Basic relation.

To find the coordinates of the vector AB, knowing the coordinates of its initial point A and terminal point
B is necessary subtract the appropriate coordinates of initial point from terminal point.

Formulas determining coordinates of a vector by given coordinates of its initial and terminal points

Vector coordinates formula for plane problems

In the case of the plane problem the vector AB set by the coordinates of the points A(Ax ; Ay) and B(Bx ; By) can be found
using the following formula
AB = {Bx - Ax ; By - Ay}

Vector coordinates formula for spatial problems

In the case of the spatial problem the vector AB set by the coordinates of the points A(Ax ; Ay ; Az) and B(Bx ; By ; Bz) can
be found using the following formula
AB = {Bx - Ax ; By - Ay ; Bz - Az}

Vector coordinates formula for  n dimensional space problems

In the case of the n dimensional space problem the vector AB set by the coordinates of the points A(A1 ; A2 ; ... ; An) and
B(B1 ; B2 ; ... ; Bn) can be found using the following formula

AB = {B1 - A1 ; B2 - A2 ; ... ; Bn - An}

Examples of tasks

Examples of plane tasks

Example 1. Find the coordinates of vector AB, if A(1; 4), B(3; 1).

Solution: AB = {3 - 1; 1 - 4} = {2; -3}.
Example 2. Find the coordinates of point B of vector AB = {5; 1}, if coordinates of point A(3; -4).
Solution:
ABx = Bx - Ax   =>   Bx = ABx + Ax   =>   Bx = 5 + 3 = 8
ABy = By - Ay   =>   By = ABy + Ay   =>   By = 1 + (-4) = -3
Answer: B(8; -3).
Example 3. Find the coordinates of point A of vector AB = {5; 1}, if coordinates of point B(3; -4).
Solution:
ABx = Bx - Ax   =>   Ax = Bx - ABx   =>   Ax = 3 - 5 = -2
ABy = By - Ay   =>   Ay = By - ABy   =>   Ay = -4 - 1 = -5
Answer: A(-2; -5).

Examples of spatial tasks

Example 4. Find the coordinates of vector AB, if A(1; 4; 5), B(3; 1; 1).

Solution: AB = {3 - 1; 1 - 4; 1 - 5} = {2; -3; -4}.
Example 5. Find the coordinates of point B of vector AB = {5; 1; 2}, if coordinates of point A(3; -4; 3).
Solution:
ABx = Bx - Ax   =>   Bx = ABx + Ax   =>   Bx = 5 + 3 = 8
ABy = By - Ay   =>   By = ABy + Ay   =>   By = 1 + (-4) = -3
ABz = Bz - Az   =>   Bz = ABz + Az   =>   Bz = 2 + 3 = 5
Answer: B(8; -3; 5).
Example 6. Find the coordinates of point A of vector AB = {5; 1; 4}, if coordinates of point B(3; -4; 1).
Solution:
ABx = Bx - Ax   =>   Ax = Bx - ABx   =>   Ax = 3 - 5 = -2
ABy = By - Ay   =>   Ay = By - ABy   =>   Ay = -4 - 1 = -5
ABz = Bz - Az   =>   Az = Bz - ABz   =>   Az = 1 - 4 = -3
Answer: A(-2; -5; -3).

Examples of  n dimensional space tasks

Example 7. Find the coordinates of vector AB, if A(1; 4; 5; 5; -3), B(3; 0; 1; -2; 5).
Solution: AB = {3 - 1; 0 - 4; 1 - 5; -2 - 5; 5 - (-3)} = {2; -4; -4; -7; 8}.
Example 8. Find the coordinates of point B of vector AB = {5; 1; 2; 1}, if coordinates of point A(3; -4; 3; 2).
Solution:
AB1 = B1 - A1   =>   B1 = AB1 + A1   =>   B1 = 5 + 3 = 8
AB2 = B2 - A2   =>   B2 = AB2 + A2   =>   B2 = 1 + (-4) = -3
AB3 = B3 - A3   =>   B3 = AB3 + A3   =>   B3 = 2 + 3 = 5
AB4 = B4 - A4   =>   B4 = AB4 + A4   =>   B4 = 1 + 2 = 3
Answer: B(8; -3; 5; 3).
Example 9. Find the coordinates of point A of vector AB = {5; 1; 4; 5}, if coordinates of point B(3; -4; 1; 8).
Solution:
AB1 = B1 - A1   =>   A1 = B1 - AB1   =>   A1 = 3 - 5 = -2
AB2 = B2 - A2   =>   A2 = B2 - AB2   =>   A2 = -4 - 1 = -5
AB3 = B3 - A3   =>   A3 = B3 - AB3   =>   A3 = 1 - 4 = -3
AB4 = B4 - A4   =>   A4 = B4 - AB4   =>   A4 = 8 - 5 = 3
Answer: A(-2; -5; -3; 3).

