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2020 SPM Physics: Chapter 1 Introduction To Physics Scalar and Vector
2020 SPM Physics: Chapter 1 Introduction To Physics Scalar and Vector
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Metre Rule
1. The accuracy of the metre rule is 0.1cm
or 1 mm
2. To increase the accuracy of the metre
rule:
a. Avoid parallax error by placing the eyes
in the line with the reading.
b. Avoid zero error by subtracting the zero
error from the reading
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Positive zero error Negative zero error
6. Precaution:
(i) Position of eye must perpendicular to the scale of the micrometer screw gauge to avoid
parallax error
(ii) Avoid over tightening the aluminum sheet by using the ratchet.
Scientific Investigation
Experiment
1. To investigate the relationship between the length, l of a simple pendulum and the period
of oscillation, T.
(a) Manipulated: Length of pendulum
(b) Responding: Period of oscillation
(c) Constant: The gravitational acceleration / the mass of the bob / number of oscillation
(d) Hypothesis: The length of pendulum increases, the period of oscillation increases.
Linear Motion
1. Distance (scalar quantity) is the total length of the path moved by an object.
2. Displacement (vector quantity) is the shortest distance between the final positions of an
object to a reference point in a specified direction. [calculate], [area under the graph]
v 2 u 2 2as
3. Speed (scalar quantity) is defined as the rate of change of distance with time.
Dis tan ce(m)
Speed
Time( s )
4. Velocity (vector quantity) is defined as the rate of change of displacement with time, unit
metre per second (ms 1 ) .
Displacement (m)
velocity
Time( s )
5. Acceleration (vector quantity) is defined as the rate of change of velocity with time, unit
(ms 2 ) .
FinalVelocity, v initialVelocity, u
Acceleration, a
Time.t
6. Modifications that can be made to make a man run faster and achieve maximum
acceleration.
i) Type of attire: light/tight/smooth (reason: less air friction)
ii) Type of shoes: spike shoes/shoes with grooves (reason: better grip, prevent slippery)
iii) Additional equipment: starting block (reason: increase forward force at starting)
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7. An object is undergoing a deceleration when it is slowing down. The rate of change of
velocity of the object has a negative value.
8. The ticker time can be used to measure the velocity and acceleration of an object.
9. The ticker timer uses an a.c. 50Hz power supply. Therefore
(a) Makes 50 ticks on the ticker tape in one second.
(b) Makes one tick in 0.02 second.
10. Ticker – Timer
Ticker Tape Pattern Interpretation Graph
Uniform
Uniform speed
distance
or uniform
Direction of motion between two
velocity
consecutive dots
Distance Speed or
Direction of motion between dots velocity
- - moved at a steady speed is increases increases
then decelerated uniformly uniformly
Distance Speed or
between dot velocity
Direction of motion decreases decreases
uniformly uniformly
11.An object which start to move with an initial velocity, u and attains a final velocity, v in
time, t has an acceleration of
v u at Equation (1)
Example 1: Time taken for an object to fall from a height from the moon’s surface is
longer then the earth’s surface. Because g moon < g earth.
12.For motion with constant acceleration:
1 1 2
s (u v)t Equation (2) s ut at Equation (3)
2 2
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13. Motion graphs
(a) Displacement-time graphs
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Conservation of Momentum
Momentum 1. The principle of conservation of
1. A fast moving trolley has a higher momentum states that:
resistance to a change in its state of The total momentum of a system is
motion compared to a trolley with a constant, if no external force acts on
lower velocity and it is more difficult to the system.
stop a heavy trolley which is moving at 2. Examples of external force are friction,
the same velocity as an empty trolley. air resistance, etc.
2. The resistance of an object to a change 3. A balloon is tied to a rod when the air is
in its state of motion is known as released, a backward momentum is
momentum. produced.
3. The total momentum before and after the 4. The principle of conservation of
collision is the same. momentum is applied in two situations:
4. The linear momentum, p of an object of (a) Collision (elastic and inelastic)
mass, m, which is moving with a velocity, (b) Explosion
v, is defined as the product of mass and 5. Design of jet engine to be used in air
velocity. craft:
p=mv
5. The unit of momentum is kg ms 1 . Specifications Suitability
6. Momentum is a vector quantity and acts large opening - more air taken in
in the same direction as the velocity. for air intake - the air as fuel
When the positive sign is used to use titanium - strong
represent the right direction, then the left blades - not rust
direction is represented by the negative large i. can burn more fuels
sign and vice versa. combustion ii. more exhaust gas
7. When the velocity increase, momentum chamber produced
increases. iii. larger backward
8. Slower speed limit must be imposed on momentum produced
heavy vehicles. small exhaust - increase velocity of
- Vehicle with high speed produces opening exhaust gases
momentum. - larger backward
- Thus, lower speed will reduce the momentum produced
impact caused by momentum if an
accident happens.
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Collisions
Elastic collisions Inelastic collisions
1
v v
2
After collision, the objects move separately. After collision, the objects move together with
a common velocity.
Momentum Momentum
is conserved.
Total energy is conserved. Total energy
Kinetic energy Kinetic energy is not conserved.
m Au A mB u B m A v A mB v B m Au A mB u B m A mB v
EXPERIMENT
Aim :To verify the principle of conservation of momentum in elastic and inelastic
collisions
Problem : Is momentum conserved in elastic and inelastic collisions?
Hypothesis :Momentum is conserved in elastic and inelastic collisions.
Apparatus/Materials
Ticker-timer, 12 V a.c. power supply, ticker tape, 4 trolleys of equal mass, track, spring-
loaded piston and a wooden block.
Variables:
(a) Manipulated: Mass of trolley, m
(b) Responding: Velocity of trolley, v
(A) Elastic collision
Arrangement of Apparatus
Procedure
1. The apparatus is arranged as shown in Figure 2.13.
2. The track is adjusted until it is friction-compensated.
3. Trolley A with a spring-loaded piston is placed at the higher end of the runway while
trolley B is placed at the middle of the runway. Ticker tapes are attached to both trolleys.
4. When the ticker-timer is switched on, trolley A is pushed slightly so that it moves down
the track with a uniform velocity and collides with trolley B.
5. After the collision, the trolleys move separately and the ticker tapes are used to calculate
the velocities of trolleys A and B before and after the collision.
6. Assuming that the mass of each trolley is 1 unit, the momentums before and after the
collision are calculated.
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7. The experiment is repeated using:
(a) 1 trolley to collide with 2 stationary stacked trolleys
(b) 2 stacked trolleys to collide with 1 stationary trolley
Results
Discussion
1. The spring-loaded piston is used to separate the trolleys after collision.
2. In practice, the collision is not a perfectly elastic collision as part of the kinetic energy is
converted into sound or heat when the trolleys collide.
