It is interesting to note that the data effectively and we agree with him that a Mr.
at a Mr. Arapakis questions the application of
developed by Mr. Lawrence and his asso-
ciates approximate the data developed in
our studies. Actual costs cannot be com-
pared because of entirely different design
conditions. His statement that present
120/240-volt major appliances might be
modified so they can be used either on 240-
volt-to-ground system or the present 120/
240-volt system is in line with our belief
that this would be a very desirable step in
the application of 240 volts to ground as a
residential utilization voltage.
Mr. Lawrence states that 3-phase area
coverage is desirable because it makes 3-
phase service available to all customers.
There is no need now or in the future for
the general availability of 3-phase service
to a residential consumer. The excellent
mechanical and electrical characteristics
of the capacitor motor and the lower over-all
costs of single-phase service negate the in-
centive for 3-phase.
Mr. Lawrence's choice as to where higher
voltage secondaries should prove effective
is excellent. He has stated the case very
Survey and Classification
Data on the Surge
Transformers and
P. A. ABETTI
MEMBER AIEE
Synopsis: Many theoretical and experi-
mental studies have been made since the
beginning of this century on the problem of
the surge performance of transformers,
rotating machines, air coils, current-limiting
reactors, etc. This work has led to a clear
understanding of the effect of lightning,
switching surges, and impulse voltages on
stations and substations and on the appa-
ratus included in them. It has also led to
the introduction in all countries of insulation
co-ordination, standard impulse tests, and
rational protective practices. This, in turn,
has achieved the result that properly de-
signed and properly protected apparatus are
now practically immune to the abnormal
voltages arising during service conditions.
Despite these achievements, certain aspects
of the problem, both theoretical and experi-
mental, yet remain to be solved, and work is
actively progressing in this field in many
countries. This paper presents a historical
survey of the problem, the solutions which
have been devised, and the present status of
the art. It analyzes the work done in
various areas through a comprehensive re-
view of significant contributions to litera-
ture. It is hoped that this review will
enable interested engineers to gain a full
understanding of the problem, to be used as
a basis for future original contributions in
this important and fascinating field of elec-
trical engineering. (All superscripts refer
FEBRUARY 1959 AFbetti-Survey of Published Data on Surge Performance
start should be made at the earliest possible
moment in the use of higher voltage
secondaries.
Mr. Arapakis' Table XI is a good way of
presenting the data. We agree with his
remarks on safety except as to what con-
stitutes the same degree of safety at either
voltage. Our thinking on this point is in-
dicated in our discussion of Mr. Anderson's
statements on safety. We are inclined to
agree that if the decision to go to a higher
secondary voltage were left to the customer,
especially one of lesser demand and espec-
ially if the cost of first appliances changes
was spread over a comparatively few num-
ber of appliances, the decision would be to
remain at 120 volts. However, we feel that
net cost to utility and customer combined
should be the criterion since ultimately the
customer should pay for all costs. We also
believe that by ingenuity and careful plan-
ning the cost of making 240-volt appliances
suitable for 240 volts to ground instead of
120 volts to ground will not be large enough
to be a deterring factor.
of Publisled
Performance of
Rotating Machines
to the references listed in reference 1. The
first two digits refer to the year of publica-
tion, with 19 omitted.)
Historical Survey
A T the beginning of the century, it
became clear that the response of
transformers, air coils, and iron-core
coils to lightning and switching surges
was entirely different from the normal
performance at industrial frequencies.
As early as 1902, ThomasO20E recognized
that the voltage distribution in trans-
former windings subjected to surges with
steep fronts is far from linear, so that
there are abnormal concentrations of
stress on the insulation. Behrend con-
firmed this in discussing Thomas' paper.
Drude0201 discussed the high-frequency
oscillations of air coils in relation to the
construction of Tesla transformers. A
few years later, Steinmetz (in discussing a
paper by Jackson°601) pointed out that
at high frequencies a winding behaves
more like a capacitance than like an
inductance. This fact brought new argu-
Kelvin's law in the manner that was used.
This method was developed by A. S. Ander-
son and is an innovation in secondary design.
We believe it to be a good method. The
most economical size of conductor can be
developed for any length secondary. The
transformer costs are added to determine
the lowest cost combination. Flicker-drop
and load-voltage drop were computed for
each transformer-secondary combination.
The voltage conditions for the most eco-
nomical combination were generally not
limiting factors.
The 120/240-volt level did not lend itself
to area design because of voltage drop. It
seems logical to compare the most economi-
cal configuration in each case when deter-
mining the savings where voltage is the
variable.
However, it should be noted that the 2-
way 240/480-volt secondary is the next
most economical secondary to the area.
design and is only 9%, 6.5%, and 5.5%,o
higher than area design for the 5-, 11-, and
23-kva customer groups respectively.
ments into the discussion then taking
place, concerning the protection of trans-
formers by means of choke coils or re-
inforced end-turn insulation.0710' 0702, 0001
Thus, from the beginning, the over-all
problem of the surge performance of coils
and windings was approached from two
different sides. On the one side, engineers
of the manufacturing and electric power
companies were concerned with the
effect on the apparatus of transient volt-
ages of relatively short duration, and
were devising means of protection.
These transient voltages were either uni-
directional and aperiodic, such as light-
ning, or damped sinusoidal oscillations,
such as switching surges, arcing grounds,
etc. On the other side, physicists and
electrical engineers in the universities
and research institutions were concerned
with the determination of the steady-
state voltage and current distribution in
coils with air and iron core, during their
free or forced high-frequency oscillations,
and of their resonant and natural
frequencies. The famous physicists,
SommerfeldOO2, 0704, 1712 and Lenz,120',"
made the first important contributions in
this field. It will be shown that both of
these approaches have been successfully
Paper 58-1165, recommended by the AIEE Trans-
formers Committee and approved by the AIEE
Technical Operations Department for presentation
at the AIEE Fall General Meeting, Pittsburgh, Pa.,
October 26-31, 1958. Manuscript submitted
June 24, 1958; made available for printing July 30.
1958.
P. A. ABBrri is with the General Electric Company,
Pittsfield, Mass.
This paper is dedicated to the memory of my long-
time associate, friend, and teacher, K. K. Paluev
(1894-1958), who first introduced me to this fasci-
nating subject.
1403
continued up to the present, more or less
independently from each other.
Going back to the problem of greatest
practical importance, the effect of steep-
fronted surges on transformer windings,
the initial (or electrostatic) voltage dis-
tribution, was recognized to follow the
same hyperbolic pattern as in suspension
insulators, first derived by Peek"102 and
R(ldenberg.404 For the subsequent os-
cillations, which represent a very com-
plex phenomenon of electromagnetism,
the solution was attempted in many ways,
which may be classified according to three
following methods of attack:
1. The impinging wave was assumed to
travel into the winding as on a transmission
line, but subject to certain deformations.
It was assumed that all frequencies above a
"critical frequency" were unable to pene-
trate into the winding. Rtidenberg"403
recognized this as far back as 1914, but did
not reveal his mathematical analysis until
9 years later.230 His viewpoint, which
seemed to be the simplest physically, was
also adopted by Vidmar"40' and Bier-
manns,"l6 who also investigated the surge
performance of rotating machines.
2. The winding was represented by means
of an equivalent circuit or ladder network
with a finite number, usually quite small, of
meshes each having concentrated param-
eters of inductance and capacitance. This
was first done by Weed,"0' who neglected
the mutual inductance between the induc-
tive elements. Wagnerl'04.lIO later in-
cluded mutual inductance, but only be-
tween adjacent elements.
3. The most complete solution was ob-
tained in 1915 by Wagner,"02 who used an
equivalent circuit with distributed inductive
and capacitive parameters, but again with
mutual inductance only between adjacent
elements. Wagner wrote the differential
equation of the winding oscillations and
solved it by employing as boundary condi-
tions the initial (or electrostatic) distribu-
tion and the final (or steady-state) distribu-
tion. He recognized that the winding
could only oscillate according to its normal
functions, or standing waves, each with its
own voltage and current distribution and
natural frequency.
The importance of these three different
contemporary methods of attack is best
emphasized by noting that all three of
them are being used at present, and that
their differences have not been completely
resolved after 40 odd years. For instance,
the traveling-wave approach was re-
cently advocated again by Frid'021 and
GAinger,542 and the ladder-network ap-
proach is now being used in connection
with modem digital computers.5665,5723
The standing-wave approach has been un-
doubtedly the most popular, and the most
recent original contributions are by
Heller, et a.1317
The other problem of practical impor-
tance, resonance caused by sustained or
1404 Abetti-Survey of Published Data on Surge Performance
damped high-frequency oscillations, was
studied about the same time by Weed,150'
using the conventional transmission-line
approach. B6hm170' first gave a solution
based on Wagner's differential equation,
mentioned in the foregoing. Later, con-
siderable experimental and theoretical
work was done by Fallou.2702 The last
theoretical contribution to this subject
was made by Bewley310 in 1931. Since
that time, resonance no longer has been
considered to be a problem of operating
power systems. On the other hand, the
question of the steady-state high-fre-
quency performance of coils and windings
was revived in 1941 by Rildenberg,'11'
who attacked the problem by field theory,
starting from Maxwell's equations. The
most recent contribution to this approach,
originally used by Sommerfield, was made
in 1953 by Poritsky, Abetti, andJerrard.5's2
It is thus clear that work has continued to
the present according to all the major lines
of development which were established
in 1915 or previously.
The classical paper by Blume and
Boyajian"IW marks the beginning of a new
period of investigation in the United
States and abroad. These authors intro-
duced the concept of "leakage inductance"
of the winding, and methods for deter-
mining this quantity. It was then possi-
ble to obtain with rigorous mathematical
analysis a correct solution for the natural
frequencies of the winding with grounded
neutral, which is the most frequent prac-
tical case. Blume and Boyajian also
recognized the brevity of the initial charg-
ing transient, and defined accordingly the
"effective capacity" of the transformer.
