Hui Huang (Editor) - Heat Pumps For Cold Climate Heating - Variable Volume Ratio Two-Stage Vapor Compression Air Source Heat Pump Technology and Applications-CRC Press (2020)

Heat Pumps for Cold
Climate Heating
Variable Volume Ratio Two-stage
Vapor Compression Air Source
Heat Pump Technology and
Applications
Heat Pumps for Cold
Climate Heating
Variable Volume Ratio Two-stage
Vapor Compression Air Source
Heat Pump Technology and
Applications
Edited by
Hui Huang
First edition published 2020
by CRC Press
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Contents
Preface ix
Acknowledgments xi
Editor xiii
Contributors xv
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Composition and Types of Air Source Heat Pumps . . . . . 2
1.1.1 Composition of air source heat pumps . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.2 Types of air source heat pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 The Problems and Progress of Air Source Heat Pumps . . . 7
1.2.1 Problems of air source heat pumps . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2.2 Analysis on heating capacity reduction of air source heat
pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.3 Low temperature air source heat pump technologies . 9
1.2.4 Defrosting method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.3 Variable Volume Ratio Two-stage Compression Air Source Heat
Pump Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.3.1 Limitations of existing air source heat pump technology 21
1.3.2 Variable volume ratio two-stage compression air source
heat pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2 Analysis of Variable Volume Ratio Two-stage Compression

Heat Pump Cycle 27
2.1 Basic Knowledge of Vapor Compression Heat Pump Cycle . 28
2.1.1 Reverse Carnot cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.1.2 Vapor compression heat pump cycle . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.2 Categories and Basic Principle of Two-stage Compression Heat
Pump Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.2.1 Categories of two-stage compression interstage vapor in-
jection heat pump cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.2.2 Basic principle of two-stage compression two-step throt-
tling interstage incomplete cooling cycle . . . . . . . . 44
2.3 Thermodynamic Characteristics Analysis of Two-stage Com-
pression Heat Pump Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
v
vi Contents
2.3.1 Theoretical model and calculation method of two-stage

compression cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.3.2 Calculation and analysis of optimal volume ratio . . . 50
2.3.3 Influences of thermodynamic parameters on the perfor-
mance of the two-stage compression cycle . . . . . . . 55
2.3.4 Influences of volume ratio on the performance of the
two-stage compression cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
2.3.5 Influence analysis of refrigerants . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
2.3.6 Influence analysis of vapor injection with liquid . . . . 75
2.3.7 Optimal intermediate pressure for two-stage compres-
sion cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
2.4 Determination of the Volume Ratios of the Two-stage Com-
pressor with Variable Volume Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
2.4.1 Determination of volume ratios . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
2.4.2 Determination of cylinder working volume of two-stage
compressor with variable volume ratio . . . . . . . . . 97
2.5 Theoretical Analysis of Intermediate Pressure of Two-stage
Compression Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
2.5.1 Intermediate pressure without interstage vapor injection 99
2.5.2 Influence of vapor injection on intermediate pressure . 103
2.5.3 Analysis of the relationship between intermediate pres-
sure and vapor injection parameters . . . . . . . . . . 105
3 Triple-cylinder Two-stage Compressor with Variable Volume

Ratio 109
3.1 Operating Principle and Characteristics of the Rolling Piston
Compressor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
3.1.1 Compression mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
3.1.2 Working process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
3.1.3 Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
3.2 Operating Principle and Structure of a Two-stage Compressor
with Variable Volume Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
3.2.1 Operating principle and the switching of volume ratio 118
3.2.2 Structure of two-stage compressor with variable volume
ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
3.3 Thermodynamic Performance Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
3.3.1 Working chamber volume and working pressure of the
cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
3.3.2 Volumetric efficiency of cylinder and its influencing fac-
tors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
3.3.3 Volumetric efficiency of compressor . . . . . . . . . . . 136
3.3.4 Displacement of compressor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
3.3.5 Indicated work and power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
3.4 Dynamic Analysis of Moving Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Contents vii
3.4.1 Motion and force analysis of motion mechanism for

cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
3.4.2 Force analysis of crankshaft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
3.4.3 Total resistance moment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
3.4.4 Dynamic balance of rotor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
3.5 Main Structural Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
3.5.1 Structural parameters of cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
3.5.2 Structural dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
3.6 Lubrication and Influencing Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
3.6.1 The functions and requirements of lubricant oil and the
selection method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
3.6.2 Oil discharge and controlling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
3.6.3 Oil return and controlling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
3.6.4 Hazard and control measures of liquid return . . . . . 191
4 Basic Principles of System Control 201

4.1 Control Method of Throttling Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
4.1.1 Throttling control methods for the two-stage compres-
sion one-step throttling interstage incomplete cooling
heat pump system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
sion two-step throttling interstage incomplete cooling
heat pump system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
4.2 Control Method of Compression Module . . . . . . . . . . . 231
4.2.1 Control strategy in startup phase . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
4.2.2 Control strategy in operation phase . . . . . . . . . . 236
4.2.3 Defrosting operation control strategy . . . . . . . . . . 242
4.2.4 Control strategy of oil return operation . . . . . . . . 246
5 Optimization Analysis of Low Temperature Air Source Heat

Pump System 249
5.1 Optimization Analysis of Electronic Expansion Valve . . . . 250
5.1.1 General mass flow rate correlation of electronic expan-
sion valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
5.1.2 Optimization of first-step and second-step electronic ex-
pansion valves for two-stage compression two-step throt-
tling cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
5.1.3 Optimization of main and branched electronic expan-
sion valves for two-stage compression one-step throttling
cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
5.2 Optimization Analysis of Heat Exchanger . . . . . . . . . . . 259
5.2.1 Analysis of refrigerant thermophysical property . . . . 259
5.2.2 Simulation analysis of fin-and-tube heat exchanger . . 261
5.3 Optimization Analysis of Suction Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
viii Contents
6 Low Temperature Air-to-Air Heat Pump 271

6.1 Split-type Room Air conditioner of Air Source Heat Pump Type 272
6.1.1 System solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
6.1.2 System control strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
6.1.3 System performance comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
6.2 Mini Variable Refrigerant Flow Multi-split Heat Pump . . . 290
6.2.1 System solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
6.2.3 Performance comparison analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
6.3 Variable Refrigerant Flow Multi-split Heat Pump . . . . . . 301
6.3.1 System solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
6.3.2 System configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
6.3.4 Performance comparison analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
6.4 Modular Variable Refrigerant Flow Multi-split Heat Pump . 314
6.4.1 System solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
6.4.2 Compressor capacity control strategy . . . . . . . . . . 314
6.4.3 Oil-balancing control strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
6.4.4 Subcooling control strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
6.4.5 Defrosting control strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
7 Low Temperature Air-to-Water Heat Pump 325

7.1 Air Source Heat Pump Water Heating System . . . . . . . . 326
7.1.2 Indoor terminals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
7.2 Household Low Temperature Air Source Heat Pump (Water
Chilling) Packages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
7.2.1 System solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
7.2.2 Outlet water temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
7.3 System Control Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
7.3.2 Intermediate pressure control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
7.3.3 Vapor injection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
7.3.4 Two-cylinder and triple-cylinder operation modes . . . 340
7.4 System Performance Comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
7.4.1 Compressor parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
7.4.2 Comparison analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
Bibliography 351
Index 357
Preface
Air source heat pumps are mainly used for space heating with the advantages
of environmental protection, energy saving and comfort. However, the tra-
ditional single-stage vapor compression air source heat pump is not popular
in cold climate regions and extremely cold climate regions due to its poor
applicability under low outdoor ambient temperature.
Over the past ten years, the team led by the editor of this book, has
been devoted to the research and application of two-stage vapor compression
air source heat pump technology. Several technologies for improving heating
capacity and coefficient of performance, such as double-cylinder two-stage,
triple-cylinder two-stage, double-cylinder two-stage switching to single-stage
rolling piston compressor with vapor injection, etc., have been investigated
thoroughly and applied to low temperature air source heat pump systems suc-
cessively. With these technologies, the heating capacity of a heat pump can
be improved by about 40% compared with the single-stage vapor compres-
sion air source heat pump when the outdoor ambient temperature is −20◦ C.
The products of low temperature air source heat pump developed so far have
been widely applied in cold climate regions, including in the coal-switch-to-
electricity heating renovation project in north China, achieving good economic
and social benefits.
Based on the above research achievements, a triple-cylinder variable vol-
ume ratio two-stage vapor compression air source heat pump with a single
compressor was proposed in 2013 by the editor. After several years of research
and development, serialization products have been developed. This technology
has higher heating capacity and coefficient of performance under low outdoor
ambient temperature, compared with two-stage vapor compression air source
heat pump technology, and is suitable for cold climate regions and extremely
cold climate regions. At present, products adopting the triple-cylinder vari-
able volume ratio two-stage vapor compression air source heat pump technol-
ogy have come into use in northern China, North America and Ulan Bator,
Mongolia, and other cold climate regions, and passed the field test of low out-
door ambient temperature of −40◦ C, the heating capacity fully meeting the
heating demand of consumers.
The field performance results show that the triple-cylinder variable vol-
ume ratio two-stage vapor compression air source heat pump technology has
broken the technological barriers of conventional air source heat pump with
significant improvement in the adaptability to outdoor ambient temperature.
An air source heat pump based on a triple-cylinder two-stage rolling piston
ix
x Preface
compressor with variable volume ratio is a kind of superior technology in

distributed clean heating in cold climate regions and extremely cold climate
regions.
This book summarizes the research and application achievements of vari-
able volume ratio two-stage vapor compression air source heat pump technol-
ogy. By combining theory with practice, the basic principle of variable volume
ratio two-stage vapor compression air source heat pump technology, the work-
ing principle and the design method of triple-cylinder two-stage rolling piston
compressor with variable volume ratio, the operating control strategy of heat
pump system, the practical system of various types of low temperature air
source heat pump products and their performance comparison, etc., are intro-
duced and described systematically.
Hui Huang
March, 2020
Acknowledgments
The Chinese version of this book has been published by China Machine Press.
Much appreciation to Jian Wu, Feng Tan, Qiang Hu, Rui Shang, Caiying Liu,
Rong Zhuang, Jun Shen, Yusheng Hu, Huijun Wei, Ouxiang Yang, Zhengliang
Shi, Jia Xu, Huifang Luo and Jinhuang Lin, et al., for their help in writing,
proofreading and providing experimental data for the Chinese version of this
book. Thanks to all the researchers and product developers involved in this
technology for their efforts to realize this technology from concepts to products
rapidly and put them into markets.
Thanks to Lingkun Liu, Qijie Huangfu, Ying Jing, Zhongyu Guo, Yujie
Huang, Ke Li, Weidong Xu, Zhaogang Qi, Jiong Li, Haobo Jiang, Jianming
Zhang, Yimei Wu, Jian Wu, Zhengliang Shi, Leixiao Li, Xin Yu, Peiyu Lei,
Enjie Zhang, et al., for their works of preliminary translation, revision and
improvements, and typesetting with LaTex during the production of the En-
glish version of this book. I would like to extend my special appreciation to
Acquiring Editor Jonathan Plant for his promotion of the English version of
this book into publication, who served as the executive editor at Taylor &
Francis/CRC Press.
xi
Editor
Hui Huang currently serves as the Executive President of Gree Electric

Appliances, Inc. of Zhuhai, China, the world’s largest manufacturer of such
products. Mr. Huang earned his Master’s Degree from Central South Uni-
versity, Changsha, Hunan, China, in Mechanical Engineering. His engineering
specialties are refrigeration, air conditioning, heat pumps, compressors, and
motors and he served as the Director of the National Engineering Research
Center of Green Refrigeration Equiment. Mr. Huang has received numerous
honors and awards for his accomplishments in these technical fields. He is
the author of three books and has been involved with eleven national-level
projects.
xiii
Contributors
Hui Huang
Gree Electric Appliances, Inc. of Zhuhai
Zhuhai,Guangdong, People’s Repulic of China
Xiangfei Liang
Refrigeration Institute of Gree Electric Appliances, Inc. of Zhuhai
Haijia Lin
Youlin Zhang
Huan Zhao
Bo Zheng
xv
1
Introduction
Hui Huang, Xiangfei Liang, Bo Zheng
CONTENTS
1.1 Composition and Types of Air Source Heat Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.1 Composition of air source heat pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.2 Types of air source heat pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 The Problems and Progress of Air Source Heat Pumps . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2.1 Problems of air source heat pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2.2 Analysis on heating capacity reduction of air source
heat pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.3 Low temperature air source heat pump technologies . . . 9
1.2.4 Defrosting method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.3 Variable Volume Ratio Two-stage Compression Air Source Heat
Pump Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.3.1 Limitations of existing air source heat pump technology 21
heat pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Refrigeration technology commenced when William Cullen in Scotland, pub-

lished the article of “Essay on the Cold Produced by Evaporating Fluids”
and invented the depressurized water evaporative cooling equipment in 1755,
and achieved a theoretical breakthrough when Sadi Carnot in France, pro-
posed the Carnot cycle in 1824. At the same time, it became an interesting
topic whether heat could be pumped from a low temperature room to a high-
temperature room. Sir William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) pointed out that re-
frigeration equipment could also be used for heating in 1852 and became the
first person who proposed the concept of the heat pump.
A heat pump is a device that transfers thermal energy from a heat source
to a heat sink. The heat pump cycle shares the same thermodynamic prin-
ciple with the refrigeration cycle, however, it brings different effects from
the refrigeration cycle. For example, the heat pump cycle absorbs heat from
the outdoor environment (low temperature heat source) and releases heat to
the indoor environment (high temperature heat sink), which results in the
1
2 Heat Pumps for Cold Climate Heating
indoor temperature increasing and keeping it higher than the outdoor tem-
perature. However, the refrigeration cycle absorbs heat from the indoor en-
vironment (low temperature heat source) and releases heat to the outdoor
environment (high temperature heat sink), which results in the indoor tem-
perature decreasing and keeping it lower than the outdoor temperature.
Refrigeration technology developed rapidly after it was invented and has
been widely used in industrial and agricultural production, scientific research
and improvement of the living environment of human beings. Although heat
pump technology has the same operating principle as refrigeration technology,
there were some other simpler, cheaper and more convenient ways for heating,
which made heat pump technology underdeveloped for a long period of time.
In 1927, Dr Graeme Haldane installed and tested the first closed heat pump
cycle system using ammonia as refrigerant in Scotland, which symbolized the
real start of the heat pump technology. However, heat pump technology didn’t
enter development period until the energy crisis happened in 1973.
There are several types of heat pumps based on the operating principle,
such as vapor compression heat pump (also called mechanical compression
heat pump), absorption heat pump, chemical heat pump, vapor injection heat
pump, etc. According to the driving energy, there are electricity-driven heat
pumps, gas/fuel engine driven heat pumps, and vapor or hot water-driven
heat pumps, etc. According to the low temperature working medium and
high temperature working medium, there are air-to-air heat pumps, air-to-
water heat pumps, water-to-water heat pumps, and water-to-air heat pumps.
Moreover, heat pumps can also be classified into air source heat pumps and
water/ground source heat pumps according to low temperature heat source.
Of all the above types, the vapor compression heat pump is the most
widely used, and the air conditioners of air source heat pump types and the
heat pump units used popularly are all classified as vapor compression heat
pumps.
The main contents discussed in this book are variable volume ratio two-
stage compression air source heat pump driven by electricity for cold climate
heating, and its application in distributed low temperature air source heat
pump. The variable volume ratio two-stage compression air source heat pump
is suitable for heating in residences, offices and small commercial buildings.
1.1 Composition and Types of Air Source Heat Pumps

1.1.1 Composition of air source heat pumps
Figure 1.1 shows the schematic diagram of an air source heat pump system.
It consists of a compressor, a high temperature heat exchanger (condenser),
a throttling device and a low temperature heat exchanger (evaporator),
Introduction 3
connecting pipes, etc. The system is charged with a refrigerant, and the refrig-
erant driven by the compressor circulates in the system to finish a closed cycle
including compression, condensation, throttling and evaporation processes.
Condenser
Throttling device Compressor
Evaporator
FIGURE 1.1
The schematic diagram of air source heat pump system
The condenser is a heat exchanger releasing heat to the high temperature

heat sink. The high temperature gas refrigerant is condensed into liquid in
the condenser and releases heat. The conventional condensers are fin-and-tube
heat exchangers, tube-in-tube heat exchangers and plate heat exchangers, etc.
The evaporator is a heat exchanger absorbing heat from the low tempera-
ture heat source. The low temperature liquid refrigerant is evaporated into gas
and absorbs heat in the evaporator. The conventional evaporators are usually
fin-and-tube heat exchangers.
The throttling device is one of the key components in the heat pump
system, with the main function of decreasing the refrigerant pressure from
high pressure to low pressure as well as keeping a proper pressure difference
between the condenser and the evaporator. In addition, it can also adjust the
mass flow rate of refrigerant flowing into the evaporator to keep the heat pump
system running efficiently. The conventional throttling devices are capillary
tubes, electronic expansion valves and thermal expansion valves, etc.
The compressor functions as the heart of the heat pump, providing driving
force for the refrigerant to finish a closed cycle in the system. It compresses
the low-temperature and low-pressure gas refrigerant from the evaporator into
high-temperature and high-pressure gas refrigerant and discharges it to the
condenser. Rolling piston compressors and scroll compressors are the com-
monly used compressors.
1.1.2 Types of air source heat pumps

The types of air source heat pumps are usually classified into air-to-air heat
pumps and air-to-water heat pumps. In addition, there is a type of combined
heat pump, which combines the air source heat pump with other heat sources.
1. Air-to-air heat pump

The air conditioner of an air source heat pump type is the most widely used
form of air-to-air heat pump, and the heat exchanges between refrigerant and
air for both the indoor and the outdoor heat exchangers. The air conditioner
of an air source heat pump type can be used both for cooling in summer and
heating in winter. It switches between cooling operation mode and heating
operation mode by changing the flow direction of refrigerant through a four-
way valve. When it is used for cooling in summer, the outdoor heat exchanger
acts as a condenser and the indoor heat exchanger acts as an evaporator.
Otherwise, the outdoor heat exchanger becomes an evaporator and the indoor
heat exchanger becomes a condenser when it is used for heating in winter.
The schematic diagram of the air conditioner of an air source heat pump
type is shown in Figure 1.2.
Heating Cooling
Four-way valve
Compressor
Indoor heat Outdoor heat

exchanger exchanger
Throttling device
FIGURE 1.2
The schematic diagram of air conditioner of an air source heat pump type
At present, the air-to-air heat pump, such as room air conditioners of air
source heat pump type (window-type air conditioner and split-type air con-
ditioner), variable refrigerant flow (VRF) multi-split heat pump and unitary
air-conditioning units, etc., are the most widely used heat pumps.
2. Air-to-water heat pump
The air-to-water heat pump usually includes an air source heat pump
(water chilling) package and an air source heat pump water heater, and the
outdoor heat transfer fluid is air and the indoor one is water. The air-to-water
heat pump (water chilling) package can also be used for cooling and heating,
the same functions as air-to-air heat pump. A four-way valve is also used to
switch between the cooling operation mode for cold water and the heating
operation mode for hot water, while the air source heat pump water heater
has only the heating operation mode for domestic hot water.
The schematic diagram of the air source heat pump (water chilling) pack-
age is shown in Figure 1.3.
Introduction 5
(a) Cooling operation mode
(b) Heating operation mode
FIGURE 1.3
The schematic diagram of air source heat pump (water chilling) package
In Figure 1.3(a), in the cooling operation mode, the four-way valve turns
off. The outdoor heat exchanger acts as a condenser and the water-refrigerant
heat exchanger acts as an evaporator. The refrigerant evaporates and absorbs
heat in the evaporator to produce cold water.
In Figure 1.3(b), in the heating operation mode, the four-way valve
turns on. The outdoor heat exchanger acts as an evaporator and the water-
refrigerant heat exchanger acts as a condenser. The refrigerant condenses and
releases heat in the condenser to produce hot water.
When the hot water produced by air source heat pump (water chilling)
package is used for space heating, the terminals connecting to the package’s
water pipes can be various types, such as radiator floor, radiators and fan
coils, etc.
When the air source heat pump water heater produces domestic hot water,
in most cases, it is connected with a water tank, within which the hot water is
stored and discharged from when needed. Anyway, the air source heat pump
water heater has the obvious advantages of energy saving, environment pro-
tection, economy and safety, etc. Under the same heating capacity, although
it has a higher initial investment, electric energy consumption is usually less
than one third of that of the electric water heater and electric boiler, effec-
tively reducing the consumption of high-grade electric energy. Compared with
the natural gas water heater and natural gas boiler, the air source heat pump
water heater is safer, more reliable and convenient to operate. Furthermore,
compared with solar water heater, it is relatively less affected by the weather,
and can produce hot water 24 hours in all weather conditions.
3.Compound heat pump
In order to make full use of the advantages of an air source heat pump,
it can be combined with other heat sources. For example, the combination of
an air source heat pump with a solar water heater is a typical combined heat
pump.
Figure 1.4 shows the combined system of an air source heat pump and a
solar water heater. In this system, both the solar water heater system and
air source heat pump water heater system can work independently. When the
outdoor ambient temperature is low or solar radiation intensity is insufficient,
the water-to-water heat pump uses the low temperature water produced by
the solar water heater system as the low temperature heat source and produces
hot water in the condenser. To a certain extent, this combined system solves
the all-weather operation problem of the solar water heater system and the
inherent frosting issue of the air source heat pump.
Three-way valve
Solar collector Hot water
Compressor
Heat exchanger
Evaporator
Condenser
Solenoid valve
Pump
Solenoid valve Throttling device
Three-way valve Cold water

Pump
FIGURE 1.4
Combined system of air source heat pump and solar water heater
Introduction 7
1.2 The Problems and Progress of Air Source Heat

