: E

R ING
2 O
R L C CH
T E A T
E
A

P ICA N D
A NG
H
C CHN I N
TE A RE
L

Prepared by:
Miss Christine Salve M.
Sena
SITCI Mariveles, Bataan
LESSON OBJECTIVES:
Talcott Parsons (1960) was the first to propose the three
(3) distinct levels of structure in the organization.

MANAGERI INSTITUTIO
TECHNICAL
AL NAL

Its function is to
It is responsible
connect the
for
organization to
administering
the
A system of the internal
environment
organizational affairs of the
specifically of
activity where organizations
provide
the actual and for
legitimacy for
product is mediating
the
produced. between the
organization in
organization
terms of the
and the
larger social
environment.
context.
 LEARNING
happens when experience produces
stable change in someone’s
knowledge or behavior.
 5

THREE GENERAL THEORIES OF

LEARNING
1. BEHAVIORAL THEORIES
learning stress observable
changes in behaviors, skills,
and habits.
THREE TYPES OF BEHAVIORAL THEORY OF LEARNING

CLASSICAL OPERANT OBSERVATIONA

CONDITIONING CONDITIONING L LEARNING
.

Learning Learning
Learning
through through
through
consequence observation
association
2. COGNITIVE THEORIES
learning underscores such internal
mental activities as thinking,
remembering, creating and
problem solving.
3. CONSTRUCTIVIST THEORIES
are interested in how individuals
make meaning of events and
activities; hence is seen as the
construction of knowledge.
According to
Dougiamas (1998) as TRIVIAL/PERSO
NAL
NAL
shown by the CONSTRUCTIVIS
CONSTRUCTIVIS
M

diagram, the learning

theory we call
constructivism is a CRITICAL
CRITICAL RADICAL
RADICAL
CONSTRUCTIVIS CONSTRUCTIVIS
collection of several M M

learning theories CONSTUCTIVIS

T LEARING
which continue to be THEORY
developed.  

CULTURAL
CULTURAL SOCIAL
SOCIAL
CONSTRUCTIVIS
CONSTRUCTIVIS CONSTRUCTIVIS
CONSTRUCTIVIS
M
M M
M

Some of these theories Critical and Cultural

 are more connected to the idea of
constructivism as a
philosophical/epistemological concept.  And
the other three are more relate than classroom
learning.
BEHAVIORAL PERSPECTIVE ON
LEARNING
LEARNING is defined as a change in behavior
brought about by experience with virtually no
concern for the mental or internal processes of
thinking.
 
 
REINFORCEMENT- increases the frequency or
duration of a given behavior.

CONSENQUENCES EFFECT
STRENGTHEN
BEHAVIOR  REINFORCEMENT
 BEHAVIOR
 
 12

TWO (2) TYPES OF

REINFORCEMENT

POSITIVE NEGATIVE
REINFORCEMENT REINFORCEMENT

occurs when the

occurs when a consequence that
behavior produces a reinforces or
new stimulus or strengthens behavior
motivating force. is obtain by
eliminating or stimuli.
 PUNISHMENT
involves weakening or suppressing behavior; that is
behavior followed by punishment is less likely to be
repeated in similar situations in the future.

CONSENQUENCES EFFECT
BEHAVIOR  PUNISHMENT
 WEAKENED
  BEHAVIOR
 14

TWO (2) TYPES OF PUNISHMENT

TYPE 1(DIRECT TYPE 2 (REMOVAL

PUNISHMENT) PUNISHMENT)

occurs when the stimulus is to remove

appearance of the to punish.
stimulus following the
behavior suppresses
or weakens the
behavior.
 THE INTERACTION OF THE PROCESS OF
REINFORCEMENT AND PUNISHMENT.
BEHAVIOR SUPPORTED BEHAVIOR SUPPRESSED

POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT DIRECT PUNISHMENT

• High grades  Detention
STIMULUS
 Honor role  Low Grades
PRESENTE
 Sport letter  Extra Homework
D

NEGATIVE REMOVALPUNISHMENT
REINFORCEMENT  No driving for a week
STIMULU  Exemption from test  No foot ball
S  Excused from class  No dating
REMOVE  Excused from practice
D