3. Table 2.4 shows that the total momentum before collision equals the total momentum
after collision.
Conclusion
The momentum is conserved in an elastic collision. The hypothesis is accepted.
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Procedure
1. Some plasticine is attached to both trolleys as shown in Figure 2.15.
2. A ticker tape is attached to trolley A only.
3. When the ticker-timer is switched on, trolley A is pushed slightly so that it moves down
the track with a uniform velocity and collides with trolley B.
4. After the collision, the trolleys move together and the ticker tape is used to calculate the
initial velocity of trolley A before the collision and the common velocity of combined
trolleys A and B after the collision.
5. Assuming that the mass of each trolley is 1 unit, the momentums before and after the
collision are calculated.
6. The experiment is repeated using:
(a) 1 trolley to collide with 2 stationary stacked trolleys
(b) 2 stacked trolleys to collide with 1 stationary trolley
Results
1.
2. Tabulation of data:
Discussion
1 The plasticines are used to attach the trolleys after collision.
2 In practice, the collision is not a perfectly inelastic collision as part of the kinetic energy
is converted into sound or heat when the trolleys collide.
3 Table 2.5 shows that the total momentum before collision equals the total momentum
after collision.
Conclusion
Momentum is conserved in an inelastic collision. The hypothesis is accepted.
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Explosions 1. Before explosion, both the bullet and the
Example 1 rifle are at rest. The total momentum is
[how rocket is launched] zero.
2. When the rifle is fired, the bullet which
has mass and moves with a velocity,
produces a forward momentum. This
causes the rifle to recoil backwards with a
backward momentum which has the same
momentum as the bullet.
Therefore, the total momentum after the
explosion is still zero and it can be
1. A balloon filled with air, moves upwards written as:
with a certain momentum when air is m1 v1 + m 2 v 2 = 0
released from the bottom of the balloon.
The air which has mass and moves with a Rearranging the formula gives:
velocity, produces a backward momentum m1 v1 = – m 2 v 2
which then causes the balloon to move
where the negative sign indicates the
upwards with the same momentum.
opposite direction. Since the magnitudes
2. The total momentum before the explosion
are equal, the equation can be written as:
is zero as the velocities of the balloon and
m1 v1 = – m 2 v 2
air are zero.
3. The total momentum after the explosion
is still zero as the upward momentum is Other applications of explosions are rocket
equal to the downward momentum. propulsion and jet propulsion for
4. Therefore, the principle of conservation airplanes.
of momentum is obeyed.
Example 2 Example 3
1. A running athlete
2. Momentum of the hand moving
backwards = momentum of the body
moving forward
Question
The masses of the bow and arrow in Figure
are 10 kg and 1 kg respectively. When the
string of the bow is released, the arrow
moves forward with a velocity of 20ms 1 .
Calculate the recoil velocity of the bow.
Using m 1 v 1 + m 2 v 2 = 0,
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(10 kg) v 1 + (1 kg) (20ms ) = 0
1
The recoil velocity of the bow is 2 ms 1 ,
where the negative sign indicates that it is
(10 kg) v 1 = –20 kg ms 1 moving to the right, which is in the opposite
v 1 = –2 ms 1 direction to the arrow.
EXPERIMENT
Aim : To verify the principle of conservation of momentum in explosions
Problems : Is momentum conserved in an explosion?
Hypothesis : Momentum is conserved in an explosion.
Apparatus/Materials
4 trolleys of equal mass, wooden blocks, metre rule and hammer.
Variables
(a) Manipulated : Mass of trolley, m
(b) Responding : Velocity of trolley (represented by the distance traveled by the trolley)
Arrangement of Apparatus
Procedure
1. The apparatus is arranged as shown in Figure 2.21.
2. Trolleys A and B are placed in contact to each other on a smooth surface and the spring-
loaded piston in trolley A is compressed.
3. The release pin on trolley A is tapped lightly to release the spring-loaded piston which
separates the trolleys. The trolleys collide with the wooden blocks.
4. The experiment is repeated and the positions of the wooden blocks are adjusted so that
both the trolleys collide with them at the same time. The distances d1 and d 2 are
measured and recorded.
5. The experiment is repeated using
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(a) 1 trolley with 2 stacked trolleys,
(b) 1 trolley with 3 stacked trolleys.
Results
Before
After explosion
explosion
Velocity of Final total
Initial total Mass of trolley Mass of trolley Velocity of
trolley A, momentum,
momentum A, m A B, m B trolley B, d B
dA m A d A m B d B
0 1 1 0
0 1 2 0
0 3 1 0
Discussion
1. Total momentum before explosion is zero because both trolleys are stationary.
2. Total momentum after explosion = m A (-d A ) + m B d B
3. Table 2.6 shows that m A (-d A ) + m B d B = 0. Therefore:
Total momentum before explosion = Total momentum after explosion
Conclusion
Momentum is conserved in an explosion. The hypothesis is accepted.
Forces in Equilibrium
1. When forces are in equilibrium or when
forces are balanced, the net force or
resultant force, FR is zero. The object
at this moment will either be stationary /
at rest or moving with uniform
velocity (zero acceleration).
2. Normal reaction, R and the weight, W
(mg) are acting in opposite directions.
so, the resultant force is the subtraction
of the two forces.
3. An example of forces in equilibrium:
(a) A television placed on a table.
1 2
S ut at
2
When the forces are in equilibrium: (c) A car descending a hill at constant
Normal reaction force, R velocity
= Weight of television, W (= m£) (d) A lamp is hanging at rest in hall
(e) A ship floating at rest in the sea
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4.
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2. The two components of force are the
vertical force, Fy and the horizontal force,
Fx. They are perpendicular to each other
in a parallelogram.
3. Simple trigonometry is applied to obtain
the values of Fx and Fy .
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Elasticity
a. A property of matter that enables an
object to return to its original shape and
size after the force acting on it is
removed.
b. Hooke's law states that:
The change in length of a spring is
directly proportional to the force
applied to the spring without
exceeding the elastic limit of the
spring.
c. As shown in Experiment 2.7, when the
weight of the load increased, the change
in length of the spring also increases
A boy in a lift when the load is removed, the spring
1. When the lift moves up with acceleration, returns to its original length and shape.
the normal reaction is greater than his d. When extra loads are continuously added
weight. R > W, W = mg, R – W = ma to the spring, there will be a stage where
2. There is a resultant force acting upwards, the spring does not return to its original
F = ma due to its acceleration. length when all the loads are removed.