Pumps
1.2.1 Problems of air source heat pumps
There exist large climate differences in China since the latitude difference is
large in this country. According to GB 50178-1993 Standard of Climatic Re-
gionalization for Architecture, Chinese architecture climate regions are classi-
fied into extremely cold, cold, hot summer and cold winter, hot summer and
warm winter, and mild regions.
The small air source heat pump has been widely used in recent years due to
its advantages of high efficiency, easy installation and convenient use, low cost
and small environmental impact. In addition, with the progress of compressor
and heat pump technologies, the heating performance and reliability of air
source heat pumps under low temperatures have been continuously improved,
and the application area of air source heat pumps has extended from the
Yangtze River basin in the hot summer and cold winter region to the Yellow
River basin in the cold region, and it has a potential to further extend to the
extremely cold region in China.
The air parameters (temperature and humidity) vary with climate regions,
seasons, and hours in a day, whereas they have a significant effect on the heat-
ing capacity and coefficient of performance (COP) of air source heat pumps.
Conventional air source heat pumps operating for heating are economical and
reliable when the outdoor ambient temperature is relatively high. However,
when the outdoor ambient temperature is relatively low, especially in cold and
extremely cold regions, many problems occur in winter for heating, which are
mainly the following:
1) The heating capacity decreases with the decrease of outdoor tempera-
ture (the reasons would be analyzed later), and can’t meet the requirements
of the increasing heat demand of a room, so there is a contradiction between
heat supply and heat demand.
For example, the heating capacity is only 40%–50% of the rated one when
the outdoor temperature is −15◦ C for the fixed-speed single-stage air con-
ditioner of air source heat pump type. Therefore, when the conventional air
conditioner of air source heat pump type operates at low outdoor ambient
temperature, it is generally necessary to use an additional auxiliary electric
heater to offset the shortage of heating capacity of the heat pump.
2) The COP of heat pump decreases with the decrease of outdoor ambient
temperature, so the energy efficiency of operation decreases.
3) When the condensation temperature is fixed (e.g., in air source heat
pump (water chilling) package and air source heat pump water heater), the
discharge temperature of the compressor increases when the outdoor tempera-
ture decreases. When the condensation temperature is high (e.g., in air source
heat pump water heater), the discharge temperature will exceed the normal
operating range of the compressor, which may result in compressor overheat-

ing, and the system will not operate properly, even more, the electric motor
may burn out.
4) The heating capacity and COP will decrease when the evaporator, i.e.,
the outdoor heat exchanger, frosts up. When the reverse cycle method is used
for defrosting, the air source heat pump will not supply heat to the indoor
room and the indoor temperature will decrease.
5) With the decrease of outdoor ambient temperature, the mutual solu-
bility of lubricant oil and refrigerant in the low pressure side pipes of the air
source heat pump decreases and the lubricant oil viscosity increases, which re-
sults in the difficulty of lubricant oil return to the compressor. Consequently,
a large amount of lubricant oil accumulates in the pipes and other compo-
nents of the low pressure side, and the compressor tends to be damaged for
its shortage of lubricant oil. When the compressor stops for a long time, a
large amount of liquid refrigerant enters the compressor due to refrigerant
migration and dilutes the lubricant oil, which is easy to cause insufficient
lubrication during the compressor startup. Meanwhile, the refrigerant boils
inside the compressor and carries the lubricant oil out of it, causing the short-
age of lubricant oil. Moreover, the liquid refrigerant returns to the compressor
during defrosting, boils and carries the lubricant oil out of the compressor
during the compressor startup after defrosting. The compressor is likely to
be damaged during startup after being shut down for a long time at a low
outdoor ambient temperature and starting after defrosting.
6) When the air source heat pump system operates at low outdoor ambient
temperature, incomplete evaporation of refrigerant is likely to occur in the
evaporator, i.e., a part of liquid refrigerant enters into the compressor, which
results in excessive wet compression (severe dilution of lubricant oil) and even
liquid slugging, accelerating wear and even damage of the moving components
of the compressor.
1.2.2 Analysis on heating capacity reduction of air source

heat pump
The reasons for the reduction of heating capacity of the air source heat pump
with the decrease of outdoor ambient temperature are summarized as follows:
1) The decrease of evaporation temperature will lead to the decrease of
suction pressure and thus the increase of suction specific volume of the com-
pressor, which will lead to the decrease of volumetric heating capacity of
refrigerant. When the theoretical volume flow rate of the compressor keeps
constant, the heating capacity will decrease, which is the main reason for the
reduction of heating capacity of air source heat pump.
2) The decrease of the suction pressure will lead to the increase of com-
pressor pressure ratio and the deterioration of lubrication. Consequently, the
compressor volumetric efficiency will decrease, which will result in the decrease
of actual volume flow rate and the heating capacity.
Introduction 9
3) The increase of suction specific volume and the decrease of volumetric

efficiency of the compressor will lead to the decrease of mass flow rate of
refrigerant, and it will result in the decrease of the heat transfer coefficient on
the refrigerant side of the evaporator and the condenser, then the absorption
heat of evaporator and the release heat (equivalent to the heating capacity)
of the condenser decrease.
4) The decrease of suction pressure will lead to the inlet quality of the
evaporator and the dynamic viscosity of liquid refrigerant increasing, the den-
sity of gas refrigerant of low pressure side decreasing, the pressure drops of
the evaporator and the suction pipe increasing. If the compressor’s suction
pressure keeps constant, then the evaporation pressure and the corresponding
saturation temperature will increase, the effective heat transfer temperature
difference of the evaporator will decrease, the absorption heat of the evapora-
tor will decrease, and this will result in the decrease of the heating capacity.
5) When the temperature of the fin surface of the evaporator is lower than
the dew-point temperature of the wet air and below 0◦ C, frost will be formed
on the surface of the evaporator. The growth rate of frost increases with the
increase of the humidity ratio of wet air and the decrease of the evaporation
temperature. The increase of the thickness of frost will increase the thermal
resistance and the pressure drop on the air side of the evaporator, and then
the heating capacity will reduce rapidly. The air source heat pump must be
periodically defrosted for proper operation, but the heating capacity is zero or
even negative during the defrosting period, which will result in the decrease
of average heating capacity.
1.2.3 Low temperature air source heat pump technologies

To solve the problems that the heating capacity and COP of air source heat
pump decrease with outdoor ambient temperature decreasing, many schol-
ars and engineers have thoroughly studied various schemes and put some of
them into practice. Currently, great progress and technical achievements on
air source heat pump technology have been made. The heating performance
and reliability of air source heat pumps have been greatly improved and their
operating temperature range has been extended. At present, low temperature
air source heat pump technologies in practice can be mainly classified into the
following schemes.
1. Variable speed technology of compressor
From the foregoing reasons of the heating capacity reduction of air source
heat pumps, it can be seen that the main reason is the decrease of the volu-
metric heating capacity of refrigerant. Therefore, the increase of the volume
flow rate of the compressor is an effective measure to solve the problem re-
garding the decrease of the heating capacity of the air source heat pump.
The variable speed technology of compressor can increase its volume flow
rate by increasing operating speed at fixed working volume of the compres-
sor cylinder; consequently, the reduction of the heating capacity is alleviated
effectively. The variable speed technology of the compressor has become one
of the important schemes to solve the problem regarding the reduction of the
heating capacity of air source heat pumps. In practice, the operating speed
of the compressor is controlled based on outdoor ambient temperature and
indoor target temperature to alleviate the contradiction between heat supply
and heat demand.
In the early 1990s, variable speed technology of compressors was studied
in China. Variable speed air conditioners gradually appeared in the market
in China around 2005. After 2010, the variable speed technology of com-
pressors had been widely used in the Chinese air conditioner industry, and
good economic and social benefits were achieved. According to the data from
ChinaIOL, variable speed room air conditioners (annual total quantity sold)
accounted for 49.2% in 2016 and 55.4% in 2017 of room air conditioners (fixed
and variable speed) in the domestic market share of China.
2. Quasi two-stage compression technology
Quasi two-stage compression technology was first applied to screw com-
pressors. A. V. BYKOV, a former Soviet Union scholar, first proposed the
concept of quasi two-stage compression cycle for screw compressor in 1976.
He analyzed the cycle and obtained conservation of energy equations of the
economizer and the vapor injection process. In these equations, the vapor
injection process was assumed as an isovolumetric mixing at first, then an
adiabatic compression. A series of mathematical models reflecting the main
characteristics of the cycle were obtained afterwards.
In China, scholars had already studied the quasi two-stage compression
system with an economizer in the mid 1980s, and it had been successfully
applied to screw units. The research showed that the energy saving effect of
this system was remarkable at low outdoor ambient temperature, and it could
completely replace the two-stage compression system at an ambient temper-
ature of −30◦ C. The capacity of screw compressor is generally larger; the
advantage of this system decreases gradually with the increase of evaporation
temperature compared with a single-stage compression system. Therefore, re-
search of quasi two-stage compression has been limited to heating at a low
temperature for a long time, and the feasibility of cooling has not been paid
enough attention.
The quasi two-stage compression air source heat pump system with a scroll
compressor, which has an vapor injection port, improves the heating capacity
and COP at low outdoor ambient temperature. Figure 1.5 shows the schematic
diagram of a quasi two-stage compression air source heat pump cycle system
using a scroll compressor. The system cycle is as follows: the gas refrigerant
of high temperature and high pressure discharged from the compressor dis-
charge port flows into the condenser and condenses into liquid refrigerant of
intermediate temperature and high pressure, releasing heat. The liquid re-
frigerant divides into a main circuit and a branched circuit at the condenser
outlet. The refrigerant in the branched circuit flows through the throttling
device 2 and turns into two-phase refrigerant mixture of intermediate pres-
sure, and then enters the internal heat exchanger. This part of the refrigerant
Introduction 11
absorbs heat and evaporates into gas, then enters the vapor injection port of
the compressor. At the same time, the main circuit refrigerant cooled down by
the internal heat exchanger flows through throttling device 1 and turns into
two-phase refrigerant mixture of low-temperature and low-pressure, and then
enters evaporator, evaporates into gas refrigerant after absorbing heat and
enters the compressor suction port. Then, the gas refrigerant of low-pressure
from the compressor suction port is compressed and then mixes with the gas
refrigerant of intermediate pressure from the vapor injection port in the com-
pressor working chamber. After being further compressed, the gas refrigerant
of high pressure is discharged out of the compressor, thus forming a complete
closed cycle.
FIGURE 1.5
The schematic diagram of a quasi two-stage compression air source heat pump
system with scroll compressor
Compared with conventional air source heat pump units, the quasi two-
stage compression air source heat pump system units have the following two
prominent characteristics:
1) The compressor has a vapor injection port, and the gas refrigerant of
intermediate temperature and pressure can be injected into the compressor
through a branched circuit. Not only the refrigerant mass flow rate of the con-
denser increases, but also the inlet refrigerant specific enthalpy of the evap-
orator decreases, thereby the performance of the system is improved at low
outdoor ambient temperature.
2) The single-stage compression operation mode or the quasi two-stage
compression operation mode can be easily chosen by switching off or on the
expansion valve in the branched circuit, which cannot only keep the system
performance good at normal temperature, but also ensures the system oper-
ating safely and reliably at low outdoor ambient temperature.
The quasi two-stage compression technology with a scroll compressor has

been successfully applied to low temperature air source heat pump systems.
The heating performance of the systems was obviously improved at low out-
door ambient temperature, compared with the single-stage compression sys-
tem, and the heating capacity was increased more than 20% at outdoor am-
bient temperature of −15◦ C.
Besides in the scroll compressor and the screw compressor, the quasi two-
stage compression can also be realized in a single-stage rolling piston com-
pressor, which is called quasi two-stage rolling piston compressor. A vapor
injection port is arranged on the cylinder of a single-stage rolling piston com-
pressor, through which the gas refrigerant of intermediate pressure is injected
into the working chamber. The gas refrigerant injection is controlled by a
vapor injection valve.
When the intermediate pressure is higher than that of the cylinder working
chamber, the vapor injection valve opens and the gas refrigerant of intermedi-
ate pressure injects into it, thus the compressor operates with vapor injection
process. When the pressure of the cylinder working chamber is higher than
the intermediate pressure, the vapor injection valve shuts off and the vapor
injection process pauses, but the compressor continues to complete the com-
pression and discharge processes. Figure 1.6 shows the schematic diagram of
part of the structure of the quasi two-stage rolling piston compressor.
FIGURE 1.6
The schematic diagram of the compression structure of the quasi two-stage
rolling piston compressor
3. Single-compressor two-stage compression technology

At present, most of the small single-compressor two-stage compression air
source heat pump systems use rolling piston compressors. The vapor com-
pression mechanism of a double-cylinder two-stage rolling piston compressor
Introduction 13
is composed of a low-pressure stage cylinder and a high-pressure stage cylin-

der in series. There is an mixing chamber on the gas passage between the two
cylinders, connected with the vapor injection pipe. The gas refrigerant of inter-
mediate pressure injected through the vapor injection pipe mixes with the gas
refrigerant discharged from the low-pressure stage cylinder in the interstage
mixing chamber, and then enters the high-pressure stage cylinder.
There are several system structures of the two-stage compression heat
pump cycle; one of them is called the two-stage compression two-step throt-
tling interstage incomplete cooling cycle. Figure 1.7 shows the schematic di-
agram of this cycle. It consists of a two-stage compressor, a condenser, a
first-step throttling device, a flash tank, a second-step throttling device and
an evaporator.
FIGURE 1.7
The schematic diagram of the two-stage compression two-step throttling in-
terstage incomplete cooling cycle
Compared with the air source heat pump system with a quasi two-stage
scroll compressor or a quasi two-stage rolling piston compressor, the air source
heat pump system with a double-cylinder two-stage rolling piston compressor
has the following advantages:
1) The vapor injection mass flow rate is larger than that of the quasi two-
stage system, which is beneficial to improving the heating capacity and reduc-
ing the discharge temperature. The tested results show that when the outdoor
ambient temperature is −15◦ C, the heating capacity of the well-designed two-
stage compression air source heat pump system is 40% higher than that of
the conventional single-stage compression air source heat pump system, which
is higher than that of the quasi two-stage compression air source heat pump
system.
2) The total pressure ratio of the compressor is shared by the low and high
pressure cylinders, so that the pressure ratio of each cylinder significantly
reduces and the volumetric efficiency and isentropic efficiency of the compres-
sor increase, which are beneficial to improving the heating capacity and COP
of the heat pump.
4. Double-compressor two-stage compression technology
In order to meet the heating demand of air source heat pumps in winter in
cold climate regions without an auxiliary electric heater, a double-compressor
two-stage compression air source heat pump system with two compressors in
series was designed.
Figure 1.8 shows the schematic diagram of the double-compressor two-
stage compression variable speed air source heat pump system. Two variable
speed compressors are connected in series to form a two-stage compression
incomplete cooling cycle with internal heat exchanger, which can change op-
eration modes according to the operating conditions. The operating principle
is as follows.
FIGURE 1.8
The schematic diagram of double-compressor two-stage compression variable
speed air source heat pump system
When the outdoor ambient temperature is higher, the refrigerant dis-

charged from the low-pressure stage compressor enters the condenser directly
through the high-pressure stage four-way valve, and the high-pressure stage
compressor unloads. In this operation mode, the system is a common single-
stage compression air source heat pump system.
When the outdoor ambient temperature is relatively lower, the discharge
gas of the high-pressure stage compressor passes through the high-pressure
Introduction 15
stage four-way valve and enters the condenser for condensation and liquefac-
tion. After flowing through the check valve 2 and the high-pressure accumula-
tor, the refrigerant divides into the main circuit and the branched circuit. The
refrigerant in the branched circuit passes through the solenoid valve and the
throttling device 3 for throttling and then enters the internal heat exchanger
for evaporation. At the same time, the refrigerant in the main circuit is fur-
ther subcooled in the internal heat exchanger and flows through the throttling
device 1 for throttling, then enters the evaporator for evaporation. After that,
it passes the low-pressure stage four-way valve and flows into the low-pressure
stage compressor. After being compressed, it passes the low-pressure stage
and the high-pressure stage four-way valve in turn, and then mixes with the
branched circuit gas refrigerant from the internal heat exchanger. The re-
frigerant mixture enters the high-pressure stage compressor and is further
compressed then discharges.
The air source heat pump with double-compressor two-stage compression
can be switched between single-stage compression mode and two-stage com-
pression mode, which cannot only meet the requirements of heating operation
in normal temperature condition, but also operate steadily and reliably for
long time at the low temperature environment of −18◦ C. The discharge tem-
perature of the compressor is always lower than 130◦ C, which can meet the
heating demand in winter in the cold climate regions without auxiliary electric
heater, and the COP is relatively higher.
5. Two-stage coupled heat pump technology
The two-stage coupled heat pump system consists of an air-to-water heat
pump system and a water-to-water heat pump system. The principle of this
system is shown in Figure 1.9. The air source heat pump system and the
water-to-water heat pump system are the first-stage and the second-stage,
respectively.
Three-way valve
Compressor
Compressor Pump 1
Condenser
Evaporator
Condenser
First-stage heat Second-stage

pump system heat pump
system
Evaporator
Pump 2
Throttling device
Throttling device Three-way valve
FIGURE 1.9
The schematic diagram of two-stage coupled heat pump system
When the outdoor ambient temperature is higher, the second-stage (water-

to-water) heat pump system does not operate, and the first-stage (air-to-
water) heat pump system operates. The hot water is pumped to the terminal
(fan coil or floor heating) by pump 1, and then returns to the condenser of
the first-stage heat pump system after releasing heat at the terminal.
When the outdoor ambient temperature is relatively lower, the first-stage
(air-to-water) heat pump system and the second-stage (water-to-water) heat
pump system both operate and the two three-way valves reverse. The relatively
low temperature hot water of 10-20◦ C produced by the first-stage heat pump
system is pumped by the pump 1 to the evaporator of the second-stage heat
pump system. The second-stage heat pump system absorbs heat from the
relatively low temperature hot water to produce the high temperature hot
water, which is then transported to the terminal by the pump 2 and returns
to the condenser of the second-stage heat pump system after releasing heat
at the terminal.
As is shown in Figure 1.9, under low and ultra-low temperature condi-
tions, the two-stage coupled heat pump system reduces the pressure ratio of
each stage of the compressor. Compared with the conventional single-stage
compression heat pump system, the two-stage coupled heat pump system has
the advantages of higher heating capacity, higher COP and lower discharge
temperature. Compared with the double-compressor two-stage compression
heat pump system shown in Figure 1.8, the heat loss increases due to the
extra heat exchange process. Without the vapor injection process, the heating
capacity and COP of the two-stage coupled heat pump system will be rela-
tively lower, and the discharge temperature will be relatively higher, but the
operation control of the system is simpler comparatively.
6. Cascade heat pump technology
The cascade heat pump system is composed of two relatively independent
single-stage compression heat pump sub-cycles coupled by a condensation-
evaporator, and the two sub-cycles are a high temperature cycle and a low
temperature cycle, respectively. The system cycle is shown in Figure 1.10.
Generally speaking, the high temperature cycle uses intermediate temperature
refrigerant, and the low temperature cycle uses low temperature refrigerant.
In the low temperature cycle, the refrigerant enters the evaporator to evap-
orate after being throttled and depressurized by throttling device 2. Then the
refrigerant is compressed by the compressor 2 and flows into the condensation-
evaporator to condense and liquefy. Finally, it is throttled by throttling device
2, and the whole cycle finishes. While in the high-temperature cycle, after be-
ing throttled in the throttling device 1, the refrigerant enters the condensation-
evaporator to evaporate and then enters compressor 1 for compression. After
that, it flows into the condenser to condense, and enters throttling device 1
to throttle at last, which means the whole cycle finishes.
In the cascade heat pump system, the condensation-evaporator is the key
component of the two coupled sub-cycles, the low temperature cycle and the
high temperature cycle. It is the condenser of the low temperature cycle as
well as the evaporator of the high temperature cycle, whose function is to
transfer heat from the low temperature cycle to the high temperature cycle.
Introduction 17
Compared with the conventional single-stage compression heat pump sys-

tem, the pressure ratio of the low temperature cycle and the high temperature
cycle of the cascade heat pump system decreases significantly, and the refriger-
ant temperature at the condenser outlet of the low temperature cycle decreases
obviously. So the cascade heat pump has a higher heating capacity and COP,
as well as lower discharge temperature when heating at low temperature. How-
ever, compared with the quasi two-stage or the two-stage compression heat
pump system, the irreversible loss increases due to the addition of heat trans-
fer process of the condensation-evaporator, so the heating capacity and COP
are relatively lower, and the discharge temperature is relatively higher.
Condenser
Throttling device1 Compressor 1
Condensation-evaporator
Throttling device 2 Compressor 2
Evaporator
FIGURE 1.10
The schematic diagram of cascade heat pump system
1.2.4 Defrosting method

The outdoor relative humidity and the dry bulb temperature are important
factors affecting frosting on the surface of the outdoor heat exchangers of air
source heat pumps. As is shown in Figure 1.11, it is the frosting range curve
drawn from the test results of different air source heat pump units. It can be
seen that if the outdoor relative humidity and the dry bulb temperature fall
in the area enclosed by the curve and the relative humidity of 100%, frosting
usually occurs. The conditions when frosting may occur are the dry bulb tem-
perature range from −12.8◦ C to 5.8◦ C and the relative humidity mostly higher
than 80%. When the outdoor ambient temperature is higher than 5.8◦ C, it will
not frost. When the outdoor ambient temperature is lower than 5.8◦ C and the
relative humidity is lower than 67%, it will also not frost because of the low
dew point temperature of wet air. When the outdoor ambient temperature is
lower than −12.8◦ C, it will not frost if the dew point temperature is lower than
the surface temperature of the outdoor heat exchanger; but it will frost slowly
when the dew point temperature is higher than the surface temperature of
the outdoor heat exchanger, and the effect of frosting is relatively small.
100
Relative humility˄%˅
90
80
70
60
50
-14 -12 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8
Outdoor dry bulb temperature˄ć˅
of air source heat pump

