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fully edited. Content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/TPWRS.2018.2805187, IEEE
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Damping Degradation of Power System
Low-frequency Electromechanical Oscillations
Caused by Open-loop Modal Resonance
Wenjuan Du, Member, IEEE, Jingtian Bi and H. F. Wang, Senior Member, IEEE
 small-signal angular stability. This is the examination of the
Abstract —This paper investigates the damping degradation of
power system low-frequency electromechanical oscillations
caused by the open-loop modal resonance. The investigation is
based on a closed-loop interconnected model of a multi-machine
power system, wherein, the electromechanical dynamics of a
synchronous generator being examined and the remainder of
power system are modelled as two separate open-loop subsystems.
The open-loop modal resonance is the closeness of an open-loop
electromechanical oscillation mode of the synchronous generator
to an open-loop electromechanical oscillation mode of the power
system on the complex plane. Theoretical analysis indicates that
when the open-loop modal resonance happens, the dynamic
interactions between the synchronous generator and the
remainder of power system are strong and degrade the damping
of the low-frequency electromechanical oscillations. Test results in
two example power systems show that the synchronous generator
geographically far away took part in the local low-frequency
electromechanical oscillations when the open-loop modal
resonance occurred. The macroscopic effect of the open-loop
modal resonance was the expansion of area on the complex plane
where the electromechanical oscillation modes located, when the
scale of the power systems increased.
Index Terms—Power system small-signal angular stability,
electromechanical oscillation modes, modal resonance.
I. INTRODUCTION
L OW-FREQUENCY electromechanical power oscillations have
been a serious threat to power system operation. The
damping torque analysis attributes the low-frequency power
oscillations to the contributions of negative damping torque
from certain sources, such as the automatic voltage regulators,
in a power system, to the electromechanical oscillation loops of
some synchronous generators [1]. Thus, the dynamic
interactions introduced by those synchronous generators
receiving the negative damping torque degrade the damping of
relevant electromechanical oscillation modes. A different
standpoint to the damping torque analysis in examining the
mechanism that the low-frequency power oscillations occur has
been the effect of modal resonance on power system
This work was supported in part by the key project of smart grid technology
and equipment of national key research and development plan of China
(2016YFB0900602) and in part by the Technology Projects of State Grid
Corporation of China (52094017000W).
Wenjuan Du, Jingtian Bi and H. F. Wang (corresponding author) are with
the State Key Laboratory of Alternate Electric Power Systems with New
Energy Resources, North China Electric Power University, Beijing, China.
(E-mail: ddwenjuan@qq.com; bijingtian@139.com; hfwang60@qq.com)
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1
modal conditions, under which the damping of the
electromechanical oscillation modes of interests may degrade.
Modal resonance is the coincidence of eigenvalues of state
matrix of a linear system. There are two types of modal
resonance mathematically defined. One is the strong modal
resonance which is the coincidence of both eigenvalues and
corresponding eigenvectors. Another is the weak modal
resonance which is the coincidence of eigenvalues only [2-3].
Phenomenon of modal resonance in the power system was
noticed very early in the study by Van Ness for a practical
power system [4]. In [5], Kwatny presented a special case of
modal resonance to lead to the flutter instability based on a
Hamiltonian power system model. In [6], Klein etc.
investigated the resonance between the electromechanical
oscillation modes in order to understand why the synchronous
generators geographically located far away in practical power
systems excited and interacted with each other. Early work in
[4-6] pioneered the investigation on the modal conditions that
may lead to the damping degradation of the low-frequency
power oscillations in the power system.
Later, a series of more strict investigations have been made
to study the damping degradation of the low-frequency power
oscillations caused by the near strong modal resonance in the
power system [7-13]. The near strong modal resonance happens
when an electromechanical oscillation mode of interests moves
close to another oscillation mode of the power system on the
complex plane with variation of a system parameter.
Subsequently, two oscillation modes move towards the
opposite directions in the neighborhood of point of the near
strong modal resonance, which may lead to the damping
degradation of the electromechanical oscillation mode of
interests. Dobson has systematically examined the impact of
the near strong modal resonance between the electromechanical
oscillation modes [7-9]. Damping degradation of the
low-frequency power oscillations caused by the near strong
modal resonance has been well demonstrated and evaluated in
[7-9]. In [10-12], Padiyar studied the near strong modal
resonance between an electromechanical oscillation mode and
an oscillation mode associated with a controller, such as the
static synchronous compensator (STATCOM) or the power
system stabilizer (PSS). The study was echoed by a recent work
presented in [13] from Jyothsna. A real case of the near strong
modal resonance in a Chinese power system was reported in
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[14]: Two regional power networks were connected by the
HVDC and AC lines in the south of China. When the gains of
modulation control of the HVDC lines were tuned, two
electromechanical oscillation modes belonging to two regional
networks respectively moved close to each other firstly and
then departed from each other towards the opposite directions
on the complex plane. Consequently, damping of one
electromechanical oscillation mode degraded [14].
The near strong modal resonance provides a different insight
into the problem of the low-frequency power oscillations from
the perspective of modal conditions of the power system. It
considerably helps the understanding on why the damping of
the electromechanical oscillation modes may degrade.
However, the near strong modal resonance may be the
precursor to the damping degradation of the low-frequency
power oscillations [7], as the damping degradation occurs after
the near strong modal resonance happens. Hence, in order to
find whether the poor damping of the low-frequency power
oscillations is caused by the near strong modal resonance, the
examination needs to be carried out backwards to construct
what has happened before the damping of related
electromechanical oscillation modes degraded. Alternatively,
when the near strong modal resonance is observed, what its
impact will be afterwards needs to be estimated. To draw the
root loci of resonant oscillation modes has been the only tool
available to examine the effect of the near strong modal
resonance, which needs to find appropriate system parameters
to vary in order to exhibit the near strong modal resonance. This
has limited the applications of the near strong modal resonance
in complex multi-machine power systems.
This paper investigates the damping degradation of power
system electromechanical oscillation modes caused by the
open-loop modal resonance, which is a modal condition
different to the near strong modal resonance. For a closed-loop
interconnected dynamic system with two open-loop subsystems,
the open-loop modal resonance is when two oscillation modes
separately from the open-loop subsystems are close to each
other on the complex plane. Analysis in the paper indicates that
under the condition of the open-loop modal resonance, dynamic
interactions between the open-loop subsystems degrade the
damping of one closed-loop oscillation mode. Hence in the
paper, the closed-loop interconnected model of a
multi-machine power system is derived, which consists of two
open-loop subsystems. One open-loop subsystem describes the
electromechanical dynamics of a selected synchronous
generator under examination. The other open-loop subsystem
represents the remainder of power system. Based on the derived
model, analysis is carried out to show that under the condition
of the open-loop modal resonance, dynamic interactions
between the selected synchronous generator and the remainder
of power system are strong and degrade the damping of the
low-frequency power oscillations. Hence, damping degradation
of the low-frequency power oscillations is explained from the
perspective of open-loop modal condition. In the paper,
estimation on the damping degradation caused by the
open-loop modal resonance is proposed.
Two examples of multi-machine power systems are
presented to evaluate the analysis and conclusions made in the
paper about the damping degradation of the low-frequency
power oscillations caused by the open-loop modal resonance.
Study cases demonstrated that when the open-loop modal
resonance occurred, the resonant synchronous generators
interacted with each other, even though they were
geographically far away. The macroscopic effect of modal
resonance (both the open-loop modal resonance and the near
strong modal resonance) was that in the large-scale power
systems, when the system scale increased, the area where the
electromechanical oscillation modes located on the complex
plane expended. Expansion of the area provides an explanation
about why the inter-area low-frequency power oscillations with
lower oscillation frequency in large-scale power systems are
prone to poor damping.
II.OPEN-LOOP MODAL RESONANCE
Consider a closed-loop interconnected linear system shown
by Fig. 1. Denote g and h as a complex pole (oscillation
mode) of open-loop subsystems, G ( s ) and H ( s ) , respectively.
By using the Nyquist stability criterion, it has concluded that
when g and h move closer to each other on the complex
plane, stability of the closed-loop interconnected system
decreases [15-16]. Self excitation may occur to lead to the
closed-loop instability if those two open-loop poles are very
close to each other [15-16]. For the convenience of discussions,
the closeness of two open-loop complex poles on the complex
plane is referred to as the open-loop modal resonance. Stability
degradation caused by the open-loop modal resonance can be
estimated as follows.
Open-loop subsystem 1
u0 y
 G (s)
f
H (s)
Open-loop subsystem 2
Fig. 1 A closed-loop interconnected system
Transfer functions, G ( s ) and H (s) , of the open-loop
subsystems in Fig. 1 can be expressed as
n Rgi m
R
G(s)   , H ( s)   hk (1)
i 1 s   i k 1  k
s
where i , i  1, 2,n and k , k  1, 2, m are the open-loop
poles of G ( s ) and H ( s ) respectively, Rgi , i  1, 2, n and
Rsk , k  1, 2, m are the corresponding residues to the
open-loop poles.
Characteristic equation of the closed-loop interconnected
system shown by Fig. 1 is
G( s) H ( s)  1  0 (2)
ˆ ˆ
Denote  and  as the complex poles of the closed-loop
g h
interconnected system corresponding to g and h .
Substituting (1) into (2), for ˆg it can have

