social functions (such as physical security, economic prosperity, cultural
enrichment) that cannot be met by individuals acting on their own.
An Introduction to Politics and Governance
This module discusses the introductory concepts essential in understanding the
course. Specifically, learners are expected to:
1. Articulate definition of politics;
2. Differentiate the various views on politics;
3. Explore the connection between the phenomenon (politics) and the method of
inquiry (Political Science)
4. Recognize the value of politics;
5. Differentiate governance from government.
Have you ever experienced the use of power over another person? Let us first
unlock some basic concepts.
Defining Politics
Politics is the way in which we understand and order our social affairs, and acquire
greater control over the situation.
It is also the strategy for maintaining cooperation among people with different
needs and ideals in life, or for resolving the conflict within the group, whether this is
a family, a tribe, a village or a nation-state.
The study of politics aims to examine how human life in the aggregate is “ordered”.
Let us look at the idea of community, government, and nation-state:
A. Community- one kind of social order which is an association of individuals who
share a common identity. This identity is usually defined by geography, sense of
common purpose, and a single political allegiance. It arises to fulfill a wide variety of
B. Government- a political order that maintains and perpetuates the community. It is
said to possess “sovereignty” if it can successfully assert its claim to rule. And it is
said to “legitimate” if its claim to rule (authority) is willingly accepted.
Types of Government:
1. Democracy - The word "democracy" literally means "rule by the people." In a
democracy, the people govern.
2. Republic - A literal democracy is impossible in a political system containing more
than a few people. All "democracies" are really republics. In a republic, the people
elect representatives to make and enforce laws.
3. Monarchy - A monarchy consists of rule by a king or queen. Sometimes a king is
called an "emperor," especially if there is a large empire, such as China before 1911.
There are no large monarchies today. The United Kingdom, which has a queen, is
really a republic because the queen has virtually no political power.
4. Aristocracy - An aristocracy is rule by the aristocrats. Aristocrats are typically
wealthy, educated people. Many monarchies have really been ruled by aristocrats.
Today, typically, the term "aristocracy" is used negatively to accuse a republic of
being dominated by rich people, such as saying, "The United States has become an
aristocracy."
5. Dictatorship - A dictatorship consists of rule by one person or a group of people.
Very few dictators admit they are dictators; they almost always claim to be leaders
of democracies. The dictator may be one person, such as Castro in Cuba or Hitler in
Germany, or a group of people, such as the Communist Party in China.
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6. Democratic Republic - Usually, a "democratic republic" is not democratic and is
not a republic. A government that officially calls itself a "democratic republic" is
usually a dictatorship. Communist dictatorships have been especially prone to use
this term. For example, the official name of North Vietnam was "The Democratic
Republic of Vietnam." China uses a variant, "The People's Republic of China."
(from http://depts.alverno.edu/dgp/GEC/Types%20of%20Government.html)
C. Nation- state- most distinctive and largest self-sufficient political configuration in
the modern world… its actions and reactions affect not only the welfare and destiny
of its own people but, increasingly, the fate of peoples in other lands
1. Nation is a distinct group of people who share a common background including any or
all of the following: geographic location, history, racial or ethnic characteristics, religion,
language, culture, and belief in common political ideas.
2. State denotes the existence of a viable, sovereign government exercising authority and
power in the name of the society. It is often used synonymously with country and nation,
although a nation may be composed of more than one state, like USA. In more technical
and formal terms, state is a community of persons more or less numerous, permanently
occupying a definite portion of territory, having a government of their own to which the
great body of inhabitants render obedience, and enjoying freedom from external control.
The government cannot maintain order without POWER.
“Power is of two kinds. One is obtained by the fear of punishment and
the other by acts of love. Power based on love is a thousand times
more effective and permanent then the one derived from fear of
punishment. “
- Mahatma Gandhi
Politics and Everyday Life
a. Politics is all about the way human beings are governed, which involves order, power,
and justice. It is not just an abstract study.
b. It involves the government’s day-to-day performance.
c. It does not affect only one individual, but is inextricably bound up with the perpetual
quest for what is fair or just in light of the interest of the entire community.
d. Issue is more or less political based on the extent that the use of political power affects
the lives and well-being of private citizens.
e. An issue becomes political when the government must render a decision, which must
always be for the common good of the community.
Different Political Views
1. Democratic: Democracy is a political government carried out either directly by the
people (direct democracy) or by means of elected representatives of the people.
Democracy has its origins in Ancient Greece.
2. Democratic Socialism: Democratic socialism is a description used by various
socialist movements and organizations, to emphasize the democratic character of
their political orientation. The term is sometimes used synonymously with ‘social
democracy’, but many self-identified democratic socialists oppose social democracy,
seeing it as capitalist.
3. Blue Dog Democrat: The Democratic Blue Dog Coalition is a group of currently 54
conservative Democratic Party members of the United States House of
Representatives, first formed in 1995.The Blue Dog Coalition describes itself as a
group of moderate-to-conservative Democrats committed to financial and national
security, favoring compromise and bipartisanship over ideology and party
discipline.
4. Conservative: Conservatism is the belief that traditional institutions work best
and that society should avoid radical change. Some conservatives seek to preserve
things as they are, emphasizing stability and continuity, while others oppose
modernism and seek a return to the way things were.
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5. Conservative Libertarian: Also known as Libertarian conservatism or as
fusionism. Conservative Libertarian includes political ideologies which meld
libertarianism and conservatism.
6. Moderate Conservative: Moderate Conservatism is usually viewed as someone
having a moderate view on the conservative policies.
7. Very Conservative: A strong follower of the conservative ideology.
8. Liberal: Liberalism is the belief in the importance of liberty and equality. Most
liberals support such fundamental ideas as constitutions, liberal democracy, free
and fair elections, human rights, free trade, secularism, and the market economy.
