp ( −λ12 τ ) cos ⎜ 1 ⎟
Ti − T f ⎝ L ⎠
Q ⎡ T ( 0, t ) − T f ⎤ sin λ1
= 1− ⎢ ⎥
Qmax ⎢⎣ Ti − T f ⎥⎦ λ1
Note that Qmax = m cP (T f − Ti ) and using Tavg ,
Q = m cP (Tavg − Ti ) so that
Q Tavg - Ti ⎡ T ( 0, t ) − T f ⎤ sin λ1 800 - 150 ⎡ T ( 0, t ) − 1040 ⎤ sin λ1

= = 1− ⎢ ⎥ → = 1− ⎢ ⎥ (1)
Qmax T f - Ti ⎢⎣ Ti − T f ⎥⎦ λ1 1040 - 150 ⎣ 150 − 1040 ⎦ λ1
For the surface temperature T ( L, t )
T ( L, t ) − T f ⎛λ L⎞ T ( L, t ) − 1040 ⎛λ L⎞
= C1 exp ( −λ12 τ ) cos ⎜ 1 ⎟ → = C1 exp ( −λ12 τ ) cos ⎜ 1 ⎟ (2)
Ti − T f ⎝ L ⎠ 150 − 1040 ⎝ L ⎠
For the centerline temperature T ( 0, t ) :
T ( 0, t ) − T f T ( 0, t ) − 1040
= C1 exp ( −λ12 τ ) cos ( 0 ) → = C1 exp ( −λ12 τ ) (3)
Ti − T f 150 − 1040
The constants λ1 and C1 from Table 11-2 depend only on Biot number
hL
Bi =
k
The three equations (1), (2), and (3) involve 3 unknowns: T ( 0, t ) , T ( L, t ) , and τ .
The solution procedure is:
1) Guess Bi
2) Evaluate λ1 and C1
3) Solve the three simultaneous equations for the three unknowns
4) Determine if the calculated T ( L, t ) < 900 C
5) Return to step 1 if step 4 is not satisfied.
11- 58
For 304 stainless steel from Appendix A-2 at Tavg = ( 800 + 150 ) 2 = 475 o C = 748 K → so at 800 K ,
ρ = 7900 kg m , k = 22.6 J kg K , cP = 582 J kg K , α = k ρ cP = 4.92 × 10 m s
3 −6 2
Guessing Bi = 2.0 : λ1 = 1.0769 and C1 = 1.1795

Solving the equation
T ( 0, t ) = 746.5 o C T ( L, t ) = 900.8 o C τ = 1.099
The surface temperature is close enough to our target, so we do not need to iterate.
Bi k ( 2.0 )( 22.6 W m K )
Now L = = = 0.100 m
h ( 450 W m2 K )
So the maximum slab thickness is 2 L = 0.200 m Answer
Calculating the time

τ L2 (1.099 )( 0.10 m )
2
t= = = 2234s = 37.2 min Answer

α 4.92 × 10−6 m 2 s
11- 59
11-50 Quenching of a metal slab in an oil bath requires that the bath temperature does not rise significantly. The
temperature rise in the bath can be determined if the heat transferred to the oil from the slab is known.
Consider a plain carbon steel slab 2.5-cm thick and 2-m square. Initially at 1000 ºC, it is quenched in an oil
bath at 100 ºC. The heat transfer coefficient is 450 W/m2·K. Ignoring edge effects, determine:
a. the time required for the centerline temperature to reach 425 ºC
b. the temperature at a depth of 0.5 cm from the surface at the same time (in ºC)
c. the heat transfer from the slab to the oil (in kJ).
Approach:
Because of the large width and length of this slab compared
to its thickness, we will solve this problem as a one-
dimensional transient in an infinite plane wall. We will
calculate the Biot number to see if the lumped systems
approach is valid, but we doubt it, is because of the large
heat transfer coefficient.
Assumptions:
3. The conduction is one-dimensional in a plane wall.
Solution:
The Biot number is Bi = hLchar k where Lchar = V A = 2 L A A = 2L . From Appendix A-2, for carbon steel
at ~ 1000 K , ρ = 7854 kg m3 , k = 30.0 W m K , c p = 1169 J kg K , α = 3.27 × 10−6 m 2 s
Bi =
( 450 W m K ) ( 0.025 m ) = 0.375 > 0.1
2
so the lumped systems approach is not valid.

30.0 W mK
a) Assuming constant properties, uniform heat transfer coefficient, and no edge effects, the equation governing the
temperature transient in an infinite plane wall is:
T ( x, t ) − T f
= C1 exp ( −λ12 τ ) cos ( λ1 x L ) when τ > ~ 0.2
Ti − T f
−1 ⎡ T − Tf ⎤
For the centerline, x = 0 , and solving for τ = α t L2 → τ= ln ⎢ ⎥
λ ⎢⎣ C1 (Ti − T f ) ⎥⎦
2
1
h L ( 450 )( 0.0125 )
Evaluating Bi = = = 0.1875 → λ1 = 0.4213 and C1 = 1.0293
k 30
−1 ⎡ 425 − 100 ⎤
τ= ln ⎢ ⎥ = 5.90 > 0.2
( 0.4213) ⎢⎣ (1.0293)(1000 − 100 ) ⎥⎦
2
τ L2 ( 5.90 )( 0.0125 m )
2
So, the one-term approximation is valid. Solving for t t= = = 282s Answer

