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A first approach in modelling lightning effects on megawatt-class: Onshore

and offshore wind turbines by means of EMTP and MODELS

Conference Paper · November 2004

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Yarú Méndez Hernández Albert Claudi

Universidad Simón Bolívar and MURAYH Consultancy Company Universität Kassel
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 A First Approach in Modelling Lightning Effects on Megawatt-Class
Onshore and Offshore Wind Turbines by Means of EMTP and
MODELS
Y. Méndez-Hernández, A. Claudi B. Hahn, M. Hoppe-Kilpper
Chair for Power Systems & High Voltage Engineering Institut für Solare Energieversorgungstechnik e.V.
Kassel University (UNIK) ISET
Wilhelmshöher Allee 73, 34121 Kassel, Germany Königstor 59, 34119 Kassel, Germany
Tel: +49 (561) 804 6306 Tel: +49 (561) 729 4329
Email: ymendezh@uni-kassel.de Email: bhahn@iset.uni-kassel.de

Abstract: The main aim of this study is to provide simulation models to evaluate lightning effects on wind turbines
(WT). More than 1000 repair reports due to lightning strikes were registered in the scientific measurement and
evaluation programme (WMEP) in Germany in the period from 1992 until 2002. Based on this information, a new
methodology is proposed to model the components involved during a direct lightning strike on the WT by means of
the simulation program ATP-EMTP. Modern WTs with heights of 60 m and rotor diameters above 40 m experiment
over-voltages/currents effects due to travelling waves, which propagate along the WT. This new methodology can be
used as criteria to make a first approach of the lightning effects on different types of WTs (pitch or stall controlled).

Keywords: Lightning simulation, wind energy, spark gaps (SG) modelling, ATP-EMTP, MODELS.

1. Introduction 2. Approach

With increasing height and rotor diameters in modern The WT is divided in the following components:
wind turbines (WTs) the research on lightning effects • Lightning source: single or multiple strokes.
plays an important role in the reliable operation of WTs • Rotor blades: three blades model are
in offshore and onshore installations. considered, however it is possible to model two
or one blade WTs. Some manufacturers have
Fig. 1-1 presents reference data of repair reports due to developed a lightning receptor system that
lightning in the period from 1992 to 2002 registered in requires a special modelling of the blades,
the scientific measurement and evaluation programme which will be reported in a future work.
(WMEP) in Germany [1], only WTs of rated power up to • Spark gaps (SGs): some manufacturers install
1.60MW are considered in this figure, WTs of 3MW and them between the rotor blades, hub and nacelle
above are not registered in [1]; more than 1000 repair to allow a conduction of the lightning current
reports were registered during this period in the database. into the earthing system.
• The tower: usually manufactured in steel or
800 3500 reinforced concrete.
700 3000 • The earthing system: which is influenced by the
Repair reports: Lightning

Qty. of WTs in Germany

600
2500 configuration of the earthing electrodes and the
500
2000 soil conditions.
400
1500
300 These models were integrated and simulated by means of
1000
200
the ATP-EMTP, TACS and MODELS computational
500
100
tools, which are a well-recognized reference in the
0 0
transient simulation of lightning surge studies.
<=250 <=500 <=750 <=1000 <=1250 <=1500 <=1750
Rated power [kW]
A WT with the following dimensions was addressed:
Repair reports WTs registered WTs installed in Germany
• Rotor diameter: 114 m
• Nacelle height: 124 m
Fig. 1-1: Repair reports due to lightning [2]. • Tower upper diameter: 2.5 m
• Tower lower diameter: 4.4 m
The main objective of this work is to make an approach
• Earthing system: ring electrode with 21.4 m
in the simulation of direct lightning effects on WTs based
diameter and type B arrangement [2].
on the modelling guidelines of lightning surge studies
from the transmission line theory. These effects are • Cross section of the aluminium down
quantified in form of voltage and current. conductor of the rotor blades: 25 mm2.

Two main configurations are built: with and without

spark gaps (SGs).