3. Normal reaction is equal to the sum of There is a permanent extension to the
the boy’s weight and the resultant force, spring where the elastic limit of the load
R=mg + ma. has be exceeded.
4. When the lift moves down, weight e. The elastic limit of a spring is the
reduces. maximum force that be applied to a
5. Because W > R or R = W – ma. spring before the spring ceases to be
elastic spoils.
Aeroplane f. Figure shows a graph of applied force
1. Flying horizontally with increasing against extension of a spring (F-x graph).
velocity: thrust > Drag The straight line passing through the
Lawnmower origin shows that the applied force is
1. Big size cutter blade (surface area more directly proportional to the extension of
larger) the spring. Hooke's law is obeyed.
2. Downward force greater
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the load is removed, the spring is not able Ep=
1 2
kx
to return to its original state. 2
h. Based on the straight line in the F- x k. The spring constant, k is a measure of the
graph in Figure 2.59, elasticity or the stiffness of the spring.
Fx l. The bigger the spring constant, the higher
F the stiffness of the spring.
F = kx or k= x
m. To investigate about stretching of a
spring by support different of mass:
where k is a constant known as spring
(a) Manipulated: Mass of an object
constant and the unit of k is N m-1.
i. From Hooke's law: F = kx (b) Responding: Length of spring/
Extension
Applying y = mx + c, equation of straight line
(c) Constant: Diameter of spring
k = m n. Velocity does not depend on mass.
= gradient of the F-x graph Velocity depends on height.
Potential energy = kinetic energy
Hence, the gradient of the F-x graph
represents the spring constant, k.
j. The area under the straight line of the F-x
graph represents the elastic potential v = 2 gh
energy, E p . q. The oscillation is clamped due to the
1 resistant affair.
Area under the graph, A = E p = Fx
2
1
Substituting F = kx, E p = (kx)(x)
2
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(c) Diameter of the coil of spring/ Shorter
spring, R is stiffer. Spring T with
smaller diameter of
coil is stiffer.
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Aim: To investigate the relation between the period of oscillation of a loaded spring and the
mass of its load.
Manipulated variable: Mass of the load
Responding variable : Period of oscillation
Constant variable : The type of spring/spring constant
List of apparatus and materials: Retort stand and clamp, spring, slotted weights,
stopwatch.
Arrangement of apparatus
(e) Procedure:
i. Measure the time of 10 oscillations using a stopwatch
and the initial load of 50 g.
ii. Calculate the period of one oscillation.
iii. Repeat the experiment four limes using loads of 100 g,
150 g, 200 g, and 250 g.
Tabulation of data
Load mass, m/g Time for 10 oscillations/s Period of oscillation, T/s
50
100
150
200
250
(g) Analysis of data
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Experiment:
Aim:
To investigate the relationship between the extension of a spring and the stretching force
Problem:
Azizi and Kamaruzzaman, the sons of Puan Halimah, who are 1 year old and 3 years old are
sleeping in their cradles. The spring for Kamaruzzaman’s cradle extend longer. What is the
relationship between extension of spring and stretching force?
Inference:
The extension of the spring depends on the weight or force acting on it.
Hypothesis:
The extension of the spring is directly proportional to the stretching force.
Variables:
Manipulated : Weight of load, F
Responding : Spring extension, x
Fixed : Force constant of the spring, k
Operational definition:
The weight of the load represents the force which stretches the spring. The weight of the load
is given by the formula, F = mg, where m is the mass of the load (in kg) and g = 10 N kg -1.
Apparatus and Materials:
Spring, pin, slotted weight, weight holder, retort stand with clamp, metre rule and plasticine.
Arrangement of Apparatus:
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Procedure:
1. The metre rule is clamped vertically to the retort stand, with its ‘0’ mark at the top.
2. The spring is suspended from the clamp.
3. The pin is attached to the bottom end of the spring with plasticine.
4. The initial position of the pin, lo is noted.
5. A weight holder of mass 50 g is hooked onto the bottom of the spring. A slotted weight
of mass 50g is added to the weight holder. The total weight acting on the spring is noted
and the new position of the pin, l is recorded.
6. The extension of the spring is calculated from the formula: x = l - lo.
7. Step 5 is repeated with the addition of 50 g each time until a maximum of 300 g. All the
respective readings are noted recorded.
Results:
Experiment data:
Original position of the spring = lo cm
Load, Stretching force, Position of pin, Spring extension,
m (kg) F = mg (N) l (cm) x = l - lo (cm)
0.10 1.0
0.15 1.5
0.20 2.0
0.25 2.5
0.30 3.0
Discussion:
The straight line in the x-F graph passes through the origin. This shows that the extension of
the spring, x is directly proportional to the stretching force, F.
Conclusion:
Hypothesis is valid.
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- pressure in a liquid at the same depth 2. When the toothpaste is being squeezed,
acts equally in all direction. the force acting over area of contact
- pressure at the same depth acts equally produces pressure. Pressure is
in all direction transmitted to the other end and pushes
the toothpaste out.
2. Pressure in liquid, P = hpg .
Basic Hydraulic System
Thus, P h. 1 Figure 3.22 shows a basic hydraulic
system where a small force, F1 is applied
on cylinder P with a smaller surface
area,A1 to produce a large force,F2 on
cylinder Q with a larger surface area ,A2.
2 Pressure due to the force, F1 acting on the
smaller cylinder P is transmitted by the
3.
liquid to the larger cylinder Q. The
transmitted pressure is constant.
3 The hydraulic system must not contain
any air bubbles as these will reduce the
efficiency of the system because part of
the applied force will be used to
compress the air bubbles.
Observation:
Pressure in liquid at A, B, C, D are the
same.
Conclusion:
Pressure in a liquid is not affected by the 4 The equation shows that when the
shape or size of the container. surface area A is larger, the force F o
2 2
larger and vice versa.
4. Gasses can be compressed because 5 When loads are placed on the pistons, the
(a) molecules are further apart forces, F1 and F2 are by the weights of
(b) forces between molecules are weak the loads in the equation above.
5. The Brownian motion of smoke particles
is due to the smoke particles are being
randomly hit by air molecules.
6. Piston moved slowly down cause
pressure of gas increases because the
molecules collide more often with the
walls
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5. Heavier load can be lifted by replacing
the small surface area piston with a
bigger radius/surface area piston.