They also proved that the so-called "surge
impedance" of a winding is not constant
as for a transmission line, but is a function
of frequency, and therefore has no prac-
tical significance. Other theories, which
appeared in Germany in the 1920's, at-
tempted a more precise solution, by taking
into account all self- and mutual in-
ductances. They were highly mathe-
matical, led to unsatisfactory results, and
to no practical applications. At the
same time, the distributed parameters
and the natural frequencies of air coils
were studied very actively. A great
amount of theoretical and experimental
work was done from 1915 to 1929,
sponsored mainly by Rogowski.l'0s It
is not clear to what extent such studies
contributed to the understanding of the
surge performance of windings of trans-
formers and rotating machines, partic-
ularly because of the absence of the iron
core.
After the discovery in the late 1920's of
the cathode-ray oscillograph, it was possi-
ble to determine experimentally the volt-
age distribution along the winding as a
function of time. Very soon a large num-
ber of experimental studies were published,
together with theoretical explanations of
the phenomena. Here it is sufficient to
mention the contributions of Fallout"" in
France, Flegler2D'0'"04 in Germany, Brand
and Paluev2'01 in the United States, and
Norinder"17 in Sweden. At the same
time a clear understanding was obtained
of the magnitude and waveshape of atmos-
pheric overvoltages, and the adequacy of
various measures of protecting the appara-
tus could be assessed on the basis of ex-
perimental results rather than opinions.
The questions of insulation co-ordination
and impulse testing of transformers were
then the subject of intensive study in
many countries, and from then on gave
rise to much discussion, which is still
being continued. The early introduction
in the United States of rational protec-
tive practices and of commercial impulse
testing of transformers has greatly con-
tributed to the reliability of electric
power, and has practically eliminated
failures in the field due to atmospheric
overvoltages.
While theoretical and experimental
understanding of abnormal voltages
within transformers was thus being
gained, its practical application to trans-
former design did not lag much behind
in time. The often dangerous effects of
choke coils and of excessively reinforced
end-turn insulation were soon recognized
and design practices were changed ac-
cordingly. However, a much more am-
bitious program was soon attempted,
the total elimination of abnormal oscilla-
tions with transformers. Weed"" first
mentioned this in 1915, but delayed for
7 years the publication of his paper2216
which discussed the principle of complete
shielding, because of patent claims.
Meanwhile, Torikai21" had published the
mathematical treatment underlying
Weed's idea. Weed's methods of shield-
ing were at first rejected as impractical
designs but later found concrete applica-
tion in the nonresonating transformer
design of Paluev.2'0' This type of design
was later extended to transformers op-
erating with isolated neutral'0Ol and to
autotransformers. '122
The afore-mentioned principle of shield-
ing was developed for core-type trans-
formers, and later the manufacturers
of shell-type transformers developed the
"surgeproof" transformer.7217 In the
AIEE Transactions from 1929 through
1932 are recorded extensive discussions
between the advocates of these two differ-
ent forms of constructions, with regard to
FEBRUJARY 1959
their merits in relation to impulse volt-
ages. From these discussions it can be
seen how the new ideas gradually made
their way into present design practice.
Soon total elimination of the transient
oscillations was abandoned, as too ex-
pensive and space consuming, in favor of
sinusoidal shielding or partial shielding,
by means of rib shields and static plates.
This type of shielding is used at present
and has led to substantial control of the
electrostatic distribution and of the
subsequent oscillations. Here it is suffi-
cient to mention the recent papers by
Meador038 and by Bennon and Cossart.3"9
In Europe the nonresonating design did
not receive favorable acceptance at first,
being considered an uneconomical means
of protection. However, in the middle
1930's, Biermanns$706 in Germany pub-
lished his version of the nonoscillating
transformer, and Karasev34t3 and others
in Russia adopted the nonresonating de-
sign, and later partial shielding."61'
The surge performance of rotating
machines and the means of protection
from abnormal voltages were first in-
vestigated in 1930, 15 years later than
transformers. The first investigations
were made by Boehne3°8 and Fielder and
BeckM in the United States, by
Ohkochi34l in Japan, and by Kopeliowitch
and Fourmarier"NI in Belgium. Of par-
ticular interest is Paluev's discussion"3
of the similarities and differences of tran-
sient phenomena in transformers and
rotating machines. Considerable prog-
ress has been made to date in this field, as
is discussed later. The subject of pro-
tection of rotating machines from surges
is closely related to that of transient volt-
age transfer from the high-voltage wind-
ing of a transformer to the low-voltage
winding.
The first tests on surge transfer in a
transformer were made by Fallou,NO4
and the complete theory was first pre-
sented by Paluev and Hagenguth,321 who
recognized four components in the trans-
ferred voltages. They also gave the
principles for protection of the apparatus
connected to the terminals of the second-
ary.3318,"M8
In 1940 and 1941 Ruidenberg published
two important papers4018.4113 on the
traveling-wave analysis of surges in trans-
formers. These papers kindled anew the
discussions between the advocates of the
standing-wave and traveling-wave meth-
ods of analysis. After World War II
Norris presented the practical application
of Rudenberg's analysis, with good agree-
ment between his calculations and the
experimental results. Of great impor-
tance to the development of the standing-
FEB1RUARY 1959 Abetti-Survey of Published Data on Surge Performance
wave theory is the article by Pirenne,4°'8 cuits to study transient phenomena in
published in the same period, which con- transformer windings. He did not try to
tains an extensive summary of his simulate any particular construction, but
doctorate thesis.t1"6 Pirenne defined and was essentially interested in studying the
measured for the first time the mutual- effect of changing the various winding
inductance function which takes into parameters, including mutual inductance.
account the mutual-inductance linkages A few years later Neuhaus and Strigell"t
between all elements of the winding. investigated surge transfer by means of
On the basis of this function he derived the model structures in reduced scale. This
integral equation of the winding oscilla- powerful and convenient tool of models
tions, which he found to be of the Fred- was not fully exploited until 1950, when
holm type. Abetti developed the electromagnetic
Pirenne also made an analysis of the model, first with time scales in the range of
more important previous theories on the unity,6104 then with greatly retarded time
basis of his rigorous approach, and pointed scales.'OT These models, which weigh
out their limitations. Pirenne's work was between 1% and 3% of the weight of the
studied carefully after the war and was original, are capable of reproducing quite
the starting point of many contributions faithfully all the transient voltages within
by Heller, Hlavka, and Veverka, who a transformer before it is built. They
analyzed very thoroughly the oscillations are, therefore, an invaluable tool for
of single windings,4819 coupled wind- design, and have gained acceptance in the
ings,1'23 regulating transformers,61"9 etc. last years in many countries.
Abetti, Adams, and Maginniss also ex- In the experimental field, the most
tended Pirenne's work to determine the notable advance since the cathode-ray
fundamental oscillations of single wind- oscillograph has been the development in
ings,6419 uniform and nonuniform, and 1936, in the United States and in England,
the oscillations of coupled windings.603 of the oscillograph transient analyzer (or
For the first time they succeeded in show- recurrent surge oscillograph). With this
ing good agreement between calculated new device it was possible to impulse a
and measured waveshapes and fre- winding at relatively low voltage and to
quencies. They also proved that the observe on the cathode-ray screen a per-
normal functions of coils and windings are sistent image of the response at any loca-
not sinusoidal, as had been assumed pre- tion in the winding, as a function of the
viously, e.g., by Wagner, Blume and applied waveshape. The technique of
Boyajian, and Bewley, etc. This fact impulse testing at full voltage, first intro-
had been proved mathematically by duced in the United States in the early
Pirenne41' and Karasev,407 but lacked 1930's, also made rapid progress. The
experimental confirmation. It is interest- doubts that it would not always be possi-
ing to note that the only two books which ble to detect a failure which occurred
are concerned exclusively with the surge during the test were dispelled by Hagen-
performance of transformers and rotating guth's discovery in 1944 of the neutral-
machines have been published in Russian current comparison method.'4' This ex-
and Czechoslovakian. These books are tremely sensitive method gained rapid
Karasev's "Theory of Electromagnetic acceptance after World War II, and still
Processes in Windings"w and Heller's remains the most reliable, although many
and Veverka's "Impulse Phenomena in other methods of failure detection have
Electrical Machines."'3117 The second been proposed recently. Commercial
part of Bewley's well-known book on full-wave impulse tests are now standard
"Traveling Waves in Transmission in practicaUly all countries of the world.
Lines,"t330 first published in 1933, gives a Chopped-wave tests have not yet gained
comprehensive review of the state of the universal acceptance, although they have
art at that time. Another comprehensive been used in the United States for many
summary of the art is also contained in years.
the book "Surge Phenomena"4103 pre- In conclusion, this historical review
pared in 1941 by several research en- shows clearly the international character
gineers of the British Electrical Research of theoretical and experimental research
Association. on the surge performance of transformers
Because of the complexity of the mathe- and rotating machines. It also shows
matical analysis, and the difficulties of that, while very considerable progress has
making extensive tests on power trans- been achieved since the beginning of the
formers, which are not usually available century, work is still actively continuing
in the laboratory for a sufficient length of in many countries, because it is felt that
time, other methods of analysis were many problems remain to be solved, and
investigated. In 1933 Einhorn wrote his that the existing practical solutions re-
thesis3m).914a on the use of equivalent cir- quire further improvement.
1405
Surge Performance of Transformers,
Air Coils, Iron-Core Coils
TRANSFORMERS
General Problem
Many articles have been written on the
general problem of the surge performance
and surge protection of transformers.
