C.

R.B.MEMORI
ALSR.SEC.
PUBLI
C

Phy
sicsPr
ojecton:
-
SEMI
CONDUCTORANDI
TS
APPLI
CATI
ON

Submi
tt
edt
o: Submi
tt
edby
:
MR.
Nishakgupt
a Pr
aketkumar
 Cer
ti
fi
cat
e
Thi
sist
o cer
tif
ythatMAST Pr
aketKumar
,st
udentofCl
assXI
I,SCIHAS
SATI
SFACTORI
LY COMPLETED HI
S PROJECT WORK UNDER THE
SUPERVI
SION OF MR.
NishankGupt
aPGT PHYSI
CS FOR THE ACADEMI
C
YEAR2020-
21

SUBJECTTEACHER’
SSI
GNATURE:

EXTERNALEXAMI
NER’
SSI
GNATURE:

PRI
NCI
PAL’
SSI
GNATURE:
Acknowl
edgement
s

Iwoul
dli
ket
oexpr
essmysi
ncer
egr
ati
tudet
omy
phy
sicsment
orMR.
NishankGupt
a,f
orhI
S vi
tal
suppor
t,gui
dance and encour
agement
,wi
thout
whi
ch t
his pr
ojectwoul
d nothav
e come f
ort
h.I
woul
d al
so l
i
ke t
o expr
ess my gr
ati
tude t
othe
OTHERst
affoft
heDepar
tmentofPhy
sicsf
ort
hei
r
suppor
tdur
ingt
hemaki
ngoft
hispr
oject
.

IALSOAVAI
LTHI
SOPPORTUNI
TYTOEXPRESSMY
THANKSTOOURPRI
NCI
PLE
MR.
UPENDRAMI
SHRAFORHI
SAMPLEFACI
LITI
ES
PROVI
DEDBYHI
MIN THESCHOOLLABORATORY
FOR CONDUCTI
NG THE EXPERI
MENTS AND
COMPLI
TIONOFTHI
SPROJECT.
 Semi
conduct
or

TheSemi
conduct
ordev
icei
smadeupofamat
eri
alt
hati
s
nei
theragoodconduct
ornoragoodi
nsul
ator
,iti
scal
l
eda
semi
conduct
or.Such dev
ices hav
e est
abl
i
shed wi
de
appl
i
cat
ionsbecauseoft
hei
rrel
i
abi
l
ity
,compact
ness,and
l
owcost
.Thesear
edi
scr
etecomponent
swhi
char
eused
i
npowerdev
ices,compact
nessopt
icalsensor
s,andl
i
ght
emi
tt
ers,i
ncl
udi
ngsol
i
d-st
atel
aser
s.Theyhav
eawi
de
r
angeofcur
rentandv
olt
agehandl
i
ngcapabi
l
iti
es,wi
th
cur
rentr
ati
ngs mor
ethan 5,
000 amper
es and v
olt
age
r
ati
ngs mor
ethan 100,
000 v
olt
s. Mor
eimpor
tant
ly,
semi
conduct
ordev
icesl
endt
hemsel
vest
oint
egr
ati
oni
nto
compl
exbutr
eadi
l
ybui
l
d-upmi
croel
ect
roni
cci
rcui
ts.They
ar
e hav
ing pr
obabl
efut
ure,t
he key el
ement
s oft
he
maj
ori
tyofel
ect
roni
csy
stemsi
ncl
udi
ngcommuni
cat
ions
wi
th dat
a-pr
ocessi
ng,consumer
,and i
ndust
ri
al-
cont
rol
equi
pment
 Whatar
eSemi
conduct
orDev
ices?
Semi
conduct
or dev
ices ar
e not
hing but
el
ect
roni
c component
s t
hat expl
oit t
he
el
ect
roni
c pr
oper
ti
es of semi
conduct
or
mat
eri
als,l
i
ke as si
l
icon,ger
mani
um,and
gal
l
ium ar
seni
de, as wel
l as or
gani
c
semi
conduct
ors.Semi
conduct
ordev
iceshav
e
r
epl
acedv
acuum t
ubesi
nmanyappl
i
cat
ions.
They use el
ect
roni
c conduct
ion i
nthe sol
i
d
st
ateasopposedt
othet
her
mioni
cemi
ssi
oni
n
a hi
gh v
acuum.Semi
conduct
ordev
ices ar
e
manuf
act
ured f
orbot
h di
scr
ete dev
ices and
i
ntegr
atedci
rcui
ts,whi
chconsi
stoff
rom af
ew
t
o bi
l
li
ons of dev
ices manuf
act
ured and
i
nter
connect
ed on a si
ngl
e semi
conduct
or
subst
rat
eorwaf
er.
Semi
conduct
ormat
eri
alsar
e
usef
ulbyt
hei
rbehav
iorwhi
chcanbeeasi
l
y
mani
pul
ated byt
he addi
ti
on ofi
mpur
it
ies i
s
knownasdopi
ng.Semi
conduct
orconduct
ivi
ty
canbecont
rol
l
edbyt
heel
ect
ri
cormagnet
ic
f
iel
d,byexposur
etol
i
ghtorheat
,orbyt
he
mechani
caldef
ormat
ion of a doped mono
cr
yst
all
i
negr
id;
thus,
semi
conduct
orscanmake
excel
l
ent sensor
s.Cur
rent conduct
ion i
na
semi
conduct
oroccur
sfr
ee ofel
ect
rons and
hol
es,col
l
ect
ivel
yknown as char
ge car
ri
ers.
Dopi
ng ofsi
l
iconi
sdonebyaddi
ng asmal
l
amount of i
mpur
it
y at
oms and al
so f
or
phosphor
us orbor
on,si
gni
fi
cant
lyi
ncr
eases
t
he numberofel
ect
ronsorhol
eswi
thi
nthe
semi
conduct
or.
Whenadopedsemi
conduct
orcont
ainsexcess
hol
es i
t i
s cal
l
ed “
p-t
ype”
(posi
ti
ve f
or
hol
es)
semi
conduct
or,and when i
t cont
ains
someexcessoff
reeel
ect
rons,
iti
sknownas“
n
-
type”
(negat
ivef
orel
ect
rons)semi
conduct
or,i
s
t
hesi
gnofchar
geoft
hemaj
ori
tymobi
l
echar
ge
car
ri
ers.Thej
unct
ionswhi
chf
ormedwher
en-
t
ype and p-
type semi
conduct
ors ar
ejoi
ned
t
oget
heri
scal
l
edp–nj
unct
ion.
 Appl
i
cat
ionsofSemi
conduct
ors
Letusnow under
standt
heusesofsemi
conduct
orsi
ndai
l
yli
fe.Semi
conduct
orsar
eusedi
n
al
mostal
lel
ect
roni
cdev
ices.Wi
thoutt
hem,
ourl
i
fewoul
dbemuchdi
ff
erent
.