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Rg n Rgi Rh m
Rhk between the closed-loop and open-loop modes, for example,
[  ][  ] 1 (3)
ˆg  g i 1 ˆg  i ˆg  h k 1 ˆg  k g  ˆg  g  0 and h  ˆh  h  0 . The modal
ig k h
difference is caused by the dynamic interactions, f  0 and
where Rg and Rs is the residue corresponding to g and h
y  0 . If any closed-loop mode is on the right-hand side of the
respectively.
corresponding open-loop mode, it implies that the dynamic
Multiplying both sides of the above equation by (ˆg  g ) 2 interactions cause the damping degradation of the mode and are
and under the condition of the open-loop modal resonance, detrimental to the system stability. Hence, the analysis carried
g  h , it can have out above, in fact, has concluded that when the open-loop
n Rgi modal resonance occurs, the dynamic interactions between the
(ˆg  g ) 2  [ Rg +(ˆg  g ) ] open-loop subsystems are certainly detrimental to the system
i 1
ˆ
g  i
ig
stability. Degree of damping degradation can be estimated by
(4)
m
Rhk DDI  Real part of Rg Rh , which can be computed from the
[ Rh  (ˆg  g ) ]
ˆ
k 1 g  k residues of open-loop subsystems corresponding to the
k h
resonant open-loop modes.
In the neighborhood of g (i.e., ˆg  g ), from (4) The open-loop modal resonance is a different modal
lim (ˆg  g )   Rg Rh (5) condition to the near strong modal resonance studied in [7-13].
ˆg g For the closed-loop interconnected system of Fig. 1, the near
For ˆh , taking the derivation similar to that from (1) to (5), it strong modal resonance is the nearness of two closed-loop
can have oscillation modes on the complex plane, i.e., ˆg  ˆh . For
lim (ˆh  h )   Rg Rh
ˆ
(6) example, consider the case that ˆg and ˆh move towards each
h h