Vector length - definition

Definition.
 The length of the directed segment determines the numerical value of the vector is called the length of vector AB.
The magnitude of a vector is the length of the vector.
The length of the vector AB is denoted as |AB|.

Basic relation. The length of vector |a| in Cartesian coordinates is the square root of the sum of the squares of its
coordinates.

Vector length formulas

Vector length formula for two-dimensional vector

In the case of the plane problem the length of the vector a = {ax ; ay} can be found using the following formula:

|a| = √ax2 + ay2

Vector length formula for three-dimensional vector

In the case of the spatial problem the length of the vector a = {ax ; ay ; az} can be found using the following formula:

|a| = √ax2 + ay2 + az2

Vector length formula for arbitrary dimensions vector

In the case of the n dimensional space problem the length of the vector a = {a1 ; a2; ... ; an} can be found using the
following formula:

n
|a| = ( Σa ) 2 1/2
i
i=1

Examples of tasks

Examples of plane tasks

Example 1. Find the length of the vector a = {2; 4}.

Solution: |a| = √22 + 42 = √4 + 16 = √20 = 2√5.

Example 2. Find the length of the vector a = {3; -4}.

Solution: |a| = √32 + (-4)2 = √9 + 16 = √25 = 5.

Examples of spatial tasks

Example 3. Find the length of the vector a = {2; 4; 4}.

Solution: |a| = √22 + 42 + 42 = √4 + 16 + 16 = √36 = 6.

Example 4. Find the length of the vector a = {-1; 0; -3}.

Solution: |a| = √(-1)2 + 02 + (-3)2 = √1 + 0 + 9 = √10.

Examples of  n dimensional space tasks

Example 5. Find the length of the vector a = {1; -3; 3; -1}.

Solution: |a| = √12 + (-3)2 + 32 + (-1)2 = √1 + 9 + 9 + 1 = √20 = 2√5

Example 6. Find the length of the vector a = {2; 4; 4; 6 ; 2}.

Solution: |a| = √22 + 42 + 42 + 62 + 22 = √4 + 16 + 16 + 36 + 4 = √76 = 2√19.

Direction cosines of a vector - definition

Definition. The direction cosines of the vector a are the cosines of angles that the vector forms with the coordinate axes.
The direction cosines uniquely set the direction of vector.
Basic relation. To find the direction cosines of the vector a is need to divided the corresponding coordinate of vector by
the length of the vector.
The coordinates of the unit vector is equal to its direction cosines.
Property of direction cosines. The sum of the squares of the direction cosines is equal to one.
 Direction cosines of a vector formulas

Direction cosines of a vector formula for two-dimensional vector

In the case of the plane problem (Fig. 1) the direction cosines of a vector a = {ax ; ay} can be found using the following
formula

ax ay
cos α = ;    cos β =
|a| |a|
Property:
cos
2
 α + cos2 β = 1

Fig. 1

Direction cosines of a vector formula for three-dimensional vector

In the case of the spatial problem (Fig. 2) the direction cosines of a vector a = {ax ; ay ; az} can be found using the
following formula

ax ay az
cos α = ;    cos β = ;    cos γ =
|a| |a| |a |
Property:
cos2 α + cos2 β + cos2 γ = 1
 Fig. 2

Examples of tasks

Examples of plane tasks

Example 1. Find the direction cosines of the vector a = {3; 4}.