9. Libertarian: Libertarianism is a political theory that advocates the maximization
of individual liberty in thought and action and the minimization or even abolition of
the state. Libertarians embrace viewpoints across a political spectrum, ranging from
pro-property to anti-property and from minimal state (or minarchist) to openly
anarchist.
10. Moderate Liberal: Moderate Liberals are those who view moderately on liberal
ideology.
11. Very Liberal: Strong follower of Liberal ideology.
12. Republican: A person who favors a republican form of government.
13. Socialist: Socialism refers to the various theories of economic organization
which advocate either public or direct worker ownership and administration of the
means of production and allocation of resources. Socialists generally share the view
that capitalism unfairly concentrates power and wealth among a small segment of
society that controls capital and derives its wealth through a system of exploitation.
This in turn creates an unequal society, that fails to provide equal opportunities for
everyone to maximize their potential, and does not utilize technology and resources
to their maximum potential nor in the interests of the public.
14. Socialist Libertarian: Also called as Libertarian socialism is a group of political
philosophies that aspire to create a society free of coercive hierarchies.
15. Green Party: A Green party or ecologist party is a formally organized political
party based on the principles of Green politics. These principles include social
justice, reliance on grassroots democracy, nonviolence, and an emphasis on
environmentalism. “Greens” believe that the exercise of these principles leads to
world health.
16. Independent: An Independent is a politician who is not affiliated with any
political party. Independents may hold a centrist viewpoint between those of major
political parties, or they may have a viewpoint based on issues that they do not feel
that any major party addresses. Other independent candidates are associated with a
political party and may be former members of it, but choose not to stand under its
label. A third category of independents are those who may belong to or support a
political party but believe they should not formally represent it and thus be subject
to its policies. Finally, some independent candidates may form a political party for
the purposes of running for public office.
17. Indifferent:
You are indifferent if you do not have an opinion on any of the political views
(from http://sarathc.com/different-kinds-of-political-views.html)
Politics and Political Science
Political science is the systematic study of politics, or the process by which
governmental decisions are made. As a famous definition puts it, politics is
determining who gets what, where, when, and how. The political scientist is an
objective observer who asks questions about and studies the effects and structures
of different systems of governments.
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A Brief History of Political Science
Political science originated with the ancient Greeks in the first century BCE. During
this time, the philosopher Plato wrote numerous dialogues about politics, asking
about the nature of justice, what constitutes good government, and what is truly
best for humanity. His student Aristotle worked in a more scientific way, observing
and describing types of governments systematically. At the start of the seventeenth
century, people began to apply the methods of the scientific revolution to politics.
Thomas Hobbes, for example, employed the methods of geometry to break
government down into its most basic parts in order to understand it. In the
nineteenth century, thinkers such as Karl Marx and Max Weber used sociological
methods to analyze politics.
Political Science Today
In the last few decades, political science has become more solidly established.
Political professionals work on campaigns (as well as news shows) at all levels to
help sway voters, and many elected officials analyze data to help make policy
choices. Today, many political scientists use statistics and other quantitative
methods to study a variety of issues, such as voting, Congress, and the presidency.
Why Study Political Science
A. By studying political science, we become more aware of our dependence on the
political system and better equipped to determine when to favor and when to oppose
change;
B. Everyone has the duty to advise communities on how to become more effective;
C. Students of political science can possess better political opinions and decisions.
D. In this subject, student are expected for moral and intellectual growth.
What’s wrong with politics nowadays?
A. It deviates from the concept of good politics, which ought to be a reflection of the
aspirations to contribute to the happiness of the community and not of the need to deceive
or pillage the community.
B. It is now associated with art of deception, intrigues, demagoguery and ruthless egoism.
Governance and Government
1. Governance is traditionally associated with government. In literatures, they are often
used interchangeably. But in the 1980s, political scientists broadened the meaning of
governance as including, not just government actors, but also civil-society actors. Today,
governance includes three sectors: the public sector (state actors and institutions), the
private sector (households and companies), and the civil society (non-governmental
organizations). These three sectors are said to work hand in hand in the process of
governance. This new use of the term focuses on the role of “networks” in the
achievement of the common good, whether these networks are intergovernmental,
transnational, or international. In other words governance is broader than government in
that other sectors are included in it.
2. Many authors also distinguish the two by associating government with “control and
domination,” and governance with “decentralization and relational management.” On the
one hand, government refers to a central institution which wields power over its subjects.
It is the instrument patterned after the model of “command and control,” the government
being in command over the affairs of the people. On the other hand, governance is
closely associated with the concept of decentralization of power and the need for inter-
sectoral management. Governance is based on the realization that the government cannot
do everything for the people, so that in order to survive the state should not only rely on
government but also on the other sectors of the society.
3. Thus, under the current trend, there is a need to move from the “traditional hierarchical
exercise of power by the government” to the new notion of a “dispersed and relational
power in governance” – from government to governance. To govern should now mean to
facilitate or regulate, not to dominate or command.
Activities and Exercises
1. In the Philippine setting, what issues and challenges confront our political
context? Why do these issues occur?
2. How would you describe our present political situation?
3. What can you suggest to improve the performance of our present government?
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Trace the Philippine- US political relationship throughout the
history.
Glossary
Governance is traditionally associated with government. In literatures, they are often
used interchangeably. But in the 1980s, political scientists broadened the meaning of
governance as including, not just government actors, but also civil-society actors.
Government- a political order that maintains and perpetuates the community.
Nation- state- most distinctive and largest self-sufficient political configuration in
the modern world… its actions and reactions affect not only the welfare and destiny
of its own people but, increasingly, the fate of peoples in other lands
Political science- is the systematic study of politics, or the process by which
governmental decisions are made.
Politics-is the way in which we understand and order our social affairs, and acquire
greater control over the situation.