From (5) and (6), it can conclude that under the condition of other with the increase of a system parameter  . At   0 ,
the open-loop modal resonance and in the neighborhood of the near strong modal resonance happens such that
resonant open-loop modes, it can have ˆg (0 )  ˆh (0 ) as shown in Fig. 2(a). If  continues to
ˆg  g  Rg Rh increase, ˆ and ˆ will move towards the opposite directions
(7) g h

ˆh  h  Rg Rh  g  Rg Rh
The derivation from (2) to (7) above, in fact, has simplified
the characteristic equation of the closed-loop interconnected
system of Fig. 1 in the neighborhood of resonant open-loop
modes to be
( s  g )( s  h )  Rg Rh (8)
Hence, ˆg and ˆh derived in (7) are the two solutions of (8)
under the condition that g  h . This implies that the signs in
front of Rg Rh for ˆg and ˆh in (7) must be opposite. Thus,
when the open-loop modal resonance occurs, two
corresponding closed-loop modes of the closed-loop
interconnected system are at the approximately opposite
positions on the complex plane in respect to the resonant
open-loop modes. There is no possibility that they locate on the
same side of the resonant open-loop oscillation modes.
The pair of input-output variables of open-loop subsystems
in the closed-loop interconnected system of Fig. 1, f and y ,
are the exhibitions of dynamic interactions between two
open-loop subsystems. When f  0 or/and y  0 , dynamic
interactions between two open-loop subsystems are zero. The
closed-loop interconnected system is in open loop and the
open-loop modes are equal to the closed-loop modes, for
example, g  ˆg  g  0 and h  ˆh  h  0 . When
there exist dynamic interactions between the open-loop
subsystems, i.e., f  0 and y  0 , there will be difference
on the complex plane in the neighborhood of ˆg (0 )  ˆh (0 ) .
This implies that when the near strong modal resonance occurs,
system stability will degrade afterwards because either ˆg ( )
or ˆh ( ) will be on the right-hand side of ˆg (0 )  ˆh (0 )
when   0 . Hence, the near strong modal resonance can
explain why the system stability has decreased. However, it
cannot be directly used as a modal condition to assess the
degradation of system stability, because the system stability has
not degraded yet when the near strong modal resonance occurs.
The open-loop modal resonance is the nearness of two
open-loop oscillation modes separately from two open-loop
subsystems in Fig. 1. It is a modal condition when the system
stability degrades. Hence, it can be applied not only to explain
why the system stability degrades, but also to assess the
degradation of system stability. In addition, the modal
condition is linked with the impact of dynamic interactions
between two open-loop subsystems and hence of clear physical
meaning. An illustrative comparison between the near strong
modal resonance and the open-loop modal resonance is
presented in Fig. 2.
From Fig. 2(b), it can be seen that the analysis carried out
from (1) to (8), in fact, provides the estimation of the positions
of the closed-loop modes from the positions of open-loop
modes. The estimation should follow the rules of the root locus
sketching [19]. Therefore, the impact of open-loop modal
resonance can be elaborated by using the root locus rules as
follows.

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The near strong DDI DDI system, it is very important to investigate that under what
modal resonance conditions, the electromechanical dynamics of the synchronous
Imaginary axis

ˆg

Imaginary axis
happens
ˆg ( 0 ) generator may affect an electromechanical oscillation mode of
g interests negatively to cause the damping degradation of the
ˆh ( 0 ) h electromechanical oscillation mode. The concept and theory
Damping of ˆg The open-loop
modal resonance
ˆh about the open-loop modal resonance introduced in the
 increases decreases
happens previous section is applied for the investigation in this section.
The electromechanical dynamics of the synchronous
Real axis Real axis
generator introduce the electromechanical dynamic interactions
(a) Near strong modal resonance (b) Open-loop modal resonance
of the synchronous generator with the remainder of the power
Fig. 2 Difference between the open-loop modal resonance and the near strong
modal resonance system. Hence, in order to examine the impact of the
In Fig. 1, the open-loop transfer function is electromechanical dynamics of the synchronous generator
m under the condition of the open-loop modal resonance, a
 (s  z )
j 1
j closed-loop interconnected model shown by Fig. 1 for the
G ( s) H ( s)  K (9) multi-machine power system needs to be derived. The derived
n


model should consist of the open-loop subsystem G ( s ) which
( s  i )
i 1 describes the electromechanical dynamics of the synchronous
where z j and i are the open-loop zeros and poles generator, and the open-loop subsystem H ( s ) , which
respectively. represents the dynamics of the remainder of the multi-machine
When the root locus is sketched, the angle of departure,  x , power system. The derivation of the closed-loop interconnected
model is as follows.
of a branch from a pair of double open-loop poles, x , is
Without loss of generality, assume the synchronous
determined by the following equation [19]. generator being examined is the 1st synchronous generator in
(2k  1) m n
x 
2
180  (x  z j ) 
j 1

i 1,i  x
(x  i ), k  0,1  the power system. Arrange the state-space model of the
multi-machine power system as
(10)  1   0 0 0 0   1   1 
where  refers to the phase of a complex number. From (10),     k d a a       
d  1  1 24   1
it can be seen that under the condition of open-loop modal  1 23
 A  1  (11)
dt  Δz1   a 31 0 A 33 A 34   Δz1   Δz1 
resonance,i.e., g  h , the difference between the angle of       
 Δz   a41 0 A 43 A 44   Δz   Δz 
departure of the branches from g and h ( x  g , k  0 and
where 1 and 1 is the small increment of rotor angular
x  h, k  1 ) is approximately 180 degrees as shown by Fig. 3.
position and speed of the 1st synchronous generator respectively,
This explains why the closed-loop poles, ˆ and ˆ , locate at g h Δz1 is the vector of all the other state variables of the 1st
the positions approximately opposite to each other in respect to synchronous generator, Δz is the vector of all the state
the resonant open-loop poles, g  h , as indicated by (7). variables associated with the remainder of power system.
Imaginary axis From (11), it can have
ˆg Δz1  ( sI  A33 )1 a31 1  ( sI  A 33 )1 A34 Δz (12)
g
Δz  ( sI  A44 )1 a41 1  ( sI  A44 )1 A 43 Δz1 (13)
180
g From (11) and (12), it can have
h h s1  [k1  a 23 ( sI  A 33 ) 1 a 31 ]1
ˆh d11  [a 24  a 23 ( sI  A 33 ) 1 A 34 ]Δz (14)
Let
Real axis 0 Δz1g  ( sI  A 33 )1 a 31 