Solution:
Calculate the length of vector a:
|a| = √32 + 42 = √9 + 16 = √25 = 5.

Calculate the direction cosines of the vector a:

ax 3
cos α =   =   = 0.6
|a| 5
ay 4
cos β =   =   = 0.8
|a| 5
Answer: direction cosines of the vector a is cos α = 0.6, cos β = 0.8.
Example 2. Find the vector a if it length equal to 26, and direction cosines is cos α = 5/13, cos β = -12/13.
Solution:
ax = |a| · cos α = 26 · 5/13 = 10
ay = |a| · cos β = 26 · (-12/13) = -24

Answer: a = {10; -24}.

Examples of spatial tasks

Example 3. Find the direction cosines of the vector a = {2; 4; 4}.

Solution:
Calculate the length of vector a:
|a| = √22 + 42 + 42 = √4 + 16 + 16 = √36 = 6.

Calculate the direction cosines of the vector a:

ax 2 1
cos α =   =   = 
|a| 6 3
ay 4 2
cos β =   =   = 
|a| 6 3
az 4 2
cos γ =   =   = 
|a| 6 3

Answer: direction cosines of the vector a is cos α = 13, cos β = 23, cos γ = 23.

Definition. Vectors a and b is an equal vectors if they are in the same or parallel lines, their directions are the same and
the lengths are equal (Fig. 1).
Two vectors are equal if they are collinear, codirected and have the same length:
a = b, if a↑↑b and |a| = |b|.
Conditions of vectors equality.Vectors are equal if their coordinates are equal.

Fig. 1

Examples of tasks

Examples of plane tasks

Example 1. Determine which of the vectors are equal a = {1; 2}, b = {1; 2}, c = {3; 2}.

Solution:
a = b - as their coordinates are equal,
a ≠ c - as their coordinates are not equal,
b ≠ c - as their coordinates are not equal.
Example 2. At what value of the parameter n the vectors a = {1; 8;} and b = {1; 2n} are equal.
Solution:
Verify the equality of components of vectors
ax = bx = 1
ay = by => 8 = 2n => n = 8/2 = 4

Answer: when n = 4 vectors a and b are equal.

Examples of spatial tasks

Example 3. Determine which of the vectors are equal a = {1; 2; 4}, b = {1; 2; 2}, c = {1; 2; 4}.

Solution:
a = c - as their coordinates are equal,
a ≠ b - as their coordinates are not equal,
b ≠ c - as their coordinates are not equal.
Example 4. At what value of the parameter n the vectors a = {1; 2; 4} and b = {1; 2; 2n} are equal.
Solution:
Verify the equality of components of vectors
ax = bx = 1
ay = by = 2
az = bz => 4 = 2n => n = 4/2 = 2

Answer: when n = 2 vectors a and b are equal.

Definition.
 Addition of vectors (sum of vectors) 
a
 + 
b
 is operation of a finding of a vector 
c
, coordinates of which are equal to the sum of all corresponding coordinates of vectors 
a
 and 
b
, can be defined as:
ci = ai + bi
Definition.
 Subtraction of vectors (difference of vectors) 
a
 - 
b
 is operation of a finding of a vector 
c
, coordinates of which are equal to a difference of all corresponding coordinates of vectors 
a
 and 
b
, can be defined as:
ci = ai - bi

Addition and subtraction of vectors - formulas

The formulas of addition and subtraction of vectors for plane problems

In the case of the plane problem the sum and difference of vectors a = {ax ; ay} and b = {bx ; by} can be found using the
following formulas:
a + b = {ax + bx; ay + by}
a - b = {ax - bx; ay - by}

The formulas of addition and subtraction of vectors for spatial problems

In the case of the spatial problem the sum and difference of vectors a = {ax ; ay ; az} and b = {bx ; by ; bz} can be found
using the following formulas:
a + b = {ax + bx; ay + by; az + bz}
a - b = {ax - bx; ay - by; az - bz}

The formulas of addition and subtraction of vectors for  n dimensional space problems

