Human Organism

Chapter 1
Introduction
• Anatomy:
• investigates body structure/parts
• the term means to dissect
ANATOMY
• Study of the structure and shape
of the body and body parts and
their relationship to one another.
• Greek words to cut (tomy) apart
(ana)
• Physiology:
• investigates processes and functions
• Human Physiology:
• studies the human organism

• Systemic Physiology:
• studies body organ-systems

• Cellular Physiology:
• studies body cells
 Importance of
Anatomy and Physiology
Understand how the body:
• responds to stimuli
• environmental changes
• environmental cues
• diseases
• injury
 Types of Anatomy

Systemic:
• studies body organ-systems
Regional:
• studies body regions (medical schools)
Surface:
• studies external features, for example, bone projections
Anatomical imaging:
• using technologies (x-rays, ultrasound, MRI)
PHYSIOLOGY
• Study of how the body and its
body parts work or function
• For example
– Neuro-physiology
– Cardio-physiology
STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL
ORGANIZATION
• Chemical
• Cell level
• Tissue level
• Organ level
• Organ system level
• Organism level
Six levels from chemical to organism:
1. Chemical:
• smallest level

• atoms, chemical bonds, molecules

2. Cellular:
• cells: basic units of life

• compartments and organelles

• examples are mitochondria, nucleus Figure 1.1

3. Tissues:
• group of cells with similar structure and function plus
extracellular substances they release
• four broad types:
Epithelial
Connective
Muscular
Nervous
Figure 1.1
4. Organs:
• two or more tissue types acting together to perform
function(s)
• Examples: stomach, heart, liver, ovary, bladder, kidney

Figure 1.1
5. Organ-System:
• group of organs contributing to some function
• for example, digestive system, reproductive system

Figure 1.1
Structural and Functional Organization 5

6. Organism:
• all organ systems working together
• includes associated microorganisms such as intestinal
bacteria

Figure 1.1
©Bart Harris/Getty Images
Major Organs of the Body

Figure 1.2
Organ system of the Body
• Skin and Body Membranes
• Skeletal system
• Muscular system
• Nervous system
• Endocrine system
• Cardiovascular system
Organ system of the Body
• Lymphatic system
• Respiratory system
• Digestive system
• Urinary system
• Reproductive system
Characteristics of Life
• Maintaining boundaries
• Movement
• Responsiveness
• Digestion
• Metabolism
• Excretion
• Reproduction
• Growth
 Metabolism

• Ability to use energy to perform vital

functions such as growth, movement
and reproduction.
 Responsiveness

• To sense changes in the environment

and make the adjustments that help
maintain life.
 Growth

• Results in an increase in size of all or

part of the organism
• Increase in cell number, cell size, or the
amount of substance surrounding cells
 Reproduction

• Formation of new cells or new

organisms
• Without reproduction of cells, growth
and tissue repair are impossible
 SURVIVAL NEEDS
• Nutrients
• Oxygen
• Water
• Body Temperature
• Atmospheric pressure
 HOMEOSTASIS
• Maintenance of constant internal environment
despite fluctuations in the external or internal
environment

• Describes the body’s ability to maintain relatively

stable internal conditions even though the outside
world is continuously changing.

• Indicates a dynamic state of equilibrium r a balance in

which internal conditions change and vary but always
within relatively narrow limits.
Variables:
• measures of body properties that may change in value
Examples of variables:
body temperature blood glucose levels
heart rate blood cell counts
blood pressure respiratory rate
Normal range: normal extent of increase or decrease around a set
point
Set point: normal, or average value of a variable
Over time, body temperature fluctuates around a set point

Figure 1.4
Set points for some variables can be temporarily adjusted
depending on body activities, as needed:

Examples Common cause of change

body temperature fever

heart rate, blood pressure respiratory rate exercise

Negative feedback is the main mechanism used
homeostatic regulation.
• A negative feedback response involves:
detection: of deviation away from set point
and
correction: reversal of deviation toward set point
and normal range
 NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
• Most systems are regulated by negative feedback.
• Means that any deviation from the set point is made
smaller or resisted.
• Components are RECEPTOR, CONTROL CENTER AND
AN EFFECTOR
 Homeostasis 5
The components of feedback:
1. Receptor:
• detects changes in variable

2. Control center:
• receives receptor signal
• establishes set point
• sends signal to effector

3. Effector:
• directly causes change in variable
 Homeostasis 7
Positive feedback mechanisms occur when the initial
stimulus further stimulates the response
• system response causes progressive deviation away from
• set point, outside of normal range
• not directly used for homeostasis
• some positive feedback occurs under normal conditions
Example: childbirth
• generally associated with injury, disease
• negative feedback mechanisms unable to maintain homeostasis
 ANATOMICAL POSITION

• Standard position
• The body is erect with the feet parallel
and the arms hanging at the sides with
the palms facing forward
Directional Terms
• Anterior
– At or near the front of the body (also: ventral)
• Posterior
– At or near the back of the body (also: dorsal)

Note: In four-legged animals, the terms ventral

(belly) and dorsal (back) correspond to anterior
and posterior in humans
• Midline
– An imaginary vertical line that divides the
body equally (right down the middle)
• Lateral
– Farther/away from midline (side view)
• Medial
– Nearer to midline (side view)
• Superior
– Toward the head/upper part of a structure
– Above
• Inferior
– Away from the head/lower part of a structure
– Below
• Superficial
– Close to the surface of the body
• Deep
– Away from the surface of the body
– structure toward the interior of the body