FIGURE 1.11
The frosting envelope of an air source heat pump
When the air source heat pump operates in a heating operation mode
and meets the conditions of frosting, the heating capacity and COP decrease
rapidly with the increase of the frost thickness. Therefore, it is necessary to
defrost in time to make sure the system resumes to normal operating state. The
main defrosting methods are reverse cycle defrosting, hot-gas bypass defrosting
and thermal storage defrosting, etc.
1. Reverse cycle defrosting method
Reverse cycle defrosting is one method of switching the operation mode
from heating to cooling through four-way valve, and the indoor and outdoor
fans stop and the high temperature discharge gas from the compressor enters
the outdoor heat exchanger for defrosting. After defrosting, the four-way valve
switches back to heating operation mode. Generally, before and after defrost-
ing, the compressor needs to stop for a few minutes to ensure the reliability of
the compressor, the four-way valve and other components. During this time,
the heat pump stops supplying heat to the indoor environment and the indoor
temperature drops; especially for the air source heat pump, the indoor temper-
ature drops significantly, and the indoor temperature fluctuates greatly during
the whole defrosting process, so the indoor thermal comfort decreases. There-
fore, there exist inherent problems of the reverse cycle defrosting method,
such as fluctuation of indoor temperature and reduction of indoor thermal
comfort.
Introduction 19
2. Hot-gas bypass defrosting method

Hot-gas bypass defrosting is one method where the high temperature dis-
charge gas of the compressor is bypassed directly to the outdoor heat ex-
changer for defrosting. Figure 1.12 shows the schematic diagram of the hot-gas
bypass defrosting heat pump system. During the defrosting period, the indoor
and outdoor fans stop and the solenoid valve turns on. The high temperature
discharge gas flows through the four-way valve and the solenoid valve, and
then enters the outdoor heat exchanger for defrosting; the heat pump stops
supplying heat and the indoor temperature still decreases. However, com-
pared with the reverse cycle defrosting method, because there is no need to
shut down the compressor and switch the four-way valve, the duration with-
out heating is shortened significantly, so the indoor temperature fluctuation
is relatively smaller. The heat used for defrosting is the power consumption
of the compressor.
Four-way valve
Compressor
Solenoid valve
Indoor heat Outdoor heat

exchanger exchanger
Throttling device
FIGURE 1.12
The schematic diagram of hot-gas bypass defrosting heat pump system
For continuous heating during defrosting, an electric heater is equipped

as a low temperature heat source on the basis of the hot-gas bypass defrost-
ing system. Figure 1.13 shows the schematic diagram of the auxiliary electric
heater and hot-gas bypass defrosting heat pump system, and the detailed op-
erating principle is as follows. During defrosting, the outdoor fan stops and
the indoor fan runs at a low speed. The solenoid valve 2 on the bypass circuit
turns on and part of the high temperature gas discharged by the compressor
flows through it and enters the outdoor heat exchanger for defrosting. Mean-
while, the solenoid valve 1 on the branched circuit turns on and the throttling
device 1 on the main circuit turns off when the electric heater starts operat-
ing. The other part of the high temperature gas discharged by the compressor
enters the indoor heat exchanger for condensation and liquefaction. Later, it
flows through the solenoid valve 1 and the throttling device 2, then enters the
electric heater for evaporation. After that, the gas refrigerant mixes with the
refrigerant from the outdoor heat exchanger, then enters the compressor. After
being compressed, the refrigerant is discharged. The heat required for defrost-
ing and heating comes from the power consumption of the electric heater and
the compressor. When the power of the electric heater is constant, the dis-
tribution of the heat for defrosting and heating is adjusted by the throttling
devices 2 and 3.
FIGURE 1.13
The schematic diagram of hot-gas bypass defrosting heat pump system with
auxiliary electric heater
Compared with the conventional reverse cycle defrosting method, the aux-
iliary heater and hot-gas bypass defrosting method can obviously shorten the
defrosting time. What’s more, the compressor can operate continuously in a
heating operation mode during defrosting, which reduces the indoor tempera-
ture fluctuation significantly and improves the indoor thermal comfort greatly.
Because it increases the cost of extra equipment, such as solenoid valve, throt-
tling device, electric heater, pipes and control system, the auxiliary heater and
hot-gas bypass defrosting method is rarely used in practice.
3. Thermal storage defrosting method
The thermal storage defrosting method has been used in a small number
of air source heat pump systems. There are many kinds of heat pump system
schemes which can realize thermal storage defrosting. Figure 1.14 shows one
of the schematic diagrams. The PCM (phase change material) based ther-
mal storage covers the compressor shell (high back pressure) closely. During
heating, the compressor shell temperature is higher than the temperature of
the PCMs in the thermal storage container, and the PCMs are charged with
heat. During defrosting, the indoor and outdoor fans stop, the four-way valve
switches, the throttling device 1 turns off, the solenoid valve turns on, and
the high temperature discharge gas of the compressor through the four-way
valve flows into the outdoor heat exchanger for defrosting. After that, the
liquefied refrigerant flows through the solenoid valve and the throttling device
2, then enters thermal storage container and evaporates into gas refrigerant
Introduction 21
(the PCMs release heat). After passing through the four-way valve, the gas
refrigerant flows into the compressor and is discharged after being compressed.
Compared with the reverse cycle defrosting method, the heat needed for
thermal storage defrosting method during defrosting comes from the heat
stored in the thermal storage container and the power consumption of the
compressor. The heat supplied for defrosting is increased and the defrosting
time is shortened significantly, which is beneficial to reducing the fluctuation
of indoor temperature. However, it still goes through defrosting time and a
period of time waiting for the compressor to stop and restart before and after
defrosting, which will result in the decrease of the indoor temperature. In one
word, the thermal storage defrosting method can effectively utilize the heat
loss of the compressor and improve the energy utilization ratio.
Four-way valve
Compressor
PCM based
thermal storage
Outdoor heat Indoor heat
Throttling
exchanger exchanger
device 2
Solenoid valve
Throttling device 1
FIGURE 1.14
The schematic diagram of a thermal storage defrosting air source heat pump
system
1.3 Variable Volume Ratio Two-stage Compression Air

Source Heat Pump Technology
1.3.1 Limitations of existing air source heat pump technol-
ogy
As mentioned in Section 1.2, the research and application of small air source
heat pump technology has made a lot of technical achievements, which has
played a positive role in promoting the application of air source heat pump
technology, energy saving and emission reduction, and improvement of the
environment, etc. However, there are still some shortcomings in the application
of these technologies in cold and extremely cold climate regions, as described

in the following.
(1) The air source heat pump with variable speed single-stage compression
technology can obtain large volume flow rate through high speed operation
of compressor at relatively lower outdoor ambient temperature. Although it
can alleviate the contradiction between the decrease of heating supply and
the increase of heating demand in low temperature environment to a certain
extent, it is still difficult to meet the requirement in extremely cold and cold
climate regions. In addition, although it can increase the heating capacity
by increasing the compressor volume flow rate through high speed operation,
the increase of the pressure ratio of compressor leads to the decrease of COP
and the increase of energy consumption. Consequently, it is not economical
to run in heating operation mode at low outdoor ambient temperature. The
applicable outdoor ambient temperature range of variable speed single stage
compression air source heat pump is limited.
Moreover, when the air source heat pump system operates at low outdoor
ambient temperature, the discharge temperature of the compressor increases
significantly when the condensation temperature is relatively high (such as
the air source heat pump water heater), which may lead to the deterioration,
even carbonization of lubricant oil, and poor insulation of motor windings.
(2) By integrating two-stage compression technology and variable speed
technology into an air source heat pump can largely alleviate the contradiction
between heating supply and demand at low outdoor ambient temperature,
and the COP of heat pump is also greatly improved. However, taking the
conventional single-compressor two-stage rolling piston compressor with vapor
injection port as an example, the volume ratio of the high-pressure stage to
the low-pressure stage cylinders is the optimal value corresponding to the
optimal COP under the design conditions, which means the volume ratio is
fixed. As a result, COP of the two-stage compression air source heat pump
operating in a wide temperature range cannot reach the optimal COP under
most conditions.
(3) The quasi two-stage compression heat pump system has the advan-
tages of simple structure, small size, easy installation, and good low tempera-
ture adaptability, as well as less energy consumption. Moreover, it hasn’t the
problem of non-uniform oil return and can be easily switched to conventional
single-stage compression cycle. Therefore, it is one of the relatively economical
and effective measures to improve the heating performance of an air source
heat pump. However, the vapor injection mass flow rate of the quasi two-stage
compressor is less than that of the two-stage compressor, and the improve-
ment in heating capacity is less than that in the two-stage compression at low
outdoor temperature. The quasi two-stage compression is still single-stage
compression, which cannot solve the problem of the decrease of COP caused
by the increase of compressor pressure ratio at low outdoor temperature.
(4) A double-compressor two-stage compression heat pump system is a
good solution to improve the low temperature heating capacity and COP of
Introduction 23
an air source heat pump, which can be used in cold climate regions. But the
system has its own problems such as complex structure, difficult to control,
high manufacturing cost, and difficult to be applied to a small air source
heat pumps and so on. At the same time, there are some other problems
including non-uniform oil return in high-pressure stage and low-pressure stage
compressors, which requires a good control system for oil return; otherwise the
low-pressure stage compressor will wear out even burn down due to shortage
of lubricant oil.
(5) A two-stage coupled heat pump system and cascade heat pump system
can be used in cold climate regions for their good heating performance, but
their complex structure, large size and high cost make them difficult to be
widely used in the small-scale air source heat pumps.

heat pump
To solve the problems above, the editor of this book developed a new technol-
ogy in 2013, i.e., a variable volume ratio two-stage compression air source heat
pump with a single compressor. This technology has been granted a number
of national invention patents, and has been successfully applied to air condi-
tioners of air source heat pump type, VRF multi-split heat pump units, air
source heat pump (water chilling) packages and other heat pump systems. At
present, it has been widely used in cold and extremely cold climate regions
and has achieved good results.
A triple-cylinder two-stage rolling piston compressor with variable volume
ratio (referred to as two-stage compressor with variable volume ratio), devel-
oped based on two-cylinder two-stage rolling piston compressor technology,
has three cylinders, one high-pressure stage cylinder and two low-pressure
stage cylinders, and one of the low-pressure stage cylinders is a cylinder with
variable volume. By controlling the operating state of the cylinder with vari-
able volume, the volume ratio of the high-pressure stage cylinder to the low-
pressure stage cylinders of the compressor changes.
Figure 1.15 shows the schematic diagram of variable volume ratio two-stage
compression two-step throttling interstage incomplete cooling heat pump sys-
tem, which applies a two-stage compressor with variable volume ratio shown
in the broken line frame. It has the similar operating principle with the two-
stage compression two-step throttling incomplete cooling heat pump system
depicted in Figure 1.7. The high-temperature and high-pressure gas refrigerant
from the compressor enters the condenser and turns into the intermediate-
temperature and high-pressure liquid refrigerant. After being throttled and
depressurized by the first-step throttling device, it turns into the two-phase
mixture of the refrigerant and then enters the flash tank, in which the refrig-
erant mixture is separated into gas and liquid. After that, the liquid flows
through the second-step throttling device and turns into low-temperature and
low-pressure gas refrigerant in the evaporator. Later, the low-temperature and
low-pressure gas refrigerant is compressed by the low-pressure stage cylinder

and then mixes with the intermediate pressure gas refrigerant from the flash
tank. At the end, the mixture is compressed in the high-pressure stage cylinder
and discharged, the whole cycle of heat pump finishes.
The difference between this cycle and the single-compressor two-stage com-
pression incomplete cooling heat pump cycle with flash tank shown in Figure
1.7 lies in the extra low-pressure stage cylinder with variable volume (shown in
the dotted frame in Figure 1.15). The low-pressure stage cylinder with variable
volume can flexibly start and stop the effective compression according to the
control system based on the operating condition and operating state. There-
fore, the compressor has switchable high/low-pressure stage volume ratios and
switchable low-pressure stage working volumes.
FIGURE 1.15
The schematic diagram of a variable volume ratio two-stage compression two-
step throttling interstage incomplete cooling heat pump system
As shown in Figure 1.8, the double-compressor two-stage compression vari-

able speed air source heat pump system has two independent compressors, and
the rotating speed of them can be controlled separately. While in the system
shown in Figure 1.15, since the three cylinders of the compressor are driven
by one crankshaft, the rotating speeds of the rotors in the three cylinders are
the same. Therefore, the adaptability to environmental temperature changes
and the variability of the volume ratio of the system shown in Figure 1.15
are not as good as the system in Figure 1.8. However, practice shows that,
for a single-compressor two-stage compression heat pump system with two
volume ratios, as long as the two volume ratios of the two-stage compressor
are designed reasonably, it is still possible to obtain good heating performance
to meet the heating demand in cold and extremely cold climate regions. At
the same time, the air source heat pump system using a two-stage compressor
with variable volume ratio has the advantages of short flow path of the refrig-
Introduction 25
erant and small flow frictional pressure drop, which is beneficial to reducing
the power consumption of the system.
When the outdoor ambient temperature is relatively high and the room
thermal load is small, the low-pressure stage cylinder with variable volume
does not operate. The two working cylinders of the compressor are in series
and the volume ratio of the high-pressure stage cylinder to the low-pressure
stage cylinder is large. In this operating temperature range, the volume ratio
of the high-pressure stage cylinder to the low-pressure stage cylinder can be
approximately designed at the optimal value. At the same time, it is flexible
to choose the interstage vapor injection switch on or off, according to the
different operating conditions.
When the outdoor ambient temperature is relatively low and the room
thermal load is large, the low-pressure stage cylinder with variable volume
works. The two low-pressure stage cylinders of the compressor are connected
in parallel and then in series with the high-pressure stage cylinder, and the
volume ratio of the high-pressure stage cylinder to the low-pressure stage
cylinder is small. Because the two low-pressure stage cylinders operate at
the same time, the suction volume of the compressor greatly increases at a
low outdoor ambient temperature. Meanwhile, in this temperature range, the
volume ratio can also be designed close to the optimal value. In this way, the
operating temperature range of the air source heat pump system can be greatly
broadened, and the heating capacity and COP of the air source heat pump
system can be significantly improved at low outdoor ambient temperature.
Similarly, the cooling capacity and energy efficiency ratio (EER) of the
system can also be improved at high outdoor ambient temperature. When
the outdoor ambient temperature is low, the large volume ratio operation
mode (two-cylinder operation mode) is adopted. When the outdoor ambient
temperature is high, the small volume ratio operation mode (triple-cylinder
operation mode) is adopted and the vapor injection system is turned on to
increase the cooling capacity and EER.
While the heat pump system using a single two-stage compressor with
variable volume ratio is adopted, the performance of it can completely reach
and exceed that of the double-compressor two-stage compression air source
heat pump system shown in Figure 1.8. Lots of researches and practices have
proved that this system has the advantages of a simple structure, convenient
control, small size and low cost, etc. Most importantly, this system perfectly
solves the lubricant oil unbalance problem between two compressors in the
double-compressor two-stage compression system, and can effectively solve
the problem that the heating capacity of air source heat pump decreases at
a low outdoor temperature. The heat pump system using a single two-stage
compressor with variable volume ratio is very economical and has broader ap-
plication prospects, especially for the small air source heat pump in distributed
heating.
2
Analysis of Variable Volume Ratio
Two-stage Compression Heat Pump Cycle
Xiangfei Liang, Hui Huang
CONTENTS
2.1 Basic Knowledge of Vapor Compression Heat Pump Cycle . . . . . 28
2.1.1 Reverse Carnot cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.1.2 Vapor compression heat pump cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.2 Categories and Basic Principle of Two-stage Compression Heat
Pump Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.2.1 Categories of two-stage compression interstage vapor
injection heat pump cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.2.2 Basic principle of two-stage compression two-step
throttling interstage incomplete cooling cycle . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.3 Thermodynamic Characteristics Analysis of Two-stage
Compression Heat Pump Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
compression cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.3.2 Calculation and analysis of optimal volume ratio . . . . . . . 50
2.3.3 Influences of thermodynamic parameters on the
performance of the two-stage compression cycle . . . . . . . . 55
two-stage compression cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
2.3.5 Influence analysis of refrigerants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
2.3.6 Influence analysis of vapor injection with liquid . . . . . . . . 75
2.3.7 Optimal intermediate pressure for two-stage
compression cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
2.4 Determination of the Volume Ratios of the Two-stage
Compressor with Variable Volume Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
2.4.1 Determination of volume ratios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
compressor with variable volume ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
2.5 Theoretical Analysis of Intermediate Pressure of Two-stage
Compression Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
27
2.5.1 Intermediate pressure without interstage vapor injection 99

2.5.2 Influence of vapor injection on intermediate pressure . . . 103
2.5.3 Analysis of the relationship between intermediate
pressure and vapor injection parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
This chapter mainly introduces the basic knowledge of a vapor compression

heat pump cycle, the basic principle of a two-stage compression heat pump
cycle and the theoretical model of thermodynamic cycle, and analyzes the
characteristics of a two-stage compression two-step throttling interstage in-
complete cooling cycle by simulating calculation. A method for determin-
ing the cylinder volume ratios and the cylinder volumes of a triple-cylinder
two-stage rolling piston compressor with variable volume ratio (referred to
as two-stage compressor with variable volume ratio) is proposed. Finally, the
theoretical analysis of the optimal intermediate pressure in variable volume
ratio two-stage compression cycle is introduced.
2.1 Basic Knowledge of Vapor Compression Heat Pump

Cycle
2.1.1 Reverse Carnot cycle
The operating principle of the vapor compression heat pump cycle is the
same as that of the refrigeration cycle. The ideal refrigeration cycle is the
reverse Carnot cycle, and its temperature-entropy (T − s) diagram is shown
in Figure 2.1. The reverse Carnot cycle 1-4-3-2-1 consists of two isothermal
processes and two isentropic processes. In the cycle, 4 → 3 is an isothermal Te
heat absorption (evaporation) process, 2 → 1 is an isothermal Tc heat release
(condensation) process, 3 → 2 is an isentropic compression process, and 1→4
is an isentropic expansion process.
During the isothermal evaporation process (4 → 3), refrigerant absorbs
heat from low temperature heat source at temperature of Te . It is known from
thermodynamics that heat absorbed per mass flow rate of refrigerant is
qm,e = Te (s3 − s4 ) = Te ∆s (2.1)
where qm,e = specific cooling capacity, kJ/kg

Te = temperature of low temperature heat source, K
∆s = specific entropy difference of refrigerant, kJ/(kg·K)
During the isentropic compression process (3→2), power is consumed and
refrigerant temperature increases from Te to Tc .
During the isothermal condensation process (2→1), refrigerant releases
heat to high temperature heat resource, and heat released per mass flow rate
Variable Volume Ratio Two-stage Compression Heat Pump Cycle 29
of refrigerant is
qm,c = Tc (s2 − s1 ) = Tc ∆s (2.2)
where qm,c = specific heating capacity, kJ/kg
Tc = temperature of high temperature heat source, K
T Tc
1 2
qm,c - qm,e = w
4 3
Te
0 5 Δs 6 s
entropy
FIGURE 2.1
The temperature-entropy diagram of reverse Carnot cycle
During the isentropic expansion process (1→4), expansion work is gener-

ated and refrigerant temperature is reduced from Tc to Te .
According to the first law of thermodynamics, net work consumed per
mass flow rate of refrigerant during the heat pump cycle is
w = qm,c − qm,e = (Tc − Te )∆s (2.3)
where w = specific compression work, kJ/kg

It can be seen that theoretical energy efficiency ratio (EER) of the reverse
Carnot cycle for cooling is
qm,e qm,e Te ∆s Te
EERth = = = = (2.4)
w qm,c − qm,e Tc ∆s − Te ∆s Tc − Te
where EERth = theoretical energy efficiency ratio of the reverse Carnot cycle
for cooling
Theoretical coefficient of performance (COP) of the reverse Carnot cycle
for heating is
qm,c qm,c Tc ∆s Tc
COPth = = = = = EERth + 1 (2.5)
w qm,c − qm,e Tc ∆s − Te ∆s Tc − Te
where COPth = theoretical coefficient of performance of the reverse Carnot

cycle for heating
It can be seen from Equations (2.4) and (2.5) that if the temperature of
the low temperature heat source is increased and the temperature of the high-
temperature heat source is lowered, both of EERth and COPth increase, and
COPth is always greater than 1.
For example, assuming a low temperature heat source temperature of 10
◦ C and a high temperature heat source temperature of 35℃, heating COP of
the reverse Carnot cycle is

273.15 + 35
COPth = = 12.33
(273.15 + 35) − (273.15 + 10)
The calculation result demonstrates that when heat pump consumes 1J
of compression work, it can absorb 11.33J of heat from low temperature heat
source (temperature 10◦ C), raise the temperature of heat to the same temper-
ature as high temperature heat source (temperature 35◦ C) and release 12.33J
of heat.
2.1.2 Vapor compression heat pump cycle