These articles generally contain both
theoretical and experimental data and
often repeat each other, so that only the
most important ones are quoted. Such
articles, however, are important in that
they reflect the varied approaches to the
problem by the numerous authors in
many countries.
A comprehensive review of the general
problem in its various aspects, corrob-
orated by experimental data, is found
in an article by Paluev. "' Bellaschi dis-
cusses separately shell-type32'3 and core-
type '°"" transformers. These three arti-
cles present the American point of view.
British investigations and points of view
are given in the comprehensive articles by
Allibone, McKenzie, and Perry,M20' Miller
and Thompson,"'0 Thomas, 4020 and
Norris,4"' all followed by extensive dis-
cussions. In continental Europe the
interest is particularly in 3-phase trans-
formers, and the general problem is re-
viewed in articles by Willheim3223 and
Elsner4a)7 of Germany; Stenkvist'915 of
Sweden; Heller, Hlavka, and Veverka of
Czechoslovakia;;*19 Karasev, et al.,4011 of
Russia; Balp,4'02 Cinti and Gatto4401 of
Italy; Kopeliowitch and Fourmarier of
Switzerland ;m16 Kohn,Wh'l Pichon,6234 and
Langlois-Berthelot521' of France; etc.
An excellent survey, from the point of
view of a mjaor user, is the study by
Langlois-Berthelot, Neuve-Eglise, Kohn,
and Renaudin.2083 The surge perform-
ance of shell-type transformers with
interleaved windings is discussed by
Chevalier,8l2, 0l4 and that of core-type
transformers with concentric-layer wind-
ings by Meador,"" Hewitt,4812 Wald-
vogel,'9" and others.
Good reviews of the general problem of
surges in transformers with pertinent
references are found also in the books by
Biermanns and Mayr,8"05 Bewley,3303
Blume, Boyajian, Camilli, and Mont-
singer,=' Kfichler,M48I and Vidmar.85
Both transformers and rotating machines
are discussed extensively in the books by
Strigel,891' Sirotinski,46lI Biermanns,4N
Heller and Veverka,"17 and Wellauer.6'4
Finally, a great deal of information, with
some original contributions, is contained
in the book "Surge Phenomena"'410 of
the British Electrical Research Associa-
tion.
1406 Abetti-Survey of Published Data on Surge Performance
Experimenta Data
Extensive experimental information is
available in the literature concerning
transient phenomena in windings subject
to impulse waves of various forms. The
data obtained before the discovery of the
cathode-ray oscillograph are no longer of
practical value and only Reiche's2w04
measurements are mentioned. After the
introduction of this instrument, a con-
siderable amount of data were gathered
by many investigators, such as Fallou,2704
Brand and Paluev,20' Paluev,2904201'
Jacobs,2202 Hodnette,"8X Matthey-Doret
and Kopeliowitch,8"4 Norinder,hl17,8)04
Ohkochi,"l21 a Belgian anonymous
author,820' Bellaschi,4" 4Kopeliowitch and
Fourmairer,'8'5 Allibone, McKenzie, and
Perry,'702 Miyamoto and Miyoshi,9"
Ohkochi and Yui,'401 Strigel,4'6 Aeschli-
mann,4w5 Burlando,4"'0 White and Nether-
cot,""" Descans and Dufour,2017 Degou-
mois and Zoller,2016 Meador, 10o88 and many
others. Three-dimensional pictures of
voltage distribution, as a function of space
and time, are given by Hochrainer4921 6028
and by Abetti and Belck,""7 who obtained
them directly from measurements on
long-time-scale electromagnetic models.
Three-phase transformers have been in-
vestigated in detail by Matthey-Doret and
Kopeliowitch,2014.311Strigel,46'3 Cinti and
Gatto,44°l and others.
The effect of grounding the neutral
through various impedances is investi-
gated by Paluev,3'88 Vogel and Hod-
nette,"'6 Neuhaus and Strigel,"'5 Kar-
asev,861' Elsner,a4 Hochrainer,512 Ste-
phanides,5089 etc.
Theories
In the past 50 years a large number of
theories and methods of computation,
some 20 or more, have been advanced to
explain the surge performance and high-
frequency response of air coils, iron-core
coils, transformers, and rotating machines.
The evaluation of this theoretical work is
complicated by the fact that in many
cases the limits of validity and applica-
bility of each theory are not clearly
stated. For instance, the influence of the
iron core remains controversial and there-
fore it is not clear to what extent the
theories developed without taking into
consideration the effect of the core
apply to transformers, as claimed by
some of their authors. An exhaustive
survey of the field is difficult, because
many papers are contained in publications
which are not easily accessible, such as
Ogawa's work in Japanese, Karasev's in
Russian, and Heller's and Veverka's in
Czechoslovakian.
Considering first the theories referring
primarily to transformers, there are the
classical standing-wave theories by
Wagner'"0" and Blume and Boyajian,'902
discussed in the "Historical Survey."
The latter theory has undoubtedly had
the greatest practical application and
several authors have discussed and ex-
tended it. Biermanns$"0 and Lacey"113"403
have given analytical expression of the
amplitudes of the normal functions.
Bewley has taken into consideration the
losses,1104 the secondary winding,2104 the
terminal impedances,"'s and applied
voltages of various waveshapes by means
of the superposition theorem.3"0'
Lacey"0' also extended the Blume-
Boyajian theory to take into account the
nonuniformity due to reinforced end-
turn insulation and the losses due to the
winding resistance and leakage con-
ductance to ground. Selig4010 extended
Lacey's analysis by taking into account
the series conductance, between turns of
the winding, and proved experimentally
its importance. The concept of leakage
inductance used by Blume and Boyajian
and by Bewley is discussed by Goodlet
and Carter"02 and by Cinti and Gatto."8'
Pestarini"" does not agree with Blume
and Boyajian's formula for this param-
eter, which is also criticized by Bier-
manns.310"
Wagner's fundamental work was fol-
lowed by theoretical and experimental
investigations by Bohm,120' who first gave
a steady-state solution for the response
of a transformer winding to a sustained
high-frequency sinusoidal voltage.
Wagner,8W4lt9l0 Bohm,2w'8 and Kruithof'""
corrected and amplified the solution
originally derived by Bohm. As pre-
viously stated, Wagner took into account
only the mutual inductance between ad-
jacent turns. It can be shown that, for
an equivalent circuit with distributed con-
stants, this is equivalent to the increase
of the value of the self-inductance of each
element, and to the total neglect of the
mutual inductance. Rfidenberg's'"0 orig-
inal analysis suffers from the same de-
fect. Bohm,"°' Steidinger,a40 Kara-
sev, 3.47 and Pirenne38l.408l attempted a
complete solution on the basis of includ-
ing all self- and mutual-inductance link-
ages, but were halted by insuperable
mathematical difficulties which compelled
them to greatly simplified assumptions (an
infinitely long coil for Steidinger, a con-
stant mutual inductance without any
leakage flux for Pirenne, the substitution
of a short-circuited screen in place of the
low-voltage winding for Karasev). These
authors were successful in calculating
only the natural frequencies, but not
;^EBR'UARY 1959
the voltage distributions. A highly in-
volved but apparently complete solu-
tion is obtained by Ogawa, both for trans-
formers3313,3913,3914401 and rotating ma-
chines, 3716,3717,4013 employing an expo-
nential approximation to the function
which represents the mutual inductance
between a given turn and any other.
The same approximation, based on
Pirenne's experimental results was intro-
duced very successfully by Heller, Hlavka,
and Veverka,4'91918 who obtained equa-
tions for the voltage distributions and
natural frequencies of the winding oscilla-
tions. Heller and his associates later
extended their theory to 2-winding trans-
formers,M2i, 'IO and to other constructional
arrangements5519' 246111 in addition to the
single-layer helical windings. Their re-
sults are therefore of great interest be-
cause of their practical applications to
transformer design. The actual shape of
the mutual-inductance function, rather
than approximations, was used by Abetti,
Adams, and Maginniss54'9$603 in solving
the Fredholm integral equation of the
winding oscillations, wh'ich had been first
derived by Pirenne. These authors ob-
tained, using modern digital computers,
the fundamental voltage waveshapes and
frequencies for a broad range of values
of the mutual-inductance function, so
that their analysis is applicable to wind-
ings of rotating machines, air coils, iron-
core coils, and transformers, with open-
circuited or short-circuited secondary.
While Heller and his co-workers verified
experimentally only the natural fre-
quencies, Abetti, Adams, and Maginniss
were able to verify experimentally also
the voltage waveshapes, which are not
sinusoidal, as had been assumed pre-
viously. They also extended the solution
of the integral equation to nonuniform
windings, which occur most frequently in
practice. However, their method of solu-
tion is only valid for the fundamental
oscillations with isolated and grounded
neutral.
Rildenberg's traveling-wave theory is
an extension of his earlier work in Ger-
many2w and is contained in a funda-
mental paper0'8 published after his arrival
in the United States. He takes into ac-
count also the effect of the subdivision of
the winding into turns and coils4017 and
the presence of the secondary windings."411
Riidenberg's mathematical analysis was
recently expanded by Biorci.5510 Travel-
ing-wave theories, although different from
Rudenberg's are those of Bunet,22"4,2103
Fallou, 2001 Vicdma.r 104,2713,5653 Krug, J112
Perlin,"l09 most recently of Ginger,6428 and
of BiermannslWt for rotating machines.
All these authors treat the transformer
FIEBRUARY 1 959 Abetti-Survey of Published Data on Surge Performance
as a transmission line with series capaci-
tance. Frid47?O Wiil and later Heller and
Veverka6l1652l1 successfully applied the
traveling-wave method of analysis to the
calculation of voltage gradients, or stresses
across a few turns of the winding, obtain-
ing good agreement with experimental
results.