In the case of the n dimensional space problem the sum and difference of vectors a = {a1 ; a2 ; ... ; an}
and b = {b1 ; b2 ; ... ; bn} can be found using the following formulas:

a + b = {a1 + b1; a2 + b2; ... ; an + bn}

a - b = {a1 - b1; a2 - b2; ... ; an - bn}

Addition and subtraction of vectors - examples

Examples of plane tasks

Example 1. Find the sum of vectors a = {1; 2} and b = {4; 8}.
Solution:
a + b = {1 + 4; 2 + 8} = {5; 10}
Example 2. Find the difference of vectors a = {1; 2} and b = {4; 8}.
Solution:
a - b = {1 - 4; 2 - 8} = {-3; -6}

Examples of spatial tasks

Example 3. Find the sum of vectors a = {1; 2; 5} and b = {4; 8; 1}.

Solution:
a + b = {1 + 4; 2 + 8; 5 + 1} = {5; 10; 6}
Example 4. Find the difference of vectors a = {1; 2; 5} and b = {4; 8; 1}.
Solution:
a - b = {1 - 4; 2 - 8; 5 - 1} = {-3; -6; 4}

Examples of  n dimensional space tasks

Example 5. Find the sum of vectors a = {1; 2; 5; 9} and b = {4; 8; 1; -20}.

Solution:
a + b = {1 + 4; 2 + 8; 5 + 1; 9 + (-20)} = {5; 10; 6; -11}
Example 6. Find the difference of vectors a = {1; 2; 5; -1; 5} and b = {4; 8; 1; -1; 2}.
Solution:
a - b = {1 - 4; 2 - 8; 5 - 1; -1 - (-1); 5 - 2} = {-3; -6; 4; 0; 3}

Geometric interpretation.
 The product of non-zero vector by the number is a vector collinear with given (codirectional given if the number is
positive, having the opposite direction if the number is negative) and its magnitude is equal to the module of the vector
multiplied by the module of number.
Algebraic interpretation. The product of non-zero vector by the number is a vector which coordinates are equal to the
corresponding coordinates of the vector, multiplied by the number.

Scalar-vector multiplication - formulas

The formula multiplying the vector by a number for plane problems

In the case of the plane problem the product of vector a = {ax ; ay} by the number k can be found using the following
formula:
k · a = {k · ax; k · ay}

The formula multiplying the vector by a number for spatial problems

In the case of the spatial problem the product of vector a = {ax ; ay ; az} by the number k can be found using the following
formula:
k · a = {k · ax ; k · ay ; k · az}

The formula multiplying the vector by a number for  n dimensional space problems

In the case of the n dimensional space problem the product of vector a = {a1 ; a2; ... ; an} by the number kcan be found
using the following formula:
k · a = {k · a1; k · a2; ... ; k · an}

Properties of a vector multiplied by the number

If the vector b is equal to the product of a non-zero integer k and non-zero vector a, then:

 b || a - vectors b and a are parallel

 a↑↑b, if k > 0 - vectors b and a are codirectional, if the number k > 0
 a↑↓b, if k < 0 - vectors b and a is oppositely directed, if the number k < 0
 |b| = |k| · |a| - the magnitude of the vector b is equal to the module of the vector a multiplied by the module of
number k

Examples of tasks

Examples of plane tasks

Example 1. Find the product of vector a = {1; 2} by 3.

Solution: 3 · a = {3 · 1; 3 · 2} = {3; 6}.

Examples of spatial tasks

Example 2. Find the product of vector a = {1; 2; -5} by -2.

Solution: (-2) · a = {(-2) · 1; (-2) · 2; (-2) · (-5)} = {-2; -4; 10}.

Geometric interpretation. Dot product of two vectors a and b is a scalar quantity equal to the product of magnitudes of
vectors multiplied by the cosine of the angle between vectors:
 a · b = |a| · |b| cos α
Algebraic interpretation. Dot product of two vectors a and b is a scalar quantity equal to the sum of pairwise products of
coordinate vectors a and b.
Dot product is also call scalar product or inner product.