Procedure:
1. Apparatus is set as shown in the above diagram.
2. The tall cylinder is filled with water till about 1/4 full.
3. The funnel with the membrane facing downwards is pushed into the cylinder to a depth, d
of 5 cm
4. The corresponding difference in coloured liquid level, h of the manometer is measured
~with a metre rule and its reading, is recorded
5. Repeat the experiment at least 4 times
6. Steps 3 to 4m repeated with d=10.0cm, 1 5.0 cm, 20.0 cm and 25.0cm.
Result:
Depth, d (cm) Difference in coloured liquid level, h(cm)
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Archimedes’ Principle
1 Archimedes’ principle states that for a body wholly or partially immersed in a fluid, the
upward buoyant force acting on the body is equal to the weight of the fluid it
displaces.
(a) An object that floats in a liquid has a density less than or equal to the density of the
liquid.
(b) An object will sink if the density of the object is greater than the density of the
liquid. This is because its weight is greater than the upthrust that acts on it.
2 Buoyant force is the upward force resulting from an object being wholly or partially
immersed in a fluid.
m
3 Density: p , unit gcm3 .
v
4 Density is the mass per volume of the material.
5 Steam has lower density than water.
Water Steam
Molecules of H 2 O are close together Molecules of H 2 O are far apart.
For a fixed volume, steam has a lower number of molecules or lower mass. So the density is lower.
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7 Length of hydrometer longer submerged
in oil than water because density of oil
lower than water.
8 Modification to the boat:
a) Bigger size – to increases buoyant
force
b) Water proof material – to avoid water
leakage
c) High rigidly material – to avoid shape
charging of the boat
d) The higher the density, the greater the
buoyant force.
e) The greater the buoyant force the
smaller the apparent weight.
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Experiment:
Aim: Hypothesis: Apparatus and
To investigate the relationship The more an object is materials:
between volume of an object immersed in water, the higher Spring balance, cylindrical
immersed in water and is the buoyant force acting on steel rod, water, beaker,
buoyant force act on it it. retort stand
Variables: Procedure:
Manipulated: 1. The arrangement of apparatus is set up.
Volume of water 2. By using a spring balance, the weight of the steel rod in the air is
Responding: measured. Weight = W1N
Reading of spring 3. The rod is then lowered into the water until the volume of rod
balance/buoyant immersed in water is 50 cm3.
force 4. The reading of spring balance, W N is recorded.
Constant: Type 5. The buoyant force, F can be calculated using the formula: F = W1 –
of cylindrical W
steel rod used 6. The experiment is repeated with volume of the rod immersed, V =
100 cm3, 150 cm3, 200 cm3 and 250 cm3.
Arrangement of apparatus: Tabulation of data:
Analysis of data:
Graph of F against V
Boyle’s law
1. Boyle’s law states that the pressure of a
fixed mass of gas is inversely
proportional to its volume at a constant 2. When air is compressed, kinetic energy
temperature. of gas particles remains unchanged.
1 3. Reason: Temperature of gas is constant,
P
V thus kinetic energy same.
or PV = constant Example:
P1 V1 = P 2 V 2 1. A balloon immersed into the water.
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(a) The pressure of the air in the balloon syringe is 100 cm3 at atmospheric
is balanced by the atmospheric pressure.
pressure & the rubber material of the 3. The other end of the rubber tube is
balloon connected to a Bourdon gauge and the
(b) The deeper the balloon, the greater pressure of the air in the syringe is read
the water pressure from the gauge.
(c) According to Boyle’s an increases in 4. The piston of the syringe is pushed in
pressure will cause a decreases in until the enclosed volume is 90 cm3. The
volume pressure on the Bourdon gauge is
(d) Hence, size balloon is reduced recorded.
2. A weight needed to submerge the balloon 5. Step 4 is repeated for enclosed volumes
in water of 80 cm3,70 cm3, and 60 cm3.
(a) Water exerts an upthrust on the 6. A graph of P against 1/V is drawn.
balloon
(b) As balloon filled with air, its weight Results:
is less than the upthrust exerted on it
Procedure:
1. The apparatus is set up as shown.
2. A rubber tube is connected to the nozzle
of the syringe. The piston of the syringe
is adjusted until the volume of air in the
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Pressure Law Charles’ Law
1. Pressure law states that the pressure of a 1. Charles’ law states that the volume of a
fixed mass of gas is directly proportional fixed mass of gas is directly proportional
to its absolute temperature (in Kelvin) at to its absolute temperature (in kelvin) at a
a constant volume. \ constant pressure.
2. When a bottle containing hot air is put VT
into basin of ice (temp decrease), the hot or
V
= constant
air condenses and causes low pressure in T
the bottle. The atmospheric pressure V1 V
= 2
inwards.
PT
P
or = constant
T
P1 P
= 2 The absolute temperature refers to 0 K or
T1 T2
-273 °C, which measured on the absolute
temperature, scale (Kelvin temperature
scale) and used in studies on gas laws.
2. Temperature increases, kinetic energy
increases.
3. When force decreases, the volume of the
P1 P2 gas increases at a constant temperature
Calculation:
T1 273 T2 273
Experiment:
Aim:
To investigate the relationship between the temperature, T and the volume, V of a gas at
constant pressure
Problem Statement:
What is the relationship between the volume and temperature of a fixed mass of gas at
constant
Hypothesis:
Volume of a fixed mass of gas at constant increases when its temperature is increased.
Variables:
(a) Manipulated : Temperature of trapped air
(b) Responding : Length of air column
I Fixed : Atmospheric pressure and mass
Materials:
capillary tube, tall beaker, thermometer, Bunsen Turner, tripod stand, wire gauze, retort
stand, mercury , concentrated sulphuric acid, stirrer, ruler, and ice.
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Procedures:
1. The air sample under investigation is trapped inside the capillary tube by a bead of
concentrated sulphuric acid which acts as an index.
2. The capillary tube is mounted on a 30-cm ruler such that the bottom end of the column of
air is aligned with the ‘0’ mark on the ruler.
3. Water and ice are poured into the beaker until the column of air is fully immersed under
water. The water is stirred until the water temperature falls to 0 °C. The length of the air
column, x and the temperature, 0 is recorded.
4. The water is heated and continuously stirred. The values of x and 8 are recorded for each
temperature increment of 10 °C until a temperature of 90 °C is reached.
5. A graph of length of air column, x against temperature, 0 is drawn.
Experimental data:
Discussion
The graphs show that the length of the air column, (volume of gas) is proportional to the
absolute temperature, 8 (K).
Conclusion : The volume of a fixed mass of gas a pressure is directly proportional to that
temperature (in kelvin) of the gas. The hypothesis is valid.
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Heating Curves
Figure shows the heating curve of a substance which is heated at fixed rate
Assumption: no heat loss to surrounding.
Cooling Curves
The figure shows the cooling curve of a substance which is cooled at a fixed rate.
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- The transfer of heat during changes of phase does not cause a change in temperature. However,
when there is no change of phase, the heat absorbed increases the temperature of the substance
being heated.