Thei
rrel
i
abi
l
ity
,compact
ness,
lowcostandcont
rol
l
edconduct
ionofel
ect
ri
cit
ymaket
hem i
deal
t
obeusedf
orv
ari
ouspur
posesi
nawi
der
angeofcomponent
sanddev
ices.t
ransi
stor
s,di
odes,
phot
osensor
s, mi
crocont
rol
l
ers, i
ntegr
ated chi
ps and much mor
e ar
e made up of
semi
conduct
ors.

UsesofSemi
conduct
orsi
nEv
ery
dayl
i
fe
Temper
atur
esensor
sar
emadewi
thsemi
conduct
ordev
ices.
Theyar
eusedi
n3Dpr
int
ingmachi
nes
Usedi
nmi
crochi
psandsel
f-
dri
vi
ngcar
s
Usedi
ncal
cul
ator
s,sol
arpl
ates,
comput
ersandot
herel
ect
roni
cdev
ices.
Tr
ansi
storandMOSFETusedasaswi
tchi
nEl
ect
ri
calCi
rcui
tsar
emanuf
act
uredusi
ngt
he
semi
conduct
ors.
 Di
ode
A semi
conduct
ordi
odei
sadev
icet
ypi
cal
l
ymadeup ofa si
ngl
ep-
n
j
unct
ion.The j
unct
ion ofa p-
type and n-
type semi
conduct
orf
orms a
depl
eti
onr
egi
onwher
ecur
rentconduct
ioni
sreser
vedbyt
hel
ackofmobi
l
e
char
gecar
ri
ers.Whent
hedev
icei
sfor
war
dbi
ased,t
hisdepl
eti
onr
egi
oni
s
r
educed,al
l
owi
ngf
orsi
gni
fi
cantconduct
ion,whent
hedi
odei
srev
erse
bi
ased,t
heonl
ylesscur
rentcanbeachi
evedandt
hedepl
eti
onr
egi
oncan
beext
ended.Exposi
ngasemi
conduct
ort
oli
ghtcanpr
oduceel
ect
ronhol
e
pai
rs,whi
ch i
ncr
eases t
he numberoff
ree car
ri
ers and t
her
eby t
he
conduct
ivi
ty.Di
odesopt
imi
zedt
otakeadv
ant
ageoft
hisphenomenoni
s
knownasphot
odi
odes.Compoundsemi
conduct
ordi
odesar
eal
sobei
ng
usedt
ogener
atel
i
ght
,li
ght
-emi
tt
ingdi
odesandl
aserdi
odes.
Tr
ansi
stor
Bi
pol
arj
unct
iont
ransi
stor
sar
efor
medbyt
wop-
njunct
ions,i
n