Political Ideologies
What does it mean to be a Liberal or Conservative? Such labels refer to a belief in the
way government should run within a society—also known as political ideology.
Political ideologies are belief systems that provide people with a perspective on the
proper role of elected officials which types of public policies should be prioritized,
and how the various elements of society should be arranged.
In this chapter, learners are expected to:
1. Identify the basic tenets of major political ideologies;
2. Differentiate the different political ideologies;
3. Examine the relationship between the political ideologies and configurations of
political communities.
Liberalism(Left)
- denounces economic and social inequality
- equality of opportunity is viewed as essential
- believes that discriminatory practices must be eliminated
- the impact of great equalities of wealth needs to be lessened
- advocates vigorous public policies to reduce or eliminate inequalities
- sees government as the means to eliminate inequalities while preserving civil
liberties/rights and progressive values
- believes that the public policy should be egalitarian and that it is the government’s
responsibility to ensure all citizens have access to affordable healthcare, quality
education, a clean environment, , and social safety net programs
- believe in affirmative action programs , worker’s health and safety protections,
progressive taxation, and union’s right s to organize and strike
Conservatism (Right)
- have a general preference for the existing order of society and an opposition to
most efforts of bringing about fundamental or rapid change
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- desires to enhance individual liberty by keeping government small, except in the
area of national defense
- maintains that people need strong leadership institutions, firm laws, and strict
moral codes
- prefers eliminating abortion, affirmative action programs, and labor unions
Moderates (Middle)
- represent a mix of both liberal and conservative ideologies
Other Political Ideologies
Communism- an ideology based on the communal ownership of all property and a
classless structure, with economic production and distribution to be directed and
regulated by means of an authoritative economic plan that supposedly embodies the
interests of the community as a whole
Socialism- an ideology based on collective or governmental ownership and
democratic management of the essential means of the production and distribution
of goods. It can often be difficult to define, since different people have different ideas
about what a socialist society would look like. There a number of similarities
between socialism and communism.
National Socialism (Nazism)- this ideology originated as a national movement in
European countries after World War I and refers to the movement of the National
Socialist German Workers’ Party under Adolf Hitler. Nazism rejects liberalism,
democracy, the rule of law, and human rights, and stresses the subordination of the
individual to the state and strict obedience to leaders. It emphasizes the right of the
strong to rule the weak, the inequality of individuals and “races”, and the racial
superiority of White Anglo-Saxons (Aryans).
Fascism- tends to celebrate masculinity, youth, mystical unity, and the power of
violence. Often, but not always, it promotes racial superiority doctrines, ethnic
persecution, imperialist expansion, and genocide. Usually, fascism espouses open
male supremacy, though sometimes it may also promote female solidarity and new
opportunities for women of the privileged nation or race.
Anarchism- considers the state undesirable, unnecessary, and harmful, and instead
promotes a stateless society, or anarchy. Anarchists seek to diminish or even
eliminate reliance upon authority in the conduct of human relations, but thus have
widely disagreed on what additional criteria are essential or beneficial to anarchism
and human society. Anarchism is usually identified as the most anti-authoritarian of
all political ideologies.
Libertarianism- is a relatively new political ideology which gained momentum in
the mid 20th century. Libertarians believe that any legitimate government should be
small and should play only the most minimal possible role in economic, social, and
cultural life. Furthermore, libertarians believe that the individual should be as free
as is practically feasible from government restraint and regulation in both the
economic and noneconomic aspects of life.
Marxism- Karl Marx wrote the seminal works of this political ideology, which
described the strengths and weaknesses of the capitalist economic system and
argued that it would eventually be overthrown in order to bring about a more just
and equal society. This would mean first implementing a socialist system and
inevitably a communist society. According to Marx, all injustices and inequalities in
the world can be traced to the class struggle, or the inequalities inherent to the
capitalist system. Marxists may consider themselves socialists or communists as
there exists much overlap between these ideologies.
Activities and Exercises
1. List the similarities and differences of these two main political ideologies:
liberalism and conservatism.
2. Point-out the glaring similarities between communism and socialism
3. Think of a film or movie which showed a system of a political ideology.
Determine its qualities that match the identified political ideology.
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Read “The Communist Manifesto by Karl Marx and Friedrich
Engels. Now, look for a political article which beliefs seem to
reflect the ideologies presented in manifesto.
Glossary
Liberalism- a political ideology which denounces economic and social inequality
and equality of opportunity is viewed as essential
Conservatism- has a general preference for the existing order of society and an
opposition to most efforts of bringing about fundamental or rapid change
Communism- an ideology based on the communal ownership of all property and a
classless structure, with economic production and distribution to be directed and
regulated by means of an authoritative economic plan that supposedly embodies the
interests of the community as a whole
Socialism- an ideology based on collective or governmental ownership and
democratic management of the essential means of the production and distribution
of goods.
Anarchism- considers the state undesirable, unnecessary, and harmful, and instead
promotes a stateless society, or anarchy.
Power
Most people would have an intuitive notion of what power means. Power may be
defined in terms of a relation between people and is expressed in simple symbolic
notation. (as cited in Robert Dahl’s “The Concept of Power”)
In this chapter, learners are expected to:
1. Define power;
2. Recognize the nature, dimensions, types, and consequences of power;
3. Analyze the nature, dimensions, types, deployments, and consequences of power;
4. Assess how power is exercised in different situations.
Definition of Power
Power is the ability to influence others to believe, behave, or to value as those in
power desire them to or to strengthen, validate, or confirm present beliefs,
behaviors, or values.
Power is the social force that allows select persons to mobilize others; to organize
others to act in concert; and to melt away resistance to leaders’ authority.
Types of Power
Power manifests itself in several forms; among these are: expert power, reward
power, legitimate power, referent power, and coercive power. Other power forms
include information power, tradition power, and charismatic power.