Comparison of the principles and im-
plication of the two different theories
are found in an article by Massing,2207
in an exchange of letters between Fallou,
Ledoux, and Mauduit, 813 and in a dis-
cussion by Paluev.Am A fundamental
article by Frid4710 clearly defines the ad-
vantages and disadvantages of the stand-
ing-wave and the traveling-wave theories
and their limitations. Later, Abetti,
Adams, and Maginniss5w$ showed that
the substitution of a short-circuited screen
for the low-voltage winding (assumed by
Ruidenberg, Karasev, Ganger, and others)
is not correct, since the corresponding
mutual-inductance functions differ con-
siderably. However, it appears that this
approximation is correct for the calcula-
tion of the voltage gradients which ac-
tually evidence a very marked traveling-
wave aspect.
Aside from difficulties inherent in ob-
taining solutions in closed form of the
integrodifferential equations resulting
from these theories, the calculation of the
winding parameters restricts their prac-
tical use. In fact, some of these param-
eters, e.g., the leakage inductance or
the series capacitance, are difficult to
calculate and to measure, and may vary
with the applied frequency. Therefore a
solution by field theory, which would only
require the physical dimensions of the
structure, was attempted by Hall6n,'M"
Muihlinghaus,"12 and Riidenberg.4111
The first two are highly mathematical,
and the last assumes again that the sec-
ondary winding is replaced by a short-
circuited shield. This unallowable sim-
plification was removed by Poritsky,
Abetti, and Jerrard5332 who derived ex-
pressions for the wave and group velocity
and the surge impedance as a function of
frequency, with or without the core.
They obtained good agreement with ex-
perimental data, and proved that the ef-
fect of the core is negligible at the higher
frequencies, even if the permeability is
assumed to be infinite. Their analysis,
however, is limited to steady-state condi-
tions and to infinitely long coils.
AUTOTRANSFORMERS, REGULATING
TRANSFORMERS, AND SPECIAL
TRANSFORMERS
The surge performance of autotrans-
formers was first investigated by
Paluev3122 in 1931. The increased use
after World War II of autotransformers
in extra-high-voltage systems has recently
revived this subject. Comprehensive in-
vestigations have been made by Novak,'"2
Rossier and Froidevaux,"5' Wellauer,6457
and Heller, 5l1 etc., some by means of
models. The surge performance of auto-
transformers is also discussed by Cinero70
and Kraiz.17 The use of nonlinear re-
sistors in autotransformers is discussed by
Meador,WM Albright,50 and Balp. O03
The effect of taps on the surge perform-
ance of regulating transformers is men-
tioned in articles by Bunet,ia0i Mar-
chand, Elsner, Bellaschi and
Beck.40' Transient voltages in reg-
ulating transformers are discussed in de-
tail in articles by Elsner,w" Rossier,1044
White,626' Stephanides,5"40,540 Hyltdn-
Cavallius and Sollergren," Wellauer,5544
Heller and his associates,5519,5247I?2 and
others. Regulating autotransformers are
discussed by Wellauer,"07 Lutz and
Bally,"- and Christoffel. "l1,6Ml2 Voltage
distribution in transformers with insulated
tank is discussed by Glazanov and
Tschernycheff,38'0 in testing transformers
by Mtller2l' and by Zingales,5717 in
cascade- connected transformers by
Tschernycheff,'21' Szpor, '24 and Rosch.'731
Surges in distribution transformers are
discussed by Treanor and Cooney,'?2' Mc-
Morris and Stewart,"" Langlois-
Berthelot, Neuve-Eglise, Kohn, and
Renaudin."03
The impulse characteristics of current
transformers are investigated by Berger2"1
and Reimann"020; those of potential trans-
formers by Reimann,2'",m2' Dann,$"*
Goldstein,4'7 Camilli,'"' Meyer,481'
Sperti and Zingales.6338.8a6 The impulse
strength of instrument transformers in the
subject of recent papers by Ganger and
Hartmann,5655 Kettler and Lange,5629
Kopecek,5""0 and Ringger.'726 Ma-
renesi"05"086 studied in detail the behavior
of potential transformers at the higher
frequencies.
AIR COILS: THEORIES AND EXPERIMENTAL
DATA
Several of the theories discussed in the
foregoing, mainly Wagner'sI"'41910 and
Riidenberg's,2207""01 are supposed to apply
equally well to air coils as to transformers,
because the authors claim that the effect
of the iron core is negligible at the fre-
quencies considered. A good review of
the principal theories concerning the high-
frequency oscillations of air coils is found
in a book by Hak."°' Such theories are
even more numerous than for trans-
formers. After the early work by
Drude,'201 Sommerfeld,0402,0708,07'
1407
Lenz,'20' 1401 and Szasz1406 gave a solution
on the basis of Maxwell's field equations,
which found experimental confirmation.
A more accurate solution, based on the ex-
tension of Lenz's analysis, was given later
by Schr6der2213 for long 2-layer coils, by
Goosmann2l" for short 2-layer coils, and
by Zuhrt127 3325 for cylindrical and flat
coils. Zuhrt3423 also introduced the effect
of terminal impedances. The work of
Hall6n348 309.3104 is also based on Max-
well's equations. WagnerlW0l and Sieg-
bahn'113 applied Heaviside's expansion
formula. RogowskilEl01O,1l0 discussed
extensively the theory of a coil with two,
three, and a few additional turns, but it
is doubtful whether his analysis can be
extended to coils with many turns. Re-
views of these theories are found in the
articles by G6the,22 Hofmeyer,24" and
Rficklin.21'2 A formula for the harmonic
frequencies of coils is given by Town-
send2109 and a purely empirical one by
Yamamoto.219-
In parallel to these theoretical studies
on air coils, many experimental investi-
gations were made to determine their
natural frequencies, by Fleming,040'
G6the,21w2 Breit,2102 Geiss,21" Ridder,2212
Hofmeyer,2484 Reinhardt,24 Yama-
moto,2109 Lindmann,3316 and HallRn.3409
G6the and Ridder studied experimentally
the effect of continuous and interrupted
shields, Reinhardt the effect of damping
on the natural frequencies. Studies with
the cathode-ray oscillograph were made
by Flegler,2n01.28040sl08 Rogowski, Flegler,
and Tamm,2709 again by Rogowski,2811
by Toriama and Shinohara.29 Ruck-
lin2Rl2 presents valuable experimental
data on the voltage distribution as a
function of frequency and on the natural
frequencies of coils. The so-called critical
frequency at which exceedingly high
gradients should occur has raised much
controversy, both theoretical and experi-
mental. All frequencies higher than the
critical frequency would be unable to
penetrate into the winding. Apparently
these critical frequencies are a conse-
quence of the simplifying assumptions in
regard to mutual inductance, made by
Wagner, B6hm, Rudenberg, Bunet, and
Fallou. Wagner,1910 himself, recognized
that such frequencies depend upon the
equivalent-circuit representation he had
assumed, but Rfidenberg4817 later dis-
covered more than one critical frequency
in subdivided windings. Rogowski,1905
Kruithof,22" and Wallot21t' do not be-
lieve in the existence of the critical fre-
quency. However, critical frequencies
were observed in coils by Ricklin,2'12 in
transformer windings by Bbhm,170' and
Fallou, V02 and in rotating machines by
1408 Abetti-Survey of Published Data on Surge Performance
Wellauer.471' The high gradients corre-
sponding to the critical frequency accord-
ing to Bohm,V70l Rfidenberg,2107
Massing,2207 and Traverse and Silva2081 2508
were never observed in the experiments of
G6the,2 Riicklin,2'2 and Flegler.310
Later a simple physical interpretation
of traveling waves in air coils with internal
short-circuited shields was given in a
thesis by Lerstrup,427 written under
Riidenberg's guidance. There is some
good agreement of the calculations with
the extensive measurements, although
the determination of the coil constants
was difficult and uncertain. In general,
it may be stated that there is at present
much less interest in air coils than in the
1920's.
EFFECT OF THE IRON CORE
As previously mentioned, the effect of
the iron core is often not clearly defined
in the literature and the behavior of the
laminations at high frequencies or under
impulse voltages is seldom discussed.
The effect of the core is mentioned by
G6the,02 Ridder,2212 Mauduit,2C6
Flegler,2706 Krug,3"'2 and Riudenberg.4U18
Recent articles by Heller and Veverkal025
and by Karasev and Sklyanin6217 are con-
cerned with the effect of the core on the
surge response of transformers. Fried-
lander'216 and Meyer4816 discuss the effect
of the core on the surge response of ro-
tating machines. Abetti and his associ-
ates carried out an extensive series of
tests and computations on various helical
windings, with and without an iron core,
and obtained excellent agreement between
calculated and measured values. They
showed the considerable effect of the core
on the lower natural frequencies,""'5 their
ratios, and the waveshapes of the normal
functions.5408 In a separate investiga-
tion5332 it was also shown that the effect
of the iron core is negligible at the higher
frequencies. Experimental data on the
natural frequencies of two coupled wind-
ings, with and without the core, are pre-
sented in another paper. W4
Practically all experiments agree that
the core iron behaves linearly under im-
pulse, as for instance Wilkinson3918 and
Dufour.W017 Good oscillograms proving
the linearity of the iron are given by
Langlois-Berthelot, Neuve-Eglise, Kohn,
and Renaudin.W033 A thorough analysis
of the high-frequency performance of core
steel is given in an article by Karasev
and Margolin.'710 This subject is also
discussed by Hagashi and Okuda.6426 The
variation of permeability with frequency
is mentioned by Lee.4707
A recent article by Beavers, Holcomb,
and Leoni-50' discusses extensively the
saturation effects due to repeated appli-
cations of impulses.
