FARTH AND PLANt.TARY SCIENCE LETTERS 9 (1970) 348-354 .
NORTH-HOLLAND PUBLISHING COMPANY
SUBMARINE VOLCANISM AS A SOURCE FOR IRON
Kurt BOSTROM
University of Miarni, Rosenstiel School ofMarine and A tmospheric Sciences, Miami, Florida 33149, USA
Received 20 May 1970
Deposition rates of iron on the East Pacific Rise are 4--30 times larger than in surrounding areas of the Pacific,
suggesting local voieanisni to be the source of iron . The distributions of Co, Ni, Mn, Ti and A 1 support this conclusion .
Several recent studies indicate that some elements,
particularly iron, manganese and barium, are delivered
by submarine volcanism along active oceanic ridges
(= ridges with ocean floor spreading ; 11 -31 . Quanti-
tative evidence supports this conclusion [4-61 . More
detailed quantitative evidence is presented here, sug-
gesting that much iron indeed is derived from sub-
marine volcanism .
About 200 sediment samples from the East Pacific
have been analyzed for several elements, including
iron ( fig. l ). Iron, cobalt, nickel and titanium were
uetermined by atomic absorption and emission spec-
trosct_py . Comparisons with G-1 and W-1 indicate
accicmcies and precisions better than ± IV, which is
,,-It isfactory for the discussion below. Some of these
ceàults and analyses of A 1 and Mn have been published
elsewhere by Bostrdrn and co-workers [1 -21 . Addi-
tional analytical values were collated from other
studies 171 . Agreement between analyses of sediments
from the same general areas by different analysts is
.
excellent
Rates of sedimentation in East Pacific have been
collated by Ku et al. [81, fig . 2. Additional values
derive from some other sources [91 . The absolute
accumulation rate of iron can be measured by using
the data figs. 1 and 2 are based on (including CdC03
determinations), assuming the in situ density of dry
uncompressed surface sediment to be 0.75 g/cm3 1101 .
The data points in fig. 3 represcn : location of cores
used for determination of sedimentation rates while
the iror, values are based on neighboring samples, ex-
ct~pt at i 3 points where sedimentation rates and iron
concentrations were determined on the same samples
[ I1 .
High accumulation rates for iron occur close to the
continent, as is to be expected, and on the East Pacific
Rise where the three highest values are 95-410 mg
Fe/(cm' X 1000 yr). The corresponding values for
manganese are 35-- 150 mg Mn/(cm2 X 1000 yr).On
the flanks of the ridge 5-10 mg and 05-3 mg are
common deposition rates per (cm? X 1000 yr) for
Fe and Mn, respectively . These figures agree well with
the data of Bender et al . [61 . Deeper lay,:rs ot'sotnc
crest sediments were deposited more slowly than the
surface layers (Blackmail 191) but even f:)r these
layers the deposition rates are about 50 tng Fe per
(cm 2 X 1000 yr) .
Some deposition rates may be anomaiously Ingli
due to ponding of sediments . However, if ponding
were of prime importance, it should also influence
the accumulation rates of terrigenous constituents as
Ti and Al. The data (fig . 4) indicate that deposition
rates for Ti vary only by a factor of 5 between the
crest and the flanks of the ridge; corresponding values
for iron vary by a factor of 160 . Using the deposition
rates for Ti to correct for ponding effects it is found
that iron is deposited at a rate that can be up to 30
times larger on the crest than on the flanks of the
East Pacific Rise ; this conclusion is also suggested by
the regional variation in the Fe/Ti ratio in East Pacific
sediments [2[ . T1he terrigenous nature of Ti and Al in
this area is indicated by the fact that the AI/Ti ratio
in most sediment samples [21 is very close toy 20,
which is the ratio found in average continental rock,
whereas weathering products of average oceanic rock
should have an Al/Ti ratio of about 5 . The total
amount of terrigenous matter is very small however :
 SUBMARINE VOLCANISM AS A SOURCE I-OR IRON 34 9

Fig. 1 . Distribution of iron in East Pacific sediment% on a carbonate-free basis (CFB) . The iron-minima close to the equator be-
tween 100 1600 W and at 50 60 c S are duc to dilution by opaline silica . Several recent analyses (Boström, unpublished data)
'-
1q-vG been included but confina the patterns found here .
"
Î~ïraï a
3501 K .BOSTRÖM

RATES OF SEDIMENTATION ON
CARBONATE FREE BASIS
IN mm/1000 YEARS 40'
- 0 10
-10-30

- >30
RTES FOR OPALINE
SILICA RICH SAMPLES
ARE I%)RL NEO

OEM
N ~IMM
MINIM iwi
No =OEM
00.6
00.9
" 0.8
a 0
'PPP
'
+0.9
073

1
40`

60o
24 S
*15 S 26
1
ISO , 1,60° 140° 120° QO° 30°W

Fig . 2 . Rate of sedimentation (CFB) according to Ku et al ., etc . ( 7, 81 .