Fig. 3 Illustration on the impact of open-loop modal resonance by sketching the

p1  [a 24  a 23 ( sI  A 33 ) 1 A 34 ]Δz (15)
root locus From (11), (14) and (15), it can have
 1   0 0 0   1  0 
d     
1    k1 d1 a 23   1   1  p1
III. THE CLOSED-LOOP INTERCONNECTED MODEL OF A
MULTI-MACHINE POWER SYSTEM dt 
Δz1g   a 31 0 A 33  Δz1g  0 
Electromechanical dynamics of a synchronous generator  
may affect the multiple electromechanical oscillation modes  1 
 
differently in a multi-machine power system. In order to 1 = 1 0 0  1  (16)
understand why the poorly or even negatively damped Δz1g 
low-frequency power oscillations may occur in the power  

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The above equation describes the electromechanical dynamics damping of the low-frequency power oscillations of the power
of the 1st synchronous generator. Thus system, because either ˆh or ˆg locates on the right-hand side
1  G(s) p1 (17)
of g  h as shown by Fig. 2(b). The open-loop modal
where,
resonance is the modal condition, under which the poorly or
 0 0 0  0
even negatively damped low-frequency power oscillations may
G( s)= 1 0 0 ( sI   k1 d1 a 23 ) 1 1  occur in the power system. Physical meanings of the open-loop
 a 31 0 A 33  0 modal resonance can be elaborated as follows.
Table I Notations of oscillation modes
From (9), (10) and (12), it can have Notations Oscillation modes
 p1  H (s)1 (18) A complex pole of open-loop subsystem G( s) in Fig. 4.
g It is the open-loop electromechanical oscillation mode of
where
the 1st synchronous generator.
H ( s)  [a 24  a 23 ( sI  A 33 ) 1 A 34 ] The complex pole of closed-loop interconnected system of
ˆg Fig. 4 corresponding to g . It is the closed-loop
[I  ( sI  A 44 ) 1 A 43 ( sI  A 33 ) 1 A 34 ]1
electromechanical oscillation mode corresponding to g .
[( sI  A 44 ) 1 a 41  ( sI  A 44 ) 1 A 43 ( sI  A 33 ) 1 a 31 ]
A complex pole of open-loop subsystem H (s) in Fig. 4.
Derivation above from (11) to (18) converts the state-space h It is the open-loop electromechanical oscillation mode of
model of (11) into an equivalent closed-loop interconnected the remainder of the power system corresponding to ˆh .
model described by (17) and (18), which can be shown by Fig. The complex pole of closed-loop interconnected system of
4. In Fig. 4, the upper part is the electromechanical dynamics of Fig. 4 corresponding to h . It is the closed-loop
ˆh
the 1st synchronous generator and the lower part is the electromechanical oscillation mode corresponding to h .
dynamics of the remainder of the multi-machine power system
excluding the electromechanical dynamics of the 1st Because g and h are the poles of open-loop subsystems
synchronous generator. in Fig. 4, G(g )   and H (h )   . From Fig. 4, it can be
seen that  p1 is the electric torque contributed from the
Open-loop subsystem G ( s )
(Electromechanical dynamics of the 1st synchronous generator)
remainder of the power system to the electromechanical
a23 ( sI  A 33 ) 1 a31 oscillation loop of the 1st synchronous generator. Hence, when
g  h , H ( g ) and  p1  H (g )1 (see (18)) are
k1
 significant. This implies that at the complex frequency g , the
1 1


0 1
s  d1 s remainder of the power system supplies considerable amount

p1 damping or/and synchronizing torque to the electromechanical
a 23  a 31
oscillation loop of the 1st synchronous generator [17], thus

affecting the electromechanical dynamics of the 1st
( sI  A 33 ) 1 a 24 a 41 ( sI  A 33 ) 1 synchronous generator. On the other hand, when g  h ,

A 34
Δz
( sI  A 44 ) 1

A 43 G (h ) and 1  G(h ) p1 are significant. This means that

around the complex frequency of the low-frequency power
A 34 ( sI  A 33 ) 1 A 43 oscillations, the dynamic response of the 1st synchronous
generator is considerable. The 1st synchronous generator
Open-loop subsystem H ( s ) noticeably takes part in the low-frequency power oscillations
(Dynamics of the remainder of the power system) caused by the open-loop modal resonance. Hence, participation
Fig. 4. Closed-loop interconnected model of multi-machine power system factors of the 1st synchronous generator for the closed-loop
For the convenience of discussions, Table I presents the electromechanical oscillation modes should be high. Therefore,
notations of various oscillation modes involved in examining the open-loop modal resonance is the resonance of the
the impact of the electromechanical dynamics of the 1st electromechanical dynamics of the 1st synchronous generator
synchronous generator on the electromechanical oscillation with the dynamics of the remainder of the power system
mode of interests, ˆh , in the multi-machine power system. associated with the electromechanical oscillation mode of
According to the analysis in section II and notations in Table I, interests, ˆh .
it can conclude that if the open-loop electromechanical The open-loop modal resonance reveals the mechanism
oscillation mode of the 1st synchronous generator is close to the about why poorly or negatively damped low-frequency power
open-loop electromechanical oscillation mode of the power oscillations may occur from the perspective of open-loop
system of interests on the complex plane, i.e., g  h when modal resonant condition. In the multi-machine power system,
the open-loop modal resonance happens, dynamic interactions the method to examine the open-loop modal resonance can be
introduced from the 1st synchronous generator degrade the outlined as follows.