• Proximal
– Nearer to the origination of a structure
– close to point of attachment

• Distal
– Farther from the origination of a structure
– far from point of attachment
 PLANES OF THE BODY
• SAGITTAL PLANE
runs vertically thru the body and separates it to right
and left
• MIDSAGITTAL or MEDIAN PLANE
divides the body into equal right and left parts
 PLANES OF THE BODY
• TRANSVERSE OR HORIZONTAL
runs parallel to the surface of the ground and divides
the body into superior and inferior parts

• FRONTAL OR CORONAL
runs vertically from right to left and divides the body
into anterior and posterior parts.
Planes of Section Through an Organ

Figure 1.12
 Body Regions
Upper limbs:
• upper arm, forearm, wrist, hand
Lower limbs:
• thigh, lower leg, ankle, foot
Central region:
• head, neck, trunk
Figure 1.9
©Eric Wise
 Body Parts and Regions 1

Figure 1.9
©Eric Wise
 Body Parts and Regions 2

Figure 1.9
©Eric Wise
Regional Terms
Anterior body landmarks
– Abdominal – Crural – Pelvic
– Acromial – Digital – Pubic
– Antecubital – Femoral – Sternal
– Axillary – Fibular – Tarsal
– Brachial – Inguinal – Thoracic
– Buccal – Nasal – Umbilical
– Carpal – Oral
– Cervical – Orbital
– Coxal – Patellar
 Posterior body landmarks
• Calcaneal • Popliteal
• Cephalic • Sacral
• Deltoid • Scapular
• Femoral • Sural
• Gluteal • Vertebral
• Lumbar • Plantar
• Occipital
• Olecranal
 Subdivisions of the Abdomen

Figure 1.10
Abdominopelvic Quadrants
Regions of Abdominal Area
 Body Cavities 1

Thoracic cavity:
• space within chest wall
and diaphragm
• contains heart, lungs,
thymus gland, esophagus,
trachea
Mediastinum:
• space between lungs
• contains heart, thymus
gland, esophagus, trachea Figure 1.13
Abdominal cavity:
• space between diaphragm
and pelvis
• contains stomach, intestines,
liver, spleen, pancreas,
kidneys
Pelvic cavity:
• space within pelvis
• contains urinary bladder,
reproductive organs, part of
large intestine
Figure 1.13
 Serous Membranes 1

Line trunk cavities, cover organs

Structure:
• visceral serous membrane covers organs
• parietal serous membrane is the outer membrane
• cavity - a fluid-filled space between the membranes

Figure 1.14
 Serous Membranes 2

Three sets of serous membranes and cavities:

Membrane Cavity
Pericardium Pericardial cavity
around heart
Pleura Pleural cavity
around lungs
Peritoneum Peritoneal cavity
around abdominopelvic
cavity and its organs
 Pericardium and Pericardial Cavity

Pericardium
• visceral pericardium
covers heart
• parietal pericardium
thick, fibrous
• pericardial cavity
reduces friction
Figure 1.15a
 Pleura and Pleural Cavity
Pleura
• visceral pleura
covers lungs
• parietal pleura
lines inner wall of
thorax
• pleural cavity
• reduces friction
• adheres lungs to
thoracic wall
Figure 1.15b
 Peritoneum and Peritoneal Cavity

Peritoneum
• visceral peritoneum
• covers, anchors
organs
• double layers called
mesenteries
• parietal peritoneum
lines inner wall of
abdominopelvic cavity
• peritoneal cavity
reduces friction
Figure 1.15c
 SUMMARY

• Definition of anatomy and physiology

• Structural and functional organization
• Characteristics of life
• Homeostasis
• Terminology and the body planes
• Directional terms, body parts, regions,planes
body cavities, serous membranes
1. Considering the following levels:
(1) chemical; (2) tissue; (3) organ;
(4) cellular; (5) organismal; (6) systemic.

Which of the following choices is in the right order?

a. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
b. 1, 4, 2, 5, 3, 6
c. 3, 1, 2, 4, 6, 5
d. 4, 1, 3, 2, 6, 5
2. Which is not essential to survival?
a. Water
b. Oxygen
c. Gravity
d. Nutrients
3. Anatomical terms that apply to the
backside of the body in the anatomical
position include;
a. Ventral and anterior
b. Back and rear
c. Posterior and dorsal
d. Head and lateral
4. What do call the smallest units of all
living things?
5. It means the body’s ability to
maintain relatively stable internal
conditions even the outside world is
continuously changing.
a. Hemiostasis
b. Homeostasis
c. Homostasis
d. Survival needs
 True or False
6. Atoms are the building blocks of matter.
7. Anatomy is the study of how the body parts work
and function.
8. Integumentary system is the external covering of
the body.
9. Inferior means toward the head or above
10. Anterior means toward or front of the body
 True or False
11. Axillary means armpit.
12. Thoracic means breastbone area.
13. Proximal means close to the origin of the body part.
14. Cephalic means heel of the foot.
15. Digital means fingers or toes