- The heat absorbed or released when a substance undergoes a change in phase without a change
in temperature is the latent heat.
FORM 4 CHAPTER 5 LIGHT
Differences
- Curves towards object. - Curves away from object.
- Rays parallel to the principle axis converge - Rays parallel to the principal axis diverge
at the real focal point, F which is situated in from the virtual focal point, F which is
front of the mirror situated behind the mirror.
- Positive focal length Example: +15cm - Negative focal length Example: -15cm
2. Common terminology
i. Principal axis A line which passes through the centre of curvature, C and the
pole of the curved mirror, P.
ii. Pole of mirror, P The centre point of a curved mirror.
iii. Centre of curvature, C The geometric centre of a curved mirror.
iv. Focal point, F A point where rays parallel to the principal axis converge or
diverge from.
v. Focal length, f The distance between the focal point, F and the pole of mirror,
P.
vi. Radius of curvature The distance between the centre of curvature, C and the pole
r=2f of mirror, P.
vii. Object distance, u The object distance between the object and the pole of mirror,
P.
viii. Image distance, v The distance between the image and the pole of mirror, P.
• Inverted
• Same size as object
In front of the mirror at
• Real
the centre of curvature
• Plane mirror
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The object is located between
C and F
• Inverted
In front of the mirror beyond • Bigger than object
the centre of curvature • Real (image can appear
on a screen)
* The higher the curvature, the shorter the focal length. The shorter the focal length, the
smaller the image.
Images formed by a convex lens *Image distance * Drawing
Position of object Ray diagram Characteristics of image
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plane mirror
* The bigger the object distance, the smaller the image distance. The bigger the image
distance, the bigger the size of the image.
Reflector Of torchlight
1. light bulb is placed at the focal point of
- The characteristics of the images formed: the concave parabolic mirror to produce
virtual, upright, diminished and formed parallel light rays.
behind the mirror for all positions of 2. The parallel rays will maintain a uniform
object. intensity for a greater distance.
Widening the Field of View
Application and Construction of 1. The figures (a) and (b) show the fields of
Apparatus using Concave and Convex view for a plane mirror and a convex
Mirrors mirror.
Make-up mirror
1. The user must be positioned between the
focal point and the pole of the wide-
aperture concave mirror. The radius of
curvature of the concave mirror is large.
2. The image produced is virtual, upright
and magnified. 2. The field of view of the convex mirror is
wider than that of plane mirror and this
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characteristic makes the convex mirror (turbulent) in the Earth’s atmosphere.
suitable to be used as rear-view mirrors The stars do not twinkle when observed
in motor vehicles. in outer space.
3. Convex mirrors are also positioned at 2. The densities or refractive indices
sharp corners of roads enable drivers of the layers of the atmosphere are
from opposite directions to see oncoming varied by the moving air and when light
cars on blind sides of the corners. rays from the stars travel into the
4. In supermarkets, the convex mirrors are atmosphere, their paths are refracted
hung at the corner provide a wider field rapidly.
of view of the activities in the 3. As a result, the light enters the eye at one
supermarket. moment and does not at the next moment.
This constant but random change
Effects of Refraction of Light produces the twinkling of stars.
Bending of a pencil 4. The Moon and planets do not twinkle as
1. Figure 5.21 shows a partially immersed their apparent sizes are not affected by
pencil which appears to bend at the water the small fluctuations of the atmospheric
surface from position O to position I. refractions. Therefore there is no effect to
2. The light rays OA and OB are refracted the amount of light enters the eyes.
away from the normal when the light
rays travel from water to air. Understanding Total Internal Reflection
3. The observer views the light rays OA and 1. Total internal reflection is a reflection of
OB to originate from position I where the light rays at the boundary of two
submerged part of the pencil appears mediums when the incident angle, I is
position RI. Therefore, the pencil appears large than the critical angle, c of the
to bend. optically denser medium.
r<i
water more dense than air
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5. When light rays travel in both diamond
and crown glass until it leaves the crown
glass.
6. Light refracted towards normal in
diamond
a. Light refracted away from normal in
crown glass
2. In order to determine the refractive index, b. Light refracted away from normal in air
n of water using Snell’s law (n = sin r ) 7. A diamond sparkle:
refracted angle must be situated in water a. Diamond has a very high refractive
sin i index
Therefore the direction of the light ray has b. Therefore, its critical angle is small
to be reversed in Figure (b). c. The shape of a diamond is cut so that
the angle of incidence is greater than
3. In Figure (b), using Snell’s law: the critical angle.
d. This causes the occurrence of total
internal reflection and thus the diamond
sparkles
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2. The density and refractive index of air decreases from the top towards the road surface.
3. The light ray PQ, which originates from the sky is refracted and it curves away from the
normal.
4. The incident angle increases as the light ray passes through each lower air layer and when
the incident angle is larger than the critical angle, total internal reflection occurs where
the light ray bends in an upward curve towards the eye of the driver. This causes the
driver to see the image of the sky and clouds as a pool of water on the road surface.
Prism Periscope
1. Periscopes are used to view objects behind obstacles and they are widely used in
submarines to observe the conditions on the sea surface.
2. The periscope is constructed based on the effects of a prism on light rays where two
right-angled prisms made of crown glass.
3. Total internal reflection occurs at the hypotenuse face of both prisms as the incident
angle, I = 45 ° and it is larger than the critical angle of the glass prism,
c = 42.
4. The image produced is virtual, upright and the same size as the object
5. The advantages of the prism periscope over the mirror periscope
(a) The image is brighter as all the light is reflected.
(b) The image is clearer as there are no multiple images as for in the mirror periscope.
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Prism binoculars
1. The prism binoculars are also based on the effects of a glass pr on light rays. On one
section of a binocular, the two glasses are arranged with their hypotenuse faces parallel
but diagonally perpendicular to each other as shown in figure 5.28.
Optical fibre
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6. The optical fibres are also light, portable, (d) inner core of high optical density
cheap and are free from electrical material
interference signals. (e) high purity of inner core to travel the
7. Advantages: signals over a long distance without
- can carry large amount of data, losing information
information (f) diameter small
- transmit signals with very little loss of - Capable of carrying thousands of
energy data signals simultaneously
- very much thinner and lighter - flexible & no brittle
- can be bent around corners
- can travel in curved path
8. Properties of optical fibre
(a) High refractive index of inner core
- Light ray travel from optically
denser medium to less
- produce total internal reflection
when travel in
(b) Low refractive index of outer layer
- angle e > c
(c) Material must be flexible – easy to
bend, can be used for longer distance
FORM 5 CHAPTER 1 WAVES
Understanding waves
1. Ripple tank
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Refraction of waves
1. Refraction of waves is the change of direction of waves when the waves go from one
medium to another with different density./ is the bending of light when it travels through
different medium where the magnitude of speed and direction change.