1
2.1 Lightning Stroke Model
A cloud-to-ground single lightning stroke was modelled
by means of a Heidler-type current source, more details
in this modelling are reported in [4] [6] [7].
Im ( t /τ1 ) et /τ
η impedance model was chosen [4].
i(t ) =
η (1 + ( t /τ1 )η )
[A]
Where Im is the peak value current in Amps, η the factor
influencing the rate of rise of the function, τ1 as the front
time constant in seconds and τ the stroke duration in
seconds. However it is possible to model other lightning
strokes e.g. upward initiated, multiple strokes, etc.
2.2 Rotor Blades
Based on the information provided in [2] and [5], the
main lightning protection concepts applied in pitch and
stall controlled WTs are presented below.
safely to the blade root. Variations of both these methods
are used with wind turbine blades [2].
As a first approach, the rotor blades can be modelled as a
three-phase system with the methods proposed in the
transient program simulation theory book. The surge-
(2-1)
Fig. 2-2 shows the corresponding geometrical references
used in this work, where: hi is the average height above
ground of conductor i in meters. Further, the rotor blades
can be divided in segments or pieces e.g. ZRR1 to ZRRn for
the blade R and so on; each piece can be represented as a
sub-transmission line.
2.2.1 Rotor Blades Model: Surge Impedance
The blades are divided in characteristic surge impedances
with a determined propagation velocity, depending on the
different segments, in which the rotor blades are divided.
Based on the theory of [4]; the surge impedance of the
conductor i can be calculated by means of the equation
(2-2).

ZR11
ZR22
Down conductor: R

ZRnn
Z
Z Tnn Sn
n
Z
Z T22 S2
2
Z
Z T11 S1
1
ZTower

Down conductor: T Down conductor: S

Fig. 2-1: Lightning protection on rotor blades [2].

The generic problem of lightning protection of wind

REarth

turbine blades is to conduct the lightning current safely

from the attachment point to the hub, in such a way that
the formation of a lightning arc inside the blade is Fig. 2-3: WT surge impedances.
avoided. This can be achieved by diverting the lightning
current from the attachment point along the surface to the
 2h 
blade root, using metallic conductors either fixed to the Zii = 60ln  i  [Ω/m] (2-2)
blade surface or inside the blade [2].  ri 

Down conductor: T Where: ri is the radius of conductor i in meters. The

propagation velocity is assumed to be the speed of light
(300 m/µs). Fig. 2-3 shows the references for the surge
Down conductor: R
impedances. The surge impedances are assumed to have
similar values in the rotor blades R, S and T.

When type L metallic profiles are used as down

hi
θ: Ref. angle
Down conductor: S
Fig. 2-2: WT geometry references [4].
Another method is to add conducting material to the
blade surface material itself, thus making the blade
sufficiently conducting to carry the lightning current
conductors in the rotor blades, the equivalent radius of
i the profile can be used in the equation (2-2); if type C
y rotor blades are modelled (Fig. 2-1), the geometric mean
radius (G.M.R.) of the equivalent bundle conductor can
x be used in the equation (2-2) in the same way [4] [7].
A special consideration during the simulation must be
made, when magnetic materials (E.g. Steel) as down
conductors are used, this is due saturation and non-linear
effects observed in this type of materials [4].

2
2.3 Spark Gaps constants k1 and k2 depend on the gap configuration and
polarity [8]. Tab. 2-1 shows the values of these constants.
Sparks gaps (SGs) allow a contact-free path for the
lightning current between rotating parts e.g. rotor blades, These equations were integrated in a special EMTP–
hub and nacelle; typical SGs configurations used in WTs programming language called MODELS. When the
are: rod – plane and rod – rod. The leader development leader length x reaches the gap length D, a TRIP signal is
method proposed in [8] was chosen as a representation passed to a switch in the main simulation, which starts
for the SGs. The advantage of this method lies in the the breakdown process.
consideration of the SGs polarity.
k1 k2
Gap conf.1 A B
When the applied impulse attains a certain value, [m2/VAs] [m2/VAs]
streamers develop from the rod into gap space. When the +R -P 0.50 0.30 2.0E-7 3.0E-3
streamers cross the gap, ionising waves propagate along -R +P 0.50 0.42 1.0E-7 2.5E-3
the streamer channel and when the ionising waves reach +R -R 0.50 0.42 1.0E-7 2.5E-3
the relatively high conductive zone near electrode, -R -R 0.50 0.50 0.5E-7 5.0E-3
leaders start the development. If the applied voltage is
maintained high enough, the leaders interconnect the gap, Tab. 2-1: SGs model constants [8].
which cause the intense ionising waves to lead the arch
phase through gas heating process [8].