1. Theoretical heat pump cycle
The most basic vapor compression heat pump cycle system is shown in
Figure 1.1. There are inevitably various losses in the actual vapor compres-
sion heat pump cycle. In order to simplify the analysis of the vapor compres-
sion heat pump cycle by thermodynamic methods, the basic cycle under ideal
conditions, namely the theoretical heat pump cycle, is first studied. The theo-
retical heat pump cycle is a heat pump cycle in which refrigerant is saturated
liquid state at the condenser outlet and saturated gas state at the evaporator
outlet.
The theoretical heat pump cycle consists of two isobaric processes, an
isentropic process and an isenthalpic process. Figure 2.2 shows a temperature-
entropy (T − s) diagram and a pressure-enthalpy (p − h) diagram of the theo-
retical heat pump cycle.
In Figure 2.2, wet vapor of state 5 enters the evaporator where it absorbs
heat from low temperature heat source and the saturated liquid in the wet
vapor is evaporated to saturated vapor (state 1), and during the evaporation
process of 5→1, refrigerant temperature and pressure remain unchanged; satu-
rated vapor of state 1 is isentropically compressed by the compressor to super-
heated vapor of state 2 (1→2 compression process), temperature and pressure
of the compressed vapor are increased; and then enters the condenser where
the superheated vapor releases heat to high temperature heat source and is
simultaneously condensed to saturated liquid of state 4. During 2→4 processes
(including 2→3 cooling process and 3→4 condensation process), refrigerant
pressure remains constant. Finally, saturated liquid of state 4 is depressurized
to state 5 by the throttling device. The forementioned processes complete an
entire cycle.
It is known from thermodynamics that during the isobaric evaporation

process (5→1), heat absorbed per mass flow rate of refrigerant is
qm,e = h1 − h5 (2.6)
T p
2
3 4 3 2
4
1 1
5
5
0 s 0 h
FIGURE 2.2
The temperature-entropy diagram (left) and pressure-enthalpy diagram (right) of
the theoretical heat pump cycle
During the isentropic compression process (1→2), specific work consumed

by compressor is
w = h2 − h1 (2.7)
During the isobaric condensation process (2→4), heat released per mass
flow rate of refrigerant is
qm,c = h2 − h4 (2.8)
During the throttling process, refrigerant pressure and temperature de-
crease, while specific enthalpy does not change, i.e. h4 = h5 .
Theoretical heating COP of the vapor compression heat pump cycle is
qm,c h2 − h4
COPth = = (2.9)
w h2 − h1
2. Factors affecting the actual heat pump cycle
The above theoretical heat pump cycle analysis is based on ideal assump-
tions, and the actual cycle process of the vapor compression heat pump has a
certain deviation from the theoretical cycle process, and these differences will
lead to some impacts on the performance of the actual cycle.
(1) Effect of condenser outlet subcooling on heat pump cycle performance
In the actual cycle, when the saturated liquid refrigerant flows from the
outlet of the condenser to the throttling device, the frictional pressure drop
of refrigerant in the connecting pipe will result in flashing to generate a small
amount of saturated vapor, which will affect the operation stability of the
throttling device. Therefore, the condenser outlet liquid refrigerant usually
needs a certain subcooling before entering the throttling device. Subcooling is
not only beneficial to improve the operation stability of the throttling device,
but also to reduce specific enthalpy and increase specific cooling capacity
and specific heating capacity. Figure 2.3 shows temperature-entropy diagram
and pressure-enthalpy diagram of the heat pump cycle with condenser outlet
subcooling. In the figure, 4 → 40 is the subcooling process.
T p
2
3 4′ 4 3
4 2
4′
1 5′ 5 1
5′ 5
0 s 0 h
FIGURE 2.3
heat pump cycle with condenser outlet subcooling
The difference between the refrigerant saturation temperature tc corre-

sponding to the condenser outlet pressure and the condenser outlet refrig-
erant temperature tc,out is called the condenser outlet subcooling, which is
represented by ∆tsc , that is
∆tsc = tc − tc,out (2.10)
During the subcooling process, heat released per mass flow rate of refrig-
erant is
qm,sc = h4 − h40 (2.11)
As can be seen from Figure 2.3, the increase of specific heating capacity
of the heat pump cycle with subcooling is
∆qm,c = qm,sc = h4 − h40 (2.12)
The compression specific work of the heat pump cycle with subcooling
is constant. If the heat release of the liquid refrigerant subcooling process is
utilized, the theoretical heating COP of the heat pump cycle is
qm,c + ∆qm,sc qm,sc
COPth,sc = = COPth + (2.13)
w w
Therefore, the condenser outlet subcooling can increase the heating COP
of the heat pump cycle. The greater the degree of subcooling, the greater COP
improvement, but the enlargement of condenser outlet subcooling is limited
by the temperature of high temperature heat source.
(2) Effect of evaporator outlet superheat on heat pump cycle performance

In the actual cycle, the evaporator outlet refrigerant is generally controlled
to a superheated vapor state, i.e., the evaporator outlet refrigerant has a
certain superheat. The temperature-entropy diagram and pressure-enthalpy
diagram of the heat pump cycle with evaporator outlet superheat are shown
in Figure 2.4. In the figure, 1→10 is the superheat process.
FIGURE 2.4
the heat pump cycle with evaporator outlet superheat process
The difference between the evaporator outlet temperature te,out and the
saturation temperature te corresponding to the evaporator outlet pressure is
called the evaporator outlet superheat, which is represented by ∆tsh , i.e.,
∆tsh = te,out − te (2.14)
During the superheat process, heat absorbed per mass flow rate of refrig-
erant is
qm,sh = h10 − h1 (2.15)
Comparing the heat pump cycle with superheat at evaporator outlet shown
in Figure 2.4 with the theoretical heat pump cycle shown in Figure 2.2, the
evaporator outlet superheat has the following effects:
1) The compression specific work increases, and the increase of the specific
work is
∆wsh = wc,sh − wc = (h20 − h10 ) − (h2 − h1 ) = (h20 − h2 ) − (h10 − h1 ) (2.16)
2) Specific heating capacity increases, and the increase is obtained by

Equation (2.15) and Equation (2.16).
∆qm,sh = qm,sh + ∆wsh = h20 − h2 (2.17)
3) The discharge temperature of the compressor rises from t2 to t20 .

4) The suction specific volume of the compressor increases and the mass
flow rate decreases.
Since the specific heating capacity of the heat pump cycle with evaporator
outlet superheat increases, the compression specific work also increases. Com-
pared with the theoretical cycle, the heating COP may increase or decrease,
and the variation characteristics of the heating COP is related to the type of
refrigerant and the superheat. When the superheat is within a certain range,
the heating COP has an optimal value. While out of this range, the heating
COP is reduced.
For the actual operating compressor, the suction superheat (5–15◦ C) is
beneficial to avoid liquid refrigerant entering the cylinder of compressor and
diluting lubricant oil film or even liquid slugging, but excessive suction super-
heat will make the discharge temperature of compressor too high, which affects
the reliability of the compressor. The amplitude of the suction superheat is
limited by the discharge temperature of compressor.
(3) Effect of isentropic efficiency of compressor on cycle performance
When the refrigerant is compressed in the compressor, there exist losses
of heat exchange and pressure drop, mechanical friction of compressor com-
ponents, etc. Therefore, the actual displacement and isentropic efficiency of
compressor decreases, whereas the power consumption and discharge temper-
ature of compressor increases. For the above reasons, the refrigerant state at
the start of the compression process is no longer the refrigerant state at the
evaporator outlet, and the compression process is an entropy increase pro-
cess instead of an isentropic process. As can be seen from Figure 2.4, the
non-isentropic compression process (specific entropy increase) increases the
specific enthalpy of the compression end state, so both the specific work and
the specific heating capacity increase, but the heating COP decreases.
(4) Effect of pressure drop of heat exchanger on cycle performance
The refrigerant flowing losses (frictional, accelerated and gravitational
pressure drop) in a heat exchanger gradually reduce condensation pressure
and evaporation pressure along heat exchange tube, the corresponding con-
densation temperature and evaporation temperature also gradually decrease,
and the condensation process and evaporation process of the refrigerant in the
heat exchanger deviate from the isothermal process.
Assuming the condenser outlet pressure is kept constant, in order to over-
come the refrigerant flowing losses in the condenser, it is necessary to in-
crease the condenser inlet pressure, which inevitably leads to an increase in
the compressor discharge pressure, thereby increasing the compressor power
consumption and discharge temperature.
Assuming the evaporator outlet pressure is kept constant, in order to over-
come the refrigerant flowing losses in the evaporator, the evaporator inlet
pressure must be increased, and the corresponding inlet temperature is in-
creased, thereby reducing the effective heat transfer temperature difference of
the evaporator.
3. The actual heat pump cycle
In engineering practice, to simplify the calculation, the refrigerant pressure
drops of the heat exchangers and refrigerant heat losses of other components
are usually neglected, that is, the heat release process or heat absorption
process of the refrigerant flowing through the heat exchanger is an isobaric
process. The temperature-entropy diagram and pressure-enthalpy diagram of
the simplified actual heat pump cycle are shown in Figure 2.5.
2 p
T
2s
3′ 3 2s
2
3
3′
4′ 4 1
1
4′ 4
0 s 0 h
FIGURE 2.5
the simplified actual heat pump cycle
The actual heat pump cycle consists of 1-2-30-40-1 in Figure 2.5. 1→2 in
the cycle is the non-isentropic compression process of the refrigerant in the
compressor, 2→30 is the isobaric condensation process with heat release of
the refrigerant in the condenser, 30 → 40 is the isenthalpic throttling process
of the refrigerant in the throttling device, 40→1 is the isobaric evaporation
process with heat absorption of the refrigerant in the evaporator.
In the actual heat pump cycle, throttling is an isenthalpic process.
h40 = h30 (2.18)
where h30 = the condenser outlet specific enthalpy, kJ/kg

h40 = the evaporator inlet specific enthalpy, kJ/kg
Cooling capacity is
Q e = M (h1 −h30 ) (2.19)
where Q e = the cooling capacity, kW
M = the refrigerant mass flow rate, kg/s
h1 = the evaporator outlet or the compressor inlet specific enthalpy,
kJ/kg
Heating capacity is
Q c = M (h2 −h30 ) (2.20)
where Q c = the heating capacity, kW
h2 = the condenser inlet or the compressor outlet specific enthalpy,
kJ/kg
Compression work is
W = M (h2 −h1 ) (2.21)
where W = the compression work, kW
Cooling energy efficiency ratio is

Qe
EER = (2.22)
W
Heating coefficient of performance is
Qc
COP = (2.23)
W
Specific cooling capacity is
Qe
qm,e = = h1 − h30 (2.24)
M
where qm,e = specific cooling capacity, kJ/kg
Specific heating capacity is
Qc
qm,c = = h2 − h30 (2.25)
M
where qm,c = specific heating capacity, kJ/kg
Volumetric cooling capacity is
Qe Qe h1 − h30 qm,e
qv,e = = = = (2.26)
V Mv1 v1 v1
where qv,e = volumetric cooling capacity, kJ/m3
v1 = suction specific volume of compressor, m3 /kg
V = actual displacement of compressor, m3 /s
Volumetric heating capacity is
Qc Qc h2 − h30 qm,c
qv,c = = = = (2.27)
V Mv1 v1 v1
where qv,c = volumetric heating capacity, kJ/m3
Compression specific work is
W
w= = h2 − h1 (2.28)
M
where w = compression specific work, kJ/kg
The actual displacement of the compressor is
V = ηv Vr ev f = ηv Vth (2.29)
where ηv = volumetric efficiency of compressor
Vr ev = compression chamber volume of compressor, m3
Vth = theoretical displacement, m3 /s
f = operating frequency of compressor, Hz
Defining isentropic efficiency of compression process as
h2s − h1
ηis = (2.30)
h2 − h1
where ηis = isentropic efficiency of compression process
h2s = discharge specific enthalpy of isentropic compression process,
kJ/kg
2.2 Categories and Basic Principle of Two-stage Com-

pression Heat Pump Cycle
In the vapor compression air source heat pump cycle, if condensation temper-
ature is fixed, as evaporation temperature or evaporation pressure decreases,
the suction pressure of compressor is also reduced, while the pressure ratio
and the suction specific volume increase, and refrigerant mass flow rate de-
creases. The pressure ratio of the compressor becomes larger with evaporation
temperature decreasing, which will cause the following problems to the vapor
compression air source heat pump:
(1) Volumetric efficiency of compressor decreases, and heating capacity of
the heat pump decreases;
(2) Discharge temperature of compressor rises, resulting in a decrease in
viscosity of lubricant oil, which causes deterioration of lubricating perfor-
mance. In severe cases, it may even cause decomposition of lubricant oil, de-
terioration of lubricant oil, deterioration of the motor insulation performance,
and burnout of the motor winding;
(3) Isentropic efficiency of compressor decreases and power consumption
increases.
Especially when the evaporation temperature is below −30◦ C and the com-
pressor pressure ratio exceeds 10, the above tendency will become particu-
larly noticeable. The above problems can be effectively solved by arranging
two compressors connected in series or two cylinders in a single compressor
connected in series. The cycle utilizing this type of compression is called a
two-stage compression cycle.
Generally, a compressor or a cylinder on the high-pressure side is referred
to as a high-pressure stage compressor or a high-pressure stage cylinder, and a
compressor or cylinder on the low-pressure side is referred to as a low-pressure
stage compressor or a low-pressure stage cylinder.
A two-stage compression cycle can be realized with a single compressor,
which has the advantages of low cost, relative simplicity in pipes, convenience
in control and compactness in installation, etc. A two-stage compression cycle
also can be realized with two compressors connected in series, which has the
disadvantages of bulk in system, complexity in pipes, incovenience in control,
difficulty in design, etc. At the same time, as the lubricant oil gradually flows
from the low-pressure stage compressor to the high-pressure stage compressor,
there exists difficulty in oil returning from the high-pressure stage compressor
to the low-pressure stage compressor during operation. Therefore, it is more
preferable to use a single compressor to realize a two-stage compression cy-
cle in a small air source heat pump. The relevant contents of the two-stage
compression cycle with a single compressor are discussed below.
2.2.1 Categories of two-stage compression interstage vapor

injection heat pump cycle
The compression process of a two-stage compression heat pump cycle consists
of two compression processes. The low-temperature and low-pressure gas re-
frigerant from the evaporator is sequentially compressed by the low-pressure
stage cylinder and the high-pressure stage cylinder of the compressor and then
enters the condenser.
The two-stage compression interstage vapor injection heat pump cycle can
be divided into the following four categories according to the number of throt-
tling and the interstage cooling methods: (1) one-step throttling interstage
complete cooling cycle; (2) one-step throttling interstage incomplete cooling
cycle; (3) two-step throttling interstage complete cooling cycle; (4) two-step
throttling interstage incomplete cooling cycle.
The interstage complete cooling means that the low-pressure stage dis-
charge gas reaches the saturated gas state corresponding to the intermediate
pressure after cooling, that is, the high-pressure stage suction gas is saturated
vapor; the interstage incomplete cooling is that the low-pressure stage dis-
charge gas has a certain superheat after cooling, that is, the high-pressure
stage suction gas is superheated vapor.
If outlet subcooled liquid refrigerant of the condenser is throttled twice and
depressurized to intermediate pressure and evaporation pressure, respectively,
this throttling method is called two-step throttling; if it is directly throttled
and depressurized to evaporation pressure, this throttling method is called
one-step throttling.
1. One-step throttling interstage complete cooling cycle
The two-stage compression one-step throttling interstage complete cooling
cycle is widely used, and its system principle is shown in Figure 2.6 (the
two-stage compressor is in the broken line in the figure). During operation,
the low-pressure and low-temperature gas refrigerant from the evaporator is
sucked and compressed by the low-pressure stage cylinder, the superheated
gas refrigerant of intermediate pressure is discharged into the internal heat
exchanger, where it is mixed with the two-phase refrigerant from the throttling
device 1 (branched circuit), the mixture is sucked and compressed by the
high-pressure stage cylinder, the superheated gas refrigerant of high pressure
is discharged into the condenser and condenses to liquid refrigerant. Most of
the subcooled liquid refrigerant from the condenser enters the internal heat
exchanger and is subcooled further, then enters the throttling device 2 (main
circuit) and is throttled and depressurized to evaporation pressure, the two-
phase refrigerant enters the evaporator and evaporates into gas refrigerant,
and then returns to the suction port of the low-pressure stage cylinder of the
compressor to complete the entire cycle.
The characteristic of this cycle is that the superheated gas refrigerant
discharged from the low-pressure stage cylinder enters the saturated liquid
refrigerant in the internal heat exchanger and is sufficiently cooled, thus the
refrigerant sucked by the high-pressure stage cylinder is no longer superheated

gas, but close to saturated gas. The discharge temperature of the high-pressure
stage cylinder can be decreased. At the same time, the main refrigerant at the
outlet of the condenser is further subcooled in the internal heat exchanger,
which reduces the refrigerant specific enthalpy, thereby increasing the specific
cooling capacity.
FIGURE 2.6
Two-stage compression one-step throttling interstage complete cooling cycle
2. One-step throttling interstage incomplete cooling cycle

The two-stage compression one-step throttling interstage incomplete cool-
ing cycle is shown in Figure 2.7 (the two-stage compressor is shown in the
broken line in the figure). The condenser outlet pipes are divided into two cir-
cuits. Subcooled liquid refrigerant of one circuit (main circuit) enters the inner
side of the tube of the internal heat exchanger, and subcooled liquid refriger-
ant of the other circuit (branched circuit) is depressurized by the throttling
device 1 and enters the outer side of the tube of the internal heat exchanger,
refrigerant of the main circuit is further cooled and its subcooling increases.
The subcooled refrigerant of the main circuit is depressurized by the throt-
tling device 2, the two-phase refrigerant enters the evaporator and evaporates
into gas refrigerant, and then is sucked and compressed by the low-pressure
stage cylinder, the superheated gas refrigerant of intermediate pressure is dis-
charged to the interstage mixing chamber of the two-stage compressor. The
refrigerant of the branched circuit evaporates to gas refrigerant in the inter-
nal heat exchanger and enters the interstage mixing chamber of the two-stage
compressor, where it is mixed with the discharge gas of the low-pressure stage
cylinder, the mixture is sucked and compressed by the high-pressure stage
cylinder, the superheated gas refrigerant of high pressure is discharged into
the condenser and condenses to liquid refrigerant to complete the entire cycle.
Condenser
Throttling High-pressure
device 1 cylinder
Interstage
mixing
chamber
Internal heat
exchanger
Low-pressure
cylinder
Throttling
device 2
Evaporator
FIGURE 2.7
Two-stge compression one-step throttling interstage incompletestep
cooling cycle
In the two-stage compression one-step throttling interstage incomplete

cooling cycle, there exists a heat transfer temperature difference of the internal
heat exchanger, that is, the outlet refrigerant temperature of the main circuit
of the internal heat exchanger is slightly higher than the saturation tempera-
ture corresponding to the intermediate pressure, therefore, the heating COP
of the cycle is lower than the two-stage compression two-step throttling com-
plete cooling cycle. At the same time, the superheat of the gas refrigerant
sucked and discharged by the high-pressure stage cylinder is greater than the
interstage complete cooling cycle.
This cycle is widely used in heat pumps for simple control method and
compactness of internal heat exchanger.
3. Two-step throttling interstage complete cooling cycle
Two-stage compression two-step throttling means that the liquid refrig-
erant from the condenser enters the evaporator after being throttled twice.
Figure 2.8 shows the two-stage compression two-step throttling interstage
complete cooling cycle diagram (the two-stage compressor is in the broken
line in the figure). The flash tank is placed between the first-step and the
Condenser
Throttling
High-pressure
device 1 cylinder
Flash tank
Low-pressure
cylinder
Throttling
device 2
Evaporator
FIGURE 2.8
Two-stage compression two-step throttling interstage complete cooling cycle
second-step throttling devices. The superheated gas refrigerant discharged by

the low-pressure stage cylinder enters the flash tank and is completely cooled,
the closely saturated gas refrigerant from the flash tank is sucked and com-
pressed by the high-pressure stage cylinder, the superheated gas refrigerant of
high pressure is discharged into the condenser and condenses to liquid refrig-
erant, and then is throttled and depressurized into the flash tank through the
throttling device 1. The liquid refrigerant from the flash tank is throttled by
the throttling device 2, the two-phase refrigerant enters the evaporator and
evaporates into gas refrigerant, and then is sucked and compressed by the
low-pressure stage cylinder to complete the entire cycle.
In this cycle, the inlet liquid temperature of the second-step throttling de-
vice is the saturation temperature corresponding to the intermediate pressure
in the flash tank, so the specific enthalpy of the refrigerant is lower and the
heating COP is higher compared with the one-step throttling interstage com-
plete and incomplete cooling cycle. The disadvantage of this cycle is that the
lubricant oil carried by the discharge gas of the low-pressure stage cylinder
and the high-pressure stage cylinder enters the flash tank, and the lubricant
oil in the flash tank enters the evaporator together with the liquid refrigerant,
which deteriorates slightly the heat transfer performance of refrigerant side
in the evaporator. In addition, the saturated liquid refrigerant from the flash
tank will flash a small amount of gas when flowing through the connecting
pipe, which reduces slightly the working stability of the second-step throttling
device.
4. Two-step throttling interstage incomplete cooling cycle
The two-stage compression two-step throttling interstage incomplete cool-
ing cycle is shown in Figure 2.9 (the two-stage compressor is shown in the
broken line in the figure).
Condenser
Throttling High-pressure
device 1 cylinder
Flash tank Interstage

mixing
chamber
Low -pressure
cylinder
Throttling
device 2
Evaporator
FIGURE 2.9
Two-stage compression two-step throttling interstage incomplete cooling cycle
The difference between this cycle and the two-step throttling interstage
complete cooling cycle is in that the superheated gas refrigerant discharged
from the low-pressure stage cylinder does not enter the flash tank but directly
enters the interstage mixing chamber, and is mixed with the closely satu-
rated gas refrigerant from the flash tank in the interstage mixing chamber,
the mixture is sucked by the high-pressure stage cylinder. Compared with the
interstage complete cooling cycle, the connecting pipe of the two-stage com-
pressor from the low-pressure stage cylinder to the high-pressure stage cylinder
is shortened, the flow frictional pressure drop is smaller, and the heating COP
is relatively higher.
5. Comparison of four categories of two-stage compression heat
pump cycle
The differences in contrast to the above four categories of two-stage com-
pression interstage cooling cycle are shown in Table 2.1. Compared with the
one-step throttling cycle, the two-step throttling cycle reduces the irreversible
loss of the intermediate heat transfer process, the specific enthalpy of the re-
frigerant entering the evaporator is reduced, and the heating capacity and
heating COP of the heat pump are improved. However, the refrigerant trans-
portation distance is shorter in the cooling mode. In the two-step throttling
cycle, the interstage incomplete cooling method has higher heating COP than
the interstage complete cooling method.
TABLE 2.1
Differences of four categories of two-stage compression heat pump cycle
Refrigerant
Discharge Heat pump Oil return transporta-
Cycle categories
temperature efficiency performance tion
distance
One-step throttling
Relatively Relatively Relatively
interstage complete Good
low low long
cooling
One-step throttling
interstage Good
high low long
incomplete cooling
Two-step throttling
interstage complete Poor
low high short
cooling
Two-step throttling
interstage Poor
high high short
incomplete cooling
In practice, a suitable two-stage compression cycle is selected based on