2. Velocity of waves Wavelength of waves
- at medium of higher density is greater - at medium of higher density is greater
than velocity of the waves at medium of than wavelength of waves at medium of
less density. less density.
- at deep water area is greater than velocity - at deep water area is greater than
of the waves at shallow water area. wavelength of shallow water area.
- E.g.: Wave of the sea follow the shape of -
the shore when it approaches the shore
(wave front of ocean are straight & parallel
as wave speed is uniform)
3. Directions of refracted waves will toward the normal if the waves travel from less density
medium to higher density medium and otherwise.
4. As the depth increases, speed of wave increases, thus the wave length increases. As the
depth reduced, the wave length decreases because the wave travels in a region of
shallower water and causes refraction of waves occurs.
5. Frequency does not effect by the refraction of water wave
6. The patterns of the waves with different density of medium:
- Water wave propagate to normal through
rectangle shape shallow area.
- No changes of the direction of refracted
waves.
- Wavelength in shallow water is less then
deep area.
- density from low to high
- velocity decreases, wave length decreases
- Water wave propagate an angle through
prism shape shallow area. There are changes
of direction of refracted waves.
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- Water wave propagate through shallow area
are diverged. Spherical waves are produced,
diverge from focus point.
Experiment:
Aim:
To study the refraction of water waves.
Hypothesis:
When the depth of water changes, the velocity and wavelength of water waves change.
Variables:
Manipulated variable: Depth of water.
Responding variable: Velocity and wavelength of water waves
Constant variable: Frequency, wavelength and velocity of incident waves
Apparatus and materials:
Ripple tank and its accessories, glass block, stroboscope, white paper
Arrangement of apparatus:
Procedure:
1. A ripple tank which is filled with water to a depth of 1 cm is set-up.
2. A rectangular glass block is immersed in the centre of the tank.
3. The motor is switched on to produce plane waves.
4. The wave pattern is observed through a stroboscope.
5. The experiment is repeated by placing glass block of different shapes such as trapezium
and triangle in the water.
Tabulation of data:
Shape of glass block Wave pattern
Analysis of data:
Refraction occurs when a water wave travels from one area to another with different depths.
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Interference of Waves
7. When distance between the two coherent
1. Interference is the effect of superposition sources increases, then the distance
between two coherent waves. between two consecutive antinodes
2. Coherent sources of waves produce decrease.
waves of the same frequency,
amplitude and constant phase 8. The interference pattern of water wave:
difference.
3. The principle of superposition states that
at any time, the combined wave forms of
two or more interfering waves is given
by the sum of the displacement of the
individual wave at each point of the
medium
4. When a crest meets another crest or a
trough meets another trough, a maximum
crest or trough is formed and
constructive interference occur.
is a increases x decreases.
ii) An object is placed at one of the antinode,
it moves with greater amplitude.
- constructive interference occurs at
antinode
- amplitude increases
iii) is directly proportional to x.
Formula: [calculation]
ax
5. When a crest meets a trough, the resultant
displacement is zero & destructive D
interference occurs. a = distance between two sources
x = distance between two
nodes/antinodes
D = distance between sources and r
= wavelength is the distance between
two consecutive compressions.
- If the depth of water in the ripple tank is
decreased, x decreases.
Sound waves
1. In amplitude modulation is the amplitude
of the carrier wave varies as the audio
frequency signal to be transmitted whiles
its frequency a constant.
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Experiment: 5. Ultrasonic wave – sound wave with
Aim: To investigate the relationship frequency exceeding 20000 Hz.
between the amplitude and the loudness of
sound 6. How bat use ultrasonic waves to detect
distance of obstacle?
- use ultrasonic sound
- detect distance by listening to echoes
that reaches it
- period of time between sending &
receiving the wave noted
- distance estimated
- can detect ultrasonic sound of 75000
Hz
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ii. Cold air is denser as compared to - avoid noise/disturbance
warmer air 18. Application of sound wave (reflection):
iii. Sound travel slower in cold air as (a) Industries
compared to in warmer air i. Sonar equipment emits pulses of
iv. Refraction occur & sound waves sound waves which reflect off the
bents to the observer bottom of the ocean or a shoal of
(ii) Standing on a balcony calling her fish. The time taken for the return
lunch: of the sound waves can be used to
(a) During day, temperature higher calculate the depth or distance of
on the ground underwater objects. (calculation)
(b) The density of air is higher for the Net can be lowered to the actual
area which is always from the location to catch fish
ground ii. The dirt particles on the surface of
(c) Sound wave is moving from high jewellery can be dislodged using
density and to a lower density sound waves.
area. iii. to determine thickness of layer
(d) according Snell’s law the wave is oil
moving away from the normal, as - use high frequency – can
a result, son can’t hear her mom penetrate oil and earth
clearly. - high energy – stronger signal
1he harvesting solar energy by using a will be received
parabolic dish: iv. Medicine (ultrasound):
e. Parabolic shape to collect heat - used for the scanning of a foetus
(a) Shinning surface to reflect more in the womb.
heat more effectively i. used to obtain images of
(b) Large size to collect more heat internal organs such as liver,
(c) Kettle place at the focal point so heart and kidneys.
that heat can be converged onto the ii. used to break kidney stones in a
kettle patient'’ body.
(d) Dish is orientated to face the sun 19. To obtain image of foetus
directly to collect more heat (a) Use ultrasound- safer /no side
17. Design of sound system used in lecture effect
hall: (b) High frequency – can penetrate
i. location of loud speakers should high mother’s womb to scan the foetus
- prevent reflection of sound waves by (c) Small amplitude - does not harm
obstacles as echoes can form foetus//
ii.large distance between two loud (d) High amplitude – to produce
speakers clearer image
- prevent occurrence of interference of (e) Gel is used – reduce frictional force
sound waves & allow transducer to move easily
iii. use softboard cover the wall in the skin
- absorbs sounds, no echoes formed
iv.Microphone put behind speaker
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FORM 5 CHAPTER 2 ELECTRICITY
Electric current & Potential difference the conductor to the current, I, flowing
through it.
1. Electric current is the rate of flow of V
R ,Unit ohm()
electric charges. I
2. The potential difference, V, between two 8. The highest resistance will have a higher
points is defined as the work done or gradient in the graph.
energy produced when one coulomb of 9. Factors which can affect the resistance
charge is moved between the two points. of a conductor are as follows:
workdone
V= ch arg e
energyproduced
V= ch arg e, Q
2. The SI unit of potential difference is the
volt (V).