K • REINFORCEMENT always encourages or strengthens

R behavior.
A
EM
• PUNISHMENT suppresses or weakens behavior.
R :
S
 ANTECEDENTS
Events preceding behavior.
They provide information about
which behaviors will lead to
positive consequences and
which to negative ones.
*Antecedents in the
forms of cues can be
deliberately used.
CUEING
-providing an antecedent stimulus just prior to
a particular behavior .
-Useful in preparing for a behavior that must
occur at specific time but is easily forgotten.
-Furnishes information about which behaviors
will be reinforced or punished in a particular
situation.
PROMPTING
-providing an additional cue following the first
cue. Sometimes people need extra help in
responding appropriately to the cue.
 19

Alberto and Trout (2006) propose 2

principles for using cues and prompts:

 Make sure the  Fade the prompt as

environmental soon as possible;
stimulus that you don’t make
want to become, a students depend on
cue occurs right it.
before your prompt.
TEACHING APLLICATION OF THE
BEHAVIORAL APPROACH GUIDING
PRINCIPLES:

 Give clear and systematic praise, but

only if deserved.
 Recognize genuine accomplishments
 Set standards for praise based on the
individual abilities and limitations.
 Attribute the students success to
effort and ability to build confidence
 Recognize positive behavior in ways
that student’s value.
 Give plenty of reinforcement when
the students tackle new materials or
skills.
TEACHING APLLICATION OF THE
BEHAVIORAL APPROACH GUIDING
PRINCIPLES:

 Give plenty of reinforcement when the

students tackle new materials or
skills.
 Set clear and specific goals so you
know what to reinforce.
 Use cues to help establish new
behaviors.
 Use a variety of reinforcers and let
students choose among them.
 Try to structure the situation to use
negative reinforcement rather than
punishment.
POSITIVE BEHAVIOR SUPPORT BASED
ON A FUNCTIONAL BEHAVIORAL
ASSESSMENT.

-It
helps teachers in both regular and
special education classes deal
successfully with behavior problems.

The reasons for problem behaviors generally fall

into 4 categories (Barnhill, 2005: Maag and Kemp
2003)
1.Receive attention from others- parents,
teachers, and peers.
2.Escape from some unpleasant situation- an
academic or social demand
3.Get a desired item or activity.
4.Meet sensory needs, such as stimulation from
rocking or flapping arms for some children with
 23

LEARNING OBJECTIVES-an instructional

objective is a clear and unambiguous description
of the teacher’s educational aim for students.

According to Mager (1975), a good

objective has three parts:
• The objective describes the intended students
behavior- what must the students do?
• The objective lists the conditions under which the
behavior will occur- how will this behavior be
recognized or tested?
• The objective gives the criteria for acceptable
performance on the behavior- how well has the
student done?
 24

FUNCTIONAL BEHAVIORAL ASSESSMENT-

a collection of methods or procedures used to
obtain information about antecedents, behaviors
and consequences to determine the reason or
function of the behavior.

POSITIVE BEHAVIORAL SUPPORTS- are

interventions designed to replace problems
behavior with new actions that serves the
same purpose for the students.
 25
DIRECT INSTRUCTION- described a specific
set of circumstances because they have evolved
from a common strand of inquiry.

DIRECT INSTUCTION MODEL

Teachers whose
students learned
more than expected

Teachers whose
students performed
at an expected or
average level.
BASIC SKILLS- clearly structured knowledge and 26

essentials skills, such as science facts, mathematics

computations, reading vocabulary and grammar rules
(Rosenshine, Steven, 1986)
-These skills involves tasks that can be taught step by
step and tested by standardized test.