characteristics such as discharge temperature, heating COP, oil return per-
formance, and refrigerant transportation distance of the four cycles. When
heating capacity of heat pump is insufficient and heating COP is low under
low temperature ambient environment, heating capacity and heating COP of
the heat pump are the focuses of attention. When long-distance transportation
of refrigerant is required, the key consideration is the oil return performance
of the cycle.
The interstage mixing chamber of the two-stage compressor with variable
volume ratio discussed in this book is located inside the compressor (described
in detail in Chapter 3, there called intermediate chamber) and is only appli-
cable to two-stage compression one-step throttling interstage incomplete cool-
ing cycle and two-stage compression two-step throttling interstage incomplete
cooling cycle. In this chapter, we will focus on the analysis of the two-stage
compression two-step throttling interstage incomplete cooling cycle, and the
two-stage compression one-step throttling interstage incomplete cooling cycle
can refer to these analysis methods.
2.2.2 Basic principle of two-stage compression two-step

throttling interstage incomplete cooling cycle
Figure 2.10 shows the pressure-enthalpy diagram of the two-stage compression
two-step throttling incomplete cooling cycle which is shown in Figure 2.9. The
solid line 1-8-9-2-3-5-6-4 in the figure is the pressure-enthalpy diagram of the
two-stage compression two-step throttling interstage incomplete cooling cycle,
the broken line 1-20-3-40 is the pressure-enthalpy diagram of the single-stage
compression cycle.
lgp
3 2 2'
6 5 7 9 8
4 4' 1
FIGURE 2.10
The pressure-enthalpy diagram of the two-stage compression two-step throttling
interstage incomplete cooling cycle
Combining Figure 2.9 with Figure 2.10, the actual cycle process of the two-
stage compression two-step throttling interstage incomplete cooling cycle is:
the low-pressure and low-temperature gas refrigerant at the evaporator outlet
(state point 1) is sucked and compressed by the low-pressure stage cylinder to
become the intermediate-pressure superheated gas (state point 8), then enters
the interstage mixing chamber and is mixed with the intermediate-pressure
near-saturated gas (state point 7) from the flash tank, the mixed gas (state
point 9) is sucked and compressed by the high-pressure stage cylinder to be-
come high-pressure superheated gas (state point 2), then enters the condenser
to release heat and condenses to liquid and further to be cooled into the
high-pressure subcooled liquid (state point 3), then enters the first-step throt-
tling device and becomes intermediate-pressure two-phase refrigerant (state
point 5) after throttling, then enters the flash tank for gas-liquid separation.
The separated intermediate-pressure near-saturated liquid (state point 6) is
throttled by the second-step throttling device to become two-phase refrigerant
(state point 4), then enters the evaporator to absorb heat and evaporates to
gas, and finally enters the low-pressure stage cylinder of the compressor to
complete the entire cycle.
Compared with the single-stage compression cycle, the two-stage compres-
sion two-step throttling interstage incomplete cooling cycle has the following
differences:
(1) The low-pressure gas refrigerant is compressed twice by the low-
pressure stage cylinder and the high-pressure stage cylinder, and the high-
pressure liquid refrigerant is throttled twice by the first-step throttling device
and the second-step throttling device;
(2) After the first-step throttling, the intermediate-pressure near-saturated
gas refrigerant separated in the flash tank is injected into the interstage mixing
chamber and mixed with the supheated gas discharged from the low-pressure
stage cylinder, and then enters the suction port of the high-pressure stage
cylinder, thereby making the discharge temperature of the high-pressure stage
cylinder lower (t2 < t20 ), meanwhile, the inlet specific enthalpy of the evapo-
rator is significantly reduced (h4 < h40 );
(3) Since the two-stage compression process shares the pressure ratio of
the compressor, the pressure ratio of each stage is significantly reduced.
Compared with single-stage compression heat pump technology, the two-
stage compression two-step throttling heat pump technology with interstage
vapor injection has the following advantages in theory:
(1) The specific cooling capacity qm,e (= h1 − h4 ) and the volumetric cooling
capacity qv,e (= qm,e /v1 ) are significantly increased, and the heating capacity is
also significantly increased when the operating conditions and the theoretical
displacement of the compressor are fixed;
(2) The compressor volumetric efficiency and isentropic efficiency are in-
creased;
(3) The heating coefficient of performance of the heat pump is significantly
improved;
(4) The compressor discharge temperature is decreased.
2.3 Thermodynamic Characteristics Analysis of Two-

stage Compression Heat Pump Cycle
The thermodynamic cycle calculation method of the two-stage compression
heat pump cycle is basically the same as that of the single-stage compression
heat pump cycle, but the intermediate pressure of the two-stage compres-
sion two-step throttling interstage incomplete cooling cycle (referred to as
two-stage compression cycle) needs to be fixed or solved through iterative
calculation. In addition, the refrigerant mass flow rate of the high-pressure
stage is not the same as that of the low-pressure stage, and they need to be
separately calculated.

compression cycle
1. Theoretical thermodynamic model for two-stage compression
cycle
In the two-stage compression cycle system diagram shown in Figure 2.9,
the outlet two-phase refrigerant of the first-step throttling device is ideally
separated into the saturated gas and the saturated liquid in the flash tank
in theory, but there exists the phenomenon that the saturated gas refrigerant
entrains with some saturated liquid refrigerant or vice versa in practice.
Assuming that the saturated gas entrains with some saturated liquid, the
entrainment ratio is defined as
Mi,l
E= (2.31)
Mi,g
where E = liquid entrainment ratio in saturated gas

Mi,l = the mass flow rate of the liquid refrigerant entrained in the satur-
ated gas refrigerant separated in the flash tank, kg/s
Mi,g = the mass flow rate of the saturated gas refrigerant separated in the
flash tank, kg/s
The refrigerant mass flow rate at the inlet and the outlet of the flash tank
follows the conservation of mass,
Mc = Me + Mi,l + Mi,g (2.32)
where Mc = the mass flow rate of refrigerant flowing through the condenser,
kg/s
Me = the mass flow rate of refrigerant flowing through the evaporator,
kg/s
According to the principle of isenthalpic throttling, refrigerant quality after
the first-step throttling is
hc,out − hFT,l
xFT = (2.33)
hFT,g − hFT,l
where xFT = the quality after the first-step throttling

hc,out = the specific enthalpy at the condenser outlet, kJ/kg
hFT,l = the specific enthalpy of the saturated liquid in the flash tank,
kJ/kg
hFT,g = the specific enthalpy of the saturated gas in the flash tank,
kJ/kg
Therefore, there is
Mi,g = Mc xFT (2.34)
Mi,l = Mc xFT E (2.35)
Me = Mc [1 − xFT (1 + E)] (2.36)

The cooling capacity is
Q e = Me (he,out − hFT,l ) (2.37)
where he,out = the specific enthalpy at the evaporator outlet, kJ/kg

The heating capacity is
Q c = Mc (hc,in − hc,out ) (2.38)
where hc,in = the specific enthalpy at the condenser inlet, kJ/kg

The discharge specific enthalpy of the low-pressure stage is
his
dis, LS
− hsuc, LS
hdis, LS = hsuc, LS + (2.39)
ηis, LS
where hsuc, LS = the suction specific enthalpy of the low-pressure stage, kJ/kg
his
dis, LS
= the discharge specific enthalpy of the low-pressure stage after
isentropic compression, kJ/kg
ηis, LS = the isentropic efficiency of the low-pressure stage
The compression work of the low-pressure stage is
W LS = Me (hdis, LS − hsuc, LS ) (2.40)
The suction gas of the high-pressure stage is the mixture of the discharge
gas of the low-pressure stage and the near-saturated gas (entraining liquid)
injected from the flash tank; based on conversation of energy, there is
Mc hsuc, H S = Me hdis, LS + Mi,g hFT,g + Mi,l hFT,l (2.41)
By substituting Equations (2.34)-(2.36) into Equation (2.41), the suction

specific enthalpy of the high-pressure stage can be obtained.
hsuc, H S = [1 − xFT (1 + E)]hdis, LS + xFT (hFT,g + E hFT,l ) (2.42)
The discharge specific enthalpy of the high-pressure stage is
his
dis, H S
− hsuc, H S
hdis, H S = hsuc, H S + (2.43)
ηis, H S
where his
dis, H S
= the discharge specific enthalpy of the high-pressure stage after
isentropic compression, kJ/kg
ηis, H S = the isentropic efficiency of the high-pressure stage
The compression work of the high-pressure stage is
W H S = Mc (hdis, H S − hsuc, H S ) (2.44)

The compression work of the two-stage compressor is
W = W H S + W LS (2.45)
The cooling energy efficiency ratio is

Qe
EER = (2.46)
W
The heating coefficient of performance is
Qc
COP = (2.47)
W
The refrigerant in the flash tank obeys conservation of energy
(Me + Mi,g + Mi,l )hc,out = Me hFT,l + Mi,g hFT,g + Mi,l hFT,l (2.48)
Then there is
(Me + Mi,l )(hc,out − hFT,l ) = Mi,g (hFT,g − hc,out ) (2.49)
By substituting Equation (2.34) into Equation (2.32) and combining with

Equation (2.49), there is
xFT
(hc,out − hFT,l ) = (hFT,g − hc,out ) (2.50)
1 − xFT
The cooling capacity enhancement of the two-stage compression cycle com-
pared with the single-stage compression cyclye, i.e., the enthalpy enhancement
due to interstage vapor injection, is
Q FT = Me (hc,out − hFT,l ) (2.51)
Combining Equation (2.37) with Equations (2.50) and (2.51), the ratio of
the cooling capacity enhancement to the cooling capacity of the single-stage
compression cycle is obtained, namely the enthalpy enhancement ratio, is
Q FT xFT hFT,g − hc,out xFT
= ≈ (2.52)
Q e − Q FT 1 − xFT he,out − hc,out 1 − xFT
In the above equation, the difference between the specific enthalpy hFT,g
of the saturated gas in the flash tank and the specific enthalpy he,out at the
evaporator outlet is small.
It can be deduced from Equation (2.52) that the enthalpy enhancement
ratio is mainly determined by the quality after the first-step throttling. The
higher the quality, the more obvious the enthalpy enhancement effect due to
interstage vapor injection.
The mass flow rate of refrigerant flowing through the evaporator can be
expressed as
Vr ev, LS fLS
Me = ηv, LS (2.53)
vsuc, LS
where ηv, LS = the volumetric efficiency of the low-pressure stage cylinder

Vr ev, LS = the working volume of the low-pressure stage cylinder, m3
fLS = the operating frequency of the low-pressure stage cylinder,
Hz
vsuc, LS = the suction specific volume of the low-pressure stage cylinder,
m3 /kg
The mass flow rate of refrigerant flowing through the condenser can be
expressed as
Vr ev, H S fH S
Mc = ηv, H S (2.54)
vsuc, H S
where ηv, H S = the volumetric efficiency of the high-pressure stage cylinder
Vr ev, H S = the working volume of the high-pressure stage cylinder, m3
fH S = the operating frequency of the high-pressure stage cylinder,
Hz
vsuc, H S = the suction specific volume of the high-pressure stage cylinder,
m3 /kg
Combining Equation (2.36) with Equations (2.53) and (2.54), the theoret-
ical displacement ratio of the high-pressure stage cylinder to the low-pressure
stage cylinder is
fH S Vr ev, H S ηv, LS vsuc, H S 1
Rv = = (2.55)
fLS Vr ev, LS ηv, H S vsuc, LS [1−xFT (1 + E)]
When the operating frequency of the high-pressure stage cylinder is the
same as that of the low-pressure stage cylinder or the two cylinders con-
nected in series are coaxially driven, Rv is the working volume ratio of the
high-pressure stage cylinder to the low-pressure stage cylinder (referred to as
volume ratio), recorded as Rc , then there is
Vr ev, H S
Rc = (2.56)
Vr ev, LS
Assuming hFT,l = hc,out in Equation (2.33), then xFT = 0. By substitut-
ing it into Equation (2.55), and assuming that the volumetric efficiencies of
the high-pressure stage cylinder and low-pressure stage cylinder are equal, si-
multaneously making Rv = 1, then vsuc, H S = vsuc, LS , that is the high-pressure
stage suction condition is the same as the low-pressure stage suction condition.
At this time, the above model for two-stage compression cycle can be used for
theoretical thermodynamic analysis of a single-stage compression cycle.
From Equation (2.25) and Equation (2.27) of the single-stage compression
cycle, specific heating capacity and volumetric heating capacity expressions
of the two-stage compression cycle can be obtained as follows
Qc Qc
qm,c = = [1 − xFT (1 + E)] (2.57)
Mc Me
Qc Qc Qc qm,c
qv,c = = = = (2.58)
VLS ηv, LS Vr ev, LS fLS Me vsuc, LS vsuc, LS [1 − xFT (1 + E)]
Comparing Equation (2.58) with Equation (2.27), it can be seen that if

specific heating capacity and low-pressure stage suction specific volume of the
two-stage compression cycle are the same as those of the single-stage compres-
sion cycle, respectively, and the entrainment ratio is zero, then volmumetric
heating capacity enhancement of the two-stage compression cycle compared
with the single-stage compression cycle increases with the increase of the qual-
ity after the first-step throttling. When the quality after the first-step throt-
tling is zero, volumetric heating capacity of the two-stage compression cycle
is the same as that of the single-stage compression cycle.
2. The calculation method
The above theoretical thermodynamic model of the two-stage compression
cycle can be solved by EES (Engineering Equation Solver) through program-
ming, in which the thermophysical properties of refrigerants, such as specific
enthalpy, specific volume, etc., can be calculated using the built-in property
functions in EES.
The following parameters in the two-stage compression cycle p− h diagram
(as shown in Figure 2.10) should be specified before calculation, including the
pressure (or the corresponding saturation temperature) and the superheat of
the suction state point 1, the discharge pressure (or the corresponding satura-
tion temperature) of the discharge state point 2, the condenser outlet subcool-
ing of the state point 3, the isentropic efficiency and the volumetric efficiency
(required when calculating the mass flow rate) of the two cylinders, and the
entrainment ratio. The volume ratio and other parameters can be calculated
when the intermediate pressure (or corresponding saturation temperature) in
the flash tank is given; or the intermediate pressure can be iteratively calcu-
lated out when volume ratio is given and other parameters can be calculated
later.
2.3.2 Calculation and analysis of optimal volume ratio

From the theoretical analysis in Section 2.3.1, there are many factors affect-
ing the performance of the two-stage compression cycle. The volume ratio
of the two-stage compressor is one of the most critical factors among them.
Therefore, it is important to reasonably determine the volume ratio of the
high-pressure stage cylinder to the low-pressure stage cylinder in the two-
stage compression cycle system.
The optimal volume ratio refers to the ratio of the working volume of the
high-pressure stage cylinder to that of the low-pressure stage cylinder when the
cooling EER or the heating COP of the two-stage compression cycle system
reaches maximum under given operating conditions. The optimal volume ratio
is expressed as Rv,opt .
In the actual two-stage compression air source heat pump system, the
parameters of the two-stage compression cycle vary due to various factors
such as ambient temperature, refrigerant pressure drop, and heat transfer
performance, etc. For convenience of analysis, make the following assumptions:
(1) The pressure drops of refrigerant flowing through the heat exchange
tubes of the condenser and the evaporator are neglected, thus the condensation
temperature and the evaporation temperature are constant along the heat
exchange tubes;
(2) The pressure drops of refrigerant flowing through connecting pipes are
neglected;
(3) The heat losses of refrigerant flowing through the throttling devices,
connecting pipes and other components except for heat exchangers are ne-
glected;
(4) The volumetric efficiency of the low-pressure stage cylinder is equal to
that of the high-pressure stage cylinder.
The given parameters are specified as follows before calculation:
(1) The isentropic efficiencies of the high-pressure stage cylinder and the
low-pressure stage cylinder are 0.7;
(2) The condenser outlet subcooling is 5◦ C;
(3) The suction superheat is 0◦ C;
(4) The entrainment ratio is 0;
(5) The condensation temperature ranges from 25◦ C to 65◦ C;
(6) The evaporation temperature ranges from −50◦ C to 30◦ C.
R-410A, R-290, R-22, R-32 and R-134a are selected as refrigerants, the
optimal volume ratio of the two-stage compression cycle and the heating COP
enhancement compared with the single-stage compression cycle are calculated
and analyzed.
1. Optimal volume ratio of R-410A
Firstly, the optimal volume ratio of R-410A two-stage compression cycle
is studied.
When condensation temperatures are 25◦ C, 35◦ C, 45◦ C, 55◦ C and 65◦ C,
respectively, the calculated R-410A optimal volume ratio curve varying with
evaporation temperature and with the temperaure difference of condensation
temperature and evaporation temperature are shown in Figure 2.11 (a) and
(b), respectively.
It can be seen from Figure 2.11(a) that when the condensation temperature
is constant, the optimal volume ratio decreases linearly with the decrease of
the evaporation temperature, that is, the lower the evaporation temperature,
the smaller the optimal volume ratio. For example, when the condensation
temperature is 45◦ C and the evaporation temperature decreases from 30◦ C
to −50◦ C, the optimal volume ratio reduces from 0.94 to 0.31. When the
evaporation temperature is constant, the optimal volume ratio decreases as the
condensation temperature increasing, and the decreasing rate becomes smaller
as the evaporation temperature decreasing, that is, the curves in Figure 2.11(a)
become more and more intensive.
It can be seen from Figure 2.11(b) that when the temperature difference
between the condensation temperature and the evaporation temperature is
constant, the optimal volume ratio increases as the condensation temperature
increasing; when the condensation temperature is constant, the optimal vol-
0.95
0.85
Optimal volume ratio

0.75
0.65
0.55 Condensation temperature
65ć 55ć
0.45
45ć 35ć
25ć
0.35
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20
Evaporation temperature (ć)
(a) Optimal volume ratio varies with evaporation temperature
0.95
Condensation temperature
0.85
65ć 55ć
45ć 35ć
0.75
25ć
0.65
0.55
0.45
0.35
0.25
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
Temperature lift (ć)
(b) Optimal volume ratio varies with the temperature difference be-
tween condensation temperature and evaporation temperature
FIGURE 2.11
Optimal volume ratio curve of R-410A
ume ratio decreases linearly with the increase of the temperature difference
between the condensation temperature and the evaporation temperature.
2. Influence of refrigerant on optimal volume ratio
It is known from Equation (2.55) that the volume ratio is related to the
thermophysical properties of refrigerant, therefore, the value of the optimal
volume ratio is necessarily related to the selected refrigerant.
The calculated optimal volume ratios of R-290, R-32, R-22, and R-134a are
compared with the optimal volume ratio of R-410A. The comparison results
are shown in Figure 2.12–Figure 2.15, respectively.
As can be seen from Figure 2.12 and Figure 2.13, when the condensation
temperature is in the range of 25◦ C–55◦ C, the optimal volume ratios of R-290
1.05
1.00
Relative optimal volume ratio

0.95
0.90
0.85 65ć 55ć
45ć 35ć
0.80 25ć
0.75
-50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30
FIGURE 2.12
Relative optimal volume ratio of R-290 in comparison with R-410A
and R-32 are very close to the optimal volume ratio of R-410A, and the relative
optimal volume ratios of R-290 and R-32 in comparison with R-410A are in the
range of 0.96–1.03; when the condensation temperature is 65◦ C, the relative
optimal volume ratios are in the range of 0.92–0.96.
1.05
1.00
0.95
0.90
65ć 55ć
0.85
45ć 35ć
25ć
0.80
-50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30
FIGURE 2.13
It can be seen from Figure 2.14 and Figure 2.15 that the relative optimal
volume ratios of R-22 and R-134a in comparison with R-410A are less than 1,
and decrease as the evaporation temperature decreasing or the condensation
temperature increasing.
1.00
0.95

0.90
0.85
0.80 Condensation temperature

65ć 55ć
0.75 45ć 35ć
25ć
0.70
-50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30
FIGURE 2.14
Among the above five refrigerants, the optimal volume ratio of the refrig-
erant R-134a is the smallest under the same operating conditions.
1.00
0.95
0.90
0.85
0.80
0.75
0.70 65ć 55ć
45ć 35ć
0.65
25ć
0.60
-50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30
Evaporation temperature ˄ć˅
FIGURE 2.15
Relative optimal volume ratio of R-134a in comparison with R-410A
The theoretical optimal volume ratios of R-290, R-32, and R-410A two-
stage compression cycles in the range of the calculation conditions can be fitted
with the correlation shown in Equation (2.59). In the range of calculation
conditions in this section, the average relative deviations between the values
predicted by the correlation and the theoretical optimal volume ratios are
1.0%, 1.7% and 2.8% for R-290, R-32 and R-410A, respectively. The maximum
relative deviations are 4.6%, 5.2% and 7.7% for R-290, R-32 and R-410A,
respectively.
Rv,opt = (c0 + c1 te + c2 tc + c3 te tc + c4 te2 + c5 tc2 )(c6 + c7 ∆tsc /tc ) (2.59)
where te = evaporation temperature, ◦ C

tc = condensation temperature, ◦ C
∆tsc = outlet subcooling of the condenser, ◦ C
ci = coefficients, wherein c0 =0.98596, c1 = 9.3684 × 10−3 , c2 = −9.1383×
10−3 , c3 = −3.9061 × 10−5 , c4 = −6.0952 × 10−6 , c5 = 5.6071 × 10−5 ,
c6 = 0.99995, c7 =0.28089.
3. Improvements of optimal COP and corresponding volumetric
heating capacity
The improvements of the optimal COP and the corresponding volumet-
ric heating capacity of the two-stage compression cycle using R-410A, R-290,
R-32, R-22 and R-134a as refrigerants compared with the single-stage com-
pression cycle are shown in Figure 2.16–Figure 2.20.
It can be seen from Figure 2.16 to Figure 2.20 that the improvements
of the optimal COP and the corresponding volumetric heating capacity of
the two-stage compression cycle using the five refrigerants compared with the
single-stage compression cycle both increase with the decrease of the evapo-
ration temperature and the increase of the condensation temperature. Under
the same calculation conditions, the improvements of the optimal COP of
R-410A, R-290 and R-134a are the largest, the improvement of the optimal
COP of R-22 is larger, and the improvement of the optimal COP of R-32 is
smaller than R-22. The improvements of the corresponding volumetric heat-
ing capacity are the same trend as those of the optimal COP. For example,
when the condensation temperature is 45◦ C and the evaporation temperature
is −30◦ C, the optimal COP enhancements of R-410A, R-290, R-134a, R-22
and R-32 are 10.5%, 11%, 10.9%, 7.4% and 6.4%, the improvements of the
corresponding volumetric heat capacity are 33.2%, 32.3%, 31.9%, 24.9% and
24%, respectively.
2.3.3 Influences of thermodynamic parameters on the per-

formance of the two-stage compression cycle
R-410A is taken as an example to analyze the influences of thermodynamic
parameters on the performance of the two-stage compression cycle, the calcu-
lated results are compared with the single-stage compression cycle.
The parameters are specified in Table 2.2 for calculation. It is assumed that
there are no pressure drops of the condenser, the evaporator and the connect-
ing pipes, and no heat losses of the connecting pipes and the compressor shell.
1. The impact of evaporation temperature