Special Fields of Investigation
WINDING PARAMETERS
The winding parameters, which enter
one way or another in the practical
application of the theoretical formulas,
are not discussed extensively in the litera-
ture. Furthermore, the variability, for
instance with frequency, of these param-
eters or "constants" is mentioned very
seldom. The self- and mutual inductance
of coils and windings are studied by
Rucklin2812 and Arnold and LaCour. 4"4
The mutual-inductance function is deter-
mined by Pirenne,4018 who concludes that
it is a complex number, and by Abetti,
Adams, and Maginniss,'5w" who also in-
clude the effect of the secondary winding.
The harmonic leakage inductance and
capacitance, first introduced by Blume
and Boyajian,'102 are discussed from the
theoretical point of view by
Fruhauf,32073"w5 Allibone, McKenzie, and
Perry, 702 Boyajian,410 Cinti and Gatto,44"'
Thacker and Rakosh Das, 522 and others.
The winding capacitances are discussed
by Reiche,2504 and the influence of the coil
connections on their determination by
Weaving.4883 The effective capacitance
of transformers, as originally defined by
Blume and Boyajian,'102 is discussed by
Katzschner,8381 Kimura and Yokosuka,4012
and its charging time by Arnold and
LaCour.A48 The effective capacitance
of shielded transformers is the subject of
a recent article by Heller.""8
Very little data are available concern-
ing the dissipative parameters. Some
experimental data on the damping of
oscillations in coils and windings are given
by Reinhardt,2406 Rohrig,"'26 and others.
Seig4710 has shown the striking effect of
humidity on the series inductance and on
the elimination of the higher harmonics.
The skin effect, which is generally as-
sumed to determine winding resistance
at the high frequencies of impulse waves,
has been investigated very little.
Lacey"03 gives an empirical formula,
Norris4825 assumes the Gates39C formula
for transmission lines is also valid for
transformers. The losses are also dis-
cussed by Katzschner,"33' Allibone, Mc-
Kenzie, and Perry,3702 and Kimura and
Yokosuka.4012
Other parameters which are supposed
to describe the performance of the wind-
ing are the surge impedance and the wave
velocity. Rigorously speaking, these
parameters are a function of the applied
frequency, and therefore must be used
with caution. They were first introduced
FERBRUARY 1 959
as constants, as in the theory of ideal
transmission lines, by Weed.1w04 The
surge impedance was shown to vary with
frequency by B6hm'841 and by Blume and
Boyajian,lI2 and was also assumed to
vary along the winding by Torikai,2108
Vidmar,2EIS and Roth.2Y'0 Bunet231 and
Fallou=02 also assume a surge-impedance
variable with frequency and their formu-
las are discussed extensively, in connec-
tion with experimental data, by Paillet
and Dufour.A&27 The effect of shields and
of the connections of the low-voltage wind-
ing was investigated experimentally by
Flegler,"0 that of internal short-circuited
screens of various dimensions by
Lerstrup.4207
Boyajian403 gives a new definition of
wave velocity in winding on the basis of
his standing-wave theory. Some consid-
erations on the average wave velocity of
an impulse wave in windings are to be
found in the experimental work by
Fallou,7270 204 Ohkochi,3120 121 and
Ohkochi and Yui4816 on transformer wind-
ings, and of Kroemer and Wallraff"l8 on
coils "similar to transmission lines."
Rudenberg in his papers4017.'4M4111 dis-
cusses at length theoretically this subject
and finds two different velocities for the
waves along the primary and secondary
windings.4113 Poritskys332 and his associ-
ates determined by field theory the surge
impedance in coils with and without an
iron core, and the wave and group
velocities, introducing the distinction be-
tween them.
ELECTROSTATIC DISTRIBUTION
Initial and electrostatic voltage distri-
butions theoretically coincide only when
the impinging surge is an infinitely steep
front, but for actual impulse waves these
two expressions are used without dis-
tinction.A610 The initial distribution
was first observed in transformers by
Thomas0X2 and in rotating machines
by Kuhlmann.0801 It was soon recognized
that it followed the same exponential
pattern as in suspension insulators, first
determined by Peek,"2'2 and also analyzed
by Rtidenberg,1484 Wagner,1iWS and
Salessky,2' who also introduced the
capacitances to line terminal. Later the
effect of the capacitances between disc
coils and between turns was included by
Reiche,2504 Lombardi,311 Karasev,3411"'41
and Waldvogel.4210 The effect of the
number of elements is discussed by
Chladek4*'0 and by Veverka and
Chladek,5"1 by Abetti,s9 and that of the
capacitance of adjoining layers by Heller,
Hlavka, and Veverka.481l95317
The influence of the secondary winding
is fully taken into account by Bewley3303
FEBRUARY 1959 Abetti Survey of Published Data on Surge Performance
and Knaack,4311 the effect of the front
length by Wellauer,4714 and the effect of
a capacitor at the neutral by Friihauf.207
The effect of the type of connections be-
tween disc coils and between turns is
considered by Reiche,2W4 Waldvogel,4210
and Meyer,4814 and experimentally by
Weaving.'-"'
The appendix of a paper by Abetti,
Johnson, and Schultz522 and a paper by
Abetti5404 are concerned with the elec-
trostatic distribution in 2- and 3-winding
transformers, respectively. The in'itial
distribution in nonuniform windings is
analyzed theoretically by Norris,482
R6sch,673" and Pichon,5231 which present
interesting field plots, and theoretically
and experimentally in the book "Surge
Phenomena.""4"3 Willheim3228 and
Strigelul' discuss the same subject with
respect to 3-phase tranformers, and
Wellauer4714 with respect to rotating
machines. Experimental data on the
initial voltage distribution are available
in the articles by Schwaiger,19" Kopec,26'
Binder,210' Beldi,4701 Strigel,4l" and
Wellauer.47"4
In the early days of the art, reinforced
end-turn insulation was generally as-
sumed to be a good design practice, e.g.,
in the articles by Moody1702 and Prehm.1402
However, others, for instance Kintner,010'
believed that it was more economical and
advantageous to put this extra insulation
outside the transformer, in choke coils.
After this early discussion, the effects of
reinforced end-turn insulation were deter-
mined experimentally by Reiche,25"
Wellauer,274 the British Electric Re-
search Association,14'J 401 Goldstein,34
Elsner,3w Frid,700J and Degoumois and
Zoller.W016 Theoretical work on the sub-
ject has been done by Elsner,M
Lacey,4103'4106 Vogel,4712 and Heller, et
al.523 Design data are given in an
anonymous article."'
FINAL DISTRIB3UTION
The final distribution, obtained for a
unit-function applied voltage after the
winding oscillations have damped out, is
usually assumed to be linear. Bewley83°3
determines this distribution as a function
of the winding resistances and con-
ductances, and Pirenne3a'5 as a function
of winding self- and mutual inductances.
The nonuniform final distribution in non-
resonating transformers is studied by
Glazanov, et al.,109 and in layer-wound
transformers by R6sch. 572
VOLTAGE GRADIENTS AND LOCAL
STRESSES
The standing-wave method is adequate
for the calculation of the voltages to
ground, because these are obtained as the
sum of a relatively rapidly converging
infinite series of terms. However, the
convergence of the series representing the
gradients, whose terms are the derivatives
with respect to the space co-ordinate of
the voltage to ground, is very slow.
Thus the practical calculation of voltage
gradients and local stresses, such as volt-
ages between turns and between coils, is
very laborious and inaccurate. Since
these local stresses are very important for
design purposes, other means have been
sought. Riidenberg's'Ol8 traveling-wave
theory was applied successfully by
Norris,4825 who also considers nonuni-
formities. Empirically, Frid4703 deter-
mined that the gradients are almost in-
dependent of the conditions of the low-
voltage winding, and that this winding
can be considered as being replaced by a
continuous short-circuited shield.
Frid'sW02l traveling-wave approach to the
calculation of gradients is based on this
concept, and leads to formulas of great
practical value. Similarly, Heller and
Veverka4918 came to the conclusion that
the wave velocity is approximately con-
stant at the higher frequencies which
contribute more than the lower fre-
quencies to the gradients, and developed
a theory"081,'211 similar to Frid's.
Poritsky, Abetti, and Jerrard5332 give a
theoretical and experimental confirma-
tion of the constant value of the group
velocities for the higher frequencies.
Other experimental and theoretical work
on this stubject has been done by
Karasev,341' Nazareff and Karasev,"8
Wellauer,47U4 Aeschlimann,4o34805,5410
Descans,W107 Hoftijzer,5216 and others. A
very detailed and interesting study is that
of Degoumois and Zoller,,i16 whose re-
sults are in good agreement with Norris'
traveling-wave method of computation.