the carbonate free fraction of East Pacific Rise sedi-
ments contai~ls little besides iron hydroxides, opaline
silica and some barite .
Other geochemical relations in the East Pacific also
suggest that the iron rich sediments on the Ridge are
of local origin. Thus, stability relations for oxides-
hydroxides of Fe, Mn, Ni and Co 1121 suggest that in
the well-oxygenated slightly alkaline bottom .vaters
(if the ocean i-on should precipitate out fairly fast,
followed by manganese, whereas Ni and Co should be
riost mohi e and tend to be enriched in the most
land-distant areas . This means that, for instance,
Fe./Mn and Fe/Co should decrease with distance from
the continents . Such distribution patterns are observed
in ordinary pelagic deposits and on inactive oceanic
ridges fdr from land, but on active ridges reversed
patterns are found as can be demonstrated with the
data by Bostr6m et al. I 1 ] and in fig . 5 . The data
presented in figs. 1 and 5 do not rule out the possibi-
lity that the variability in the Fe/Co ratio, for instance,
is partly depth dependent . However, 70 sediment
analyses distributed across the Indian Ocean from
Indonesia to Madagascar do not show any depth
dependency for Co or Ni . Thus close to Indonesia the
ratio (Fe + Mn)/(Co + Ni) in %/ppm is close to 0 .10
but falls rapidly westward to about 0.02, a value that
also is characteristic for the samples on the Ninety
East Ridge. On the Mid-Indian Ocean Ridge the ratio
 SUBMARINE VOLCANISM AS A SOURCE FOR IRON 351

DEPOSITION RATE OF
IRON IN mg/cm2 x1000 YEARS

= 5-10
®= 10-15
= 15 -30
®= >30

E00MANI'120"'1 /LVI

1 rr"A'
Ar
IVI i

a
614,

MEN
60'

180° 160° 140° 120°

RM MU
100° SO .W
Fig. 3. Rate of deposition of iron in East Pacific .

(Fe + Mn)/Co + Ni) is close to 0 .09, but half-way
between the ridge and Madagascar it falls to about
0 .03, and just off Madagascar reaches values close to
0 .06 .
A consequence of these findings is that pelagic
sediments on the flanks of active oceanic ridges should
he mixtures of ferromanganoan deposites and products
of continental weathering (1 I. A graph of the relation
Fe/Ti versus AI/(AI + Fe + Mn) (see fig . 6) supports
this conclusion ; the graph also further supports the
conclusion that submarine weathering of basaltic
matter is a subordinate source of sediments .
High deposition rates of iron have also existed in
the past on active oceanic ridges . The basal layers of
the South Atlantic sediments consist of Al-poor
Fe-rich sediments in which iron was accumulated at
a rate of 20-50 mg/(cm 2 X 1000 yr), whereas the
subsequently deposited sediments were typical pelagic
sediments with the deposition rates of 5-10 mg/
(cm2 X 1000 yr) for iron 141 .
The total mass of sediments delivered to the ocean
from submarine volcanism can be estimated, using
the areal extent of ferromanganoan and normal
pelagic deposits, rate of sedimentation and rates of
ocean floor spreading . It can be shown that at most
5% and probably as little as 0 .5-1% of all pelagic
sediments (carbonate free matter) derive from sub-
marine volcanism . Since the ridge deposits contain
 K .BOSTRÖM

DEPOSITION RATES OF
TITANIUM IN mg/cm2 x
1000 YEARS

= <035
iiili = 035 -073

zum "--
200

1
a q
BRUN
\1V
UNIR un
d
11MM
~~ 1,
000~
MMMMMENOW
a NNEEMEN
NE
ilNO
iin
RONNE
MEMOS
MENNEN
160 140' 1200 1000 O

Fig. 4. Rate of deposition of titanium in East Pack.

 SUBMARINE VOLCANISM AS A SOURCE FOR IRON 353

1906 160* 140" 120* 100* 709W

Co (CFB) IN ppm
C. 0 - 40
40 - 100
100 - 200
C 200

0"

Fig. 5 . Distribution of Co (CFB) in East Pacific sediments. Almost identical patterns are found for Ni .

close to 30°ío iron and ordinary pelagic sediments
about 5% iron this means that only about 3-6% of
all iron in the pelagic sediments derive from submarine
volcanism. However, since continental matter has
been recycled repeatedly during the history of the
Earth while the volcanic iron described here may
represent a new contribution to the surface of the
Earth, and since ocean floor spreading may have
been operating during most of the history of the Earth,
it follows that a large fraction of the total amount of
iron now at the Earth's surface may have been brought
up by submarine volcanism .
 K-BOSTRÖM
354