The impacts of evaporation temperature on volumetric heating capacity,
heating COP, suction specific volume, specific cooling capacity, pressure ratio,
24
22
65ć 55ć
20
45ć 35ć
18 25ć
COP enhancement (%)

16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
-50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30
(a) COP enhancement compared to single-stage
80
70
65ć 55ć
45ć 35ć
60
25ć
qv,c improvement (%)
50
40
30
20
10
0
-50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30
(b) qv, c improvement compared to single-stage
FIGURE 2.16
Improvements of R-410A COP and volumetric heating capacity compared to single-
stage
quality after first-step throttling, enthalpy enhancement ratio, and discharge

superheat of R-410A two-stage compression cycle are analyzed. Among them,
the volumetric heat capactiy is calculated by Equation (2.58), the heating
22
20 Condensation temperature
65ć 55ć
COP enhancement (%)

18
45ć 35ć
16 25ć
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
-50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30
70
60 65ć 55ć
45ć 35ć
50
25ć
40
30
20
10
0
-50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30
Evaporation Temperature (ć)
FIGURE 2.17
Improvements of R-290 COP and volumetric heating capacity compared to single-
stage
COP is calculated by Equation (2.47), and the specific cooling capacity is

the difference between the suction specific enthalpy and the saturated liquid
specific enthalpy from the flash tank, and the quality after first-step throttling
is defined by Equation (2.33), the enthalpy enhancement ratio is calculated
by Equation (2.52).
22
20
65ć 55ć
18
45ć 35ć
16
COP enhancement (%)

25ć
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
-50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30
70
60
65ć 55ć
45ć 35ć
50
25ć
40
30
20
10
0
-50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30
FIGURE 2.18
Improvements of R-134a COP and volumetric heating capacity compared to single-
stage
The influences of the evaporation temperature on the volumetric heating

capacity and the heating COP of R-410A two-stage compression cycle are
shown in Figure 2.21. It can be seen from the figure that the volumetric heating
capacity and the heating COP decrease with the evaporation temperature
decreasing, and the attenuation trend is similar to that of the single-stage
14
12 65ć 55ć
45ć 35ć
10 25ć
COP enhancement (%)
0
-50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30
50
45 Condensation temperature
65ć 55ć
40
45ć 35ć
35 25ć
30
25
20
15
10
0
-50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30
FIGURE 2.19
stage
14
12 65ć 55ć
45ć 35ć
10 25ć
COP Enhancement (%) 8
0
-50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30
(a) COP enhancement relative to one-stage
45
40
65ć 55ć
35 45ć 35ć
25ć
30
25
20
15
10
0
-50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30
(b) qv, c enhancement relative to one-stage
FIGURE 2.20
stage
compression cycle. However, the volumetric heating capacity and the heating
COP of the two-stage compression cycle are both higher than those of the
single-stage compression cycle.
Figure 2.22 shows the influences of the evaporation temperature on the
suction specific volume and the specific cooling capacity of R-410A two-stage
compression cycle. As can be seen from the figure, the suction specific volume
TABLE 2.2
Calculation parameters for two-stage compression cycle
Parameters Unit Value
Condensation temperature ◦C 45
Evaporation temperature ◦C −50–20
Condenser outlet subcooling ◦C 0
Suction superheat ◦C 0
Isentropic efficiency of cylinders - 0.7
Volumetric efficiency of cylinders - 0.85
Volume ratio - 0.75
Entrainment ratio - 0
increases rapidly as the evaporation temperature decreasing, which is one of

the main causes of the decrease in the volumetric heating capacity of the
single-stage compression cycle and the two-stage compression cycle as the
evaporation temperature decreasing. It can also be seen from Figure 2.22 that
the specific cooling capacity of the single-stage compression cycle decreases as
the evaporation temperature is decreasing, while the specific cooling capacity
of the two-stage compression cycle increases with the evaporation temperature
decreasing. As can be seen from Figure 2.10, the reason for the decrease in
the specific cooling capacity of the single-stage compression cycle is that the
saturated suction specific enthalpy decreases with the evaporation tempera-
ture decreasing. The reason for the increase in the specific cooling capacity
of the two-stage compression cycle is that, with the evaporation temperature
decreasing, the decrease of the specific enthalpy of the saturated liquid from
the flash tank is greater than the decrease of the saturated suction specific
enthalpy.
pressure ratios of R-410A single-stage and two-stage compression cycles. It
can be seen from the figure that the pressure ratio of the single-stage com-
pressor increases rapidly with the evaporation temperature decreasing, which
is one of the main causes for the COP attenuation in the single-stage and
two-stage compression cycles. Since the total pressure ratio of the two-stage
compressor is shared by the low-pressure stage cylinder and the high-pressure
stage cylinder, the reduction of the pressure ratio of each stage can improve the
volumetric efficiency of each stage cylinder, thereby increasing the volumetric
efficiency of the compressor.
Figure 2.24 shows the influences of the evaporation temperature on throt-
tling qualities and enthalpy enhancement ratio of R-410A two-stage compres-
sion cycle. It can be seen from the figure that, with the evaporation tempera-
ture decreasing, the quality after throttling in the single-stage compression
cycle and the quality after the first-step throttling in the two-stage com-
pression cycle increase; however, the quality after the second-step throttling
12,000
Single-stage
10,000
Two-stage
8,000
qv,c (kJ/m3)
6,000
4,000
2,000
0
-50 -30 -10 10
(a) R-410A volumetric heating capacity varies with evap-

oration temperature
9
8
Single-stage
7
Two-stage
6
5
COP
4
3
2
1
0
-50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20
(b) R-410A COP varies with evaporation temperature
FIGURE 2.21
R-410A volumetric heating capacity and COP vary with evaporation temperature
decreases slightly. The enthalpy enhancement ratio increases with the evap-
oration temperature decreasing, ranging from 10.8% to 92.7% calculated
according to the parameters in Table 2.2.
Figure 2.25 shows the influences of the evaporation temperature on the im-
provements of the volumetric heating capacity and COP of R-410A two-stage
compression cycle compared with the single-stage compression cycle. It can be
seen from the figure that the improvement of the volumetric heating capacity
of the two-stage compression cycle increases significantly with the evaporation
temperature decreasing, while COP enhancement firstly increases rapidly to
reach maximum and then decreases slowly. The improvement of the volumet-
ric heating capacity ranges from 9.9% to 75.5%, and COP enhancement is
around 5.4%–10.4% calculated according to the parameters in Table 2.2.
0.30 300
Suction specific volume
Single-stage specific cooling capacity
Specific cooling capacity (kJ/kg)

Suction specific volume (m3/kg)
0.25
Two-stage specific cooling capacity 250
0.20
0.15 200
0.10
150
0.05
0.00 100
-50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10
FIGURE 2.22
R-410A suction specific volume and specific cooling capacity
30
25
Single-stage
20 two-stage, low-pressure
Pressure ratio
two-stage, high-pressure
15
10
0
-50 -30 -10 10
FIGURE 2.23
R-410A pressure ratio
The main reason of the improvement of the volumetric heating capacity

of the two-stage compression cycle compared with the single-stage compres-
sion cycle is that, the specific enthalpy difference of the evaporator and the
mass flow rate of the high-pressure stage cylinder are increased by interstage
vapor injection with the flash tank, thus the specific cooling capacity and the
compression work of high-pressure stage cylinder are increased, the heating
capacity is increased under the same theoretical displacement of compressor.
It can be seen from Figure 2.24 that, with the evaporation temperature de-
creasing, the quality after the first-step throttling increases, the improvement
1.0 100
quality after one-step throttling
0.9 90
quality after first-step throttling
Enthalpy enhancement ratio (%)

0.8 quality after second-step throttling
80
Enthalpy enhancement ratio
0.7
Quality 70
0.6
60
0.5
50
0.4
40
0.3
0.2 30
0.1 20
-50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10
FIGURE 2.24
R-410A Enthalpy enhancement ratio and quality after throttling
80 11
70 10
9
COP enhancement (%)

60
8
50
7
40
6
30
5
20 Volumetric heating capacity
4
10 COP 3
0 2
-50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10
FIGURE 2.25
Improvements of R-410A volumetric heating capacity and COP compared to single-
stage
of the volumetric heat capacity of the two-stage compression cycle will in-
crease according to Equation (2.58), when the suction state of the two-stage
compressor is the same as that of the sing-stage compressor. The COP en-
hancement of the two-stage compression cycle is mainly due to the increase
of the specific cooling capacity and the decrease of the specific compression
work of the high-pressure stage cylinder.
discharge superheat of R-410A single-stage and two-stage compression cycles.
100
90 Single-stage
80 Two-stage
Discharge superheat (ć)

70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
-50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10
FIGURE 2.26
Discharge superheat of R-410A single-stage and two-stage compressors
It can be seen from the figure that the discharge superheats of the single-
stage compression cycle and the two-stage compression cycle increase with the
evaporation temperature decreasing, and the discharge superheat of the two-
stage compression cycle is reduced compared with the single-stage compression
cycle. The suction superheat of the high-pressure stage cylinder is reduced by
the near-saturated vapor injected from the flash tank, thereby reducing the
discharge superheat of the two-stage compression cycle.
2. Impacts of condensation temperature, condenser outlet sub-
cooling and suction superheat
The influences of evaporation temperature on the volumetric heating ca-
pacity, COP, etc., of R-410A two-stage compression cycle have been analyzed.
The influences of condensation temperature, condenser outlet subcooling, and
suction superheat on the volumetric heating capacity and COP of R-410A
two-stage compression cycle are analyzed; the results are shown in Figure
2.27, Figure 2.28 and Figure 2.29, respectively.
As can be seen from Figure 2.27, when the condensation temperature is in
the range of 35◦ C–65◦ C and the evaporation temperature is 10◦ C (other pa-
rameters are shown in Table 2.2), the volumetric heating capacity of R-410A
two-stage compression cycle increases slightly with the condensation temper-
ature increasing, while the volumetric heating capacity of R-410A single-stage
compression cycle decreases significantly with the condensation temperature
increasing. The COP of R-410A two-stage compression cycle and the single-
stage compression cycle all decrease rapidly as the condensation temperature
increasing. Compared with the single-stage compression cycle, under the cal-
culated operating condition, the volumetric heating capacity of R-410A two-
stage compression cycle is relatively improved by 9.3–47.3%, and the COP is
relatively enhanced by 4.5%–18.1%.
10,000 9
9,000 8
8,000 7
7,000
6
qv,c (kJ/m3) 6,000
5
COP
5,000
4
4,000
3
3,000 Two-stage volumetric heating capacity
2,000 Single-stage volumetric heating capacity 2
1,000 Two-stage COP 1
Single-stage COP
0 0
30 40 50 60 70
Condensation temperature (ć)
FIGURE 2.27
R-410A volumetric heating capacity and COP vary with condensation temperature
As can be seen from Figure 2.28, when the condenser outlet subcooling is
in the range of 0–15◦ C and the evaporation temperature is 0◦ C (other param-
eters are shown in Table 2.2), the volumetric heating capacity of R-410A two-
stage compression cycle increases slightly with the condenser outlet subcool-
ing increasing, while the volumetric heating capacity of R-410A single-stage
compression cycle increases significantly with the condenser outlet subcooling
increasing. The COP of R-410A two-stage compression cycle and the COP
of the single-stage compression cycle increase rapidly with the condenser out-
let subcooling increasing. Compared with the single-stage compression cycle,
under the calculated operating condition, the volumetric heating capacity of
R-410A two-stage compression cycle is relatively improved by 13.3%–26.6%,
and the COP is relatively enhanced by 2.8%–9.1%.
As can be seen from Figure 2.29, when the suction superheat is in the
range of 0◦ C–10◦ C and the evaporation temperature is 0◦ C (other parameters
are shown in Table 2.2), the volumetric heating capacity and COP of R-410A
single-stage compression cycle and two-stage compression cycle do not change
significantly with the suction superheat. Compared with the single-stage com-
pression cycle, under the calculation operating condition, the volumetric heat-
ing capacity of R-410A two-stage compression cycle is relatively improved by
25.2%–26.6%, and the COP is relatively enhanced by 8.4%–9.1%.
9,000 4.8
8,000 4.7
7,000 4.6
4.5
6,000
qv,c (kJ/m3) 4.4
5,000
COP
4.3
4,000
4.2
3,000
Two-stage volumetric heating capacity 4.1
2,000 Single-stage volumetric heating capacity 4.0
1,000 Two-stage COP
3.9
Single-stage COP
0 3.8
0 5 10 15 20
Condenser outlet subcooling (ć)
FIGURE 2.28
R-410A volumetric heating capacity and COP vary with condenser outlet subcooling
FIGURE 2.29
R-410A volumetric heating capacity and COP vary with suction superheat

two-stage compression cycle
1. Impact of volume ratio on COP and volumetric heating ca-
pacity
Taking R-410A two-stage compression cycle as an example, the influence
of the compressor volume ratio on the volumetric heating capacity and COP
of the two-stage compression cycle is analyzed below.
When the evaporation temperature is 0◦ C and −30◦ C (other parameters
are shown in Table 2.2), the influences of volume ratio on COP enhancement
12
Subcooling 0ć
10 Subcooling 5ć
COP enhancement (%)

Subcooling 15ć
8
-2
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
Volume ratio
(a) Evaporation temperature 0◦ C
14
12 Subcooling 0ć
Subcooling 5ć
COP enhancement (%)
10
Subcooling 15ć
8
-2
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
Volume ratio
(b) Evaporation temperature −30◦ C
FIGURE 2.30
R-410A two-stage COP enhancement compared to single-stage varies with volume
ratio
and the volumetric heating capacity of R-410A two-stage compression cycle

compared with the single-stage compression cycle are shown in Figure 2.30
and Figure 2.31, respectively.
It can be seen from Figure 2.30 that COP enhancement of R-410A two-
stage compression cycle compared with the single-stage compression cycle
firstly increases and then decreases with the volume ratio increassing, that is,
there exists the optimal volume ratio corresponding to the maximum COP.
The optimal volume ratio increases with the condenser outlet subcooling in-
creasing, but the maximum COP enhancement decreases as the condenser
outlet subcooling increasing. Comparing Figure 2.30(a) with Figure 2.30(b),
it can be seen that when the evaporation temperature reduces from 0◦ C to
−30◦ , the optimal volume ratio decreases but the maximum COP enhancement
60
Subcooling 0ć
50 Subcooling 5ć
Subcooling 15ć

40
30
20
10
0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
Volume ratio
100
Subcooling 0ć
90
Subcooling 5ć
80
Subcooling 15ć
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
Volume ratio
FIGURE 2.31
Improvement of R-410A two-stage volumetric heating capacity compared to single-
stage varies with volume ratio
increases. When the evaporation temperature is 0℃ and the condenser outlet

subcooling is 0◦ C, 5◦ C and 15◦ C, the optimal volume ratio is about 0.65, 0.7
and 0.8, respectively, and COP enhancement is about 9.3%, 6.6% and 2.8%,
respectively. When the evaporation temperature is −30◦ C and the condenser
outlet subcooling is 0◦ C, 5◦ C and 15◦ C, the optimal volume ratio is about 0.4,
0.45 and 0.5, respectively, and COP enhancement is about 13%, 10.5% and
6.6%, respectively.
It can be seen from Figure 2.31 that the improvement of the volumet-
ric heating capacity of R-410A two-stage compression cycle compared with
the single-stage compression cycle increases with the volume ratio increasing,
and decreases with the condenser outlet subcooling increasing. Comparing
Figure 2.31(a) with Figure 2.31(b), it can be seen that the improvement of
the volumetric heating capacity increases when the evaporation temperature
reduces from 0◦ C to −30◦ C. When the evaporation temperature is 0℃ and
the condenser outlet subcooling is 0◦ C, 5◦ C and 15◦ C, the improvement of
the volumetric heating capacity corresponding to the optimal volume ratio is
about 21.6%, 19.5% and 15.1%, respectively. When the evaporation tempera-
ture is −30◦ C and the condenser outlet subcooling is 0◦ C, 5◦ C and 15◦ C, the
improvement of the volumetric heating capacity corresponding to the optimal
volume ratio is about 32.6%, 31.4% and 25.5%, respectively.
2. Influences of volume ratio on compression work distribution
The influence of the volume ratio on the distribution of the total compres-
sion work of R-410A two-stage compressor is shown in Figure 2.32. It can be
seen from Figure 2.32 that the ratio of the high-pressure stage compression
work to the total compression work increases with the volume ratio increasing,
and increases with the condenser outlet subcooling increasing.
When the condenser outlet subcooling is 5◦ C, the evaporation temperature
is 0 C and −30◦ C, the ratio of the high-pressure stage compression work to the
◦
total compression work corresponding to the optimal volume ratio (0.45 and
0.7, respectively) is 55.7% and 55.3%, respectively. When the volume ratio is
far from the optimal volume ratio, the non-uniform distribution of the total
compression work between the high-pressure stage and the low-pressure stage
will become worse.
3. Influence analysis of compressor isentropic efficiency
When the evaporation temperature is 0◦ C, the condenser outlet subcool-
ing is 5◦ C, and the isentropic efficiency of cylinders is in the range of 0.5 to
0.9 (other parameters are shown in Table 2.2), the influences of isentropic
efficiency on the optimal volume ratio and the discharge superheat of R-410A
two-stage compressor are shown in Figure 2.33. The influences of isentropic
efficiency on the improvements of COP and the volumetric heating capacity
of R-410A two-stage compression cycle compared with the single-stage com-
pression cycle are shown in Figure 2.34.
It can be seen from Figure 2.33 that the optimal volume ratio of R-410A
two-stage compressor decreases slightly with isentropic efficiency increasing.
When isentropic efficiency increases from 0.5 to 0.9, the optimal volume ratio
reduces from 0.76 to 0.71. Discharge superheat of the two-stage compressor
decreases significantly with isentropic efficiency increasing.
It can be seen from Figure 2.34 that, compared with the single-stage com-
pression cycle, the COP enhancement of R-410A two-stage compression cycle
increases with isentropic efficiency increasing. When isentropic efficiency in-
creases from 0.5 to 0.9, the COP enhancement increases from 4.1% to 8.3%,
while the improvement of the volumetric heating capacity changes slightly.
2.3.5 Influence analysis of refrigerants

When the evaporation temperature is 0◦ C and the condenser outlet subcooling
is 5◦ C (other parameters are shown in Table 2.2), R-410A, R-134a, R-32,
100
90
Compression work ratio (%)

80
70
60
50
40
30 Subcooling 0ć
20 Subcooling 5ć
10 Subcooling 15ć
0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
Volume ratio
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
Subcooling 0ć
20 Subcooling 5ć
10 Subcooling 15ć
0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
Volume ratio
FIGURE 2.32
R-410A two-stage high-pressure compression work ratio varies with volume ratio
R-290 and R-22 are selected as refrigerants, the influences of refrigerants on

the volumetric heating capacity, COP and the discharge superheat of the two-
stage compression cycle are analyzed as follows.
The volumetric heating capacity of the two-stage compression cycle using
R-410A, R-134a, R-32, R-290 and R-22 as refrigerants is shown in Figure
2.35, and the relative volumetric heating capacities of R-134a, R-32, R-290
and R-22 two-stage compression cycles compared with that of R-410A two-
stage compression cycle are shown in Figure 2.36.
It can be seen from Figure 2.35 that the volumetric heating capacities
of the two-stage compression cycles using R-410A, R-134a, R-32, R-290 and
R-22 as refrigerants increase with volume ratio increasing, and the order of
0.77 45
Volume ratio
40
0.76
Discharge superheat

35

0.75
30
0.74 25
0.73 20
15
0.72
10
0.71
5
0.70 0
0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Isentropic efficiency
FIGURE 2.33
R-410A two-stage optimal volume ratio and discharge superheat vary with isentropic
efficiency
9 22
COP
8 Volumetric heating capacity
COP enhancement (%)

7
6 21
3 20
0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Isentropic efficiency
FIGURE 2.34
Improvements of R-410A two-stage COP and volumetric heating capacity compared
to single-stage
the volumetric heating capacity from large to small is R-32, R-410A, R-22,
R-290 and R-134a.
It can be seen from Figure 2.36 that the relative volumetric heating ca-
pacities of R-32, R-290, R-134a and R-22 two-stage compression cycles com-
pared with that of R-410A two-stage compression cycle decrease slightly with
volume ratio increasing. Under the calculated operating conditions, the rel-
ative volumetric heating capacity of R-32 is about 103.5%–106.7%, R-22
is about 63.3%–66.2%, R-290 is about 56.5%–57.2%, and R-134a is about
41.7%–43.7%.
10,000
R-410A
9,000 R-134a
R-32
8,000
R-290
qv,c (kJ/m3) 7,000 R-22
6,000
5,000
4,000
3,000
2,000
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
Volume ratio
FIGURE 2.35
Two-stage volumetric heating capacity varies with volume ratio
120
100 R-134a
R-32
Relative qv,c (%)
80 R-290
R-22
60
40
20
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4
Volume ratio
FIGURE 2.36
Relative volumetric heating capacity compared to R-410A
The discharge superheats of R-410A, R-134a, R-32, R-290 and R-22 two-
stage compression cycles are shown in Figure 2.37. It can be seen from Figure
2.37 that the discharge superheats of the five refrigerants firstly decrease and
then increase with volume ratio increasing, and the order of the discharge
supheats from small to large are R-290, R-134a, R-410A, R-22 and R-32.
Under the calculated operating conditions, the discharge temperature of R-32
is about 22◦ C higher than that of R-410A, and the discharge temperature of
R-290 is about 13◦ C lower than that of R-410A.
60
R-410A
50
R-134a