The total breakdown time Tb of the SG can be

represented by the sum of the streamer-onset-time tp, the
streamer developing time Ts, which means the time Fig. 2-4: Control unit and switch in MODELS.
interval streamers cross the whole gap spacing, the
ionising wave-propagating-time Ti, the leader-developing
2.4 Tower Model
time TL and the gas heating time Tg; for practical
purposes based on [8], Ti is included in TL; tp and Tg can The tower is usually manufactured of steel or reinforced
be neglected. concrete. The surge impedance model proposed in [7] is
suggested.
Tb = t p + Ts + Ti + TL + Tg [s] (2-3)
2( ht2 + rt2 )
For the investigated SGs in this work with gap lengths in Zt = 30ln [Ω/m] (2-9)
the range of 8 cm to 15 cm the streamer developing time rt2
Ts mainly determines the total breakdown time Tb.
Where ht and rt are the tower height and base radius of
The streamer propagation time Ts can be calculated from the equivalent cone of the tower in meters. However
(2-4). other types of towers e.g. lattice tower can be modelled,
when their pyramidal shape is approximated to an
A equivalent cone [7].
TS =
V  [s] (2-4)
 − B 2.5 Footing Resistance Model (Earthing System)
D 
The earthing type B ring electrode system is usually
Where V, D, A, B are voltage across the gap in MV, gap installed in on-shore WTs; it comprises a ring earth
length in meters and the constants A and B depend on the electrode external to the structure in contact with the soil
gap configuration (rod – plane or rod – rod) and polarity. or a foundation earth electrode [2]. The footing resistance
The leader-developing time TL is calculated from the RT can be modelled from the guidelines proposed in [6]
leader velocity v, presented in the equations (2-5) until and [9].
(2-8).
R0
For a SG with positive polarity: RT =
I [Ω] (2-10)
1+
dx kV 2
kV x Ig
v= = 1 + 2 i [m/s] (2-5)
dt ( D − x) ( D − x) D
ρE
R0 = k [Ω] (2-11)
For a SG with negative polarity: 2π 2 D

dx kV2 k2V x 1 E0 ρE
v= = 1 + i [m/s] (2-6) Ig = [A] (2-12)
dt ( D − 2x) ( D − 2x) D 2π R02

i = C1 ×V × v [A] (2-7) Where R0, I, Ig, ρE, D, Eo, k are tower footing resistance
at low current and low frequency, lightning current
through the footing impedance, lightning current to
x (T + ∆T ) = x(T ) + v ×∆T [m] (2-8) initiate sufficient current ionisation, soil resistivity (see

Where v, i, x, C1 are leader velocity, pre-discharge

1
current, leader length in meters and capacity per unit The values for the -Rod +Plane gap were assumed from
length of the leader to the ground in Farad/meters. The the +Rod -Rod gap conf. in this work.

3
table below), earth electrode diameter, soil ionisation The rotor blades S and T experiment over-voltages due to
gradient (about 300 kV/m) and ring electrode constant the effects of the travelling waves across the WT. The
(typical values range between 15 and 20). However other SGs on the rotor blades S and T are ignited with a time
types of earthing systems can be modelled. delay due to the over-voltages experimented in the gaps.

Soil resistivity2 ρE [Ωm] 25

Boggy soil 5…50

[MV]
R S; T
Humus 50...200 16

Gravel 300...3000
Granite 103…5 104 7
Seawater 0.25…0.8
-2
Tab. 2-2: Typical soil resistivity values [9].

3. Case Study 1: 30 kA (1.2/50 µs) Lightning -11

A positive lightning stroke (30 kA, 1.2/50 µs) on one -20

0 2 4 6 8 10
rotor blade R (vertical position with θ=90 deg) and the (file 02_w ka_imp_3ph_w _sg_30ka_1-50us.pl4; x-var t) v:TIP_R -BLAD_R v:TIP_S -BLAD_S
[us]

WT data of the section 2 are simulated. Tab. 3-1 shows Fig. 3-2: Voltage in the rotor blades (w SGs).
the calculated values with the modelling of the rotor
blades as one segment based on the data of section 2. Fig. 3-3 shows the current across the stroked rotor blade
R and the earthing system without SGs; over-currents
Impedance Value [Ω] above 50 kA in the blade R and 60 kA in the earthing
ZRR (Section 2.2.1) 684.00 system are observed; oscillations with a frequency of
ZSS (Section 2.2.1) 684.00 approx. 1.3 MHz are reported; this frequency is
ZTT (Section 2.2.1) 684.00 determined by the travel time required along the WT or
ZTower (Section 2.4) 322.40 the shortest line model in the WT, in this case the rotor
R0 (Section 2.5) 9.00 blades.