α 3.27 × 10−6 m 2 s
b) The general equation can be used to find the temperature at a depth 0.5cm from the surface
x = 0.0125 m − 0.005 m = 0.0075 m
⎡ ( 0.4213)( 0.0075 m ) ⎤
T = 100 o C + (1000 − 100 ) K (1.0293) exp ⎡ − ( 0.4213) ( 5.90 ) ⎤ cos ⎢
2
⎣ ⎦ ⎥ = 414.7 C
o
Answer
⎣ 0.0125 m ⎦
c) The heat transfer is calculate with
Q sin λ1 ⎛ 425 − 100 ⎞ sin ( 0.4213)
= 1 − Qo = 1− ⎜ ⎟ = 0.649
Qmax λ1 ⎝ 1000 − 100 ⎠ 0.4213
Qmax = m cP (T f − Ti )
= ( 7854 kg m3 ) ( 0.025 m )( 2 m )( 2 m )(1169 J kg K )(100 − 1000 ) K = −8.26 × 108 J = −8.26 × 105 kJ
Q = 0.649 ( −8.26 × 105 kJ ) = −5.37 × 105 kJ Answer
11- 60
11-51 For the cylinder in Problem P 11-39 assume it now is only 15-cm long. For the same conditions as given in
that problem, determine:
a. the center temperature of the cylinder 1 min after it is quenched (in ºC)
b. the center temperature of the cylinder 5 min after it is quenched (in ºC)
c. the time required for the center temperature to reach 50 ºC (in s)
Approach:
This is a transient problem in a finite size cylinder. We first
check the Biot number to see if the lumped systems method
is valid. If not, we can combine two one-dimensional
transient solutions to obtain the transient in this cylinder. We
can use Example 11-9 for the procedure to follow.
Assumptions:
Solution:
First check the Biot number: Bi = h Lchar k where Lchar = V A = Lπ D 2 4
V = ( 0.15 m ) π ( 0.075 m ) 4 = 6.627 × 10−4 m3
2
A = π D L + 2π D 2 4 = π ( 0.075 m )( 0.15 m ) + 2π ( 0.075 m ) 4 = 4.418 × 10−2 m 2

2
Lchar = 6.627×10-4 m 2 4.418×10-2 m = 0.015 m

From Appendix A-2 for 316 stainless steel at Tavg ≈ 600 K
ρ = 8.238 kg m3 , cP = 550 J kg K , k = 18.3 W m K , α = k ρ cP = 4.04 × 10−6 m 2 s
Bi = (1000 W m 2 K ) ( 0.015 m ) 18.3 W mK = 0.82 > 0.1
so the lumped systems approach is not valid.
a) Following Example 11-9, the non-dimensional temperature for the infinite wall uses
τ wall = α t L2 = ( 4.04 × 10−6 m 2 s ) ( 300s ) ( 0.075 m ) = 0.215 > 0.2
2
so the one-term approximation is okay

Biwall = h L k = (1000 )( 0.075 ) 18.3 = 4.10 From Table 11-2, λ1 = 1.2695 and C1 = 1.2299
θ o , wall = C1 exp ( −λ12 τ ) = (1.2299 ) exp ⎡ − (1.2695) ( 0.215 ) ⎤ = 0.870
2
⎣ ⎦
For an infinite cylinder τ cyl =

αt
=
( 4.04 ×10 ) ( 300 ) = 0.862
−6
Bicyl =
h ro (1000 )( 0.0375 )
= = 2.05
( 0.0375)
2 2
r
o k 18.3
From Table 11-2, λ1 = 1.6090 and C1 = 1.3424 , θ o ,cyl = C1 exp ( −λ12 τ ) = (1.3424 ) exp ⎡ − (1.6090 ) ( 0.862 ) ⎤ = 0.144
2
⎣ ⎦
The center temperature is
T ( 0, 0,300s ) = T f + (Ti − T f ) θ o , wall × θ o , cyl = 25 C + ( 500 − 25 ) K ( 0.870 )( 0.144 ) = 84.6 C Answer
b) The same equations are used to determine the time required for the center temperature to reach 50 C
T ( 0, 0, t ) − T f
= ⎡⎣C1 exp ( −λ12 τ ) ⎤⎦ × ⎡⎣C1 exp ( −λ12 τ ) ⎤⎦
Ti − T f wall cyl
with τ cyl = α t r and τ wall = α t L , we can solve the above equation for time.
o
2 2
−1 ⎡ 1 ⎛ T − Tf ⎞⎤
t= ln ⎢ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎥
α ⎡⎣λ L +λ ⎤
r ⎦ ⎣⎢ 1,cyl C1, wall
C ⎝ Ti − T f
2 2 2 2
1, wall 1, cyl o ⎠ ⎦⎥
−1 ⎡ 1 ⎛ 50 − 25 ⎞ ⎤
= ln ⎢ ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ = 401s = 6.68 min Answer
⎛ 1.6090 ⎞ ⎤ ⎣⎢ (1.3424 )(1.2299 ) ⎝ 500 − 25 ⎠ ⎦⎥
2 ⎡ 2 2
⎛ -6 m ⎞ ⎛ 1.2695 ⎞
⎜ 4.04×10 ⎟ ⎢⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎝ s ⎠ ⎢⎣⎝ 0.075m ⎠ ⎝ 0.0375m ⎠ ⎦⎥
11- 61
11-52 Raw clay molded into bricks is fired in a kiln at 1300 ºC and cooled in air at 25 ºC with a convective heat
transfer coefficient of 50 W/m2·K. The 5.7-cm × 10-cm × 20-cm brick has the following properties: ρ =
2050 kg/m3; k = 1.0W/m·K; cp = 960 J/kg·K; α = 0.51×10-6 m2/s. After 50 min of cooling, determine:
a. the temperature at the center (in ºC)
b. the temperature of the corners of the brick (in ºC).
Approach:
We will assume lumped heat capacity is not applicable and
use the product of three one-dimensional transient
conduction solutions for infinite plane walls to determine
the two temperatures, T ( 0, 0, 0, t ) and T ( L1 , L2 , L3 , t ) .
Assumptions:
2. The conduction is three-dimensional.
Solution:
As shown on Figure 11-13, the intersection of three infinite plane walls is the transient solution for this brick.
Assuming constant properties, uniform heat transfer coefficient, and ignoring radiation (the very high brick
temperature will result in large radiative losses, but we will ignore them.), the equation we need to solve is:
T ( x1 , x2 , x3 , t ) − T f
= θ ( x1 , t ) plane × θ ( x2 , t ) plane × θ ( x3 , t ) plane
Ti − T f wall wall wall
The one-term approximation is θ ( x, t ) plane = C1 exp ( −λ12 τ ) cos ( λ1 x L ) where τ > ∼ 0.2 and τ = α t L2 .
wall
Each wall has its own values for T , x, λ1 , and C1 , and the latter two quantities are obtained from Table 11-
2 once the Biot number is evaluated. So for the three walls
h L ( 50 W m K ) ( 0.0285 m )
2
Wall 1) L1 = 0.0285 m Bi1 = = = 1.425