R-32
40
R-290
R-22
30
20
10
0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4
Volume ratio
FIGURE 2.37
Two-stage discharge superheat varies with volume ratio
The improvements of the volumetric heating capacities and COPs of the

two-stage compression cycles using R-410A, R-134a, R-32, R-290 and R-22 as
refrigerants compared with the single-stage compression cycle are shown in
Figure 2.38 and Figure 2.39, respectively.
It can be seen from Figure 2.38 that the improvements of the volumetric
heating capacities of R-410A, R-134a, R-32, R-290 and R-22 two-stage com-
pression cycles compared with the single-stage compression cycles increase
with volume ratio increasing.
50
45 R-410A
R-134a
40
R-32
35 R-290
30 R-22
25
20
15
10
5
0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
Volume ratio
FIGURE 2.38
Two-stage volumetric heating capacity improvement compared to single-stage
It can be seen from Figure 2.39 that the COP enhancements of the two-
stage compression cycles using R-410A, R-134a, R-32, R-290 and R-22 as
refrigrants compared with the single-stage compression cycles firstly increase
and then decrease with volume ratio increasing, and there exists an optimal
volume ratio corresponding to the maximum COP. When the volume ratio is
0.7, the improvements of the volumetric heating capacities of R-410A, R-134a,
R-32, R-290 and R-22 two-stage compression cycles are 19.5%, 20.7%, 14%,
18.4% and 15%, respectively, and the corresponding COP enhancements are
6.6%, 6.1%, 4%, 6.3% and 4.2%, respectively.
7
R-410A
6
R-134a
5 R-32
COP enhancement (%)
4 R-290
R-22
3
2
1
0
-1
-2
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
Volume ratio
FIGURE 2.39
Two-stage COP enhancement compared to single-stage
2.3.6 Influence analysis of vapor injection with liquid

The relative amount of liquid entrained in the injected vapor is characterized
as entrainment ratio defined by Equation (2.31). When the evaporation tem-
perature is −30◦ C, the condenser outlet subcooling is 5◦ C, and the volume
ratio is 0.5 (other parameters are shown in Table 2.2), R-32 is selected as re-
frigerant, the influences of entrainment ratio on discharge superheat, suction
quality of high-pressure stage, COP, volumetric heating capacity and optimal
volume ratio of R-32 two-stage compression cycle are analyzed.
The influence of entrainment ratio on R-32 discharge superheat and suc-
tion quality (nominal quality, greater than 1 indicates superheat) of high-
pressure stage is shown in Figure 2.40. It can be seen from Figure 2.40 that
the discharge superheat and the suction quality of high-pressure stage of R-32
two-stage compression cycle decrease with entrainment ratio increasing. Under
the calculation conditions, when the entrainment ratio is 0 (the injected vapor
is saturated state), the discharge superheat is 96.9◦ C (discharge temperature
141.9◦ C), and the suction quality of high-pressure stage is 1.148. When the
entrainment ratio is 0.5 (the quality of the gas-liquid mixture is about 0.667),
the discharge superheat is 48.6◦ C (discharge temperature 93.6◦ C), and the
suction quality of high-pressure stage is 1.002 (near-saturated gas state). The
increase of the entrainment ratio can effectively reduce the suction quality of
high-pressure stage, thereby significantly reducing the discharge superheat or
discharge temperature.
120 1.20
1.15
100
High-pressure suction quality

1.10
80
1.05
60 1.00
0.95
40
Discharge superheat 0.90
20
High-pressure suction quality 0.85
0 0.80
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Entrainment ratio
FIGURE 2.40
R-32 discharge superheat and suction quality of high-pressure stage
12 26
10 25.5
COP enhancement (%)
8 25
6 24.5
4 24
COP
2 23.5
Volumetric heating capacity
0 23
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Entrainment ratio
FIGURE 2.41
Improvements of R-32 two-stage qv,c and COP compared to single-stage
The influences of entrainment ratio on COP enhancement and the improve-

ment of the volumetric heating capacity of R-32 two-stage compression cycle
are shown in Figure 2.41. It can be seen from the figure that when entrain-
ment ratio is in the range of 0 to 0.5, COP enhancement of R-32 two-stage
compression cycle compared with the single-stage compression cycle increases

with entrainment ratio increasing, but the improvement of the volumetric heat
capacity decreases slightly with entrainment ratio increasing. When the en-
trainment ratio increases further, the increasing trend of COP enhancement
slows down, while the decreasing trend of the improvement of the volumetric
heating capacity speeds up, but the change is not large.
The influence of entrainment ratio on the optimal volume ratio of R-32
two-stage compression cycle is shown in Figure 2.42. It can be seen from Fig-
ure 2.42 that the optimal volume ratio corresponding to the maximum COP
enhancement increases with entrainment ratio increasing. When entrainment
ratio is 0, 0.2 and 0.4, the corresponding optimal volume ratio is about 0.45,
0.5 and 0.6, respectively.
9
Entrainment ratio 0
8
Entrainment ratio 0.2
7
Entrainment ratio 0.4
COP enhancement (%)
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
-1
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
Volume ratio
FIGURE 2.42
R-32 two-stage COP enhancement compared to single-stage
2.3.7 Optimal intermediate pressure for two-stage compres-

sion cycle
The intermediate pressure corresponding to the optimal volume ratio (or max-
imum COP) of the two-stage compression cycle under certain operating con-
dition is the optimal intermediate pressure.
The intermediate pressure is expressed as
√
pFT = k p pdis, H S psuc, LS (2.60)
where k p = the intermediate pressure coefficient

pdis, H S = discharge pressure of the two-stage compressor, MPa
psuc, LS = suction pressure of the two-stage compressor, MPa
It can be seen from Equation (2.60), the ratio of the low-pressure

stage pressure ratio pFT psuc, LS to the high-pressure stage pressure ratio
pdis, H S pFT is k p2 , therefore, k p also represents the relative value of the low-

pressure stage pressure ratio to the high-pressure stage pressure ratio. When
k p = 1, it indicates that the pressure ratios of the two stages are the same.
Assuming that the isentropic efficiencies of the high-pressure stage cylin-
der and low-pressure stage cylinder of the two-stage compressor are 0.7, the
condenser outlet subcooling is 5◦ C, the suction superheat is 0◦ C, the entrain-
ment ratio is 0, and the ranges of condensation temperature and evaporation
temperature are 25–65◦ C and −50–30◦ C, respectively. Under the above as-
sumptions, taking R-410A as an example, the optimal intermediate pressure
coefficient and the corresponding ratio of the compression work of the high-
pressure stage to the total compression work of the two-stage compressor are
shown in Figure 2.43 and Figure 2.44, respectively.
1.40
1.35
Intermediate pressure coefficient
1.30
65ć 55ć
1.25 45ć 35ć
1.20 25ć
1.15
1.10
1.05
1.00
0.95
0.90
-50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30
FIGURE 2.43
R-410A two-stage optimal intermediate pressure coefficient
It can be seen from Figure 2.43 that the optimal intermediate pressure
coefficient of R-410A two-stage compression cycle increases with evaporation
temperature decreasing and increases with condensation temperature increas-
ing. Under the calculation condition, the optimal intermediate pressure co-
efficient ranges from 0.93 to 1.37. It can be seen from Figure 2.44 that the
compression work of high-pressure stage accounts for 57%–62% of the total
compression work of R-410A two-stage compressor, indicating that the to-
tal compression work distribution corresponding to the optimal intermediate
pressure looks relatively reasonable.
When the volume ratio is 0.75, the calculation conditions are as shown
in Table 2.2. The influence of evaporation temperature on the intermediate
pressure coefficient and the total compression work distribution of R-410A
two-stage compression cycle is shown in Figure 2.45. It can be seen from the
figure that the intermediate pressure coefficient decreases with evaporation
0.68
0.66

65ć 55ć
45ć 35ć
0.64 25ć
0.62
0.60
0.58
0.56
-50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30
FIGURE 2.44
R-410A two-stage high-pressure compression work ratio
temperature decreasing, but the ratio of compression work of high-pressure

stage to the total compression work of R-410A two-stage compressor increases
with evaporation temperature decreasing. Under the calculation condition, the
intermediate pressure coefficient is between 0.57 and 1.12, the compression
work ratio is between 35% and 82%.
1.2 90
1.1 80
1.0
70
0.9
60
0.8
50
0.7
40
0.6
0.5 30
Compression work ratio
0.4 20
-50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20
FIGURE 2.45
R-410A two-stage intermediate pressure coefficient and high-pressure compression
work ratio
By a large amount of calculations and analyses, it can be seen that the in-
termediate temperature corresponding to the optimal intermediate pressure of
the two-stage compression cycle (the entrainment ratio is zero) approximately
obeys the following relationship
tc,out + te
tFT = (2.61)
2
where tFT = the theoretical optimal intermediate temperature, ◦ C

tc,out = the condenser outlet temperature, ◦ C
te = the evaporation temperature, ◦ C
Equation (2.61) shows that the theoretical optimal intermediate tempera-
ture is the arithmetic mean temperature of the condenser outlet temperature
and the evaporation temperature, which provides a theoretical basis for the
optimization control of the intermediate temperature of the two-stage com-
pression heat pump system.
2.4 Determination of the Volume Ratios of the Two-

stage Compressor with Variable Volume Ratio
For a two-stage compressor with variable volume ratio, the operating frequen-
cies of the three rolling pistons of the high-pressure stage cylinder and the
low-pressure stage cylinders are the same during operation. It can be seen
from Equation (2.29) that when the operating frequencies are the same, the
actual volume ratio equals volumetric efficiency ratio of high-pressure stage
to low-pressure stage times working volume ratio of high-pressure stage to
low-pressure stage.
The volumetric efficiency of the two-stage compressor with variable vol-
ume ratio is influenced by the following main factors: suction pressure and
discharge pressure, pressure ratios of high-pressure stage and low-pressure
stage, operating frequency of compressor, mass flow rate of vapor injection,
cylinder structural parameters, manufacturing and assembling precision, etc.
Therefore, the volumetric efficiencies of the high-pressure stage cylinder and
the low-pressure stage cylinders vary with various operating conditions.
When the parameters of compressor components, such as cylinders, etc.,
are designed and the manufacturing process level of the compressor compo-
nents are certain, the main factors affecting the volumetric efficiencies of the
high-pressure stage cylinder and the low-pressure stage cylinders of the two-
stage compressor with variable volume ratio are the pressure ratios of each
stage and the operating frequency of the variable speed compressor. Assum-
ing that the effect of the operating frequency of the variable speed compres-
sor on the volumetric efficiencies of the high-pressure stage cylinder and the
low-pressure stage cylinders are the same, the main factor influencing the vol-
umetric efficiency is the pressure ratio when the operating frequencies are the
same. It can be seen from Figure 2.43 that when the evaporation tempera-
ture is relatively high and the condensation temperature is relatively low, the
optimal intermediate pressure coefficient is close to 1, that is, the pressure
ratios of the high-pressure stage cylinder and the low-pressure stage cylinders
are very close, therefore, their volumetric efficiencies are also close. When the
evaporation temperature is relatively low and the condensation temperature
is relatively high, the optimal intermediate pressure coefficient is greater than

and far away from 1, that is, the pressure ratio of the low-pressure stage
cylinders is greater than that of the high-pressure stage cylinder, therefore,
the volumetric efficiencies of the low-pressure stage cylinders are less than
that of the high-pressure stage cylinder. The theoretical relationship between
volumetric efficiency and pressure ratio will be described in section 2.5 of this
chapter.
Assuming that the volumetric efficiencies of the high-pressure stage cylin-
der and the low-pressure stage cylinders are the same, it can be seen by com-
bining Equation (2.55) with Equation (2.56) that the actual displacement ra-
tio, the theoretical displacement ratio, the working volume ratio of the high-
pressure stage cylinder to the low-pressure stage cylinders of the two-stage
compressor with variable volume ratio are equal to each other.
The two-stage compressor with variable volume ratio has two different
volume ratios since it has two different operation modes. How to properly
determine the two volume ratios to simultaneously optimize volumetric heat-
ing capacity (or cooling capacity) and heating coefficient of performance (or
cooling energy efficiency ratio) of the air source heat pump system within the
operating conditions is one of the most important problems for the variable
volume ratio two-stage air source heat pump technology. In order to simplify
the analysis, this section uses the optimal volume ratios of two types of air
source heat pump to illustrate the method of determining the volume ratios
of the two-stage compressor with variable volume ratio.
2.4.1 Determination of volume ratios

As mentioned above, in a two-stage compression air source heat pump sys-
tem, the optimal volume ratio of the compressor is related to the operating
conditions of the heat pump system and the operating conditions (such as fre-
quency) of the compressor. However, the two-stage compressor with variable
volume ratio only has two volume ratios, it is impossible for the two volume
ratios to ensure that heating COP or cooling EER of the variable volume
ratio two-stage compression air source heat pump system is optimal under all
operating conditions. Therefore, the two volume ratios should be rationally
selected to ensure that heating COP or cooling EER of the variable volume
ratio two-stage comression air source heat pump system is close to optimal
value as possible under all operating conditions.
Since the air conditioner of air source heat pump type (air-to-air heat
pump) and the air source heat pump (water chilling) package (air-to-water
heat pump) have certain differences in system parameters during operation,
thus the optimal volume ratio of the compressor also has a certain difference.
Discussion and analysis will be conducted separately.
1. Air conditioner of air source heat pump type
The two volume ratios of the two-stage compressor with variable volume
ratio are calculated and analyzed under the typical operating conditions of the
air conditioner of air source heat pump type. R-410A is selected as refrigerant.
According to the commonly used cooling and heating conditions of the air
conditioners of air source heat pump type, the operating parameters required
to calculate the two volume ratios of the two-stage compressor with variable
volume ratio are selected as shown in Table 2.3.
TABLE 2.3
Calculation parameters of operating conditions (refrigerant R-410A)
Ambient Evaporation Suction
Operating Condensation
temper- tempera- Subcooling super- Pressure
condi- temperature
ature ture (◦ C) heat ratio
tions (◦ C)
(◦ C) (◦ C) (◦ C)
I -15 45 -20 7 5 6.80
II 54 64 0 8 10 5.24
III 35 42 18 5 5 1.87
IV 7 31 3 10 5 2.21
Under the four operating conditions shown in Table 2.3, the calculated
optimal COP differs greatly due to the large temperature difference between
condensation temperature and evaporation temperature. In order to clearly
show the variation trend of COP with compressor volume ratio under different
operating conditions in a figure, the relative coefficient of performance ψRc is
introduced.
The relative coefficient of performance ψRc is defined as the ratio of the
COP corresponding to a certain volume ratio to the maximum COP corre-
sponding to the optimal volume ratio under a given operating condition. Its
definition is as follows:
COPRci
ΨRc = (2.62)
COPmax
where COPmax = the maximum COP correspoding to the optimal volume
ratio
COPRci = the COP corresponding to the volume ratio Rci .
Based on the four operating conditions in Table 2.3, the relative coefficients
of performance of various volume ratios are calculated, and the results are
plotted as the curves of the relative coefficients of performance with volume
ratios under different operating conditions, as shown in Figure 2.46.
It can be seen from Figure 2.46 that R-410A optimal volume ratio is rel-
atively small under the operating condition I for heating at an ambient tem-
perature of −15◦ C and the operating condition II for cooling at an ambient
temperature of 54◦ C. When the volume ratio of the compressor is selected to
be 0.5–0.62, the relative coefficient of performance under the operating condi-
tion I and the operating condition II in Table 2.3 can be basically higher than
99.5%.
99.5
Relative COP (%)

ĉ
97.0
Č ċ
Ċ
94.5
92.0
89.5
0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1
Volume ratio Rc
FIGURE 2.46
Relative coefficient of performance of R-410A with Rc under different operating
˄മѝᴢ㓯˖ ᐕߥĉ˗ ᐕߥĊ˗ ᐕߥċ˗ ᐕߥČ˅
conditions
R-410A optimal volume ratio is relatively large under the operating con-
dition III for cooling at an ambient temperature of 35◦ C and the operating
condition IV for heating at an ambient temperature of 7◦ C. When the volume
ratio of the compressor is selected to be 0.78–0.95, the relative coefficient of
performance under the operating condition III and the operating condition IV
in Table 2.3 can be basically higher than 99.5%.
In order to investigate more comprehensively the law of the optimal volume
ratio changing with various operating conditions, so that the most suitable
combination of the two volume ratios of the compressor can be determined,
a series of heating and cooling conditions of the air conditioner of air source
heat pump type are selected for analyses.
Under the operating conditions for heating, the condensation temperature
is fixed and the evaporation temperature changes with the ambient temper-
ature; whereas, under the operating conditions for cooling, the evaporation
temperature is fixed and the condensation temperature changes with the am-
bient temperature, as shown in Table 2.4.
The relative coefficients of performance of R-410A for various volume ra-
tios under heating conditions and cooling conditions listed in Table 2.4 are
calculated out, respectively, the results are plotted as the curves of the rela-
tive coefficients of performance with volume ratios under different operating
conditions, as shown in Figure 2.47 and Figure 2.48.
As can be seen from Figure 2.47, when the outdoor ambient temperature
reduces from 0◦ C to −35◦ C and the condensation temperature is 45◦ C under
the heating operating conditions, the optimal volume ratio of R-410A de-
creases with the outdoor ambient temperature decreasing. When the volume
ratio is selected in the range of 0.45 to 0.60, it can be ensured that the relative
coefficient of performance under heating operating conditions listed in Table
2.4 is higher than 97.8%.
100
1 3
98
2 5
7
Relative COP (%)

4
96
6 8
94
92
90
88
86
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Volume ratio Rc
FIGURE 2.47
Relative coefficient of performance of R-410A with Rc at heating operating condi-
tions
Outdoor ambient temperature:
1. −35◦ C; 2. −30◦ C; 3. −25◦ C; 4. −20◦ C; 5. −15◦ C; 6. −10◦ C; 7. −5◦ C; 8. −0◦ C
100
1
98
2
Relative COP (%)
3
96
4
94
92
90
0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Volume ratio Rc
FIGURE 2.48
Relative coefficient of performance of R-410A with Rc at cooling operating conditions
Outdoor ambient temperature:
1. 29◦ C; 2. 34◦ C; 3. 39◦ C; 4. 44◦ C
It can be seen from Figure 2.48 that when the outdoor ambient tempera-
ture rises from 29◦ C to 44◦ C and the evaporation temperature is 10◦ C under
the cooling operating conditions, the optimal volume ratio of R-410A decreases
TABLE 2.4
Calculation Outdoor parameters of operating conditions (unit: ◦ C)
Ambient
Operating Condensation Evaporation Suction
tempera- Subcooling
conditions temperature temperature superheat
ture
-35 45 -40 5 5
−30 45 −35 5 5
−25 45 −30 5 5
−20 45 −25 5 5
Heating
−15 45 −20 5 5
−10 45 −15 5 5
−5 45 −10 5 5
0 45 −5 5 5
29 34 1 5 5
34 39 10 5 5
Cooling
39 44 10 5 5
44 49 10 5 5
with the outdoor ambient temperature increasing. When the volume ratio is
selected in the range of 0.72 to 0.92, it can be ensured that the relative coeffi-
cient of performance under cooling operating conditions listed in Table 2.4 is
higher than 99%.
The theoretical calculation results show that, when the cooling (heating)
capacity needed and pressure ratio are small, the two-cylinder operation mode
with large volume ratio (0.72–0.92) can be realized by unloading the variable
volume cylinder (shown in the dotted frame in Figure 1.15) of R-410A two-
stage compressor with variable volume ratio; when the cooling (heating) ca-
pacity needed and pressure ratio are large, the triple-cylinder operation mode
with small volume ratio (0.45–0.60) can be realized by loading the variable
volume cylinder of R-410A two-stage compressor with variable volume ratio.
Consequently, relatively high heating COP or cooling EER of the air condi-
tioner of air source heat pump type can be realized within the whole range of
operating conditions for heating and cooling.
Figure 2.49 shows the air conditioning outdoor design temperature distri-
bution map of some typical cities in China according to Appendix A of the
China National Standard GB 50736-2012 Design Code for Heating Ventilation
and Air Conditioning of Civil Buildings. As can be seen in Figure 2.49, the
distribution map is divided into five design temperature intervals according
to the outdoor design dry bulb temperature in winter, which are represented
as A, B, C, D and E, respectively. Among them, A, B and C have a certain
relationship with hot summer and cold winter, hot summer and warm winter,
FIGURE 2.49
Air conditioning outdoor design temperature distribution map of some typical cities
in China
and cold climate regions, D and E have a certain relationship with extremely
cold climate regions.
The design evaporation temperature and the design condensation tem-
perature are given in Table 2.5 according to the outdoor design dry bulb
temperature intervals.
TABLE 2.5
Air conditioning design temperature intervals (unit: ◦ C)
Design temperature
A B C D E
interval
Outdoor dry bulb
15–5 5– − 5 −5– − 15 −15– − 25 −25– − 35
temp.2 in winter
Outdoor evap.1
0 -10 -20 -30 -40
temp.2 in winter
Indoor dry bulb
16–24 16–24 16–24 16–24 16–24
temp.2 in winter
Indoor cond.3
45 45 45 45 45
temp.2 in winter
Outdoor dry bulb
35 35 35 35 -
temp.2 in summer
Outdoor cond.3
45 45 45 45 -
temp.2 in summer
Indoor dry bulb
24–30 24–30 24–30 24–30 -
temp.2 in summer
Indoor evap.1
10 10 10 10 -
temp.2 in summer
1 evap. is evaporation;
2 temp. is temperature;
3 cond. is condensation.
According to the design parameters shown in Table 2.5, considering part