Expert Power
- is based on what one knows, what experience one has, and/or what special talents
one has
- expertise can be demonstrated by demonstration, by reputation, or by offering
appropriate credentials certifying expertise.
Some examples include: (a) a violinist demonstrating through audition skill with
music; (b) a professor submits school transcripts to demonstrate discipline
expertise; (c) a bricklayer relies on 20+ years of experience to prove expertise.
Some pitfalls can emerge when too heavy a reliance is made on expertise; these
include: (a) sometimes inferences are made suggesting expertise is wider in scope
than it actually is; for example, an expert in antique vases may have little expertise
in antique lamps; (b) one’s expertise is not everlasting; for example, a physician who
fails to keep up with medical technology and advances may lose expertise; and (c)
expertise does not necessarily carry with it common sense or ethicality.
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Reward Power
- is based on the right of some to offer tangible, social, emotional, or spiritual
rewards to others for doing what is wanted or expected of them or to deny others
something tangible, social, emotional, political, or spiritual for failing to or refusing
to do what is desired or expected of them.
Some examples of reward power (positive reward) are: (a) a child is given a dollar
for earning better grades; (b) a student is admitted into an honor society for
excellent effort; (c) a retiree is praised and feted for lengthy service at a retirement
party; and (d) New York firefighters were heralded as heroes for their acts on 9-11-
01.
Some examples of reward power (negative reward) are: (a) a driver is fines for
illegal parking; (b) a teenager grounded for a week for misbehaving; (c) a rookie
player is ridiculed for not following tradition; and (d) President Harding’s name is
commonly invoked whenever political scandal is mentioned.
Some pitfalls can emerge when a too heavy reliance is placed on reward power;
these include: (a) some people become fixated and too dependent on rewards to do
even mundane activities; (b) too severe fears of punishment can immobilize some
people; (c) as time passes, past rewards become insufficient to motivate or activate
desired outcomes; and (d) negative rewards may be perverted into positive
attention.
Legitimate Power
- results from one’s being elected, selected, or appointed to a position of authority.
Such legitimacy is conferred by others and this legitimacy can be revoked by the
original granters, their designees, or their inheritors.
Some examples of legitimate power include: a police officer’s legitimacy to make
arrests; a parent’s legitimacy to restrict a child’s activities; the President’s
legitimacy to live in the White House; and the Congress’ legitimacy to declare war.
Some pitfalls can arise when too heavy reliance is placed on legitimate power; these
include: (a) unexpected exigencies call for non-legitimized individuals to act in the
absence of a legitimate authority – such as a citizen’s arrest in the absence of a
police official; and (b) military legitimacy can be extended criminally such as at My
Lai [village in Vietnam].
Referent Power
- stems from the affiliations we make and/or the groups/organizations we belong to
or are attached to. The ethos of our associates or groups to which we belong
become, to some degree, our own ethos.
Some examples of referent power are: (a) each of the last seven White House press
secretaries have been paid handsomely for their memoirs relating to their presence
at the seat of government; (b) Mrs. Hillary Clinton gained political capital by her
marriage to the President; (c) Reverend Pat Robertson lost a bid for the Republican
Party’s nomination for President due, in significant part, to his religious affiliation;
and (4) national firefighters have received vocational acclaim due to the association
with the heroic NYC firefighters.
Some pitfalls can occur related to referent assumptions; these include: (a) guilt or
glory by association where little or no true tie is established; (b) associative traits
tend to linger long after real association ends; (c) some individuals tend to pay
dearly for associates’ misdeeds or terrible reputations.
Coercive Power
- exists when the use of or the threat of force is made to extract compliance from
another. Force is not limited to physical means; social, emotional, political, or
economic force is also included.
Coercion, in our society, is seen as inappropriate; however, many victimizers and
some victims Fail to recognize coercion or do not know how to counter coercion
when it befalls them.
Coercion typically portends fear, distrust, a lack of positive regard for the powerful,
and no loyalty toward the powerful.
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Information Power Charismatic Power
- comes as a result of possessing knowledge that others need or want. Information - is that aura possessed by only a few individuals in our midst; it is characterized by
possessed that no one needs or wants is powerless. This power type also extends to super confidence, typical physical attractiveness, social adroitness, amiability,
the ability to get information not presently held such as a case with a librarian or sharpened leadership skills, and heightened charm.
data base manager.
Some charisma has dark and sinister overtones such as that shown by Adolf Hitler,
Not all information is free flowing; some information properly is in control of few Rev. Jim Jones, Idi Amin, Usama bin Laden, David Koresh, and many con men.
people. Some examples of reserved information include: (a) national security data; Others demonstrate more positive displays of charisma such as that displayed by
(b) personnel information for government or business; (c) corporate trade secrets; Jacqueline Kennedy, Charles de Gaulle, Princess Diana, Michael Jordan, and Bruce
(d) juvenile court records; (e) many privately settled lawsuit documents; (f) Swiss Springstein.
bank account owners; and (g) private phone conversations.
Of course, legally obtained phone tap warrants, spying, eavesdropping, group and Charisma has, in many cases, short circuited rationality; that is, others have been
group/agency member leaks can allow others not intended [or wanted] to be privy fooled into or lulled into not rationally considering what a charismatic requests or
to information. demands but going along as a result of the charismatic attraction.
Possessing information is not, typically, the vital act; it is what one can and does do
or potentially can do with the information that typically is of vital importance. Activities and Exercises
Information can, and often is, used as a weapon as in a divorce, a child custody case,
1. Explain the phrase “knowledge is power”. Provide an example of a situation in
a business dissolution, or in civil suits discoveries. Information has been used by
which this adage may be true.
some to extort action, utterance, agreement, or settlement by others.