k 1W m K
by interpolation λ1 = 0.9524 and C1 = 1.1448 τ1 =

αt
=
( 0.51×10 −6
m 2 s ) ( 3000s )
= 1.884
L12 ( 0.0285 m )
2
( 50 )( 0.05 )
Wall 2) L2 = 0.05 m Bi2 = = 2.50 → λ1 = 1.1347 and C1 = 1.1949 τ 2 = 0.612
1
( 50 )( 0.10 )
Wall 3) L3 = 0.10 m Bi3 = = 5.00 → λ1 = 1.3138 and C1 = 1.2402 τ 3 = 0.153
1
a) For the centerline temperature, x = 0 , and cos ( 0 ) = 1 so
θ1 ( 0, t ) = (1.1448 ) exp ⎡ − ( 0.9524 ) (1.884 ) ⎤ = 0.2073
2
⎣ ⎦
θ 2 ( 0, t ) = (1.1949 ) exp ⎡ − (1.1347 ) ( 0.612 ) ⎤ = 0.5434
2
⎣ ⎦
θ 3 ( 0, t ) = (1.2402 ) exp ⎡ − (1.3138 ) ( 0.153) ⎤ = 0.9524
2
⎣ ⎦
The center temperature is:
T ( 0, 0, 0, t ) = 25 C + (1300 − 25 ) K ( 0.2073)( 0.5434 )( 0.9524 ) = 161.8 C Answer
b) For the corner temperature, we use
θ1 ( L1 , t ) = θ1 ( 0, t ) cos ( λ1 L L ) = ( 0.2073) cos ( 0.9524 ) = 0.1202
θ 2 ( L2 , t ) = ( 0.5434 ) cos (1.1347 ) = 0.2295
θ 3 ( L3 , t ) = ( 0.9524 ) cos (1.3138 ) = 0.2421
The corner temperature is:
T ( L1 , L2 , L3 , t ) = 25 + (1300 − 25 )( 0.1202 )( 0.2295 )( 0.2421) = 33.5 C Answer
11- 62
11-53 Exposed ceiling beams are popular many modern houses. However, because they are exposed, their
ignition in the event of a fire is of concern. Consider a 15-cm by 15-cm yellow pine beam, initially at 25
ºC, attached to a ceiling, thus insulating the base. The three other sides are exposed to fire at 600 ºC with a
combined convective/radiative heat transfer coefficient of 50 W/m2·K. Determine the beam’s maximum
temperature 5 min after a fire starts.
Approach:
By inspection, the highest temperature will occur at a
corner in this two-dimensional transient conduction
problem. We will assume the lumped heat capacity
method is not valid. The transient temperature can be
calculated by the intersection of the solutions for two
infinite plane walls. Because the attachment plane to the
ceiling is insulated, we need to analyze wall 2 with a
length 2L2 , since a line of symmetry acts as an adiabatic
surface.
Assumptions:
Solution:
As shown on Fig 11-13, an infinity long bar is constructed from the intersection of two infinite plane walls.
Assuming constant properties and uniform heat transfer coefficients, the equation we need to solve for the corner
T ( L1 , L2 , t ) − T f
temperature, T ( L1 , L2 , t ) is: = θ ( L1 , t ) plane × θ ( L2 , t ) plane
Ti − T f wall wall
where θ ( x, t ) plane = C1 exp ( −λ12 τ ) cos ( λ1 x L ) if τ > ∼ 0.2