3. 1 volt is the potential difference between
(a) Type of material
two points if the work done in moving 1
(b) Length
C of charge between the two points is 1 J.
(c) Cross-sectional area (A)
Q (C )
4. I Shorter length & bigger diameter of
T (S )
the wire produce a lower resistance.
Definition: change in charge (d) Temperature.
Unit: Cs 1 or Ampere (A) 10. The resistance, R, varies with
5. Ohm's Law states that the current, I, temperature in the following ways.
flowing through a conductor is directly (a) For a metal such as a tungsten
proportional to the potential difference, filament, its resistance, R increases
V, across the conductor, if temperature with temperature
and other physical conditions are kept
constant.
(a) i.e. I V, if temperature = constant
(More current flowing through circuit
causes the bulb to be brighter.) E.g. a fan speed regulator.
(b) Resistance is the gradient (b) For a semiconductor (such as a
(b) Hence, if a resistor obeys Ohms law, thermistor), its resistance decrease
a graph of I against V across the with temperature.
resistor will be a straight line.
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2. Parallel Circuit
(a) Current can flow through more than
one path
I I1 I 2 I 3
11. A bird perched on a high voltage cable: Example 1:
(a) Body of the bird is parallel to the wire
(b) The resistance of the bird’s body is
much higher than that part of the wire
(c) The current passing through the bird’s
Example 2:
body is very small
(d) The bird does not experience an electric
shock
12. The electrical energy usually transmitted at
high voltage – to reduce energy loss in the (b) The potential difference, V, across
transmission cables each resistor is the same
Series and parallel Circuits
1. Series Circuit
(a) Current flows in one path only
(b) Current flowing through each
(c) The effective resistance less
resistor is the same
I1 I 2 I 3
resistance than series:
1 1 1 1
R R1 R2 R3
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i) Arrangement of dry cell: series (a) Effective resistance
(reason: to increase voltage) 1
1 1 1 1 1
ii) Thickness of the wire: decrease the R 24 3 6 3 2
thickness (reason: increases resistance) (b) Reading of the ammeter.
iii) Arrangement of bulbs: in parallel V IR
(reason: if one bulb is blown the other 6 I ( 2)
still can function) I 3. 0 A
4. Circuit diagram: (c) Find value I 1 &I 2
(a) Example 1: (torchlight containing 2V V I 1 ( 2 4)
cells) 6 I1 (6)
I1 1.0 A,
I 2 2. 0 A
(d) If resistance 3 is removed. What
happen to the ammeter reading?
Decreases
6. A voltage-current graph:
(a) The voltage is obtained from a
voltmeter connected across parallel to
a resistor
(b) The current is obtained from an
ammeter connected in series with the
resistor in the circuit
(b) Example 2:
Electromotive Force & Internal
Resistance
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5. Batteries with internal resistance E=6Ω
connected in series and parallel will affect r = gradient of the graph
the brightness of the bulbs: 9. (a)
- Bulb is brighter using 4 batteries in
parallel
- 4 batteries in parallel has the same emf
as 2 batteries in series
- Internal resistance for batteries in
parallel is less
- Current flow is higher when 4 batteries
are connected parallel When X move to Y,
6. Electric circuit (i) I: Decreases
V: Decreases
Experiment:
Aim: To investigate the relationship between Apparatus and materials: d.c. power supply,
the diameter of wire and the resistance. ammeter, voltmeter, constantan wire, rheostat,
Hypothesis: The resistance of wire increases connecting wires and switch.
as the diameter of wire decreases.
Inference: Resistance of the heating element
depends on the diameter of the heating
element.
Variables:
Manipulated variable: Diameter of the wire
Responding variable: Resistance of the wire
Fixed variable: Length of the wire
Procedure: Tabulation of data:
1. A fixed length of constantan wire with
Diameter Voltmeter Ammeter Resistance
diameter 1.0 mm is connected across point (mm) reading, V reading, I
X and Y.
(V) (A)
2. The switch is closed and the voltmeter 1.0
reading and ammeter reading are recorded. 1.5
3. The experiment is repeated with fixed 2.0
length of constantan wire of diameter 1,5 2.5
mm, 2.0 mm, 2.5 mm dan 3.0 mm. 3.0
4. The resistance of the wire is calculated Graph:
V
with the formula R = .
I
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Experiment:
Aim: To investigate the relationship Variable:
between the resistance, R, and the length, (a) Manipulated variable: the length of the
l, of a wire wire, l
Hypothesis: The resistance, R, of a wire (b) Responding variable: the resistance, R
increases with its length, L, temperature of (c)Constant variable: the thickness/diameter
the wire of the wire, type of wire, V
Operational definition Arrangement of apparatus:
V
The resistance of the wire, R ,
I
voltmeter reading, I = ammeter reading.
Apparatus and materials: Constantan
wire, 1.5 V dry cells, ammeter, voltmeter,
rheostat, switch, connecting wires
Procedure
1. An electrical circuit is set up as shown.
Results:
2. Connect a constantan wire of length l =
I/A V/V R
V
20.0 cm across terminals P and O. Length, l (cm)
I
3. Close the switch and adjust the rheostat
until the ammeter reads I = 0.5 A.
4. Take the reading on the voltmeter as V.
Conclusion:
5. Calculate the resistance of the wire as
V The graph plotted is a straight line passing
R . through the origin. This shows that the
I
6. Repeat the procedure from (2) to (5) resistance, R is directly proportional to the
using constantan wires of length I = 40.0 length, l of the wire
cm, 60.0 cm, 80.0 cm and 100.0 cm. * The reading of voltmeter will decrease if the
rheostat is adjusted to a higher resistance
value.
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5. Laws of Electromagnetic Induction flow in the opposite direction. End P
a) Faraday's law becomes a south pole
states that the magnitude of the g) The attractive force between the end P
electromotive force induced is di- (south pole) and the north pole of the
rectly proportional to the rate of bar magnet opposes the motion of the
change of magnetic flux bar magnet, as stated by Lenz’s law.
b) Lenz's law 7. Reversing of the polarity of magnet will
the induced current always flows in a not affective increases the deflection of
direction that oppose the motion galvanometer.
producing current shows the principle
of conservation of energy.
5.
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Experiment:
Aim : To investigate the factors that affect the magnitude of the induced current in a
solenoid.