2. Enumerate instances in which people may take benefit from the exercise of
power.
Tradition Power
3. Determine the power relationship that may exist within home environment
- is that force that is exerted upon us to conform to traditional ways. Traditions, for
(among family members)
the most part, are social constructs; they invite, seduce, or compel us to conform and
act in predictable, patterned ways. Breaking with traditions put people at risk of
social alienation.
Select one Philippine president and discuss how he or she has
exercised different types of power though different political contexts
Traditions can blunt rationality; they can block innovation; and they can appear to
or situations.
outsiders as silly when original traditions’ rationales become outdated or forgotten.
The power of traditions, rather than being typically vested in particular individuals,
is ordinarily focused on group conformity.

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Glossary
Expert Power- is based on what one knows, what experience one has, and/or what
special talents one has
Reward Power- is based on the right of some to offer tangible, social, emotional, or
spiritual rewards to others for doing what is wanted or expected of them or to deny
others something tangible, social, emotional, political, or spiritual for failing to or
refusing to do what is desired or expected of them.
Legitimate Power- results from one’s being elected, selected, or appointed to a
position of authority.
Referent Power- stems from the affiliations we make and/or the
groups/organizations we belong to or are attached to.
Coercive Power- exists when the use of or the threat of force is made to extract
compliance from another.
States, Nations, and Globalization
Simply put, nation is a large group of people who share a common culture, language
and history. State, on the other hand, is a political unit which has sovereignty over a
particular piece of land. It is important to explore the role of the nation-state in
globalization and examine its complexities due to varying definitions and shifting
concepts of globalization.
A nation state is a type of state that conjoins the political entity of a state to the
cultural entity of a nation, from which it aims to derive its political legitimacy to rule
and potentially its status as a sovereign state if one accepts the declarative theory of
statehood as opposed to the constitutive theory. While it has been defined in many
ways, globalization is generally recognized as the fading or complete disappearance
of economic, social and cultural borders between nation-states. Some scholars have
theorized that nation-states, which are inherently divided by physical and economic
boundaries, will be less relevant in a globalized world.
In this chapter, learners are expected to:
1. Define nation and state;
2. Differentiate nation from state;
3. Explain meanings of globalization;
4. Evaluate how globalization influences nation-states
Nations
A nation is defined as a large group of people who are linked by a similar culture,
language, and history. Members of some nations usually share an ethnicity while
other nations may consist of ethnically-diverse communities. Many members of a
nation take pride in being a part of something bigger than themselves as individuals,
and they celebrate their nation.
Example:
In common speech, we use the term nation to describe a collection of people with
something in common. In the Philippine popular culture, one TV network made use
of the phrase “Aldub Nation” to refer to a group of people who openly express
support for a famous love team.
People disagree about what counts as a nation. Nationhood sometimes transcends
geographical boundaries. Some groups consider themselves to be nations, even
though much of the world does not consider them that way. Kurds, for example, live
in Turkey, Iraq, and Iran, but many Kurds believe they belong to a Kurdish nation.
Also, members of a nation frequently differ in a variety of ways, including speaking
different languages and participating in different cultural practices.
Determining what constitutes a nation is somewhat subjective. People may identify
themselves as members of myriad nations, but even those identifications may
change over time. And the strength of the identification also varies. The division
between an ethnic group and a nation is a tricky one to make. To put it crudely, the
moment that an ethnic group starts to view itself as a nation, it becomes a nation.
The Kurdish people, for example, became a nation when they started thinking of
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themselves as an ethnic group with a common language, history, and culture that set
them apart from the neighboring Turks, Arabs, and Persians.
States
A state is a political unit that has sovereignty over a particular piece of land.
Sovereignty is the ultimate power within a territory. So the state has the power to
make laws, defend its borders, and enact policies. The state also exercises a
monopoly on the legitimate use of force: No group within its borders can use force
legally without the permission of the state. In the United States, we use the word
state to mean something more akin to the word province (the difference being that
American states have more political autonomy and power than provinces in most
other countries). But political scientists use the word state as a synonym for
sovereign governments.
Differences between State and Nation
1. The elements of State and Nation are different.
The State has four elements—population, territory, government, and sovereignty. In
the absence of even one element, a State cannot be really a State. A state is always
characterized by all these four elements. On the contrary, a nation is a group of
people who have a strong sense of unity and common consciousness.
Common territory, common race, common religion, common language, common
history, common culture and common political aspirations are the elements which
help the formation of a nation, and yet none of these is an absolutely essential
element. The elements which go to build a nation keep on changing.
2. State is a Political Organization while Nation is a social, cultural,
psychological, emotional and political unity.
The State is a political organization which fulfills the security and welfare needs of
its people. It is concerned with external human actions. It is a legal entity. On the
other hand, a Nation is a united unit of population which is full of emotional,
spiritual and psychological bonds. A nation has little to do with the physical needs of
the people.
3. Possession of a Definite Territory is essential for the State but not for a Nation.
It is essential for each State to possess a fixed territory. It is the physical element of
the State. State is a territorial entity. But for a nation territory is not an essential
requirement. A nation can survive even without a fixed territory. Love of a common
motherland acts as a source of unity. For example, before 1948 the Jews were a
nation even though they had no fixed territory of their own. When, in 1948, they
secured a definite and defined territory, they established the State of Israel.
4. Sovereignty is essential for State but not for Nation:
Sovereignty is an essential element of the State. It is the soul of the State. In the
absence of sovereignty, the State loses its existence. It is the element of sovereignty
which makes the state different from all other associations of the people. It is not
essential for a nation to possess sovereignty.
The basic requirement of a nation is the strong bonds of emotional unity among its
people which develop due to several common social cultural elements. Before 1947,
India was a nation but not a State because it did not have sovereignty. (State =
Nation + Sovereignty).