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1) The electromechanical oscillation modes of interests are The open-loop electromechanical oscillation mode of G17 ,
calculated from the eigensolution of system state matrix A in
g17 , was found being close to an open-loop electromechanical
(1). For a selected electromechanical oscillation mode of
interests, the synchronous generators with higher participation oscillation mode of the power system, h1 , as indicated in Fig.
factors are selected. 6. The damping degradation index was calculated to be
2) For each of selected synchronous generators, open-loop DDI  0.2743 , which indicates the degree of damping
subsystems of the synchronous generator and the remainder of
degradation caused by the open-loop modal resonance at point
the power system are derived. From the eigensolution of state
matrices of open-loop subsystems, any pairs of resonant ① in Fig. 6. The closed-loop electromechanical oscillation
open-loop electromechanical oscillation modes are identified. modes corresponding to  and h1 are ˆ and ˆh1 . For g17 g17
3) By computing the residues corresponding to the resonant
open-loop electromechanical oscillation modes, the damping confirmation, ˆg17 and ˆh1 were calculated and their positions
degradation caused by the open-loop modal resonance is are indicated in Fig. 6. Obviously, ˆg17 and ˆh1 locate at
estimated to be DDI  Real part of Rg Rh (see (7)). Hence, approximately opposite positions in respect to g17 and h1 .
DDI can be used as a damping degradation index to estimate Correctness of estimation by the damping degradation index on
the impact of the open-loop modal resonance. the degree of damping degradation caused by the open-loop
modal resonance ( g17  h1 ) was confirmed.
IV. AN EXAMPLE MULTI-MACHINE POWER SYSTEM
The example 16-machine (New York – New England) power 12.5

system shown in Fig. 5 has been used in many occasions for

Imaginary axis
12
examining the low-frequency power oscillations. The example ˆg17
11.5
16-machine power system was modified in order to g17
11 ①
demonstrate and validate the analysis and conclusions made in h1 ˆh1
10.5
the previous section about the open-loop modal resonance. The
modification was the connections of sixteen new synchronous 10

generators ( Gk , k  17,18 32 ) at various locations as indicated 9.5

-1.2 -1.1 -1 -0.9 -0.8 -0.7 -0.6 -0.5 -0.4
in Fig. 5. Parameters and models of the synchronous generators Real axis
and loads as well as operating condition and parameters of the Fig. 6 Closed-loop and open-loop modal positions when the open-loop modal
system given in [18,20] for the existed synchronous generators resonance happened at point ①
( Gk , k  1, 2, 16 ) were used. Parameters of some of newly 0.8
1

connected synchronous generators were tuned in order to 0.6

0.4
demonstrate the phenomenon of the open-loop modal G3 0.2 G17

resonance.
G2
New York area New England area

14 8
1 60 27
66 17
53 25 26

Fig. 7 Modal shapes of ˆh1 when the open-loop modal resonance

41 48 47
2 28 29 61
32 40 18 27
1 9
42
67
3
17 16 25
happened at point ①.
ˆ
30
38 31 32 29
15
18
62 63
26
9
22 15
19 24 h1 is a local electromechanical oscillation mode of G2
30 14 21
4
46 10
33
11
5 6
24 22
against G3 in the New England area. G17 is connected at node
58
34 36 12 19 23
49
31
7 54 11
10
13
20
6 59 40 in the New York area which is geographically far away from
G and G . Modal shapes of ˆ are displayed in Fig. 7, which
35 64 56 57
2 55
45 8 20 7
51 23 4 5 2 3 h1
12 28
37 3
50 39
52
21 44
confirms the participation of G17 in the local electromechanical
68 43 65

16 13
oscillation mode. The similar phenomenon was firstly found in
Fig. 5 Configuration of modified example 16-machine power system
the western interconnected power system of Canada and the
Each of
newly connected synchronous generators United States, where a power plant participated in a
low-frequency power oscillation which was geographically far
( Gk , k  17,18 32 ) in the modified example 16-machine
away [6]. Study in [6] pointed out that the unusual phenomenon
power system was selected to derive the closed-loop might be caused by modal resonance. Similar phenomenon was
interconnected model shown by Fig. 4. The open-loop modal reported in some regional power systems in China that
resonance of the selected synchronous generator with the incidents of low-frequency oscillations were found being
remainder of the power system was examined using the method related with connections of the synchronous generators, which
outlined at the end of previous section. Results of examination were geographically far away from the locations where
are as follows. incidents occurred. However, evidence of the near strong