 
ROSENSHINE’S SIX TEACHING
FUNCTIONS
1. Review and check the previous day’s work.
2. Present new materials
3. Provide guidelines practices.
4. Give feedback and correctives based on the student
answers.
5. Provide independent practice.
6. Review weekly and monthly.
 27

CRITICISMS OF DIRECT
INSTRUCTIONS

1. Critics argue that direct instructions is limited to lower-

objectives, is based on traditional teaching methods,
ignores innovative models and discourages student’s
independent thought and actions.
2. It is based on the wrong theory of learning.
3. Transmitting accurate understandings from teachers to
students.
 28

COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE OF
LEARNING

Cognitive Perspective traces its early roots to the

ancient Greek philosopher who discussed the nature
of knowledge, the value of reason and the contents of
the mind.

KNOWLEDGE AND LEARNING

Knowledge- is both a means and an end; more
than the product of previous learning, it also guides
new learning.
 29

The Cognitive Perspective recognizes

different kinds of Knowledge:

1. General Knowledge- applies to

variety of a situations
2. Domain Knowledge- relates to a
particular task or subject.
 30

Another way of categorizing

knowledge:

1. Declarative Knowledge- knowledge that can

be declared, usually in words, through lectures, books,
writing and mathematical notation.
2. Procedural Knowledge- is “knowing how” to
do something such as divide fractions- doing the task
demonstrates procedural knowledge.
3. Conditional Knowledge- is ”knowing when
and why” to apply declarative and procedural.
 31
TABLE 2.1
Six Kinds of Knowledge and Examples
  General Knowledge Domain specific
Knowledge

Declarative Hours the bank is open Lines from

Highway safety rule Shakespeare’s Hamlet
Definition of
educational leadership

     

Procedural How to use a computer How to solve quadratic

How to drive a car equation
  How to program in C++

Conditional When to abandon one When to use a formula

approach and try for volume
another When to run to the net
When to skim and when in tennis
to read carefully
INFORMATION PROCESSING
MODEL 32

-It is one cognitive perspective of the structure and

processes of memory.

STIMULI SENSORY WORKING LEARN TO LONG TERM

MEMORY MEMORY (SAVE TO) MEMORY

RETRIEVE
TEMPORAR PERMANEN
(RECALL
Y STORAGE T STORAGE
INFO.)

The model is based on the analogy between the

mind and the computer.
IT INCLUDES THE 3 STORAGE 33

SYSTEMS:
1. Sensory Memory- is a holding system
that maintains stimuli briefly that perceptual
analysis can occur.

2. WORKING Memory- or short term

memory, holds from 5 to 9 bits of
information at a time for up to about 20
seconds, which is long enough for
processing to occur.

3. LONG TERM Memory- Stores huge

amount of information for long periods of
time. Information may be coded verbally or
visually or both.
 34

Sensory Memory
*PERCEPTION- the meaning we give
to the basic information we receive
through our senses
 35

WORKING Memory

*CAPACITY and CONTENTS of WORKING Memory

- It is limited

*RETAINING INFORMATION IN WORKING MEMORY

To keep information activated in working memory for longer than
20 seconds most people need to engage in specific remembering
strategies, and REHEARSAL is one option.
 36

1. Maintenance Rehearsal-
repeating the information in your
mind

2. Elaborative Rehearsal-
associating the information you are
trying to remember with something
you already know.

CHUNKING- can be used to overcome

the limited capacity of working
memory.
Example: 1, 5, 1, 2, 9, 3, 9, 4
15, 12, 93, 94
151, 129, 394
 37

LONG TERM Memory

*CONTENTS OF LONG TERM MEMORY
- Most Cognitive theorist distinguish among three kinds of long
term memory:

1. EPISODIC Memory- it keeps things in order

2. PROCEDURAL Memory- memory for how to do things.
3. SEMANTIC Memory- memory for meaning.

*Two important ways that, semantic memories are

stored:

1. IMAGES- representations based in visual perceptions on the

structure or appearance of the information.
2. SCHEMAS- abstract knowledge structures that organized
large amount of information.
 38

STORING and RETRIEVING INFORMATION

IN LONG TERM MEMORY

1. ELABORATION Adding meaning to new information

by connecting it with already existing knowledge
2. ORGANIZATION- improves learning. Well-organized
materials are easier to learn and remember than unorganized
bits and pieces, especially when the information is complex.
3. CONTEXT- another element of processing that
influences learning.