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7. The higher the number of turns of 13. Transformer not ideal, because:
secondary coil, the higher the output [Modifications]
voltage and the lower the output current. Reasons Solve
8. If the secondary voltage, V s (voltage a) Lost of energy as - use low R wire
coming out) is larger than the primary heat when current such as Cu
voltage, V p (voltage put in), the pass cool
transformer is called a step-up conductor
transformer. b) Leakage of flux - around 2 o coil
9. If the secondary voltage, V s (voltage around 1 o coil
c) Lost of energy - use soft iron
coining out) is smaller than the primary
due to core
voltage, V p (voltage put in), the
magnetizing &
transformer is called a step-down demagnetising
transformer. d) Formation of - use laminated
eddy current soft iron core
e) Resistance - thick wire,
increases more current
f) High resistance - use copper
wire for low R
14. Changing the magnetic flux near &
conductor will produced induced
electromotive force (EMF), or induced
current. The induced currents will flow
in the conductor. The induced current is
called as eddy current.
15. The eddy currents are minimized by
laminating the core. The laminations
will cut up the available circuits.
10. In an ideal transformer, the electric 16. Characteristics of the National Grid
power delivered to the secondary circuit, Network in electricity transmission:
Ps equals the power supplied to the (a) During non-peak hours, some
primary circuit, P p . power station can be closed to cut
cost.
(b) Transformer can only work
continuously with a.c because
P provide continuously changing
11. Efficiency = out 100 %
PM magnetic flux.
12. Factor that causes the transformer not 17. Importance of National Grid:
100% efficient: - potential → kinetic → electric
- Formation of eddy current energy
- Magnetic flux leakage - the cost of generation of electricity is
- Resistance of primary and secondary reduced because high voltage
coils transmission of energy greatly
- Loss of energy due magnetized and reduce energy loss in cable
demagnetized the iron core
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- repair work and maintenance can be (c) High melting point – withstand high
carried out at any power station at temperature
any time (d) Low resistance – increases current
- to ensure the supply of the power flow
continuous (e) Larger diameter (thicker wire) –
- the generation of electricity by each lower resistance
station can be controlled and (f) Increase no. of turns of secondary
regulated according to the demand coil – higher voltage transmitted
pattern (g) Use copper wire – has lower
18. Properties of transmission cables: resistance
(a) low density – decreases weight (h) Use a.c. power supply – alternating
(b) High voltage – overcome high current can be stepped up/down
resistance due to length
Experiment:
Aim: To investigate the relationship between number of turns of wire in the secondary coil
and the output voltage
Hypothesis: The greater number of turns of wire in the secondary coil, the greater the output
voltage
Inference: number of turns of wire in the secondary coil affects the output voltage
Constant variable: The number of turns of wire in the primary coil
Apparatus and the material: ac voltmeter, ac power supply, iron core, insulated copper
wire
Procedure:
1. The set up of the apparatus is as shown in figure above
2. Use 900-turns copper coils as the primary coil and 100 turns of secondary coil of a
transformer.
3. The switch is on and the output voltage is measured by using a voltmeter
4. The experiment is repeated by using copper coil with 200 turns, 300 turns, 400 turns, 500
turns as the secondary coil and same number of primary coil.
Result:
number of turns of wire in the secondary coil, N Output voltage, V
100
200
300
400
500
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FORM 5 CHAPTER 4 ELECTRONICS
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so that they arrive at the same spot on 3. Doping process – to produce covalent
the screen. bond
d. Accelerating anode: Accelerates the 4. increases the free electron inside
electron beam to a high velocity semiconductor
e. Y-plates: To deflect the electron beam 5. majority the change – carriers is negative
vertically (up and down) electron
f. X-plates: To deflect the electron beam 6. Diode
horizontally (from left to right)
g. Energy change of the cathode ray as it
moves from anode to hitting the
fluorescent screen is kinetic energy to
light energy.
h. Properties of cathode rays:
- Negatively charged
- Travel in straight lines
- Deflected by magnetic fields 7. Type:
- Deflected by electric fields a) Add: Pentavalence Trivalence
b) Majority electron hole
change
carrier
c) Minority hole electron
charge
carrier
d) e.g Phosphorus, Boron,
Antimony, Indium,
Arsenic Gallium
e) At the junction, both electron and hole
will be absorbed into p-type material
and n-type material each and from the
Semiconductor combination of both charges is a decay
1. Semiconductor is a material with layer with an empty charge carrier.
electrical conductivity better than
insulator but weaker than a conductor.
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6. Function of C.R.O
(a) Measure voltage
(b) Determine type of source
(c) Find T& f
(d) Find time internal
7. Time base – sweep voltage is connected
to x-plate to allow the spot to move
horizontally
8. Reverse biased
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3. NOT gate
Input Output
A X
0 0
1 1
6. Higher capacitance for a capacitor is 4. NAND gate
more suitable as a current smoother to
produce more smoothen output
voltage because capacitor need more
time to charge and discharge.
Logic GATE
- a switching circuit which has one or
more input terminals but only one Input Output
output terminal A B X
1. AND gate (combination circuit) 0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
5. NOR gate
Input Output
A B X
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
2. OR gate
Input Output
A B X
0 0 1
Input Output 0 1 0
A B X 1 0 0
0 0 0 1 1 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
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6. EXCLUSIVE-OR/X-OR A+B 7. X-NOR
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**equation**
Radioactive Emission
Precautionary Steps in Handling an atom to half of its original amount, N 0 .
Radioactive Substances decay process is random.
1. Experiments involving radioactive
substances are conducted in a room
enclosed by concrete walls.
2. Strong radioactive substances are handled
using remote-controlled mechanical arms
from a safe distance.
3. Weak radioactive substances can be
handled using a pair of tongs or tweezers.
4. Radioactive wastes must be disposed using 4T 1 / 2 x 5 = 20 days
suitable and safe methods. 2. The time dependence of radioactive decay
5. Rooms, buildings, containers and can be represented by exponential decay
radioactive storage places must be labelled curve.
with the sign for radioactive substance. 3. The decay curve never reaches zero
6. Radioactive substances are kept in thick because half of something is still
lead containers. something.
7. Protective suits and gears such as gloves, 4. From Figure above, the remain mass of a
and eye glasses made of lead are used at all radioactive substance, N after decay can
times when handling radioactive be determine by:
substances.
8. Shield made of thick lead protects the
workers in their workplace from harmful
radiations.
9. Workers handling radioactive substances
must wear special badges which detect the
amount of radiation they are exposed to.
10. Food and drinks are not allowed in places 5. The reading of the rate meter did not drop
where radioactive substances are handled. to zero after radioactive substance was
removed is due to the background radiation.
Half-life
Nuclear Fission
1. The half-life, T 1 / 2 of a radioactive
Bombardment of bigger instable nucleus by
substance is the time it takes for decay of fast moving newton to form smaller nucleus
& energy .
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5. Example
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