After her independence in 1947, India became a State because after the end of
British imperial rule it became a sovereign entity. However, each nation always
aspires to be sovereign and independent of the control of every other nation.
5. Nation can be wider than the State:
The State is limited to a fixed territory. Its boundaries can increase or decrease but
the process of change is always very complex. However a nation may or may not
remain within the bounds of a fixed territory. Nation is a community based on
common ethnicity, history and traditions and aspirations.
Obviously its boundaries can easily extend beyond the boundaries of the State. For
example in a way the French nation extends even to Belgium, Switzerland and Italy
because people in these countries belong to the same race to which the French claim
to belong.
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6. There can be two or more Nationalities living in one State.
There can be two or more than two nations within a single State. Before the First
World War, Austria and Hungary were one State, but two different nations. Most of
the modern states are multinational states.
7. Nation is more stable than State.
A nation is more stable than the State. When sovereignty ends, the State dies, but
not the nation. A nation can survive even without sovereignty. For example, after
their defeat in the World War II, both Germany and Japan lost their sovereign
statuses and outside powers began to control them. They ceased to exist as States.
But as nations they continued to live as nations, which after some months regained
their sovereign statuses and became sovereign independent states.
8. A State can be created while a Nation is always the result of evolution.
A State can be created with the conscious endeavors of the people. Physical
elements play an important role in the birth of a State. For example, after the Second
World War, Germany got divided into two separate states West Germany and East
Germany. But Germans remained emotionally as one nation.
Ultimately in Oct., 1990 the Germans again got united into a single state. In 1947
Pakistan was created out of India as a separate State. A nation is a unity of the
people which emerges slowly and steadily. No special efforts go into the making of a
nation.
9. The State uses police power (force) for preserving its unity and integrity,
the Nation is bound by strong cultural and historical links:
State has police power. Those who dare to disobey it are punished by the state. A
nation does not have police power or force or coercive power. It is backed by moral,
emotional and spiritual power. A nation survives on the power of sense of unity of
the people. A nation appeals, the State orders; a nation persuades, a States coerces;
and a nation boycotts, the State punishes. State is a political organization, while the
nation is a unity.
State and nation do not have the same boundaries, and yet there is a tendency for a
nation and state to be one. Most of the nations today stand organized into different
states. Most of the modern States are multinational States. The modern state is
called a nation-state because all the (nationalities) living in one state stand
integrated into one nation.
A state continuously pursues the objective of national- integration. The State tries to
secure this objective by securing a willing blending of the majority nationality and
all the minority nationalities, through collective living, sharing of all the ups and the
downs in common and development of strong emotional, spiritual and psychological
bonds. Unity in diversity or more really, unity in plurality stands accepted as the
guiding principle by all the modern civilised multinational states like India, USA,
Russia, China, Britain and others.
(from YourArticleLibrary.com)
Globalization
Globalization is a process of interaction and integration among the people,
companies, and governments of different nations, a process driven by international
trade and investment and aided by information technology. This process has effects
on the environment, on culture, on political systems, on economic development and
prosperity, and on human physical well-being in societies around the world.
Read the article “The Pros and Cons of Golbalization” authored by Mike Collins
through this link: http://www.forbes.com/sites/mikecollins/2015/05/06/the-
pros-and-cons-of-globalization/#5aac08da2170
Activities and Exercises
1. Differentiate state from nation using your own words.
2. List down the importance of sovereignty in a state.
3. Point-out the different ways to protect a state’s sovereignty.
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Search for the Philippine’s history of nation/state development or process. Present
in a timeline.
Glossary
Globalization- is a process of interaction and integration among the people,
companies, and governments of different nations, a process driven by international
trade and investment and aided by information technology.
Nation- is defined as a large group of people who are linked by a similar culture,
language, and history.
Sovereignty- the authority of a state to govern itself or another state.
State- is a political unit that has sovereignty over a particular piece of land.
Philippine Democratic Politics
In 1916, the US passed the Jones Act which specified that independence would only
be granted upon the formation of a stable democratic government modelled on the
American model, not the French model as the previous constitution had been. The
US approved a ten-year transition plan in 1934 and drafted a new constitution in
1935. World War II and the Japanese invasion on December 8, 1941, however,
interrupted that plan. After heroic Filipino resistance against overwhelming odds
finally ended with the fall of Bataan and Corregidor in 1942, a Japanese “republic”
was established, in reality, a period of military rule by the Japanese Imperial Army.
A new constitution was ratified in 1943 by Filipino collaborators who were called
the Kapisanan sa Paglilingkod ng Bagong Pilipinas (Kalibapi). An active guerilla
movement continued to resist the Japanese occupation. The Japanese forces were
finally defeated by the Allies in 1944 and this sorry chapter came to a close.
Philippine independence was eventually achieved on July 4, 1946. The 1935
Constitution, which featured a political system virtually identical to the American
one, became operative. The system called for a President to be elected at large for a
4-year term (subject to one re-election), a bicameral Congress, and an independent
Judiciary.
In this chapter, learners are expected to:
1. Relate the evolution of Philippine politics and governance;
2. Describe the different stages in the evolution of the Philippine politics and
governance;
3. Analyze the evolution of Philippine politics and governance;
4. Assess the effects of the colonial experience on Philippine politics and
governance;
5. Appraise the influence of prior stages of Philippine political developments on
contemporary Philippine politics.
Political History of the Philippines
Elections and other democratic institutions were primarily imported into the
Philippines from Western models. The emergence of institutions such as
constitutional law, the secret ballot, the referendum, political parties and legislature
in the Philippines was a product of American colonialism. Hence, colonialism
became the defining force in the emergence of democracy in the Philippine nation-
state. The Philippines as a conquest colony underwent political development
predicated on the interest, influence and power of the colonial authorities (Paredes,
1989: 2-4).