Dot product - formulas

Dot product formula for plane problems

In the case of the plane problem the dot product of vectors a = {ax ; ay} and b = {bx ; by} can be found by using the
following formula:
a · b = ax · bx + ay · by

Dot product formula for spatial problems

In the case of the spatial problem the dot product of vectors a = {ax ; ay ; az} and b = {bx ; by ; bz} can be found by using
the following formula:
a · b = ax · bx + ay · by + az · bz

Dot product formula for  n dimensional space problems

In the case of the n dimensional space problem the dot product of vectors a = {a1 ; a2 ; ... ; an} and b = {b1 ; b2 ; ... ; bn}
can be found by using the following formula:
a · b = a1 · b1 + a2 · b2 + ... + an · bn

Properties of dot product of vectors

1. The dot product of a vector with itself is always greater than zero or equal to zero:

a · a ≥ 0

2. The dot product of a vector with itself is zero if and only if the vector is the zero vector:

a · a = 0   <=>   a = 0

3. The dot product of a vector with itself is equal to the square of its magnitude:

a · a = |a|2

4. The dot product operation is communicative:

a · b = b · a
 5. If the dot product of two not zero vectors is is zero, then these vectors are orthogonal:

a ≠ 0, b ≠ 0, a · b = 0   <=>   a ┴ b

6. (αa) · b = α(a · b)
7. The dot product operation is distributive:

(a + b) · c = a · c + b · c

Dot product - example

Examples of calculation of the dot product of vectors for plane problems

Example 1. Find the dot product of vectors a = {1; 2} and b = {4; 8}.

Solution: a · b = 1 · 4 + 2 · 8 = 4 + 16 = 20.
Example 2. Find the dot product of vectors a and b, if their magnitudes is |a| = 3, |b| = 6, and the angle between the
vectors is equal to 60˚.
Solution: a · b = |a| · |b| cos α = 3 · 6 · cos 60˚ = 9.
Example 3. Find the dot product of vectors p = a + 3b and q = 5a - 3 b, if their magnitudes is |a| = 3, |b| = 2, and the
angle between the vectors a and b is equal to 60˚.
Solution:
p · q = (a + 3b) · (5a - 3b) = 5 a · a - 3 a · b + 15 b · a - 9 b · b =

= 5 |a|2 + 12 a · b - 9 |b|2 = 5 · 32 + 12 · 3 · 2 · cos 60˚ - 9 · 22 = 45 +36 -36 = 45.

Examples of calculation of the dot product of vectors for spatial problems

Example 4. Find the dot product of vectors a = {1; 2; -5} and b = {4; 8; 1}.

Solution: a · b = 1 · 4 + 2 · 8 + (-5) · 1 = 4 + 16 - 5 = 15.

Examples of calculation of the dot product of vectors for  n dimensional space problems

Example 5. Find the dot product of vectors a = {1; 2; -5; 2} and b = {4; 8; 1; -2}.

Solution: a · b = 1 · 4 + 2 · 8 + (-5) · 1 + 2 · (-2) = 4 + 16 - 5 -4 = 11.

Definition. Cross product (vector product) of vector a by the vector b is the vector c, the length of which is numerically
equal to the area of the parallelogram constructed on the vectors a and b, perpendicular to the plane of this vectors and the
direction so that the smallest rotation from a to b around the vector c was carried out counter-clockwise when viewed
from the terminal point of c (Fig. 1).
 Fig. 1

Cross product formulas

Cross product of two vectors a = {ax; ay; az} and b = {bx; by; bz} in Cartesian coordinates is a vector whose value can
be calculated using the following formulas:

   i       j       k   

a × b =   ax   ay   az   = i(aybz - azby) - j(axbz - azbx) + k(axby - aybx)
 bx   by   bz 
a × b = {aybz - azby; azbx - axbz; axby - aybx}

Cross product properties

 Geometric interpretation.

 The magnitude of the cross product of two vectors a and b is equal to the area of the parallelogram constructed
on these vectors:

Ap = |a × b|

 Geometric interpretation.