wall
Each wall has its own values for τ , x, λ1 , and C1 , and the latter two quantities are obtained from Table 11-
2 once the Biot number is evaluated. For the two walls
h L ( 50 W m K ) ( 0.075 m )
2
Wall 1 L1 = 0.075 m Bi1 = 1 = = 25.0

k 0.15 W m K
For pine from Appendix A-3, ρ = 640 kg m3 , k = 0.15 W mK , cP = 2805 J kg K , α = k ρ c p = 8.36 × 10−8 m 2 s
From Table 11-2, λ1 = 1.5082 and C1 = 1.2708
τ=
αt
=
(8.36 ×10 −8
m 2 s ) ( 300s )
= 0.00446 < 0.2
L12 ( 0.075m )
2
So, the one-term approximation is not valid. However, Figure 11-7 is not of any help either because of the very
small spacings on the graph, so we will continue with this method with the understanding that uncertainties exist.
Wall 2, using the same approach as used for the first wall
L2 = 0.15 m Bi2 = 50.0 λ1 = 1.5400 C1 = 1.2727 τ = 0.00111
θ ( L1 , t ) = (1.2708 ) exp ⎡ − (1.5082 ) ( 0.00446 ) ⎤ cos (1.5082 ) = 0.0787
2
Therefore,
⎣ ⎦
θ ( L2 , t ) = (1.2727 ) exp ⎡ − (1.5400 ) ( 0.00111) ⎤ cos (1.5400 ) = 0.0391
2
⎣ ⎦
Solving for T ( L1 .L2 , t )
T ( L1 , L2 , t ) = T f + (Ti − T f ) θ ( L1 , t ) θ ( L2 , t ) = 600 C + ( 25 − 600 ) K ( 0.0787 )( 0.0391) = 598.2 C Answer
Comments:
This answer suggests that the corner temperature is about the same as the fire. Ignition temperature is lower than
this. Because the one-term approximation validity certain was not satisfied, there is a large uncertainty in the
calculation
11- 63
11-54 For a fire investigation, the insurance company for whom you work wants to know how long it would take
for an oak beam 2-in. by 4-in. to ignite under certain conditions. The air temperature is 1000 °F with a
convective heat transfer coefficient of 1.8 Btu/hr·ft2·°F. The initial temperature of the wood is 75 °F, and
its ignition temperature is 900 °F. The wood has ρ = 45 lbm/ft3, cp = 0.30 Btu/lbm·°F, and k = 0.10
Btu/hr·ft·°F. Ignore radiation. Determine the time required for any of the wood to start burning when
suddenly exposed to these operating conditions (in s).
Approach:
We will assume the lumped heat capacity method is not
applicable. As shown on Fig. 11-13, the intersection of
two infinite plane walls creates an infinite rectangular
bar. By inspection we can see that ignition will begin
along the corner of the beam. We can use these one-
dimensional solutions to calculate the time required
for T ( L1 , L2 , L3 ) = 900 F .
Assumptions:
5. There is no radiation.
Solution:
Assuming constant properties, uniform heat transfer coefficient, and no radiation heat transfer, the transient
temperature profile for an infinite (two-dimensional) beam can be calculated by:
T ( x1 , x2, t ) − T f
= θ ( x1 , t ) plane × θ ( x2 , t ) plane
Ti − T f wall wall
where the one-term approximation is:

⎛ x⎞ αt
θ ( x, t ) plane = C1 exp ( −λ12τ ) cos ⎜ λ1
⎟ r >∼ 0.2 and τ=
wall ⎝ L⎠ L2
Combining the equations, with x1 = L1 and x2 = L2
T − Tf
Ti − T f
{
= C1,1 exp ( −λ1,12 τ 1 ) cos ( λ1,1 ) C1,2 exp ( −λ1,2
2
}
τ 2 ) cos ( λ1,2 )
Solving for time:

−1 ⎡ 1 ⎛ T − Tf ⎞⎤
t= ln ⎢ ⎜ ⎟⎥
⎡λ 2
λ ⎤ ⎢⎣ C1,1 cos ( λ1,1 ) C1,2 cos ( λ1,2 ) ⎜⎝ Ti − T f ⎟⎠ ⎥⎦
2
α⎢ + 1,1
2 ⎥
1,2
2
⎢⎣ L 1 L ⎥⎦ 2
Each wall has its own values for τ , x, λ1 and C1 , and the latter two quantities are obtained from Table 11-2,
once the Biot number is evaluated. From the given information
α=
k
=
( 0.10 Btu hr ft F) = 0.00741
ft 2
ρ cP ( 45lbm ft 3 )( 0.30 Btu lbm F ) hr
For each wall
h L1 (1.8 Btu hr ft F ) ( 0.0833ft )
2
1) L1 = 0.0833ft Bi1 = = = 1.50