The effect of the front length is studied
theoretically by Jalla,4821 Hoch-
rainer,"135'8 and Frid,5021 and experi-
mentally by Descans and Dufour,WI? and
by Langlois-Berthelot, et al.A623 The
effect of shielding on the reduction of
the gradients in core-type transformers
with disc windings is clearly evidenced
by Meador.6038
OVERVOLTAGES AND PROTECTION AT THE
NEUTRAL
The effects of surges on the trans-
former neutral, when it is not grounded
directly, have been studied by
Collbohm,1102 Peterson,2210 Vogel and
Hodnette,321 Karasev,3512 31 Frihauf, w
Kasai,mli Elsner,"4'.4M Meyer,4108 Descans
and Chevalier.404 Protective measures
are discussed by some of these authors
1409
and by WellauerP"56262 Sollergren, 244
Hochrainer,5106 Neuve-Eglise,62 R6sch,'242
Bader and Lech,6411 and Heller and
Veverka.5429 Gert, Kalousek, and
Svoboda,A621 Meyer,4'18 and Stephanides'539
are concerned with the determination and
reduction of the stresses due to an arc-
suppression coil connected to the trans-
former neutral. The surge stresses in the
arc-suppression coils are determined in a
paper by Hochrainer.6108
RESONANCE
Resonance in transformers with open-
circuited secondary, due to their self-
capacity, was studied by Biermanns'"1
and Besson.2101 Resonance due to sus-
tained high-frequency waves, such as
switching surges and overvoltages of long
duration, is investigated by B6hm,170'
Bunet,2 "'"08'2402 Dahlgren,24
Fallou,2W1'2802,2702,8004 and Katzschner. 131
The effect of damping of the applied surge
is considered by Fallou2702 and by
Bewley.'103 3'4106 Experimental data
are furnished by Bohm and Fallou, in
the afore-mentioned references, and by
Jacobs,2"02 R 2hrig,'125 and Friihauf.82'7
Special resonance effect due to arcing
grounds are studied experimentally by
Courvoisier,iBO Dessarzin,2W2 and
Fallou.27Y3 Resonance in current trans-
formers is discussed by Berger.2701
SURGE TRANSFER
The transfer of surges between trans-
former windings, but principally from the
high-voltage to the low-voltage windings,
was first investigated experimentally by
Fallou,004 Krug,3'12 and R6hrig.A126 The
theory was developed by Paluev and
Jlagenguth,'21 Bewley,83 Elsner,
Paluev,'6" Golde,"03 Wellauer,4409 and
others. Riidenberg4l's extended his trav-
eling-wave theory to include surge trans-
fer. Experimental data are available in
papers by Paluev and Hagenguth,3214
McMorris, 210 Elsner, 86387O7. 43 Hagen-
guth,$" Neuhaus and Strigel,"19
Wellauer,391'7,44,4409 Golde,4m,4103
Bellaschi,4s3 Stenkvist,4318 Meyer, Mg
Descans and Chevalier,404 Langlois-
Berthelot et al.,w038 Kohn,6113 Neuve-
Eglise,622' and others.
A good review of the entire problem is
contained in a paper by Stenkvist.A"2
Three-phase transformers are discussed
specifically by Elsner87"7 and in the
book "Surge Phenomena."'4103 Abetti
and Davis5408 investigated the surge
transfer in 3-winding transformers and
Paluev,3122 Novak,"820 Wellauer,507 Rossier
and Froidevaux,545l Heller,"7"' and others
investigated the surge transfer in auto-
transformers. Crivellari4"35'440 investi-
gated the voltage transfer at low fre-
quencies and Marenesiui0355036 the surge
transfer in potential transformers.
Boyajian4w' discusses the transfer from
low-voltage to high-voltage winding and
the forced oscillations of the latter. The
problem of the oscillations of two coupled
windings was also investigated by
Bewley,S204 Vitins,5454'5455 Heller, 662
Veverka and Chladek,"52 and Abetti,
Adams, and Maginniss.""0 Neuhaus and
Strigel"'09 employed geometrical models
for their experimental investigation of
surge transfer. A special problem in this
area is the transfer of impulse voltages
from the windings to the core, which may
be considered as a single-turn winding.
This question is the subject of a recent
paper by McWhirter, Specht, and Al-
bright.5724
Design Applications
REDUCTION AND CONTROL OF ABNORMAL
INTERNAL VOLTAGES
As soon as the effect of surges on trans-
formers was understood, it became clear
that the nonuniform initial distribution
could lead to abnormal stresses on the
insulation between adjarent portions of
the winding, and that the subsequent os-
cillations could cause abnormally high
voltages to ground and between wind-
ings. Since then many ways have been
sought for reducing the deviation of the
initial distribution from the final distri-
bution, and thereby eliminating com-
pletely, or reducing to a safe value, these
abnormal stresses.
As discussed in the "Historical Survey"
the original principle of electrostatic
shielding is the result of the work of
Weed2215 and Torikai,21" who later ex-
tended his mathematical theory.2""2"7
Their results are reviewed by Weiss,2216
Traverse and Silva,2"8 and Bewley,303
and in the book "Surge Phenomena."4103
Ledoux2716 gives a list of patents on shield-
ing. The ideas of Weed found practical
application in the nonresonating trans-
former of Paluev,2"04 who also extended
this type of design to transformers with
isolated neutral,30'8 by developing the
"impedor," and to autotransformers.""
The nonresonating type of construction,
its theoretical principles, and practical ad-
vantages and disadvantages, are often dis-
cussed in the literature, notably by
Hamura, Om McMorris and Hagenguth,"'5
Glazanov,3109 Karasev,3415,U11 Hayakawa
and Hishiyama,8410 an anonymous Belgian
author,3402 Reiche,720 Elsner,3905
Thomas,4020 McJannett,42" Cinti and
Gatto,440 Vogel,4"' Norris,42" Novak,4826
and Balp.5Y' Theoretical analysis was
done by Elsner""° for totally shielded
windings and by Karasev'611 for those
partially shielded. Oscillations in non-
resonating transformers are discussed by
Glazanov, Mirobulov, and Savitzky,"1''
Ono,842E Kimura and Yokosuka,40"2 and
those of partially shielded windings by
Novak.4'2 The German firm of Koch
and Sterzel870l developed its own version
of the nonresonating transformer and
Biermanns870' introduced several designs
of transformers "with no oscillations"
(schwingungsfrei) and "with reduced os-
cillations" (schwingungsarm), which are
also described by Strigel.'91 The experi-
ence during World War II with some of
these constructions was not very satis-
factory, according to Jonas."923
At present partial shielding is con-
sidered more economical and satisfactory
than complete shielding. The use of
rib shields is discussed by Meador"s and
that of static plates by many of the
authors mentioned in the foregoing, and
by Fliender2"0 and Goldstein.""4" Con-
trol of the electrostatic distribution by
such means is the subject of a recent
article by Bennon and Cossart."09
The increased understanding of the
transient phenomena gradually brought
forth design considerations and new
ideas, which are discussed in many
articles, e.g., by Marchand,""l Someda,2711
Stigant,2W7 Norris,8""9 Charley,SIN
Goldstein,"40 Karasev, 3411.344,401t
Roseau,"20 Paluev,"22 KUchler,"19 Mc-
Jannett,42 Balp,4"2'5 Feodoroff,""0
Mallett,13"34M8 Chevalier and Descans,4505
Muller,4824 Weaving,4883 Kopecek,5433
Heller, Hlavka, and Veverka,5817 and
many others. Most of these articles re-
fer to core-type transformers. The surge-
proof shell-type construction is discussed
by Putnam,'215"217 Bellaschi,820"8405Cook
and Dann,'3"" and Bennon and Cossart.5""
Other constructions are mentioned by
Hill, 386o.805 Aicher,4501 Chevalier,4114t'42
etc. The concentric-layer transformer,
which has a very uniform initial distri-
bution, is described by Stephens,20""
Meador,4013.08 Biermanns,49°" Heller,
Hlavaka, and Veverka,4819,5817
Chladek,4813"4910 Fabry,"1' Waldvogel. 4934
McDonald,"26"6441'.722 Rosch,5" and
Balp,"704 etc. Models of layer-wound
transformers are also mentioned by
Abetti.54i0
A new method of reducing the winding
oscillations without shielding was intro-
duced recently by Heller, et al.502450265214
The new "interleaved" disc-coil winding,
discovered by Chadwick, et al., 8012,0013 is
applicable to core-type transformers and
reduces the winding oscillations. It was
later introduced in the United States by

1410 Abetti-Survey of Published Data on Surge Performance FEBRUARY 19-59

Grimmer and Teague,""14 and in Italy by
Ferrari-Bardile.5707 Transformer design
data in relation to transient voltages are
contained in a book by Biermanns,4""6 and
in several other textbooks. The design
of impedors, a particular device for non-
resonating transformers with isolated
neutral, is the subject of a paper by
Karasev.m''
Of particular interest are the descrip-
tions of extra-high-voltage transformers
built in recent years. Meador42' first
built a 360-kv transformer in 1948, for
experimental studies, and later Hansen
and Vogel"42" built a smaller 600-kv trans-
former for the same reason. Many trans-
formers have been built in continental
Europe for the 380- and 400-kv power
systems and these are described
by Stenkvist,247""""' Wellauer,""
Itschner,"" Christoffel and Itschner,""
Meyerhans,"'2 and others.
EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS
The representation of a winding by an
equivalent circuit with a limited amount
of meshes was first introduced by Weed1W04
and was followed by analytical studies by
Wagner,1"04,1'0 Pierce,2006,221t Kruithof,2206
etc. It was taken up again many years
later by Bellaschi and Palermo402 and by
Lewis,"4J7 whose work is of little practical
value because mutual inductance is not
taken into consideration. The recent
development of digital computers, which
are well suited to the solution of equiv-
alent circuits with many meshes and
nodes, has made this approach appear
very attractive. Digital computers were
first used in this respect by Abetti,
et al.,560 9 ws for the determination of
the natural frequencies and waveshapes.
The determination of the transient volt-
ages with computers is the subject of
recent papers by Waldvogel and Rou-
xel""4"6"6 of Switzerland, Birtwistle and
Dent'6"0 of Great Britain, and Mc-
Whirter, Fahrkopf, and Steele'"23 of the
United States.
Another application of the equivalent
circuit is the representation of a trans-
former as a whole, to determine its effect
on network performance, for instance on
switching surges. No attempt is made
in this case to reproduce the internal
oscillations, since only the terminal re-
sponse is of interest. Such equivalent
circuits have been advanced by
Bewley,"""39' Frihauf,"'' Wanger and
Brown,'727 Elsner,404 and Camilli,43'4 etc.