(2] K.Boström, M.N .A.Peterson, O-Joensuu and D.E.Fisher,

Aluminum-poor ferromanganoan sediments on active
oceanic ridges, J. Geophys. Res. ?4 (1969) 3261-3270.
(3j K.Bostr6m and S-Valdes, Arsenic in ocean floors, Lithos
2 (1969) 351-360;
K.Bostr6m and D.E .Fisher, Distribution of mercury in
East Pacific sediments, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta
33 (1969) 743-745;
D.E .Fisher and K.Boström, Uranium rich sediments on
r
East Pacific Rise, Nature 224 (1969) 64-65.
(4j K.Boström, Geochemical evidence of ocean floor spread-
ing in South Atlantic Ocean, Nature (1970) in press.
[Sj K.Boström, Origin of iron-rich sediments on the East
Pacific Rise. Abstract, Trans. Am . Geophys. U. 5 1 (1970) 327.
[61 M.Bendcr, W-Broecker, V.Gornitz and G .M iddel, Ac-
cumulation rate of manganese and related elements in
the sediments from the East Pacific Rise, Abstract,
Trans. Am . Geophys. U. 51 (1970) 327 .
(7j R.R .Revelle, Marine bottom samples, collected in the
Pacific by the Carnegie on its 7th cruise, Camegie Inst .
Wash . Publ . 556 (1944) ;
E.Goldberg and G.Arrhenius, Chemistry of Pacific
pelagic sediments, Geochim. Cosmochim . Acta 13
(1958) 153-212;
S .K .El-Wakeel and J .P .Riley, Chemical and mineralogi-
cal studies of deep-sea sediments, Geochim. Cosmo-
0 010 020 030 040 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1 .00 chim . Acta 25 (1961) 110-146 ;
14 I
S .Landergren, On the chemistry of deep-sea sediments,
Repts. Swedish Deep Sea I xped ., X, Spec . Invest . No . 5
Ai+Fe+Mn (1964) Gothenburg .
Fig. 6. Co-variations between I-'--/Ti and Al/(A1 + Fe + Mn) in [8J T .L .Ku, W.S .Broecker and N .Opdyke, Comparison of
Felagic sediments. Curve a is generated if average oceanic sedimentation rates measured by palcomagnetic and
basaltic matter (Al = 7.y5%, Fe = 8.33%) is mixed in various the ionium methods of age determination, Earth Planet .
proportions with volcanic sediments, containing 22% Fe and Sci. Letters 4 (1968) 1--16 .
S .8'a Nfn [ I J : curve be is generated if the same volcanic sedi- D.B .Ericson and G.Wullin, Pleistocene climates in the
= Atlantic and Pacific Oceans : A comparison based on
ment is mixed with average continental crustal matter (A1
8.4%, Fe = 5.2'f0) in various proportions. The distribution of deep-sea sediments, Science 167 (1970) 1483-1485 ;
analyses (from 2) indicate that in most pelagic sediments the A .Blackman and B .L .K .Somayajulu, Pacific Pleistocene
admixture of basaltic debris is small. cores: Faunal analyses and geochronology, Science 154
(1966) 886-889;
A.Blackman, Pleisocene stratigraphy of cores from the
Acknowledgements Southeast Pacific Ocean, Ph . D. Dissertation, Univ .
Calif. at San Diego (1966) .
[101 The density of pelagic surface sediments commonly
This work. was supported by the NSF Grants varies between 1 .40 and 1.80 g/cm 3 and the water
GA-1356 and GA-15248 and ONR Contract Nonr content between 40-60í%r- by weight . (Data from A.F .
4(1Q8(02) . Contribution No . 1229 from the Rosenstiel Richards, Tech . Rept . TiR106, Investigations of deep-
School of Marine and Atmospheric Sciences, Universi- sea sedimentcores, 11 . U.S. Nay Hydrographic Office,
ty of Miami, Miami, Florida 33149, Waihington, D.C ., 1962 .) A common in situ density for
dry uncompressed pelagic sediment is 0.65 - 0 .85 g/cm 3 ;
the uncertainty in this figure is only of minor significance
References for the discussion here .
[ 11 ] The accumulation rates determined in this way are
looted at 0.5 ° S-8S .5 ° W, 0° S--104° W, 2.8'0 S--112 .5 °
[ 1 K .Bostr6m and h1 .N .A .Peterson, Origin of aluminum- W, 14 .2 ° S-113 .5 ° W, 14 .2° S-114 .5 ° W, 21 .5 ° J . -
poor ferromanganoan sediments in areas of high heat
flow on the East Pacific Rise, Marine Geology 7 (1969),' 81 .ä ° W, 26 .5 " S-115.5" W, 27 .7 ° S- 107° W, 46 .5 ° 5---
427-477 . 113 5° W and 46 .7 0 S--123 .5 ° W .
[12] MY aurbaix, Atlas d'6quilibries électrochirniques a 2S °('
(Gauthiers-Villars and Cie, Paris, 1963) .