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modal resonance for those real cases was not found, perhaps
due to the difficulty in backwardly constructing the near strong
modal resonance from the incidents of poorly-damped
low-frequency power oscillations as mentioned before in
section I of the paper.
In order to confirm that the participation of G17 in the local
electromechanical oscillation mode was due to the open-loop
modal resonance of G17 with G2 against G3 , the active power
output from G17 was varied. The variation was balanced by the
change of active power output from G13 at the slack node 65.
With the variation, g17 and h1 moved away from each other
as shown in Fig. 8 and the trajectories of movement are
displayed as the dotted curves. Corresponding movement of
ˆ and ˆh1 is displayed in Fig. 8 as the solid curves. From Fig.
g17
8, it can be seen that the open-loop modal resonance between
g17 and h1 disappeared. Accordingly, ˆg17 and ˆh1 moved to
new positions indicated by ② in Fig. 8. Damping of ˆh1 at
point ② was improved. This confirms that the open-loop modal
resonance at point ① in Fig. 6 caused the damping degradation
of ˆ . h1
12.5
12 ˆg17
g17
Imaginary axis
Direction of modal movement with the
variation of active power output from
the 17th synchronous generator.
Simulation results for the following two cases are presented in
Fig. 10(a): (1) The case of the open-loop modal resonance
happened at point ① in Fig. 6; (2) The case of no open-loop
modal resonance after the active power output from G17 varied
which is indicated as point ② in Fig. 8. It can be seen that the
difference between two cases is not very obvious in Fig. 10(a),
because multiple electromechanical oscillation modes were
involved in the oscillations. Prony analysis was carried out and
the results indicated that in the case of open-loop modal
resonance, the oscillation frequencies of two electromechanical
oscillation modes involved were 2.23Hz and 1.67Hz. In the
case of no open-loop modal resonance, there were three
electromechanical oscillation modes involved in the
oscillations and their frequencies were 2.69Hz, 1.73Hz and
1.49Hz. In order to more clearly compare the participations of
G17 in the local low-frequency power oscillations, single-mode
oscillations of relative angular positions between G17 and G3
were taken out from the results of Prony analysis and are shown
by Fig. 10(b). In Fig. 10(b), frequency of oscillations for the
case of open-loop modal resonance taken out from the results of
Prony analysis was 1.67Hz and that for the case of no
open-loop modal resonance was 1.73Hz. Hence, single-mode
oscillations shown in Fig. 10(b) are only related with the local
electromechanical oscillation mode of interests. From Fig.
10(b), it can be clearly seen that G17 took part in the

Trajectory of movement of open-loop

11.5 ② oscillation modes away from the point local-mode oscillations considerably when the open-loop
of open-loop modal resonance.
11
②
ˆh1 Trajectory of movement of closed-
modal resonance occurred.
18 5
10.5
h1 loop oscillation modes.
16 4
10 ② Positions of closed-loop oscillation 3
modes where no open-loop modal 14
 3  17 (degree)

 3  17 (degree)
9.5 resonance happened 2
12
-1.2 -1.1 -1 -0.9 -0.8 -0.7 -0.6 -0.5 -0.4 1
Real axis 10
0
8
Fig. 8 Closed-loop modes moved to points indicated by ② when the open-loop -1
oscillation modes moved away from each other 6 -2
4
Fig. 9 shows the computational results of the participation -3
2 -4
factors of G17 for ˆh1 when the active power output from G17
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time(second) Time(second)
(a) Non-linear simulation results
varied. In Fig. 9, point ① and ② respectively indicates the case (b) Single-mode oscillations
of the open-loop modal resonance (shown by Fig. 6) and no case of open-loop modal resonance
case of no open-loop modal resonance
open-loop modal resonance (shown by Fig. 8). From Fig. 9, it
Fig. 10 Simulation results (relative angular positions of G17 vs G3)
can be seen that strong participation of G in ˆ was caused 17 h1 9
24

22
by the open-loop modal resonance. 8
Imaginary axis

Imaginary axis

0.6 7 20
① 6
0.5 18 G18
Participation Factor

5 G22
4 G21 16 G19
0.4
3 14 G20
0.3 2
1 12
0.2
② 0
-1 -0.9 -0.8 -0.7 -0.6 -0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 -3.4 -3.2 -3 -2.8 -2.6 -2.4-2.2 -2 -1.8 -1.6 -1.4
0.1
Real axis Real axis
0 Fig. 11 The open-loop modal resonance participated by
7 6 5 4 3 2
Active power Gk , k  18,19, 20, 21, 22 .
Fig. 9 Variation of participation factors of G17 for ˆh1 when the active power In addition to the open-loop modal resonance involved with
output from G17 varied. G17 , five more cases of the open-loop modal resonance of
Fig. 10(a) shows the evaluation by non-linear simulation. At newly connected synchronous generators with the example
2 second of simulation, mechanical power input to G17 16-machine power system were found. Those five synchronous
increased by 10% and the increase disappeared 100ms later. generators participated in the open-loop modal resonance were