k 0.10 Btu hr ft F
by interpolation λ1,1 = 0.9686 and C1,1 = 1.1493
(1.8)( 0.1667 )
2) L2 = 0.1667 ft Bi2 = = 3.0 → λ1,2 = 1.1925 and C1,2 = 1.2102
0.10
Substituting in numbers
11- 64
−1 ⎡ 1 ⎛ 900 − 1000 ⎞ ⎤
t= ln ⎢ ⎜ ⎟⎥
ft ⎞ ⎡⎛ 0.9686 ⎞ ⎛ 1.1925 ⎞ ⎤ ⎢⎣ (1.1493) cos ( 0.9686 )(1.2102 ) cos (1.1925 ) ⎝ 75 − 1000 ⎠ ⎥⎦
2 2
⎛ 2
⎜ 0.00741 ⎟ ⎢⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎝ hr ⎠ ⎢⎣⎝ 0.0833ft ⎠ ⎝ 0.1667ft ⎠ ⎥⎦
= 0.718 hr Answer
Check the Fourier number
⎛ ft 2 ⎞
⎜ 0.00741 ⎟ ( 0.718 hr )
αt hr ⎠
τ1 = 2 = ⎝ = 0.766 > ∼ 0.2
( 0.0833ft )
2
L1
( 0.00741)( 0.718)
τ2 = = 0.191
( 0.1667 )
2
This is close enough to τ > ∼ 0.2 to be a good approximation.
11- 65
11-55 A hot dog 20-mm in diameter and 15-cm long at 5 ºC is placed into boiling 100 ºC water; because of the
vigorous boiling, the heat transfer coefficient on the hot dog is 250 W/m2·K. To be fully cooked its center
should be at 80 ºC. The hot dog’s properties are: ρ = 890 kg/m3, cp = 3350 J/kg·K, and k = 0.5 W/m·K.
Determine how long the hot dog should be in the water (in s).
Approach:
For this transient conduction problem, we should first check
the Biot number to determine if the lumped system approach
can be used. If not, we will treat this as a multi-dimensional
conduction problem in a solid with constant properties.
Assumptions:
3. The conduction is two-dimensional transient in short
cylinder.
Solution:
The Biot number for a short cylinder is Bi = hLchar k where Lchar = V A
V = (π D 2 4 ) 2 L = ⎡π ( 0.020 m ) 4 ⎤ ( 0.15 m ) = 4.712 × 10−5 m3
2
Volume
⎣ ⎦
A = π D + 2π D 2 4 = π ( 0.020 m )( 0.15 m ) + π ( 0.02 m ) 2 = 1.005 × 10−2 m 2
2
Area
Lchar = 4.712×10-5 m -3 1.005×10-2 m 2 = 4.688 × 10 −3 m
Bi =
( 250 W m K )( 4.688 ×10
2 −7
m)
= 2.34 > 0.1
0.5 W m K
Because Bi > 0.1, the lumped systems approach is not valid.
Assuming constant properties, uniform heat transfer coefficient, and no internal heat generation, the
transient temperature in a short cylinder is obtained by combining the solutions for an infinite plane wall and a
infinite cylinder.
T ( r , x, t ) − T f ⎡ T ( x , t ) − T f ⎤ ⎡T ( r, t ) − Tf ⎤
=⎢ ⎥ ×⎢ ⎥
Ti − T f ⎣⎢ Ti − T f ⎦⎥ plane ⎣⎢ Ti − T f ⎦⎥ infinite
wall cylinder
At the centerline ( r = 0, x = 0 ) , the one-dimensional transient responses using the one-term approximation are:
Plane wall
T ( 0, t ) − T f
= C1, w exp ( −λ1,2w τ w )
Ti − T f
Cylinder
T ( 0, t ) − T f
= C1,c exp ( −λ1,2c τ c )
Ti − T f
Combining these three equations
T ( 0, 0, t ) − T f
= C1, w exp ( −λ1,2w rw ) C1, c exp ( −λ1,2c τ c ) = C1, w C1,c exp − ( λ1,2w τ w + λ1,2c τ c )
Ti − T f
0.5 W m K m2
with τ w = α t L2 and τ c = α t ro2 , α = k ρ c p = = 1.68 × 10−7
(890 kg m 3
) ( 3350 J kg K ) s
Solving for t
⎡ ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎡ ⎛ T ( 0, 0, t ) − T f ⎞⎤
−1 ⎥ ln ⎢ 1
t=⎢ 2 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎥
⎢ λ1, w α λ1,2c α ⎥ ⎢ C1, w C1,c Ti − T f
⎢ 2 + 2 ⎥ ⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎣⎢ L ro ⎦⎥
11- 66
The constants λ1 and C1 are obtained from Table 11-2.
Plane wall:
h L ( 250 W m K ) ( 0.075 m )
2
Bi = = = 37.5 ⇒ λ1, w = 1.5294 and C1, w = 1.2722