Tab. 3-1: Surge impedances for the WT (section 2). The SGs introduce additional peaks in the current form
due to the effects of the SGs; values above 55 kA in the
A simulation time step of 9 ns is assumed, this value rotor blade R and 70 kA in the earthing system are
corresponds to the minimum travel time of the shortest reported.
line segment recommended in [6], in this case the rotor
blade length. A total simulation time of 50 µs was 60
[kA]
chosen. Two simulation cases are evaluated:
50

• WT without spark gaps 40

• WT with two rod-plane spark gaps per rotor

30
blade (10cm between blade and hub and 12 cm
between hub and nacelle) 20

The voltage across the rotor blade R reaches values above 10

15 MV without SGs and 20 MV with SGs, this could lead

0
to internal electrical arcs in the rotor blades, which are
not modelled in this work. The SGs introduce additional -10
0 4 8 12 16 20
peaks in the voltage form; this is due to their ignition (file 01_w ka_imp_3ph_30ka_1-50us.pl4; x-var t) c:BLAD_R-NACELL
[us]

delay time, which depends on the gap distance, Fig. 3-3: Current in the rotor blade R (w/o SGs).
configuration, voltage between the electrodes, etc. (see
figures below). 70

[kA]
20 55
[MV]
15 R S; T
40

10
25
5

10
0

-5
-5

-10 -20
0 4 8 12 16 [us] 20
(file 01_w ka_imp_3ph_30ka_1-50us.pl4; x-var t) c:TWR_D -SOIL_R
-15
0 2 4 6 8 [us] 10 Fig. 3-4: Current in the earthing system (w/o SGs).
(file 01_w ka_imp_3ph_30ka_1-50us.pl4; x-var t) v:TIP_R -BLAD_R v:TIP_S -BLAD_S

Fig. 3-1: Voltage in the rotor blades (w/o SGs).

2
A value of 200 Ωm was used in this work.

4
 70 and T experiment lower over-voltage values in the order
[kA]
60
of the 2 kV.
50 35
[kV]
40 30
R
30 25

20 20

10 15
S; T
0 10

-10 5
0 4 8 12 16 [us] 20
(file 02_w ka_imp_3ph_w _sg_30ka_1-50us.pl4; x-var t) c:BLAD_R-SGI_1
0
Fig. 3-5: Current in the rotor blade R (w SGs).
-5
0 2 4 6 8 [us] 10
80 (file 05_w ka_imp_3ph_1ka_10-50us.pl4; x-var t) v:TIP_R -BLAD_R v:TIP_S -BLAD_S
[kA]
Fig. 4-1: Voltage in the rotor blades (w/o SGs).
58
600
[kV]
R S; T
36
380

14
160

-8
-60

-30
0 4 8 12 16 [us] 20 -280
(file 02_w ka_imp_3ph_w _sg_30ka_1-50us.pl4; x-var t) c:TWR_D -SOIL_R

Fig. 3-6: Current in the earthing system (w SGs).

-500
0 2 4 6 8 [us] 10
If the initial lightning peak current of 30 kA at the top of (file 06_w ka_imp_3ph_w _sg_1ka_10-50us.pl4; x-var t) v:TIP_R -BLAD_R v:TIP_S -BLAD_S

WT is considered, a magnifying factor of approx. 2.3 for Fig. 4-2: Voltage in the rotor blades (w SGs).
the current is observed in the earthing system during the
first time steps of the simulation (with and without SGs). Fig. 4-2 shows the voltage across the rotor blade R with
The EMTP-ATP plot program developed in the SGs; it reaches values above 600 kV. The SGs introduce
university of Pisa allows a Fourier analysis (FFT) of the significant over-voltage values (lower lightning peak
current across the earthing system. A default frequency of currents and lower steepness lead to longer delays in the
130 kHz for the DFT is used. SGs ignition time). The SGs in the blades S and T are not
ignited; therefore no major voltage values are registered
Fig. 3-7 shows a high frequency content of the current in in the blades S and T.
the frequency range of the 3.1 MHz through the earthing
system (WT with and without SGs). The figures below show the current across the stroked
rotor blade R and the earthing system; no major over-
20 current effects are reported in the WT without SGs if they
18 are compared with the initial lightning peak current.
16
14 1200
12
[A]
[kA]

10
1000
8
6
4 800

2
0 600
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
Harmonics w/o SGs Harmonics w SGs 400

Fig. 3-7: Fourier chart: Earthing system current.