The equivalent circuit of a transformer
has been derived in a comprehensive paper
by Hammarlund,4" in order to represent
its effect on recovery voltages. This sub-
ject is also mentioned by Broch-Toniolo,
FEBR'LAY 1959 Abetti-Survey of Published Data on Surge Performance
Marenesi, and Vanzini4"°' and by
Vanzini.4""2 Equivalent circuits are also
frequently used for the determination of
the transfer of surges between windings,
in the references quoted in a preceding
section of this paper. The equivalent cir-
cuit of a generator subjected to surges
is given by Boehne,300 Calvert,"
Hunter,"'w Meyer,"1'4 Abetti, Johnson,
and Schultz,"'' Hayward, Dillard, and
Hileman,'"" and others.
ELECTROMAGNETIC MODELS
As noted in the "Historical Survey,"
Einhorn,'309 8'7 in his dissertation at the
Berlin Technical University, was the first
to use an equivalent circuit with con-
centrated parameters to represent a trans-
former winding. Neuhaus and Strigel""9
used geometrical model structures to in-
vestigate the surge transfer between wind-
ings. These investigators were interested
in such devices as a convenient experi-
mental tool to study the phenomena, but
did not attempt to simulate the response
of any specific transformer. A few years
ago this simulation was attempted by
means of a geometrical model of an air
coil by Chladek."015 The shortcomings
of the equivalent circuit, which had been
proposed by Angelini,66" and of the
geometrical model were overcome in the
electromagnetic model developed by
Abetti6""4,4"3 in 1950.
This electromagnetic model consists of
a geometrical representation of the core
and windings, and of a capacitance board
which represents the distributed winding
capacitances by means of a network of
lumped capacitors. The time scale may
vary from less than unity to values up to
a thousand. The long-time-scale
model5407 permits a considerable automa-
tion of the measurements. Electro-
magnetic models of transformers are
used extensively in the United States,"4
and were introduced recently in Switzer-
land by Wellauer"'7 and Froidevaux,111,7Wm
in Czechoslovakia by Veverka,""43 in
Italy by Zingales,""7 deGasperis,6""
and Cerretelli.""11 The theory of electro-
magnetic models has been reviewed
recently by Ruffinengo57E3 and by
Veverka,"65" who, in co-operation with
Chladek,5""1 also discusses the require-
ments for accurate modeling. The effect
of the dissipative elements on the model
response is the subject of a paper by
Ruffinengo.5"48 Zingalesl" employed
electromagnetic models to find the loca-
tion of breakdowns in transformers sub-
jected to impulse voltages. Models have
been used for special studies, such as the
surge transfer in 3-winding trans-
formers""40 and protection of the equip-
ment connected to the nonimpulsed
terminals, the protection of autotrans-
former windings by means of nonlinear
resistors,'5" and the verification of the
response of a transformer to switching
phenomena.6431
Protection and Insulation
Co-ordination
PROTECTION
The practical aim of all investigations
on the surge performance of transformers
is to devise optimum protection and de-
sign methods. Therefore, a considerable
amount of the literature has been con-
cerned, since the beginning of the century,
with the protection of transformers from
lightning and switching surges. A good
review of the practices in the United
States before World War 1I is contained
in a report by the AIEE Transformer
Subcommittee.'104 Recent British prac-
tice is described in a series of articles by
Flux5310"'6421
Some of the most important articles on
the protection from surges of power trans-
formers are those by Fliender,2"3 Johnson
and Bundy,302 Norris,3119""'6'7V1
Bunet,'3"' McEachron,34"" Neuhaus and
Strigel,3""6 Weichsel,`"'7 Mason and
Lacey,3909 Miller and Thompson,8910
Stenkvist,""l6 Biermanns,4"0" and in "Surge
Phenomena,"410' etc. An article by
Paluev and Hagenguth""8 discusses the
effect of protective devices on the in-
sulation stresses in power transformers.
The protection of dry-type air-cooled
transformers is discussed by Bellaschi and
Beck."°"
INSULATION CO-ORDINATION
The question of co-ordination of line
and transformer insulation arose after a
clear understanding had been obtained
of the line overvoltages due to lightning
and switching surges. Only the most im-
portant articles which directly concern
the insulation co-ordination and protec-
tion of transformers are discussed here.
A general review of the subject, with
several references, is found in the chapter
by Montsinger in the book "Transformer
Engineering.""°' European practice is re-
viewed in the books by Strigel,39"6 Bier-
manns,"9" Heller and Veverka,"'7 Wel-
lauer, 54" and in "Surge Phenomena."''4l°
Significant contributions have also been
written by Lewis,"" Holbrook,8""° John-
son and Bundy,'012 Montsinger,3"" Lloyd
and Clem,3317 Vogel, 3822,49S33504 Bellaschi
and Vogel,'405 Panoff,"I's Della Verde,"'
Flamme,43 Gatto,411' Foster,"49" Vogel,504
Langlois-Berthelot,52"" Sealey and
Vogel,"164 and Dullard and Bliss."54" Of
1411
particular interest in this respect are
theoretical and experimental studies made
in the field, or by means of analog min-
iature systems, on the stresses due to
lightning in stations and substations pro-
tected by lightning arresters. Much work
has been done recently in this area by
Carpenter, Johnson, and Saline,10"1 by
Witzke and Bliss,w0s' by Bliss, Gross, and
Dillard,6m by Dillard, Armstrong, and
Hileman,6"17 and by Gross, Levesconte,
and Dillard.631' Insulation co-ordination
of distribution transformers is discussed
by Treanor and Cooney.3210
An important recent development in
this field is the use of reduced BIL's
(basic impulse insulation levels) which
alkw considerable saving in the cost of
high-voltage transformers with effec-
tively grounded neutral. The trend has
been first toward 1-step and 1'/2-step
reduced levels, but recently Meador"'6
introduced 2-step-down reduced BIL's.
A comprehensive discussion of reduced
transformer insulation is found in the
recent paper by Hunter, Meador, and
RudgeEl3 and the experiences of a major
user with transformer insulation reduced
two classes is summarized by Pugh and
Zimmermnann'72"
The entire question of insulation co-
ordination of transformers depends upon
the relationships of the voltages which are
permitted to stress the transformer, and
on the dielectric strength of transformer
insulation. This latter subject pertains
to the literature on dielectrics and there-
fore only the most significant papers
are mentioned here for completeness.
The most important contributions
are those of Montsinger, 246514,'611
Vogel, 2409"'822'24'4619,4932 Wetherill, 2"2
Bellaschi and Vogel,'O6 Bellaschi and
Teague,3704 Beldi,4701 Biermann's,490
Langlois-Berthelot, et al.,6033 and many
others. Bellaschi and Beck4w03 discuss
the dielectric strength of dry-type air-
cooled transformers.
IMPULSE TESTING
As soon as reliable data had been ob-
tained concerning the line voltages due to
lightning and other transient disturbances,
impulse testing of complete transformers
was introduced in the United States.
These tests have been made since 1930,
first as laboratory tests and later as com-
mercial tests. In Europe surge tests
were at first preferred, but full-wave im-
pulse tests are now in use in most of the
European countries. Considerable skepti-
cism still remains in Europe with respect
to chopped-wave impulse tests, because
it is feared that failures cannot be reliably
detected in this case.
1412 A betti-Survey of Published Data on Surge Performance
An excellent review of impulse testing
in the United States was published a few
years ago by Hagenguth and Meador.""
Recent European viewpoints have been
presented by Stenkvist,4'" Frid,"'2
Rippon,'6" Ginger,'6l4 and many others.
The principal articles and discussions on
surge and impulse tests are by
Bunet,"""'8" Rump,2W6 Binder,2W1
Wellauer,2E14,4713 Montsinger and
Peters,2'" Stigant,"" Kopeliowitch and
Matthey - Doret,30"4""111 Norris,3017362
Norinder,3117 Paluev,""21 Biermanns,310"
Wetherill,'222 Vogel and Montsinger,""
Vogel,3622 46l9 Fruihauf,3"0" Karasev, 3612,3614
Allibone and Perry,"03 McKenzie,""
Elsner,4"7 Aicher,40' Bellaschi,4W2 Austen,
Gosland, and Lacey,U°0 Strigel,4'3
Langlois-Berthelot,4706WI33 Aeschli-
mann, 4"°4 Beldi,Of6Aicher, 203 Monohan,6327
Smith,6337 Zingales,4"8 Froidevaux,"16
Helmchen,I26 and Hickling.A27 An ex-
tensive series of impulse tests on a Belgian
high-voltage shell-type transformer is
described by Chevalier,6207 and the im-
pulse testing of the 380-kv 1,775-kv BIL
transformers for Sweden by Stenkvist,62"
and Gdnger.'"l8 Comparisons of the
various types of tests for 3-phase trans-
formers are found in the articles by
Kopeliowitch and Matthey-Doret,3""1 and
by Friihauf.""05 Impulse tests for po-
tential transformers are discussed by
Dann33' and for distribution trans-
formers by Treanor, Stewart, and Hol-
comb,62W Holcomb,6621 Langlois-Berthelot
et al.5034 Impulse testing of transformers
with nonlinear characteristics is the sub-
ject of a paper by Blanchardie.Y4"3
Normally, the voltage distribution is
measured with the transient analyzer on
the untanked core and coils in air, for
convenience and accessibility, while the
impulse tests are performed on the com-
plete apparatus filled with oil. The
absence of the tank and the difference in
the dielectric constants of oil and air intro-
duces certain variations in the transient
response which are discussed by
Wellauer,27" Elsner,"" Miyamoto and
Miyoshi,3810,3911 Novak,*'6 and Norris. 46
Chopped-wave impulse testing has re-
ceived special attention recently, partic-
ularly in Europe, and is discussed by
Vogel,4712 Johnson,"2 Stenkvist, "44
Langlois-Berthelot,"83 Preston,'63 and
Lengnick and Foster.571' The frequency
spectrum of standard impulse waveshapes
in analyzed in the papers by Samulon4317
and Miles.'443
FAILURE DETECTION
Reliable detection of failures during
impulse tests is a necessary requirement
for the acceptance by the manufacturer
and by the user of this type of test. The
reluctance to the introduction of impulse
tests was mainly based on the fear that
failures would go undetected. Therefore,
a great variety of methods of impulse test-
ing, winding connections, and special
devices have been devised to increase the
sensitivity of the means of failure detec-
tion.