k 0.5 W m K
Cylinder:
h r ( 250 )( 0.01 )
Bi = o = = 5.0 ⇒ λ1,c = 1.9898 and C1 = 1.5029
k 0.5
−1 ⎡ 1 ⎛ 80 − 100 ⎞ ⎤
t= ln ⎢ ⎜ ⎟⎥
(1.5294 ) (1.68 ×10 m s) (1.9898) (1.68 ×10 m s ) ⎣⎢ (1.2722 )(1.5029 ) ⎝ 5 − 100 ⎠ ⎦⎥
2 −7 2 2 −7 2
+
( 0.075 m ) ( 0.01m )
2 2
= 232.5 = 3.86 min Answer
11- 67
11-56 The same heat treating oven used in Problem P 11-44 is used to prepare the same geometry balls for a
different application. If the hot balls are cooled by natural convection in air at 20 ºC such that the heat
transfer coefficient is 15 W/m2·K, determine the time for the surface temperature to reach 100 ºC (in s).
Approach:
This is a transient conduction problem. The Biot number
should be checked first to determine if the lumped system
method can be used. If it cannot, then we will use a one-
dimensional solution for a sphere.
Assumptions:
3. The conduction is one-dimensional transient in a
semi-infinite solid.
Solution:
The Biot number for this sphere is:
V π D3 6 D
Bi = h Lchar k where Lchar =
= =
A π D2 6
From Appendix A-2, for 304 stainless steel at ∼ 800 K , ρ = 7900 kg m3 , k = 22.6 W m K , cP = 582 J kg K ,
and α = k ρ cP = 4.92 × 10−6 m 2 s
Bi =
(15 W m K ) ( 0.020 m 6 ) = 0.013 < 0.1
2
22.6 W m K
So, a lumped system analysis is valid. The governing equation is
T − Tf ⎡ h At ⎤
= exp ⎢ − ⎥
Ti − T f ⎣ m cP ⎦
Solving for t with m = ρ V and Lchar = V A = D 6
− ρ cP D ⎡ T − T f ⎤
t= ln ⎢ ⎥
6h ⎢⎣ Ti − T f ⎥⎦
⎛ kg ⎞ ⎛ J ⎞
− ⎜ 7900 3 ⎟⎜ 582 ⎟ ( 0.020 m )
⎝ m ⎠⎝ kg K ⎠ ⎡ 100 − 40 ⎤
= ln ⎢ ⎥ = 2660s = 44.3min = 0.74 hr Answer
⎣ 850 − 40 ⎦
( 6 ) ⎛⎜15 2 ⎞⎟
W
⎝ m K⎠
11- 68
11-57 In the thermal conductivity measurement device described in Problem P 11-7, you ask that a new sample of
the material be tested and the temperatures have changed to:
T1 = 93.00 ºC T 2 = 84.97 ºC T 3 = 71.39 ºC T 4 = 69.13 ºC
The same thermal conductivity for the unknown material is obtained. However, you are puzzled by the
different temperatures and a decreased heat transfer rate. When you disassemble the test piece, you
discover that the new operator did not assemble the pieces carefully enough, and the two ends have some
roughness that should not be there. As a result of the roughness, there is thermal contact resistance.
Determine the magnitude of the thermal contact resistance (in m2·K/W).
Approach:
The heat transfer rate equation can be used
( Q = ∆T Rtot ) to determine the contact
resistance. The same heat transfer flows through
both materials. We assume steady, one-
dimensional conduction with constant
properties, and use the appropriate conduction
equation.
Assumptions:
Solution:
We can use the rate equation between point 2 and point 3:
∆T T2 − T3
Q= =
Rtot ∆ x R ′′ ∆x
2I
+ contact + I 3
kA A A kB A
where the subscript I represents the interface location. Dividing by A
Q T2 − T3
= q ′′ =
A ∆x2 I ∆x
′′
+ Rcontact + I3
kA kB
′′
Solving for Rcontact
T2 − T3 ∆x2 I ∆xI 3
′′
Rcontact = − −
q ′′ kA kB
Heat flux is determined from conduction in Material A
k (15.2 W m K ) W
q ′′ = A (T1 − T2 ) = ( 93.00 − 84.97 ) K = 6100 2
∆x12 0.02 m m
The thermal conductivity of Material B is determined by equating the heat flux in A to that in B
k A (T1 − T2 ) k B (T3 − T4 )
= but ∆x12 = ∆x34
∆x12 ∆x34
⎛ T −T ⎞ ⎛ W ⎞ ⎡ 93.00 − 84.97 ⎤ W
kB = k A ⎜ 1 2 ⎟ = ⎜ 15.2 ⎟⎢ ⎥ = 54.0 m K
⎝ T3 − T4 ⎠ ⎝ m K ⎠ ⎣ 71.39 − 69.13 ⎦
(84.97 − 71.39 ) C 0.02 m 0.02 m m2 K
′′
Rcontact = − − = 5.40 × 10−4 Answer
6100 W m 2 15.2 W m K 54.0 W m K W
11- 69
11-58 A device is to be constructed with a 3-mm 304 stainless steel plate and a 9-mm layer of 2024-T6
aluminum. The temperature drop across the composite wall will be 150 ºC. Two different manufacturing
methods can be used. The first method will result in a surface roughness of the contacting parts of 25 µm
and a contact pressure of 25 MPa. The second method will result in a surface roughness of the contacting
parts of 1.5 µm and a contact pressure of 7 MPa. Estimate:
a. the heat flux for these two manufacturing methods (in W/m2)
b. the percent decrease in the heat flux compared to no contact resistance.
Approach:
The basic heat transfer rate equation, Q = ∆T Rtot , can be
used to estimate the heat flux. The thermal contact resistance
must be estimated form those given in Table 11-6.
Assumptions:
Solution:
The heat transfer rate through the composite wall, assuming steady, one-dimensional conduction with constant
properties is:
∆T ∆T
Q= =
Rtot t1 ′′
Rcontact t
+ + 2
k1 A1 A k 2 A2
Dividing through by area

Q ∆T
= q ′′ =
A t1 t
′′
+ Rcontact + 2
k1 k2
The thermal conductivities are obtained from appendix A, and the two thermal contact resistances are estimated to
be (from Table 11-6) R1′′ 3 × 10−4 m 2 K W ( 25µ m, 25 MPa ) and R1′′ = 0.5 ×−4 m 2 K W
(1.5µ m + 7 MPa )
150 C W
q1′′ = 2
= 271, 600 2 Answer
0.003m m K 0.009 m m
+ 3 × 10−4 +
14.9 W m K W 177 W m K
150 W
q2′′ = = 496, 400 2 Answer
0.003 0.009 m
+ 0.5 × 10−4 +
14.9 177
b) If there is no contact resistance