ei
therp-
n-porn-
p-nconf
igur
ati
on.Themi
ddl
eorbase,t
her
egi
on

bet
weent
hej
unct
ionsi
sty
pical
l
yver
ynar
row.Theot
herr
egi
ons,

andt
hei
rrel
atedt
ermi
nal
s,ar
eknownast
heemi
tt
erandcol
l
ect
or.

Asmal
lcur
renti
nject
edt
hrought
hej
unct
ionbet
weent
hebase

andemi
tt
erchanget
hepr
oper
ti
esoft
hebasecol
l
ect
orj
unct
ion

soi
tcanbeconductcur
rentev
ent
houghi
tisr
ever
sebi
ased.Thi
s

cr
eat
esal
argercur
rentbet
weent
hecol
l
ect
orandemi
tt
er,and

cont
rol
l
edbyt
hebase-
emi
tt
ercur
rent
.

Tr
ansi
stor
Anothertypeoft ransist ornamedasf ield-effectt r
ansistor,i
t
operatesont hepr i
nci plet hatsemi conduct orconduct i
v i
tycan
i
ncreasedordecr easedbyt hepr esenceofanel ect
ri
cf iel
d.An
el
ectricfi
eldcani ncreaset henumberofel ectronsandhol esina
semiconduct or,t
huschangi ngi tsconduct ivi
ty .Theelect r
icfi
eld
maybeappl iedbyar ev erse- biasedp-nj unct i
on, andit’sformsa
j
unctionfield-ef
fecttransi st or( JFET)orbyanel ectrodei nsul
ated
fr
om t hebulkmat erial byanoxi delayer ,andi tformsamet al
-
oxi
desemi conductorf ield-ef fecttransistor(MOSFET) .

Nowaday ’smostusedi ntheMOSFET, asoli

d-statedev i
ce, and
semiconductordevices.Thegateel ectr
odeischargedt opr oduce
anelect
ri
cf i
eldthatcancont rolt
heconductivi
tyofa“ channel”
betweentwot er
mi nals,
iscall
edt hesourceanddr ain.Dependi ng
uponthetypeofcar ri
erinthechannel ,t
hedevicemayben-
channel(
forelectr
ons)orp- channel (
forhol
es)MOSFET.
 Semi
conduct
orDev
iceMat
eri
als
Thesi l
icon(Si)i
smostwi delyusedmat eri
alinsemi conductor
devices.It
’shavingl
owerr awmat eri
alcostandr el
ativel
ysimple
process.Itsusefult
emper at urer
angemakesi tcur
rentlythebest
compr omiseamongt hev ariouscompet ingmat eri
als.Sil
icon
usedi nsemiconductordev i
cemanuf act
uringispresently
fabri
catedintobowlst hatar elar
geenoughi ndiamet ertoall
ow
themanuf actureof300mm ( 12in.)wafers.

Germanium (Ge)wasawi del

yusedi near
lysemi conductor
materi
al,butit
sther
malsensiti
vit
ymakesl essusefulthansil
i
con.
Nowaday s,germani
um i
sof t
enalloyedwi
th( Si
)sili
conforusein
ver
y-hi
gh-speedSiGedevi
ces; I
BM isamainpr oducerofsuch
devi
ces.

Gall
ium arseni
de( GaAs)isalsowidelyusedwi t
hhi gh-speed
devices,butsofar,i
thasbeendi ff
icul
ttoformlar ge-di
ameter
bowl softhi
smat eri
al,
li
mi t
ingthewaf erdi
ametersi zes
si
gni f
icant
lysmallert
hansi l
iconwafersthusmaki ngmass
productionofGall
ium arsenide(GaAs)devicessignifi
cantl
ymore
expensivethansil
icon.
Li
stofCommonSemi
conduct
orDev
ices
Thelistofcommonsemiconductordevi
cesmainl
y
i
ncludestwoter
minal
s,t
hreeterminalsandf
ourter
minal
devi
ces