After establishing total control of the Philippines by 1901, the American colonizers
governed their newly acquired territory through the appointive
Philippine Commission under the supervision of the United States governor general.
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The commission performed both executive and legislative functions, with token
Filipino participation, until 1907. Soon after, the Americans introduced elections to
allow greater participation of the Filipino elite in colonial governance (Caoli, 1989;
McCoy, 1994; Franco, 2000). Taking a cue from the elite experience at limited
municipal elections during the last days of Spanish colonial rule, the American
colonial government proceeded to lay down the foundation for municipal, provincial
and national elections (Paredes, 1989).
Initially, the Americans conducted municipal elections in areas pacified under
military rule. The first election in the country was held in Baliwag, Bulacan on May
1898 under American supervision. This was followed by four Cavite municipalities,
in compliance with General Order No. 40, Series of 1900, issued by the military
governor, for establishing municipalities in the Philippine Islands. The military
government first granted wide rights of suffrage but later limited the franchise
(Maambong, 1992; Hutchcroft, 2000).
Upon the establishment of civilian government in 1901, the Philippine
Commission passed Act No. 60 to serve as the organic law for all municipal
governments in the country.
The Act required voters to be:
1. Male, aged 23 and above;
2. A resident of the municipality where they were to vote for a period of six months
immediately preceding the elections; and
3. Any of the following three classes: individuals who speak, read and write
English/Spanish, own real property worth at least P500, or have held local
government positions prior to the occupation of the country in 1898 (Tancangco,
1988: 81).
These provisions effectively restricted participation in the early electoral exercise to
the educated and landowning members of the traditional elite. As a result, factional
rivalries and personality issues among the local influential families marked these
elections (Caoli, 1989).
Nonetheless, the Philippine Commission continued to place the legal framework for
a more systematic organization of local governments. It enacted Acts No. 82 and No.
83, providing for the organization of municipal and provincial local governments. A
limited electorate was given the right to elect the municipal president (mayor), vice-
president and the council. Provinces were governed by a three-member board,
headed by a governor who was indirectly elected by the municipal councilors in the
province. Thus, the provincial elections of 1902, 1904 and 1906 were reflections of
municipal politics (De Guzman, Reforma and Panganiban, 1988; Franco, 2000;
Hutchcroft, 2000). Consequently, ‘from local elections in 1901, to legislative
elections in 1907, and presidential elections in 1935, the Americans built electoral
politics from the municipality upwards, thereby entrenching provincial families in
both local and national offices’ (McCoy, 1994: 12)
The Electoral System and Democratic Development
Essentially, an election is a procedure by which members of communities and/or
organizations choose persons to hold an office (Nohlen, 1984). It is a technique of
rendering authority and/or creating representative bodies. Elections are often
linked to the idea of democratic representation. Therefore, an election is a device for
filling an office or posts through choices made by a designated body of people, the
electorate’ (Heywood, 2000: 199). This does not, however, discount the holding of
semi-competitive or non-competitive elections.
In the Philippines, elections have historically served to legitimize the government
and perpetuate elite rule. As de Quiros (1992:12) notes, elections were the
“equilibrating” mechanism, although their ability to equilibrate society under the
combined weight of mass restiveness and competing claims to power by various
power blocs would diminish in time’. Consequently, the quality of democratic
representation has suffered from this anomaly.
The standard approach to analysing Filipino electoral and party politics has been to
view power relations within the context of the patron-client factional (PCF)
framework. Popularized by Carl Lande (1965), the PCF posited that social relations
in the Philippines are not structured by organized interest groups or individuals
who perceive themselves to be part of a specific social class as in Western
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democracies. What exists is a network of mutual aid relationships between pairs of
individuals that he called ‘dyadic ties’. The dyadic ties present in Philippine politics
are vertical and unequal, binding prosperous patrons who dispense material goods
and services to dependent clients who recompense with their support and loyalty.
Through the years, the PCF framework has been heavily criticized since it tends to
reify if not valorize reciprocity, smooth interpersonal relationships, kinship and
fictive kinship bonds (Kerkvliet, 1995). Modifications of the PCF thesis were
manifested in the concept of political machines. Machado (1974) and Kimura (1997)
posited that the potency of the kinship system as an instrument of patronage had
diminished and has been replaced with the emergence of machine politics. An
opposite view of reciprocity of the PCF underscores the concept of conflict,
command, coercion and even violence. Various scholars have applied various terms,
such as ‘caciquism’ (Anderson, 1988), ‘sultanism’ (Snyder, 1998),
‘neopatrimonialism’ (Snyder, 1992) and ‘bossism’ (Sidel, 1999). This view of
Philippine politics is widely known as ‘warlordism’. While warlordism and political
violence have been both integral and recurring characteristics of local politics in the
Philippines, these are not necessarily representative of the nature of local politics in
the country. There are still some warlords firmly secured in their fiefdoms, but
many have also been dislodged both peacefully and violently.
Most literature on Philippine elections tends to portray the electorate as passive
spectators malleable to the machinations of elite politicians. Even a recent study
that claims to view the ‘lifeworld’ of a local community treats elections as a ‘political
ritual’ such that the ordinary voter ‘remains the unthinking dupe of the ideology of
patronage and clientelism’ (Alejo et al., 1996: 66). However, despite the identified
flaws in the electoral system, empirical data tends to show that ‘the typical Filipino
voter, although cognizant of the stresses caused by poverty, is idealistic,
conscientious, and responsible’ (Mangahas, 1994:18). Based on surveys of public
opinion taken by the Social Weathers Station (SWS) since 1985, this gives a strong
basis to conclude that Filipinos have a sustained preference for democracy and have
internalized democratic values amid occasional challenges by anti-democratic
forces. Thus, there is a firm belief among leaders and the electorate that political
leaders should be chosen through regular, fair and honest elections (Abueva, 1997:
23).