150 W
q ′′ = = 594,800 2 Answer
0.003 0.009 m
+
14.9 177
594,800 − 271, 600
% decrease in case 1 × 100 = 54.3% Answer
594,800
594,800 − 496, 400
% decrease in case 2 × 100 = 16.5% Answer
594, 600
Comment:
The estimate of the contact resistance can have a large impact on the answer. Because of uncertainties, care
should be exercised when choosing a value to use.
11- 70
11-59 Significant manufacturing advances have been made to improve the speed of computer chips. The
technique is to place more discrete electronic components closer together. However, this increases the
electric power dissipation to such high levels that cooling is becoming a problem. To accommodate the
high power densities direct cooling with boiling has been investigated. Consider the 10-mm by 10-mm thin
chip shown below, which is cooled by liquid at 25 ºC with a boiling heat transfer coefficient of 750
W/m2·K. The chip is attached to the circuit board, and the contact resistance between the chip and board is
estimated to be 1.4 × 10-4 m2·K /W. The circuit board is 4-mm thick with a thermal conductivity of 2
W/m·K. The backside of the board is exposed to air at 25 ºC with a heat transfer coefficient of 35 W/m2·K.
Determine:
a. the thermal circuit of the chip, board, and cooling fluids combinations
b. the chip temperature if the chip heat dissipation rate is 4 W (in ºC).
Approach:
Assuming steady, one-dimensional
conduction, the basic rate
( )
equation Q = ∆T Rtot can be used with
an energy balance on the chip to
determine the chip temperature.
Assumptions:
3. The heat transfer is one-
dimensional.
Solution:
a) Heat is transferred to the liquid and air, so the circuit diagram is shown above.
b) Using the circuit diagram in part (a):
Tc − T2 Tc − T1
Q = QL + Qa = +
1 ′′
Rcontact 1
+
h2 A2 A h1 A1
Solving for the chip temperature
−1
⎡ R ′′ 1 ⎤
Q + h2 A2 T2 + ⎢ contact + ⎥ T1
⎣ A h1 A1 ⎦
Tc = −1
⎡ R ′′ 1 ⎤
h2 A2 + ⎢ contact + ⎥
⎣ A h1 A1 ⎦
−1
⎡1.4 × 10−4 m 2 K W 1 ⎤
4 W + ( 750 W m K )( 0.0001m )( 25 C ) + ⎢
2 2
+ ⎥ ( 25 C )
⎢⎣ 0.0001m 2
( 35 W m K )( 0.0001m ) ⎥⎦
2 2
= −1
⎡1.4 × 10−4 m 2 K W 1 ⎤
( 750 W m K )( 0.0001m ) + ⎢ 0.0001m2 + 35 W m2 K 0.0001m2 ⎥
2 2
⎢⎣ ( )( ) ⎥⎦
= 76.0 C Answer
11- 71
11-60 Annular fins 1.5-mm thick and 15-mm long are attached to a 30-mm diameter tube. Tube and fins are
2024-T6 aluminum. The thermal contact resistance between the fins and the tube is 2.5 × 10-4 m2·K/W.
The tube wall is at 75 ºC, the surrounding air temperature is 25 ºC, and the convective heat transfer
coefficient is 100 W/m2·K. For a single fin, determine:
a. the heat transfer rate without contact resistance (in W)
b. the heat transfer rate with contact resistance (in W).
Approach:
This is steady, one-dimensional conduction in a constant area
fin. We can use the basic heat transfer rate
equation Q = ∆T Rtot to calculate the heat transfer from one
fin.
Assumptions:
Solution:
Assuming steady, one-dimensional, constant properties, uniform heat transfer coefficient, and no radiation, and
taking into account both the fin resistance and the contact resistance, the heat transfer rate equation is
∆T Tb − T f
Q= =
Rtot 1 R ′′
+
η f h Af Ab
We use Figure 11-17 for the fin efficiency of this annular fin. For aluminum from Appendix A-2,
k = 177 W m K . r1 = R = 0.015 m
r2C = r2 + t 2 = ( R + L ) + t 2 = 0.015 + 0.015 + 0.0015 2 = 0.0308 m
r2C r1 = 0.0308 0.015 = 2.05
Lc = L + t 2 = 0.015 + 0.0015 2 = 0.0158 m
Ap = Lc t = ( 0.0158 m )( 0.0015 m ) = 2.36 × 10−5 m 2
12 12
⎛ h ⎞ ⎡ 100 W m 2 K ⎤
= ( 0.0158 m )
32
32
L ⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎢ ⎥ = 0.307
⎜k A ⎢⎣ (177 W m K ) ( 2.36 × 10 m ) ⎥⎦
c −5 2
⎝ p ⎠
From Figure 11-17, η f 0.90
Af = 2π ( r22C − r12 ) = 2π ⎡( 0.0308 m ) − ( 0.015 m ) ⎤ = 4.55 × 10−3 m 2
2 2
⎣ ⎦
Ab = 2π R t = 2π ( 0.015m )( 0.0015 m ) = 1.41× 10 m 2−4
Without contact resistance