CommonSemi
conduct
orDev
ices
-
Thet
wo-
ter
minal
dev
icesar
e

•
Diode(
rect
if
ierdi
ode)

•
Gunndi
ode

•
IMPATTdi
ode

•
Laserdi
ode

•
Zenerdi
ode

•
Schot
tkydi
ode

•
PINdi
ode

•
Tunnel
diode
•
Light
-emi
tt
ingdi
ode(
LED)

•
Phot
otr
ansi
stor

•
Phot
ocel
l

•
Sol
arcel
l

•
Transi
ent
-vol
tage-
suppr
essi
ondi
ode

•
VCSEL

-
Thr
ee-
ter
minal
dev
icesar
e

•
Bipol
art
ransi
stor

•
Fiel
d-ef
fectt
ransi
stor

•
Dar
li
ngt
ont
ransi
stor

•
Insul
ated-
gat
ebi
pol
art
ransi
stor(
IGBT)

•
Uni
j
unct
iont
ransi
stor

•
Sil
i
con-
cont
rol
l
edr
ect
if
ier

•
Thy
rist
or

•
TRI
AC

Four
-t
ermi
nal
dev
icesar
e

•
Phot
ocoupl
er(
Opt
ocoupl
er)

•
Hal
lef
fectsensor(
magnet
icf
iel
dsensor
)
 Semi
conduct
orDev
iceAppl
i
cat
ions
Alltypesoft r
ansist
orcanbeusedast he
buil
dingblocksofl ogicgates,whichisuseful
to
designofdi gi
talcir
cuit
s.Indigit
alcir
cuit
sli
ke
asmi croprocessors,tr
ansist
orssowhi chis
acti
ngasaswi t
ch( on-
off
);intheMOSFET, for
exampl e,t
hev olt
ageappliedtot hegate
determineswhet hertheswi t
chisonorof f.

Thet ransi
stor sareusedf oranal ogcircuitsdo
notactasswi t
ches( on-off)
;relati
vely,t
hey
respondt oacont i
nuousr angeofi nputwi t
ha
continuousr angeofout put.Commonanal og
cir
cuitsincludeosci ll
atorsandampl if
iers.The
cir
cuitsthati nter
faceort ranslatebetween
analogci r
cuitsanddi gi
talcir
cuitsareknownas
themi xed-signalcircuit
s.
Adv
ant
agesofSemi
conduct
orDev
ices
•Assemi conduct
ordevi
ceshav
enofil
aments,
henceno
powerisneededt oheatt
hem t
ocausetheemissi
onof
elect
rons.
•Si
ncenoheati
ngi
srequi
red,
semiconductordevi
cesar
e
seti
ntooper
ati
onassoonasthecir
cuiti
sswi t
chedon.
•Dur
ingoperat
ion,semi
conduct
ordev
icesdonotpr
oduce
anyhummi ngnoise.
•Semi
conduct
ordevicesrequir
elowv
olt
ageoper
ati
onas
comparedtovacuum tubes.
•Owi
ngtotheirsmal
lsizes,
thecir
cui
tsi
nvol
vi
ng
semi
conductordevi
cesareverycompact
.
•
Semi
conduct
ordev
icesar
eshockpr
oof
.
•
Semiconductordev
icesar
echeaperascompar
edt
o
v
acuum tubes.
•
Semi
conduct
ordev
iceshav
eanal
mostunl
i
mit
edl
i
fe.
•Asnovacuum hast
obecr eat
edinsemiconductor
devi
ces,
theyhavenovacuum det
eri
orat
iontrouble.
Di
sadv
ant
agesofSemi
conduct
orDev
ices
Thenoi
sel
eveli
shigheri
nsemiconduct
ordev
ices
ascompar
edtothati
nthevacuum t
ubes.
Or
dinar
ysemiconduct
ordevicescannothandl
eas
morepowerasordi
naryvacuum tubescando.
I
nhi
ghf
requencyr
ange,
theyhav
epoorr
esponder
.
Thus, thi
sisallaboutdi fferentt ypesof
semi conductordevicesi ncl udet wot erminal
s,thr
ee
terminalsandf ourterminal dev i
ces.Wehopet hat
youhav egotabet t
erunder standingoft hi
sconcept.
Furthermore,anydoubt sr egar dingthisconceptor
electri
calandelectronicpr oj ects,pl
easegi veyour
feedbackbycomment i
ngi nt hecommentsect i
on
below.Her eisaquest i
onf ory ou,whatar ethe
applicati
onsofsemi conduct ordev i
ces?