Power excitation during impulse tests
was first proposed by Putnam3216 an
Vogel,'221,3324 and gave rise to considerable
discussions following these papers and
later those by Fruhauf,w60 Karasev,'61
Strigel,41' Aeschlimann,U" and
Provoost.1'9 The discovery by Hagen-
guth4404 of the extremely sensitive neutral-
current method marks the beginning of a
new series of articles which discuss the
experience with Hagenguth's method or
propose new methods. The most im-
portant contributions are by Moses and
Harter,4611 Stewart and Holcomb,4"6
Beldi,402 4701 Austen, Gosland, and
Lacey,4°0 Stenkvist,461'524 Strigel,41'
Wellauer,4884W1149 Aeschlimann,434. 002
Aicher,"'w Rippon and Hickling,49"1
Burlando,"'7 Rabus,3S3 64^ Lech,64N
Elsner, 4" Ganger, 42'"t4""19b79 Heller
and Veverka,'21' Kohn,""'3 Kreis,'114
Merega, 22' Purvis,f" Hochrainer,510'
Beldi,"'' Hickling,""20 Neuve-Eglise,""3
and Zingales.'6' Heller49l17W27 analyzes
the effect of short circuits on the wind-
ing response. The many articles by
Provoost, 5041S5l11Sll9562V,644.6S36 are of great
interest, particularly in relation to
chopped-wave impulse testing.
FAILURES
Very scanty data are available on trans-
former failures in the field and their
probable causes. Peterson22"10 investi-
gated some field failures many years ago,
and these are also discussed by
Norris,3llSS2l2 Stigant and Lacey,8 3
anonymous,4"' and Jonas.492 Forrestw'lI
reviews the performance of transformers
on the British power system during
thunderstorms.
Failures during impulse tests are men-
tioned by Wellauer, 271 4,4U1I 834Beldi,402, 4701
Bellaschi,"'' and Aeschlimann,"" and by
van den Abeele'047 and othersfor shell-type
transformers. The probability of failure
in relation to the strength of transformer
insulation is derived theoretically by
Paluev.'21'
Rotating Machines
As mentioned in the "Historical Sur-
vey" the theory of the surge performance
of rotating machines was presented for the
first time in 1930 by Boehne,300' and by
FEBRUARY 1 959
Fielder and Beck.'5 These authors also
presented in their papers some experi-
mental data. In the discussion of
Boehne's article,"0'3 Paluev compares
surge phenomena in transformer and ma-
chine windings. Before that date there is
only an article by Biernanns,l"' and
some mention of the initial distribution by
Kuhlmann.Y"l Further theoretical con-
siderations and experimental data on
surges in rotating machines are found in
the articles by Ohkochi,84" Hunter,3"7
Calvert and Fielder,re5 Kopeliowitch and
Fourrnarier,3"6 Lawton,3906 Strigel,3916
Meyer,'31' Wellauer,4"' Alle and
Descans,'3"7 Petrov and Abramov,'4"
Kozyrev and Litvinova,"" and Tomi-
yama, et al."'47
The mathematical analysis contained
in several papers by OgawasflSI? 7,403s is
particularly complete, but hard to grasp
in the English summaries of his original
work in Japanese. More recent contri-
butions to the theory of the propagation
of surges in machine windings have been
made by Friedlander,4205 Neuve-Eglise,5231
and Robinson.63346",5640 A comprehen-
sive study by Karasev and Kaganov4"24
takes into account the effects of the iron
core. The following authors present
primarily experimental data: Zeder-
bohm,211' Calvert, Monteith, and Beck,"36
Ohkochi, 3419,"17,"21 Buchanan,4U02 and
Kerns.57'" The effect of the length of the
impinging wave is studied by Ohkochi and
Takeo,3'1 the effect of protective devices
by Hunter,36'1 and the initial voltage dis-
tribution by Wellauer.4714 Operating ex-
perience with rotating machines is dis-
cussed in an article by Horsley.4010 The
surge impedance of the winding, first
supposed to be a constant, was found to
vary with time by Calvert and Fielder,3'"'
and later by Wellauer.'"' This quantity
is discussed more extensively by Abetti,
Johnson, and Schultz.6"2"
Most of the articles quoted in the fore-
going discuss means of protecting rotating
machines from surge voltages. This
question of protection is discussed partic-
ularlyby Rudge, Wieseman, and Lewis;3320
Calvert ;340 and McCann, Beck, and
Finzi;'"407 Beck;'490 Razevig;49a0
Bellaschi ;w°° Hunter and Dillow ;509
Heller and Veverka;"428 Lesny,'71' and
many others. A survey of postwar prac-
tices on lightning protective equipment
for rotating machines is presented in an
AIEE report.4'2 The protection of gen-
erators connected directly to the low:
voltage windings of transformers is dis-
cussed in detail by Paluev and Hagen-
guth,214 Hagenguth,31" Stenkvist,4"" and
in more recent articles by Abetti, John-
son, and Schultz;15202 Armstrong, Howard,
:FEBRUARY 1959 Abetti-Survey of Published Data on Surge Performance
and Johnson ;5204 Neuve-Eglise ;"229 Lund-
holm, Hylt6n-Cavallius, and Grund-
mark ;5439 Greve ;M23 and Hayward,
Dillard, and Hileman.s710
Impulse testing of rotating machines is
discussed by Alle and Descans,"W7
Descans,'""9"5d' Moses,532b Moses and
Alke,'32 Aleksiev and Kulakovskii,5702
and Liebscher and Meyer.'7"0
Conclusions
This review of the literature on the
surge performance of transformers and
rotating machines clearly shows the tre-
mendous advances in the art made in the
last 50 years. The work of distinguished
electrical engineers in many countries has
achieved a full understanding of the
effect of lightning, switching surges, and
impulse voltages on electric apparatus.
Insulation co-ordination, standard im-
pulse tests, and rational protective prac-
tices have made properly designed appara-
tus practicallyimmune to the overvoltages
which may arise in service. Lightning,
once considered to be an "act of God" for
which no protection was possible, is no
more a danger for transformers and rotat-
ing machines in the field. This is a
significant achievement, of which electri-
cal engineers may be justifiably proud.
The electrical art is continuously ad-
vancing, with the aims of increasing the
reliability and keeping down the cost of
electric power. Therefore, work is also
actively continuing in the field discussed
in this paper. The many contributions
to the literature published in the last
few years here and abroad clearly evidence
this continued interest in the theoretical
and practical aspects of the surge per-
formance of transformers and rotating
machines. The study of the literature
indicates that probably the most signi-
ficant future contributions will appear in
the following areas.
1. From the theoretical standpoint, a
unified theory is required to explain the
surge performance of rotating machines, air
coils, iron-core coils, and transformer wind-
ings of various types. This theory should
take into account all mutual-inductance
effects and the structural nonuniformities.
2. From the practical standpoint, a reliable
method of calculation is required to deter-
mine the stresses across the insulation (to
ground, between coils, between turns, be-
tween windings, etc.) in modern transform-
ers and rotating machines, which are struc-
turally complex and far from uniform. The
modern high-speed digital computer should
be of great help for carrying out the com-
putations.
3. Better methods should be developed for
calculating the winding parameters, since
reliable results cannot be derived from un-
certain parameters.
4. The development of electromagnetic
models and equivalent circuits should con-
tinue in order to increase their accuracy and
flexibility and to reduce their cost. Just as
modern digital computers have not dis-
placed analog computers, models will con-
tinue to be used even if the method of calcu-
lation discussed in item 2 is developed.
5. In high-voltage transformers, insulation
is one of the most important cost com-
ponents. Design methods should be de-
veloped in order to further decrease the
amount of insulation by improved control
and reduction of the abnormal voltages.
This will lead to further improvements in
the characteristics and reductiots of the cost
of the apparatus. The recent trend toward
reduced insulation levels is extremely sig-
nificant and will continue.
In conclusion, it is hoped that this
survey of the present status of the art
will enable interested engineers to gain
a full understanding of the problem, to
be used as a basis for future original
contributions in this important branch
of electrical engineering.
Reference
1. BIBLIOGRAPHY ON THE SURGE PERFORtANCR
OF TEANSPORMERS AND ROTATING MACHINES,
P. A. Abetti. AIEE Transactions, vol. 77, pt. III,
Dec. 1958, pp. 1150-68.
Discussion
The Following is a discussion of the preceding
paper and of reference I of that paper.
Eric T. B. Gross (Illinois Institute of Tech-
nology, Chicago, Ill.): The survey and
bibliography are the result of careful studies
and reviews of the literature which the
author started roughly 10 years ago in con-
nection with preliminary work for his
doctor's thesis.1 This thesis included some
350 items published before 1951. Since that
time, many papers have been written which
have added significantly to our knowledge of
the surge performance of windings, amongst
them Dr. Abetti's own contributions which
have become widely known. It is realized
that the review of all these papers requires
an enormous amount of effort and time, and
we must be grateful for the author's willing-
ness to make the results of his work avail-
able through the publication of these papers.
Unfortunately, bibliographies in various
fields of study have all too often remained
unpublished and therefore practically un-
available; in this way, nothing but what is
finally found to be wasteful repetition is
being done in the preparation of new re-
search. It seems worth emphasizing that
the addition of the survey paper to the
mere listing of the titles in the bibliography
makes this work still more valuable.
Modern research has as prerequisite the
study of all earlier work in the field under
consideration. This realization has become
even more important in the last few years
since we have learned to make use of new
knowledge and new devices about such com-
1413