 The area of the triangle constructed on the vectors a and a is equal to half the magnitude of the cross product of
this vectors:

1
AΔ =  |a × b|
2

 Cross product of two non-zero vectors a and b is equal to zero if and only if the vectors are collinear.
 The vector c that is equal to the cross product of non-zero vectors a and b, is perpendicular to these vectors.

c = a × b    =>    c ┴ a and c ┴ b

 a × b = -b × a
 (k a) × b = a × (k b) = k (a × b)
 (a + b) × c = a × c + b × c
 Cross product examples

Example 1. Find the cross product of a = {1; 2; 3} and b = {2; 1; -2}.
Solution:

 i   j   k 

a × b =   1   2   3   =
 2   1   -2 

= i(2 · (-2) - 3 · 1) - j(1 · (-2) - 2 · 3) + k(1 · 1 - 2 · 2) =

= i(-4 - 3) - j(-2 - 6) + k(1 - 4) = -7i + 8j - 3k = {-7; 8; -3}

Example 2. Find the area of a triangle formed by vectors a = {-1; 2; -2} and b = {2; 1; -1}.

Solution: Calculate the cross product of these vectors:

 i   j   k 

a × b =   -1   2   -2   =
 2   1   -1 

= i(2 · (-1) - (-2) · 1) - j((-1) · (-1) - (-2) · 2) + k((-1) · 1 - 2 · 2) =

= i(-2 + 2) - j(1 + 4) + k(-1 - 4) = -5j - 5k = {0; -5; -5}

From the properties of the cross product:

1 1 1 1 5√2
AΔ =  |a × b| =  √02 + 52 + 52 =  √25 + 25 =  √50 = 
2 2 2 2 2
Answer: AΔ = 2.5√2.

Scalar triple product formula

Scalar triple product of vectors is equal to the determinant of the matrix formed from these vectors.
Scalar triple product of vectors a = {ax; ay; az}, b = {bx; by; bz} and c = {cx; cy; cz} in the Cartesian coordinate system
can be calculated using the following formula:
  ax   ay   az 
a · [b × c]  b    b    b  
x y z
=
 cx   cy   cz 

Scalar triple product properties

 Geometric interpretation.

 Module of scalar triple product of vectors a, b and c is equal to the volume of the parallelepiped formed by
these vectors:

Vparallelepiped = |a · [b × c]|

 Geometric interpretation.

 The volume of the pyramid formed by three vectors a, b and c is equal to one-sixth of the modulus of the scalar
triple product of this vectors:

1
Vpyramid =  |a · [b × c]|
6

 If the mixed product of three non-zero vectors equal to zero, these vectors are coplanar.
 a · [b × c] = b · (a · c) - c · (a · b)
 a · [b × c] = b · [c × a] = c · [a × b] = -a · [c × b] = -b · [a × c] = -c · [b × a]
 a · [b × c] + b · [c × a] + c · [a × b] = 0 - Jacobi identity.

Scalar triple product examples

Example 1. Find the scalar triple product of vectors a = {1; 2; 3}, b = {1; 1; 1}, c = {1; 2; 1}.
Solution:

  1     2     3  

a · [b × с]   1     1     1    =
= 
  1     2     1  
= 1·1·1 + 1·1·2 + 1·2·3 - 1·1·3 - 1·1·2 - 1·1·2 = 1 + 2 + 6 - 3 - 2 - 2 = 2
Example 2.
 Find the volume of a pyramid constructed on vectors a = {1; 2; 3}, b = {1; -1; 1}, c = {2; 0; -1}.
Solution: Calculate scalar triple product of vectors:

  1     2     3  

a · [b × с]   1     -1     1    =
= 
  2     0     -1  
= 1·(-1)·(-1) + 2·1·2 + 3·1·0 - 3·(-1)·2 - 2·1·(-1) - 1·1·0 =

= 1 + 4 + 0 + 6 + 2 - 0 = 13
Calculate the volume of the pyramid using the following properties:

1 13 1
Vpyramid =  |a · [b × c]| =   = 2
6 6 6
 Scalar Product of Vectors

The scalar product and the vector product are the two ways of multiplying vectors which see
the most application in physics and astronomy. The scalar product of two vectors can be
constructed by taking the component of one vector in the direction of the other and
multiplying it times the magnitude of the other vector. This can be expressed in the form:

Index

Vector
If the vectors are expressed in terms of unit vectors i, j, and k along the x, y, and z directions,
the scalar product can also be expressed in the form: concepts

The scalar product is also called the "inner product" or the "dot product" in some mathematics
texts.