( 75 − 25 ) K
Q= = 20.5 W Answer
⎡( 0.90 ) (100 W m 2 K )( 4.55 × 10−3 m 2 ) ⎤
−1
⎣ ⎦
With contact resistance
( 75 − 25 ) K
Q= = 11.9 W Answer
1 2.5 × 10−4 m 2 K W
+
( 0.90 ) (100 W m 2 K )( 4.55 × 10−3 m 2 ) 1.41×10−4 m 2
Comment:
As can be seen in this problem, contact resistance can have a significant negative effect on heat transfer.
11- 72

Thermal Insulation Thickness for Steam Pipes

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Thermal Insulation Thickness for Steam Pipes

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11-1 One approach used to determine the thermal conductivity of metals is to sandwich an electric heater

Q= (100.20 − 91.19 ) K = 6.59 W Answer

c) Convective heat transfer is calculated with

The insulation thermal resistance is that of a cylinder, so

Therefore, the total cost is

Total cost = Energy cost + Insulation cost

Now using the rate equation between T f ,1 and T1

A1 = π ( 0.60 m )(1.75 m ) = 3.30 m 2 A3 = π ( 0.708 m )(1.75 m ) = 3.89 m 2

⎛ kg ⎞ ⎛ kJ ⎞ ⎛ 10-3 m3 ⎞ ⎛ 1Ws ⎞ ⎛ 1hr ⎞ ⎛ J ⎞

+152 o C=212 o C Answer

Therefore, for whole rod (2 fins)

With Ax = W t and simplifying, we obtain:

Integrating a second time

The two boundary conditions are:

L* = L + Ax p = 0.15 m + 7.85 × 10−5 m 2 0.0314 m = 0.1525 m

Q = (100 − 25 ) K ⎡⎣( h W m 2 K ) ( 0.0314m )( k W mK ) ( 7.85 × 10 −5 m 2 ) ⎤⎦ tanh ⎡⎣ m ( 0.1525m ) ⎤⎦

m L* = (14.52 m -1 ) ( 0.026 m ) = 0.378

L* = L + Ax p = L + D 4 = 0.01m + 0.0015 m 4 = 0.01038 m

m L* = ( 36.47 m -1 ) ( 0.01038 m ) = 0.379

From Fig 11-17, η f 0.84

a) Without fins, the equation to solve is

b) With fins, we have four resistances to take into account:

m L* = (16.81m -1 ) ( 0.0205 m ) = 0.3445

The temperature of the heater is

6000 W m 2 ⎡ 6000 ⎤ ⎡ − ( 75 W m 2 K ) ( 900s ) ⎤

Bi = = = 0.00015 < 0.1

So additional mass is ( 0.472 − 0.25 ) kg = 0.222 kg Answer

Solving with appropriate software: t = 0.0132 hr = 47.5s Answer

a) For the outer surface temperature at 30 min τ =

b) For the outer surface temperature at 4 hr = 14,400 s τ=

This is greater than 0.2, so the one-term approximation is applicable.

T ( ro ,300s ) = 25 C + ( 500 − 25 ) K (1.3424 ) exp ⎡ − (1.609 ) ( 0.862 ) ⎤ ( 0.450 ) = 55.8 C

To evaluate λ1 and C1 in Table 11-2, we need the Biot number

So, the one-term approximation is valid. Therefore,

t= o = = 2322s = 38.7 min Answer

The heat flux at the surface is given by

so the lumped system method is valid

τ =− ln ⎢ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎥ = 0.106 t = = 1240s = 0.34 hr Answer

= 40 C + ( 850 − 40 ) K (1.1561) exp ⎡ − (1.2093) (1.703) ⎤ = 117.6 C

hx ( 25 W m K ) ( 0.01m ) h 2α t ( 25 W m K ) (1.308×10 m s ) (151s )

Q Tavg - Ti ⎡ T ( 0, t ) − T f ⎤ sin λ1 800 - 150 ⎡ T ( 0, t ) − 1040 ⎤ sin λ1

Guessing Bi = 2.0 : λ1 = 1.0769 and C1 = 1.1795

Calculating the time

t= = = 2234s = 37.2 min Answer

so the lumped systems approach is not valid.

So, the one-term approximation is valid. Solving for t t= = = 282s Answer

A = π D L + 2π D 2 4 = π ( 0.075 m )( 0.15 m ) + 2π ( 0.075 m ) 4 = 4.418 × 10−2 m 2

Lchar = 6.627×10-4 m 2 4.418×10-2 m = 0.015 m

so the one-term approximation is okay

For an infinite cylinder τ cyl =

Wall 1) L1 = 0.0285 m Bi1 = = = 1.425

by interpolation λ1 = 0.9524 and C1 = 1.1448 τ1 =

where θ ( x, t ) plane = C1 exp ( −λ12 τ ) cos ( λ1 x L ) if τ > ∼ 0.2

Wall 1 L1 = 0.075 m Bi1 = 1 = = 25.0

where the one-term approximation is:

Solving for time:

1) L1 = 0.0833ft Bi1 = = = 1.50

Check the Fourier number

This is close enough to τ > ∼ 0.2 to be a good approximation.

Bi = = = 37.5 ⇒ λ1, w = 1.5294 and C1, w = 1.2722

= 232.5 = 3.86 min Answer

Dividing through by area

b) If there is no contact resistance