Activities and Exercises
1. What are the effects of the colonial experience on Philippine politics and
governance?
2. Point- out the influence of prior stages of Philippine political
developments on contemporary Philippine politics.
Search for the contemporary issues and challenges being faced
by our current government system.
Glossary
Jones Law- also known as the Philippine Organic Act passed by the US Congress in
1916, the law called for the election of the members of the Philippines Commission
transforming it into the Philippine Senate.
Philippine Commission- a body created by the Americans in 1899, composed of
persons appointed by the US president and working in an advisory capacity to the
governor- general. By 1916, it became the Senate composed of elected members.
Martial Law- a condition whereby the president and the military would have wide-
ranging executive as well as legislative powers. It is usually employed under
emergency conditions and declared only temporarily.
The Executive
In the presidential set-up, the President is considered both the head of state and the
government and all executive powers are vested on the President. In all presidential
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governments, the president is considered the most powerful man of the land, but
the powers granted to the president can be limited by the provisions in the
constitution. In the 1935 constitution, President Marcos saw the weakness of the
constitution but noted the strength of power of the president and used it for his
advantage. Under the 1987 constitution, the framers did not want to repeat the
same mistakes provided for by the 1935 constitution. Although the president still
commands tremendous power, but it’s a power that could be checked and balanced
by the legislative branch.
In this chapter, learners are expected to:
1. Explain the roles and powers of the Philippine president;
2. Analyze how contemporary Philippine presidents exercised their powers;
3. Critique the Philippine presidents’ exercise of power.
Executive Power
Executive power is defined as the power granted to the executive branch to execute
or enforce the laws through the inherent powers of the state.
Term of Office of the President
The 1987 constitution, the president is not eligible for re-election. The president
serves a six-year term of office.
When Vice-President Shall Become President:
 Death
 Permanent disability
 Removal from office
Resignation of the President
The hierarchy of government officials who will take over the presidency if there are
no president and vice-president
 The Senate president
 The Speaker of the House
 The Chief Justice of the Supreme Court
Vacancy in the Office of the Vice-President
The president will nominate from among the members of the Senate and the
House of Representatives. The nomination is subject to the confirmation of both
houses voting separately.
Appointments Extended By an Acting President
The appointments made by the acting president will remain effective unless
revoked by the elected president within ninety days from his assumption.
Appointments Preceding a Presidential Election
The president is prohibited under the 1987 constitution to appoint any position in
the executive level two months before the next election. This provision in the
constitution which bars the president to appoint is said to be limited only to
executive positions. The prohibition does not extend to vacancy in other
departments like the judicial branch. The ruling of the Supreme Court allowing
president Arroyo to appoint the next chief justice of the Supreme Court has clearly
articulated the power of the sitting president to appoint in other departments.
Public and Career Officials That Can Be Appointed By the President
1. Heads of executive departments
2. Ambassadors, public ministers and consuls
3. Officers of the AFP from the rank of colonel to naval captain
4. Heads of government owned and controlled corporations
5. Justices of the Supreme Court and judges of the lower courts
6. Regular members of the Judicial and Bar Council
7. Chairman and Commissioners of Constitutional Commissions
Kinds of Presidential Appointments
1. Regular Appointment – those made while the congress is in session
2. Ad Interim Appointment – appointments made by the president while the
congress is not in session.
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  Executive orders
Removal Power of the President  Proclamations
 Presidential decrees
The power of the president to remove is not absolute. There are some positions in  Administrative function
the government where the power of appointment is vested on the president but the  Preserves, protects and defends the Constitution
power to remove is not exercised by the president. The power of removal depends  Oversees the effectiveness of all departments under the executive
on the specific positions articulated in the constitution. A career service official with  Administers the budget appropriated by Congress
a fixed term cannot be removed by the president.
4. Diplomatic Power
Power of Control Over All Executive Departments  Executive agreements
 Represents the state in the international community and foreign affairs
Every department or bureaus in the executive branch is under the command of the
 Authority to contract and guarantee foreign loans
president. The president oversees the effectiveness, transparency and control of
 Power to appoint diplomats
his/her appointees. For the chief executive to manage and control the departments
 Powers as Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces
under his/her power, the president executes two duties:
1. The Power Of Appointment.  Has absolute control of the armed forces
2. The Power of Removal.  Has the power to call out the armed forces to prevent or suppress lawless violence

5. Military Power
Functions and Powers of the Chief Executive:  To call out the Armed Forces
1. Executive Function/Power  To meet emergency situations
 Appointment and removal of cabinet secretaries  To declare martial law
 Implementation of laws passed by Congress  To suspend the privilege of the writ of habeas corpus
 Representing the Philippines in the international community and foreign affairs
 Command of the armed forces 6. Budgetary Power
 Prepares the budget
2. Pardoning Power  Executes the spending authorized by Congress
 Executes the spending authorized by Congress
 Executes the instructions of Congress when it declares war or make rules for the 7. Pardoning Power
military  The president may grant reprieves, commutations, and pardons
 The president may also grant amnesty (with the concurrence of all the members
3. Veto Power of Congress)
 Executive agreements
 Creates treaties (must be ratified by the Senate)
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 Veto- a constitutional right to reject a decision or proposal made by a law-making
body.

Activities and Exercises

1. Explain the rationale behind granting executive power to the president.
2. Enumerate the different functions and powers of the Chief Executive

Write your critique paper about the Philippine presidents and

their exercise of power.

Glossary
Executive power- the power granted to the executive branch to execute or enforce
the laws through the inherent powers of the state.

Pardon- is a government decision to allow a person who has been convicted of a

crime, to be free and absolved of that conviction, as if never convicted.

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