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Gk , k  18,19, 20, 21, 22 . Positions of open-loop and closed-loop
electromechanical oscillation modes involved in the open-loop
modal resonance are displayed in Fig. 11.
When G23 was selected and examined, closeness of its
open-loop electromechanical oscillation mode, 23 , with an
open-loop electromechanical oscillation mode of the remainder
of power system, h 2 , was identified as shown in Fig. 12(a).
However, corresponding closed-loop electromechanical
oscillation modes, ̂ and ˆ , were not at the approximately
23
opposite positions on the complex plane in respect to 23  h 2
as shown in Fig. 12(a). It was found that there was another
adjacent closed-loop electromechanical oscillation mode of the
remainder of power system, ˆ , as shown in Fig. 12(a). It was
guessed that the position of ˆh 2 was affected by ˆh3 due to the
near strong modal resonance. Combined effect of the open-loop
modal resonance and the near strong modal resonance
generated the final distribution of ̂23 , ˆh 2 and ˆh3 as shown
in Fig. 12(a). In order to evaluate the guess, a great effort was
spent to look backward for the point of the near strong modal
resonance which generated the current positions of ˆh 2 and
ˆ . It was found that G and G had high participation of
h3 23
ˆh3 . Hence, the active power output from G23 was varied.
With the variation, trajectories of ˆh 2 and ˆh3 were calculated
and are displayed in Fig. 12(b), which clearly shows that the
near strong modal resonance occurred between ˆh 2 and ˆh3 .
24
ˆh 3
ˆh 2
22
20
Imaginary axis
18
16
14 h 2 
23
12
̂23
10
8 16
-3 -2.8 -2.6 -2.4 -2.2 -2 -1.8 -1.6 -1.4 -1.2 -1
Real axis
(a)
Fig. 12 Combined effect of the open-loop modal resonance and the near strong
modal resonance with G23 involved.
Examination conducted as presented in Fig. 11 and Fig. 12
demonstrated the difference in the procedure to identify the
open-loop modal resonance and the near strong modal
resonance. When a poorly-damped closed-loop
electromechanical oscillation mode is identified, by calculating
the open-loop electromechanical oscillation modes related to
the poorly damped closed-loop electromechanical oscillation
mode, it can determine whether the poor damping of the
electromechanical oscillation mode is caused by the open-loop
modal resonance from the modal analysis for the open-loop
subsystems. However, to find whether the poor damping is
caused by the near strong modal resonance, trajectories of
resonant closed-loop electromechanical oscillation modes need
to be constructed, which should go back to the point of the near
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strong modal resonance from the current positions of the
closed-loop electromechanical oscillation modes as shown by
Fig. 12(b). This is to reconstruct the event of the near strong
modal resonance occurred beforehand which often would not
be easy in the multi-machine power system.
V. MACROSCOPIC EFFECT OF MODAL RESONANCE
There were total fifteen electromechanical oscillation modes
in the original example 16-machine power system [18], which
distributed in the shadowed area on the complex plane in Fig.
h2
13. In the modified example 16-machine power system in Fig. 5,
there were sixteen new synchronous generators being
connected. All the open-loop electromechanical oscillation
modes of sixteen newly connected synchronous generators
h3
were calculated when the open-loop modal resonance was
examined. The open-loop electromechanical oscillation modes
of those sixteen synchronous generators located in the area with
slashed lines in Fig. 13. It has been demonstrated in the
previous section that the parameters of some newly connected
synchronous generators were tuned such that the open-loop
modal resonance occurred, in addition to a case of combined
effect of the open-loop modal resonance and the near strong
modal resonance. All the electromechanical oscillation modes
of the modified example power system with total 32
24
synchronous generators located in an expanded area on the
complex plane, which is surrounded by the dashed lines in Fig.
13.
25
20
Imaginary axis
15
24
The near strong
23 ˆh 3 10
modal resonance
22 happened
Imaginary axis
5
21
20
0
19
-3.5 -3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0
ˆ
Real axis
18
h2
17
Fig. 13. Expansion of the area where the electromechanical oscillation
modes of the example 16-machine power system located
-3 -2.8 -2.6 -2.4 -2.2 -2 -1.8 -1.6 -1.4 Fig. 13 shows the macroscopic effect of modal resonance
Real axis
(b)
(both the open-loop modal resonance and the near strong modal
resonance) that the area, where the electromechanical
oscillation modes located on the complex plane, expanded
when more synchronous generators were connected into the
example 16-machine power system. Though the cases of modal
resonance in the example 16-machine power system were made
artificially for the purpose of demonstration and evaluation, a
hypothesis on the macroscopic effect of modal resonance can
be proposed from Fig. 13 as to be elaborated as follows.
In a large-scale power system with hundreds of synchronous
generators, the area specified by the electromechanical
oscillation frequencies on the complex plane must be crowded
with the electromechanical oscillation modes. When a large
number of synchronous generators are connected to the power
system, open-loop electromechanical oscillation modes of the
synchronous generators are added into the area packed with the
open-loop electromechanical oscillation modes of the power
system. Thus, the open-loop modal resonance should be an
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event of high probability. Consequently, the area where the electromechanical oscillation modes of the power system with
electromechanical oscillation modes located may expand. the synchronous generators from the 3rd and the 4th regional
Therefore, a hypothesis about the evolution of the area where transmission network were calculated. They were all in the area
the electromechanical oscillation modes locate with the surrounded by the dashed lines in Fig. 15(a).
increase of scale of the power system can be proposed as The test carried on in the same way with the synchronous
follows: When the scale of the power system increases with generators in the 2nd regional transmission network being
more and more synchronous generators being connected, the connected into the power system. In Fig. 15(b), the open-loop
area where the electromechanical oscillation modes locate may electromechanical oscillation modes of the power system with
expand as the result of modal resonance. The expansion of the the 3rd and 4th regional transmission network were in the
area towards the right and down on the complex plane implies shadowed area. The open-loop electromechanical oscillation
that the electromechanical oscillation modes with lower modes of the synchronous generators in the 2nd regional
oscillation frequencies and damping may occur. Those are the transmission network were in the area with the slashed lines in
poorly-damped inter-area electromechanical oscillation modes. Fig. 15(b). The closed-loop electromechanical oscillation
modes of the power system with the 2nd, 3rd and 4th regional
The hypothesis explains why the inter-area
transmission network were in the area surrounded by the
electromechanical oscillation modes with lower oscillation
dashed lines in Fig. 15(b). Finally, the synchronous generators
frequencies are more liable to poor and even negative damping
in the 1st and 5th regional transmission network were connected
from the perspective of modal resonance. Tests to evaluate the to the power system. The open-loop electromechanical
hypothesis were conducted for several large-scale real power oscillation modes of the power system with the 2nd, 3rd and 4th
systems in China. Test results for a real power system in China regional transmission network were in the shadowed area in Fig.
are presented as follows. 15(c). The open-loop electromechanical oscillation modes of
The 2nd regional The 1st regional the synchronous generators in the 1st and 5th regional
transmission network transmission network
transmission network were in the area with the slashed lines in
gc wd gs yf yc sb pd Fig. 15(c). The closed-loop electromechanical oscillation
bx
sl jl modes of the power system with all the five regional
yz tz fx hl ds cs
lw jb
py
jr
transmission networks were in the area surrounded by the
lh zx jt fc ds tc
kd fn cc hf ms dashed lines in Fig. 15(c).
yh ly 20 20
zg dt wn hq ml md sz
ql 18 18
jc 16 16