200

4. Case Study 2: 1 kA (10/50 µs) Lightning

0
0 10 20 30 40 [us] 50
A positive lightning stroke (1 kA, 10/50 µs) on the rotor (file 05_w ka_imp_3ph_1ka_10-50us.pl4; x-var t) c:BLAD_R-NACELL

blade R, the WT data of the section 2 and the calculated
surge impedances of the Tab. 3-1 are simulated. A
simulation time step of 9 ns and a total simulation length
of 50 µs are chosen.
Fig. 4-2 shows the voltage across the rotor blade R
without SGs; it reaches values above 30 kV. The blades S
Fig. 4-3: Current in the rotor blade R (w/o SGs).
Earth current values above 2 kA in the WT with SGs are
experimented; the SGs introduce a magnifying factor of
2.0, if the initial peak lightning current of 1 kA is
considered.

5
 1200 5. Conclusions
[A]

1000 The effects of travelling waves in WTs become

significant when their physical dimensions are increased,
800
this is observed in the modern WTs.
600
The models based on the assumptions of the line-theory
were simulated by means of the ATP-EMTP program.
400
This work is a first approach to explore the possibility of
200
the modelling of these effects with the existing theory.
The following conclusions are reported:
0
0 10 20 30
(file 05_w ka_imp_3ph_1ka_10-50us.pl4; x-var t) c:TWR_D -SOIL_R
40 [us] 50
Spark gaps introduce time delays in the over-
voltage/current curves, which depend on the lightning
Fig. 4-4: Current in the earthing system (w/o SGs).
peak value, lightning steepness, spark gap configuration,
1600
voltage in the gap, gap length, etc.
[A]

1300
The over-voltages/currents caused by the travelling
waves can lead to internal arcs in the rotor blade. Further
1000 experimental investigations are required.

700 Lightning strokes with lower steepness and peak values

lead to longer time delays in the spark gaps, which can
400 cause over voltages/currents in the earthing system.

100 6. Acknowledgments
-200
0 10 20 30 40 [us] 50 This work was possible due to the financial support of the
(file 06_w ka_imp_3ph_w _sg_1ka_10-50us.pl4; x-var t) c:BLAD_R-SGI_1 Chair for Power Systems & High Voltage Engineering at
Fig. 4-5: Current in the rotor blade R (w SGs). the Kassel University, which made this research a reality.

2500 7. References
[A]

2000
[1] ISET (2003) "Wind Energy Report Germany 2003",
Scientific Measurement and Evaluation Programme
1500
(WMEP) within the 250 MV Wind project.
1000
[2] IEC TR 61400-24 (2002) "Wind Turbine Generator
Systems - Part 24: Lightning Protection",
500 International Electrotechnical Commission.
[3] Canadian/American EMTP User Group (1987-
0 1992) "ATP – Rule Book", K.U. Leuven EMTP
Centre.
-500
0 10 20 30 40 50
[4] H. W. Dommel (1986) "EMTP – Theory Book",
[us]
(file 06_w ka_imp_3ph_w _sg_1ka_10-50us.pl4; x-var t) c:TWR_D -SOIL_R Branch of System Engineering, Bonneville Power
Fig. 4-6: Current in the earthing system (w SGs). Administration.
[5] DEFU (1999) "Recommendation 25: Lightning
The Fourier charts show the spectral differences for the Protection of Wind Turbines Edition 1", Research
WT without and with SGs. The current in the earthing Institute for Danish Electric Utilities.
system (WT with SGs) presents an additional high [6] Fast Front Transients Task Force of the IEEE
frequency content in the order of 100 A and 3.6 MHz Modeling and Analysis of System Transients
(see figure below). Working Group (1996) "Modeling Guidelines for
Fast Front Transients", IEEE Transactions on Power
800 Delivery, Vol. 11, No. 1.
700 [7] I.M. Dudurych, T.J. Gallagher, J. Corbett and M.
600 Val Escudero (2003) "EMTP Analysis of the
500 Lightning Performance of a HV Transmission
Line", IEE Proc.-Gener. Transm. Distrib., Vol. 150,
[A]

400

300
No.41.
200
[8] T. Shindo and T. Suzuki (1985) "A New Calculation
100
Method of Breakdown Voltage-Time
0
Characteristics of Long Air Gaps", IEEE
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 Transaction on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol.
Harmonics w/o SGs Harmonics w SGs
PAS-104, No.6.
Fig. 4-7: Fourier chart: Earthing system current. [9] F. Noack (2003) "Einführung in die elektrische
Energietechnik" (in German), Fachbuchverlag
Leipzig.

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