Matrix approach to scalar product

 
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 Scalar Product Calculation

You may enter values in any of the boxes below. Then click on the symbol for either the
scalar product or the angle. The vectors A and B cannot be unambiguously calculated from the
scalar product and the angle. If the angle is changed, then B will be placed along the x-axis
and A in the xy plane.

Active formula: please click on the scalar product or the angle to update calculation.

Index

The scalar product   = (  )(  )(cos  ) degrees. Vector

concepts

( )( )+( )( )+( )( )=

Note: The numbers above will not be forced to ba consistent until you click on either the
scalar product or the angle in the active formula above.
 
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 Scalar Product Applications

Geometrically, the scalar product is useful for finding the direction between arbitrary vectors
in space. Since the two expressions for the product:

involve the components of the two vectors and since the magnitudes A and B can be
Index
calculated from the components using:

Vector
concepts
 then the cosine
of the angle can be calculated and the angle determined.

One important physical application of the scalar product is the calculation of work:

The scalar product is used for the expression of magnetic potential energy and the potential of
an electric dipole.
 
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 Matrix Representation of Scalar Product

It is sometimes convenient to represent vectors as row or column matrices, rather than in terms of unit
vectors as was done in the scalar product treatment above. If we treat ordinary spatial vectors as column
matrices of their x, y and z components, then the transposes of these vectors would be row matrices. We
could then write for vectors A and B:

Then the matrix product of these two matrices would give just a single number, which is the sum of the
products of the corresponding spatial components of the two vectors. This number is then the scalar
product of the two vectors.

When represented this way, the scalar product of two vectors illustrates the process which is used in
matrix multiplication, where the sum of the products of the elements of a row and column give a single
number.

Dot product examples

 Suggested background
 The dot product

 The formula for the dot product in terms of vector components

Given the geometric definition of the dot product along with the dot product formula in terms of components, we are ready

to calculate the dot product of any pair of two- or three-dimensional vectors.

Example 1
Calculate the dot product of a=(1,2,3)a=(1,2,3) and b=(4,−5,6)b=(4,−5,6). Do the vectors form an acute angle, right angle,

or obtuse angle?

Solution: Using the component formula for the dot product of three-dimensional vectors,

a⋅b=a1b1+a2b2+a3b3,a⋅b=a1b1+a2b2+a3b3,

we calculate the dot product to be

a⋅b=1(4)+2(−5)+3(6)=4−10+18=12.a⋅b=1(4)+2(−5)+3(6)=4−10+18=12.

Since a⋅ba⋅b is positive, we can infer from the geometric definition, that the vectors form an acute angle.

Example 2
Calculate the dot product of c=(−4,−9)c=(−4,−9) and d=(−1,2)d=(−1,2). Do the vectors form an acute angle, right angle,

or obtuse angle?

Solution: Using the component formula for the dot product of two-dimensional vectors,

a⋅b=a1b1+a2b2,a⋅b=a1b1+a2b2,

we calculate the dot product to be

c⋅d=−4(−1)−9(2)=4−18=−14.c⋅d=−4(−1)−9(2)=4−18=−14.

Since c⋅dc⋅d is negative, we can infer from the geometric definition, that the vectors form an obtuse angle.

Example 3
If a=(6,−1,3)a=(6,−1,3), for what value of cc is the vector b=(4,c,−2)b=(4,c,−2) perpendicular to aa?

Solution: For aa and bb to be perpendicular, we need their dot product to be zero. Since

a⋅b=6(4)−1(c)+3(−2)=24−c−6=18−c,a⋅b=6(4)−1(c)+3(−2)=24−c−6=18−c,

the number cc must satisfy 18−c=018−c=0, or c=18c=18.

You can double-check that the vector b=(4,18,−2)b=(4,18,−2) is indeed perpendicular to aa by verifying

that a⋅b=(6,−1,3)⋅(4,18,−2)=0a⋅b=(6,−1,3)⋅(4,18,−2)=0.