Imaginary axis
Imaginary axis

xh hd 14 14
fy yg
py wd fh gl lt 12 12
zz mx aj lt ty
xp tw 10 10
zx cy sl yd
fy sc 8 8
lx
sl 6 6
qc fz
The 4th regional wx nd yz zn The 3rd regional 4 4
ct yd km
transmission network jy transmission network 2 2
ll dt -4.5 -4 -3.5 -3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 -4.5 -4 -3.5 -3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0
sk Real axis Real axis
pt ( a ) Synchronous generators in the 4th (b) Synchronous generators in the 2nd
sy dy
qz regional transmission network were regional transmission network were
500kV Transmission Line connected to the system connected to the system
500kV Substation 20
The 5th regional 18
transmission network
16
Imaginary axis

Fig. 14 Configuration of a real large-scale power system with 641 SGs (500kV 14
12
lines)
10
The real power system geographically covers four provinces 8
and a metropolitan city in China. There are total 641 6

synchronous generators, 5765 lines and 6882 nodes in the 4

2
power system. Fig. 14 shows the configuration of the power -4.5 -4 -3.5 -3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0
Real axis
system with 500kV lines. The power system consists of five (c) Synchronous generators in the 1st and
regional transmission network. The test started with the 5th regional transmission network were
connected to the system
computation of open-loop electromechanical oscillation modes
Fig. 15 Evolution of the areas where the electromechanical oscillation modes
of the 3rd regional transmission network as the remainder of the distributed with the increase of scale of a large-scale real power system in
power system. The open-loop electromechanical oscillation China
modes located in the shadowed area in Fig. 15(a). Then, the From the test results presented in Fig. 15, following
open-loop electromechanical oscillation modes of the observations can be made.
synchronous generators in the 4th regional transmission Overlapped part by the area with the slash lines and
network were computed and they were in the area with slash shadowed area was where a large number of open-loop
lines in Fig. 15(a). After the synchronous generators in the 4th electromechanical oscillation modes of the synchronous
regional transmission network were connected to the power generators were crowded with the open-loop electromechanical
system, the power system expended to include the 3rd and the oscillation modes of the power system. The open-loop modal
4th regional transmission network. All the closed-loop resonance may have happened in the overlapped part to push

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the closed-loop electromechanical oscillation modes to move
away from each other. This may have caused the nearness of
closed-loop electromechanical oscillation modes to lead to the
chains of movement of closed-loop electromechanical
oscillation modes towards the opposite directions owing to the
effect of the near strong modal resonance. Result of departing
movement of closed-loop electromechanical oscillation modes
was the expansion of the area with the dashed lines when more
synchronous generators were connected as shown in Fig. 15.
This implies that there were closed-loop electromechanical
oscillation modes being “pushed” right and down, indicating
the damping degradation of the electromechanical oscillation
modes with lower oscillation frequencies. Hence,
low-frequency inter-area oscillations occurred when the scale
of the power system increased.
Fig. 16 shows the evaluation by non-linear simulation. The
transmission line xh-hd in the 3rd regional transmission network
in Fig. 14 was dropped at 1s of simulation and reconnected at
1.1s. Fig. 16(a) shows the relative angular positions between
two synchronous generators in the 3rd regional transmission
network. The oscillation mode around 1.1Hz taken out by
Prony analysis is shown in Fig. 16(b). From Fig. 16(b), it can be
seen that the damping of the oscillation mode degraded when
more synchronous generators were connected to the real power
system.
100
95
90
 (degree)
 (degree)
85
80
75
70
65
60
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time(second)
(a) Non-linear simulation results
Synchronous generators in the 3rd and 4th regional transmission
network were connected to the system
Synchronous generators in the 2nd, 3rd and 4th regional transmission
network were connected to the system
All the synchronous generators were connected to the system
Fig. 16 Simulation results (relative angular positions of two SGs in the 3rd
regional transmission network)
Similar patterns of evolution of the areas where the
electromechanical oscillation modes located were observed in
the tests for other large-scale real power systems in China. The
test results confirmed the hypothesis about the macroscopic
effect of modal resonance. That explains why poorly and even
negatively damped inter-area electromechanical oscillation
modes may occur in large-scale power systems.
VI. CONCLUSIONS
The paper has introduced and applied the open-loop modal
resonance to examine the damping degradation of power
system low-frequency oscillations. Analysis has been carried
out to indicate that when the open-loop modal resonance occurs,
dynamic interactions between the resonant synchronous
generator and power system are strong and cause the damping
degradation of the low-frequency power oscillations.
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Transactions on Power Systems
10
Study cases in the paper have shown that when the open-loop
modal resonance occurred, the resonant synchronous generator
took part in the low-frequency power oscillations
geographically far away. That has been a puzzling phenomenon
observed in practical power systems. The macroscopic effect of
the open-loop modal resonance combined with the near strong
modal resonance has been studied in the paper: When the scale
of a large-scale power system increases, the electromechanical
oscillation modes locate in an expending area on the complex
plane. This explains why the inter-area electromechanical
oscillation modes in the power system are more liable to poor
damping from the perspective of modal resonance.
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