Scoc 100

Epistemology
Empiricism – knowledge gained by experience (inductive reasoning)
2 ways of
Rationalism – knowledge gained by reasoning (using deductive reasoning) acquiring
knowledge

Positivism/positivist approach - to study the society that relies specifically on scientific

evidence such as experiment and statistics – based on realism – attempt to find out about
the real world.

- Science is cumulative, by large build on what is already known

- There is a direct link between concept, and they develop and the observable
phenomena.

Interpretivism/interpretivist approach – recognition that subjective meaning

(individuals) plays a crucial role in social actions – aims to reveal interpretations and
meaning.

- We can only experience the world

- Philosopher said we can only study the appearance of things rather than thing itself;
we are because of our own humanity in a position to know about human
consciousness and its role in society.

Realism - scientific theories provide descriptions of the world that are approximately
true

Ontology – is the theory of social entitles and is concerned with what there exists to be
investigate

Objectivism/objectivist approach – social phenomenon (are constantly evolving

individuals and external influence that significantly affect their behaviour and opinion) and
their meaning have an existence that is not dependant on social actors

Constructionism/constructionist approach – believe that social is constantly changing

because they rely on social interaction as they take place.
Induction/inductive reasoning – empiricist approach – starts from specific
observation and derives general conclusion – all swan observed are white – therefor all
swan are whites

- Common popular form of scientific activity

- Every day our experience leads us to make conclusions

3 generalization to consider legitimate

1) Observation statement must be in large numbers

2) Observation must be repeated under large range of circumstance

3) No observation statement must contradict the derived generalization

Deduction/deductive reasoning begins with general statement and through logical

argument and come to specific conclusion.

Example all mammal breath

This cow is a live mammal

Therefore, this cow breaths

- Research is guided by the theory

- Theory are tested by observation and experiment

- It can be falsifying

Hypothetic-deductive method (or scientific method) – combine inductive reasoning

and deductive reasoning – by inductively forming observation and charting their
implication by testing them and refining them to find results. (Scientific research)

Critical realism – process of interpretation while doing theoretical and practical work
 - Concept and theories about social events are developed on basis of their observable
effects and interpreted in such way that they can be understood and acted upon.

Social facts

Social research – can be carried out subject to varied epistemological and ontological
stances – so it is important to know what assumption neem have made at the outset of the
research.

Data – represents human interpretation of observed information – are created through

senses and intellect of researcher attempting to make sense of undiscovered facts

2 ways data is collected

1) Experimentation
2) Observation
- Categorized 3 ways
1) 1st person observation
2) Asking people about it (surveys, interviews0
3) Secondary resources

First-person observation – witness – while researcher begin with borrowed data and
theories and they observe and record the original information.

1st person observation
Secondary source
Opinion seeking
Qualitative
Field work and qualitative
experiment
Episode record research
Interviews, focus groups
and open-ended survey
Quantitative
Quantitative observational
data collection (using
instruments)
Running records – and
content coding type
research
Large 0 scale polling/
survey research

Mediated information

Qualitative data
Quantitative data

Descriptive inference

Causal research

Participatory observation – researcher are active member of the environment , which he or

she is studying

Overt observation

Covert observation

Classification

Conceptualization

Taxonomy

Typology