load operating conditions in summer and winter, the optimal volume ratios
of R-410A two-stage compressor are theoretically calculated for the air condi-
tioner of air source heat pump type. The recommended optimal volume ratios
corresponding to the design temperature intervals A, B, C, D, E are shown in
Table 2.6.
2. Air source heat pump (water chilling) package
The typical operating conditions of the air source heat pump (water chill-
ing) package are selected for calculating the two volume ratios of R-410A
two-stage compressor with variable volume ratio. The analysis method is the
same as that of the air conditioner of air source heat pump type.
(1) Volume ratios for part load operating conditions
According to the part load operating conditions for heating and cooling
conditions in the China national standard GB/T 25127.2-2010 Low ambi-
ent temperature air source heat pump (water chilling) packages-Part 2: heat
TABLE 2.6
Recommended optimal volume ratios of two-stage compressor for R-410A air condi-
tioner of air source heat pump type
Design
temperature A B C D E
interval
Optimal 0.8 or
0.8 0.9/0.55 0.9/0.45 0.75/0.4
volume ratio 0.9/0.65
For heating
Cooling Both Heating
or cooling?
pump (water chilling) packages for household and similar applications, com-
bining with the actual operating condition parameters of the heat pump, the
operating parameters required to calculate the two volume ratios of R-410A
two-stage compressor with variable volume ratio are shown in Table 2.7–Table
2.10, respectively. The relative coefficient of performance and the relative inte-
grated part load value (IPLV) of R-410A variable volume ratio two-stage com-
pression system are calculated out, and the results are plotted as the curves of
the relative COP and the curves of the relative IPLV with volume ratio under
different part load operating conditions, as shown in Figure 2.50–Figure 2.53.
IPLV(H) is the weighted arithmetic mean COP under heating operating
conditions of 100%, 75%, 50% and 25% load ratios, the corresponding weight-
ing coefficients are 8.3%, 40.3%, 38.6% and 12.9%, respectively. IPLV(C) is the
weighted arithmetic mean EER under cooling operating conditions of 100%,
75%, 50% and 25% load ratios, the corresponding weighting coefficients are
2.3%, 41.5%, 46.1% and 10.1%, respectively. The relative IPLV or EER is
the ratio of the IPLV or EER corresponding to a certain volume ratio to the
maximum IPLV or EER corresponding to the optimal volume ratio under a
given operating condition.
TABLE 2.7
Part load operating conditions with outlet water temperature 35◦ C (unit: ◦ C)
Load
tw,o tw,i tair ∆tsc ∆tsh Tc Te
ratio
100% 35 30 -12 4.5 0.5 37.5 -20.0
75% 35 30 -6 4.0 0.5 37.0 -12.5
50% 35 30 0 3.5 0.5 36.5 -5.0
25% 35 30 7 3 0.5 36.0 3.5
Note: tw,o : Outlet water temperature; tw,i : Inlet water temperature; tair : outdoor
temperature; ∆tsc : Subcooling; ∆tsh : Suction superheat; Tc : Condensation tempera-
ture; Te : Evaporation temperature.
TABLE 2.8
Load
ratio
100% 41 36 -12 4.3 0.5 43.25 -20.0
75% 41 36 -6 3.8 0.5 42.75 -12.5
50% 41 36 0 3.3 0.5 42.25 -5.0
25% 41 36 7 2.8 0.5 41.75 3.5
TABLE 2.9
Load
ratio
100% 55 50 -12 4.0 0.5 57 -20.0
75% 55 50 -6 3.5 0.5 56.5 -12.5
50% 55 50 0 3.0 0.5 56 -5.0
25% 55 50 7 2.5 0.5 55.5 3.5
Figure 2.50 shows the relative COP and the relative IPLV of R-410A for
heating under the part load operating conditions with outlet water tempera-
ture 35◦ C. It can be seen from Figure 2.50(a) that when the volume ratio is
in the range of 0.63–0.80, the relative COP is higher than 99% under the part
load operating conditions; and it can be seen from Figure 2.50(b) that when
the volume ratio is in the range of 0.58–0.85, the relative IPLV(H) can reach
99.5% or higher.
99.5% or higher.
99.7% or higher.
Figure 2.53 shows the relative EER and the relative IPLV of R-410A
for cooling under the part load operating conditions with outlet water
TABLE 2.10
Load
ratio
100% 7 12 35 7.0 3.0 47 2.0
75% 7 12 31.5 6.0 3.0 41.5 3.5
50% 7 12 28 5.0 3.0 36 5.0
25% 7 12 24.5 4.0 3.0 30.5 6.5
temperature 7◦ C. It can be seen from Figure 2.53(a) that when the volume
ratio is in the range of 0.72–0.90, the relative EER is higher than 99% under
the part load operating conditions; and it can be seen from Figure 2.53(b)
that when the volume ratio is in the range of 0.70–0.90, the relative IPLV(C)
can reach 99.5% or higher.
In summary, when the outlet water temperature is 35◦ C , 41◦ C and 55◦ C ,
respectively, the corresponding optimal volume ratio calculated according to
the part load operating conditions is different. When designing a heat pump for
dedicated water outlet temperature, the optimal volume ratio selected is the
volume ratio corresponding to the highest relative IPLV(H) under the part
load operating conditions; when designing a general heat pump, the upper
limit of the optimal volume ratio corresponding to the highest relative COP
under the part load operating conditions with outlet water temperature of
41◦ C can be selected, that is, the volume ratio is about 0.75. When designing
a general heat pump for cooling and heating, the optimal volume ratio selected
is the volume ratio correspongding to the highest relative IPLV(C) under the
part load cooling operating conditions, that is, the volume ratio is about 0.8,
so that the cooling and heating conditions can be both considered. Meanwhile,
when the outlet water temperature of the heat pump is 55◦ C , it can operate
in the small volume ratio mode (triple-cylinder operation mode) in some part
load operating conditions to solve the performance degradation problem.
(2) Volume ratio for low temperature operating conditions
Under the above part load operating conditions, the volume ratio selected
for the two-stage compressor with variable volume ratio can basically cover the
requirements of mild climate regions and cold climate regions, but it does not
cover the requirements of extremely cold climate regions. In order to calculate
the optimal volume ratio under low temperature operating conditions, the low
temperture operating conditons selected for calculation are as shown in Table
2.11, Table 2.12 and Table 2.13, and R-410A is selected as the refrigerant.
The relative COP of R-410A under the low temperature operating con-
ditions with outlet water temperature 35◦ C (shown in Table 2.11) is shown
in Figure 2.54. As can be seen from Figure 2.54, when the volume ratio is in
the range of 0.39–0.57, the relative COP is higher than 99% under the five
operating conditions shown in Table 2.11.
The relative COP of R-410A under the low temperature operating con-
ditions with outlet water temperature 41◦ C (shown in Table 2.12) is shown
100
2
99.5
99.0
3 1
98.5
Relative COP (%)
98.0
4
97.5 1-COP-100%
97.0 2-COP-75%
96.5 3-COP-50%
4-COP-25%
96.0
95.5
0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65 0.7 0.75 0.8 0.85 0.9
Volume ratio Rc
(a) Relative COP with R c
100
Relative IPLV(H) (%)
99.5
99.0
98.5
0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65 0.7 0.75 0.8 0.85 0.9
Volume ratio Rc
(b) Relative IPLV(H) with R c
FIGURE 2.50
Relative COP and relative IPLV(H) of R-410A under part load operating conditions
with outlet water temperature 35◦ C
100
99.5
3 2
Relative COP (%) 99.0
1
98.5
1-COP-100%
98.0
2-COP-75%
4
97.5 3-COP-50%
4-COP-25%
97.0
96.5
0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65 0.7 0.75 0.8 0.85 0.9
Volume ratio Rc
100
99.5
99.0
98.5
0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65 0.7 0.75 0.8 0.85 0.9
Volume ratio Rc
FIGURE 2.51
Relative COP and relative IPLV(H) of R-410A under part load working conditions
100
99.5
4 3
Relative COP (%) 99.0
2
98.5
98.0 1-COP-100%
1
97.5 2-COP-75%
3-COP-50%
97.0 4-COP-25%
96.5
0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65 0.7 0.75 0.8 0.85 0.9
Volume ratio Rc
100
99.5
99.0
98.5
0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65 0.7 0.75 0.8 0.85 0.9
Volume ratio Rc
FIGURE 2.52
Relative COP and relative IPLV(H) of R-410A under part load operating conditions
100
99.0
3 4
Relative EER (%)
98.0
1
97.0
2 1-EER-100%
96.0
2-EER-75%
3-EER-50%
95.0
4-EER-25%
94.0
0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65 0.7 0.75 0.8 0.85 0.9
Volume ratio Rc
(a) Relative EER with R c
100
99.0
Relative IPLV(C) (%)
98.0
97.0
96.0
95.0
94.0
0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65 0.7 0.75 0.8 0.85 0.9
Volume ratio Rc
(b) Relative IPLV(C) with R c
FIGURE 2.53
Relative EER and relative IPLV(C) of R-410A under part load operating conditions
TABLE 2.11
Low temperature operating conditions with outlet water temperature 35◦ C (unit:
◦ C)
Operating
conditions
I 35 30 -15 4.5 0.5 37.5 -23
II 35 30 -20 4.5 0.5 37.5 -28
III 35 30 -25 4.5 0.5 37.5 -33
IV 35 30 -30 4.5 0.5 37.5 -38
V 35 30 -35 4.5 0.5 37.5 -43
in Figure 2.55. As can be seen from Figure 2.55, when the volume ratio is in
The relative COP of R-410A under the low temperature operating condi-
tions with outlet water temperature 55◦ C(shown in Table 2.13) is shown in
Figure 2.56. As can be seen from Figure 2.56, when the volume ratio is in
In summary, when the outlet water temperature is 35◦ C, 41◦ C and 55◦ C,
respectively, the corresponding volume ratio range selected under low tem-
perature operating conditions is different. When designing a heat pump for
dedicated water outlet temperature, the upper limit of the optimal volume
100
99.5
ċ č Č
99.0
Relative COP (%)
98.5
Ċ
98.0
ĉ
97.5
97.0
96.5
96.0
0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50 0.55 0.60
Volume ratio Rc
FIGURE 2.54
ć
Relative COP of R-410A under low temperature conditions with outlet water tem-
◦
perature 35 C
100
99.5
ċ
99.0
Relative COP˄%˅
č Č
98.5
Ċ
98.0
ĉ
97.5
97.0
96.5
96.0
0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50 0.55 0.60
Voume ratio Rc
FIGURE 2.55
ć
◦
perature 41 C
100
99.5 Ċ
Relative COP˄%˅
99.0
ĉ
č Č ċ
98.5
98.0
97.5
97.0
0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50 0.55 0.60
Volume ratio Rc
FIGURE 2.56
ć
◦
perature 55 C
ratio corresponding to the highest relative COP under low temperature op-
erating conditions can be selected; when designing a general heat pump for
three water outlet temperatures, the optimal volume ratio selected for R-410A
can be 0.5.
The optimal volume ratios selected for the two-stage compressor with vari-
able volume ratio of R-410A low temperature air source heat pump (water
chilling) package are summarized in Table 2.14 for reference during design
process.
TABLE 2.12
◦ C)
Operating
conditions
I 41 36 -15 4.3 0.5 43.25 -23
II 41 36 -20 4.3 0.5 43.25 -28
III 41 36 -25 4.3 0.5 43.25 -33
IV 41 36 -30 4.3 0.5 43.25 -38
V 41 36 -35 4.3 0.5 43.25 -43
TABLE 2.13
◦ C)
Operating
conditions
I 55 50 -15 4 0.5 57 -23
II 55 50 -20 4 0.5 57 -28
III 55 50 -25 4 0.5 57 -33
IV 55 50 -30 4 0.5 57 -38
V 55 50 -35 4 0.5 57 -43
TABLE 2.14
Optimal volume ratios of the two-stage compressor with variable volume ratio for
R-410A low temperature air source heat pump (water chilling) package
Operating Outlet water temperature General
conditions 35◦ C 41◦ C 55◦ C type
Optimal
volume 0.8/ 0.7/ 0.8/ 0.65/ 0.8/ 0.6/ 0.8/
ratios 0.55 0.55 0.55 0.55 0.45 0.45 0.5
For
heating
Both Heating Both Heating Both Heating Both
or
cooling?

compressor with variable volume ratio
From the above discussions, it can be seen that, when the parameters such as
condensation temperature, evaporation temperature and subcooling are given,
the two optimal volume ratios of the two-stage compressor with variable vol-
ume ratio can be determined within the operating conditions of the air source
heat pump system. The operating condition range of the larger volume ratio
covers the rated heating operating condition and the rated cooling operating
condition of the air source heat pump system, therefore, the working volume of
the low-pressure stage cylinder with fixed volume is determined by the rated
heating capacity and the rated cooling capacity of the heat pump system, and
the design method of cylinder working volume for the conventioal single-stage
variable speed compressor can be adopted. After the working volume of the
low-pressure stage cylinder with fixed volume is determined, the working vol-
umes of the high-pressure stage cylinder and the low-pressure stage cylinder
with variable volume (as shown in the dotted frame in Figure 1.15) can be
derived from the two volume ratios.
Assuming that the working volume of the low-pressure stage cylinder with
fixed volume is represented by Vr ev, LS1 , the working volume of the low-pressure
stage cylinder with variable volume is represented by Vr ev, LS2 , the working vol-
ume of the high-pressure stage cylinder is represented by Vr ev, H S , the volume
ratio of the two-cylinder operation mode is represented by Rc1 , and the vol-
ume ratio of the triple-cylinder operation mode is represented by Rc2 . When
Vr ev, LS1 , Rc1 and Rc2 are given, there are:
Vr ev, H S
Rc1 = (2.63)
Vr ev, LS1
Vr ev, H S
Rc2 = (2.64)
Vr ev, LS1 + Vr ev, LS2
Then
Rc1
Vr ev, LS2 = ( − 1)Vr ev, LS1 (2.65)
Rc2
Vr ev, H S = Rc1Vr ev, LS1 (2.66)
2.5 Theoretical Analysis of Intermediate Pressure of

Two-stage Compression Cycle
In a heat pump system using a two-stage compressor, the intermediate pres-
sure is essentially the system intermediate pressure naturally formed by the
dynamic coupling process between the high-pressure stage cylinder and the
low-pressure stage cylinder. The intermediate pressure is mainly affected by
the operating conditions of the system and the displacement ratio of the two-
stage compressor as well as the interstage vapor injection parameters.
According to the thermodynamics and the laws of conservation of mass

and energy, the relationship between the intermediate pressure and the suc-
tion pressure, the discharge pressure, the volume ratio and the interstage va-
por injection parameters is established, which reveals the relationship between
the intermediate pressure and the variable operating condition parameters. It
provides a theoretical basis for the variable volume ratio two-stage compres-
sion air source heat pump system to realize the optimal intermediate pressure
control through adjusting related system parameters to optimize the system
operating performance under variable operating conditions.
To simplify the analysis, the following assumptions are made:
(1) The two-stage compression process of refrigerant approximately obeys
the polytropic compression process of ideal gas;
(2) The volumetric efficiency of the low-pressure stage cylinder with fixed
volume is equal to that of low-pressure stage cylinder with variable volume;
(3) There is no pressure drop and heat loss when the gas refrigerant flows
in the interstage mixing chamber of the compressor;
(4) The suction pressure of the high-pressure stage cylinder is equal to the
discharge pressure of the low-pressure stage cylinder, which is equal to the
intermediate pressure;
(5) The volumetric efficiencies of the low-pressure stage cylinders and the
high-pressure stage cylinder can be expressed as Equation (2.67) and (2.68)
1/m
pFT
ηv, LS = ηv, LS1 = ηv, LS2 = a − b (2.67)
psuc, LS
1/m
pdis, H S
ηv, H S = a − b (2.68)
pFT
where pdis.H S = the discharge pressure of the high-pressure stage cylinder,
MPa
pFT = the intermediate pressure of the compressor, MPa
psuc, LS = the suction pressure of the low-pressure stage cylinder, MPa
m = the polytropic exponent
a,b = constant, a=1.025, b=0.085.
2.5.1 Intermediate pressure without interstage vapor injec-

tion
1. The intermediate pressure
When the discharge valve of low-pressure stage cylinder is open, the gas
refrigerant in the discharge chamber of low-pressure stage cylinder flows to
the suction port of high-pressure stage cylinder.
(1) Two-cylinder operation mode
When there is no interstage vapor injection, based on equation of the
polytropic compression process of ideal gas and the law of conservation of
mass, there is
pFT (ηv, H S fH S Vr ev, H S )m = psuc, LS (ηv, LS1 fLS1Vr ev, LS1 )m (2.69)
where subscript LS1 denotes the low-pressure stage cylinder with fixed volume.
Due to coaxial shaft driving, there is
fH S = fLS1
Therefore, Equation (2.69) can be expressed as

1 ηv, LS1 m
pFT = psuc, LS ( ) (2.70)
Rc1 ηv, H S
where Rc1 is expressed as Equation (2.63).

Combining Equation (2.67) with Equation (2.68) and Equation (2.70),
there is " #m
1 + Rc1 (b/a)(pdis, H S /psuc, LS )1/m
pFT = psuc, LS (2.71)
Rc1 + (b/a)
(2) Triple-cylinder operation mode
Similarly, there is
pFT (ηv, H S Vr ev, H S )m = psuc, LS (ηv, LS1Vr ev, LS1 + ηv, LS2Vr ev, LS2 )m (2.72)
where subscript LS2 denotes the low-pressure stage cylinder with variable
volume.
By substituting Equation (2.67) and Equation (2.68) into Equation (2.72),
there is " 1/m # m
1 + Rc2 (b/a) pdis, H S /psuc, LS
Rc2 + (b/a)
where Rc2 is expressed as Equation (2.64).
When Rc1 in Equation (2.71) and in Equation (2.73) are replaced by Rc ,
then the two equations can be written generally by
" #m
1 + Rc (b/a)(pdis, H S /psuc, LS )1/m
Rc + (b/a)
2. The relationship between intermediate pressure and suction

pressure and discharge pressure
Assuming
1 + Rc (b/a)(pdis, H S /psuc, LS )1/m
Y= (2.75)
Rc + (b/a)
Then Equation (2.74) can be expressed as
pFT = psuc, LSY m (2.76)

The derivatives of Equation (2.76) with respect to pFT and psuc, LS are,
respectively,
dpFT 1
= Y m−1 (2.77)
dpsuc, LS Rc + (b/a)
Rc (b/a)(pdis, H S /psuc, LS )1/m psuc, LS m−1

dpFT
= Y (2.78)
dpdis, H S Rc + (b/a) pdis, H S
The polytropic exponent m of the compression process is related to various

factors, and its determination is very complicated.The polytropic exponent m
is close to the isentropic exponent κ since the compression process approaches
adiabatic process. For ease of analysis, take m = κ. Since κ > 1, based on the
nature of the power function, it can be seen that Equations (2.77) and (2.78)
are positive on the right side.
Therefore, when the suction pressure psuc, LS is constant, the intermediate
pressure pFT increases with the discharge pressure pdis, H S increasing; when
the discharge pressure is constant, the intermediate pressure pFT increases
with the suction pressure psuc, LS increasing.
When the calculation parameters for R-410A two-stage compression cycle
are the same as those in Table 2.2, the calculation results of the intermediate
pressure are shown in Figure 2.57. It can be seen from Figure 2.57(a) that,
when the evaporation temperature ranges from −50◦ C to 20◦ C and the con-
densation temperature is 45◦ C (corresponding discharge pressure is 2717kPa),
the intermediate pressure increases with the suction pressure increasing; from
Figure 2.57(b) it can be seen that, when the condensation temperature ranges
from 35◦ C to 65◦ C and the evaporation temperature is 10◦ C (corresponding
2500 2500
Intermediate pressure (kPa)
Intermediate pressure (kPa)
2000
2250
1500
2000
1000
1750
500
0 1500
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500
Suction pressure (kPa) Discharge pressure (kPa)
(a) Intermediate pressure with suction pres- (b) Intermediate pressure with discharge
sure pressure
FIGURE 2.57
R-410A two-stage intermediate pressure varies with suction pressure and discharge
pressure
suction pressure is 1081 kPa), the intermediate pressure increases with the
discharge pressure increasing, which agrees well with the theoretical trend.
In order to further analyze the influences of the suction pressure psuc, LS
and the discharge pressure pdis, H S on the intermediate pressure pFT , compar-
ing Equation (2.77) with Equation (2.78), there is
(m−1)/m
dpFT dpFT a 1 pdis, H S
/ = (2.79)
dpsuc, LS dpdis, H S b Rc psuc, LS
The right side of Equation (2.79) is an increasing function of the compres-

sor pressure ratio pdis, H S /psuc, LS . When psuc, LS = pdis, H S , Equation (2.79)
takes the minimum value as (a/b)/Rc . Because a/b ≈ 12, and the volume ratio
of the two-stage compressor Rc < 1, the right side of Equation (2.79) is always
greater than 12. Therefore, the increasing rate of the intermediate pressure
pFT with the suction pressure psuc, LS is greater than the increasing rate with
the discharge pressure pdis, H S , that is, the suction pressure psuc, LS is the main
factor affecting the intermediate pressure pFT . It can be seen from Figure 2.57
that the curve slope of the intermediate pressure with the suction pressure is
significantly larger than that of the intermediate pressure with the discharge
pressure, which agrees with the theoretical trend.
In addition, it can be seen from Equation (2.79) that the ratio of the
increasing rate of the intermediate pressure pFT with the suction pressure
to that of the inermediate pressure with the discharge pressure increases as
the compressor pressure ratio pdis, H S /psuc, LS and the polytropic exponent m
of the compression process increasing, and decreases as the volume ratio Rc
increasing.
3. The relationship between intermediate pressure and volume
ratio
The derivative of Equation (2.76) with respect to volume ratio Rc is
dpFT (b/a)2 (pdis, H S /psuc, LS )1/m − 1

= mpsuc, LSY m−1 (2.80)
dRc [Rc + (b/a)] 2
The polytropic exponent m is generally greater than 1, the compressor

pressure ratio pdis, H S /psuc, LS is less than 20, (b/a)2 (pdis, H S /psuc, LS )1/m <
20(b/a)2 = 0.137, dpFT /dRc < 0, therefore, the intermediate pressure pFT
will increase with Rc decreasing when pdis, H S and psuc, LS are fixed.
When the calculation parameters of R-410A two-stage compression cycle
are the same as those in Table 2.2, the calculation results of the intermediate
pressure are shown in Figure 2.58. It can be seen from the figure that, when
the condensation temperature is 45◦ C (corresponding discharge pressure is
2717 kPa) and the evaporation temperature is 0◦ C (corresponding suction
pressure is 796.1 kPa), the intermediate pressure increases with the volume
ratio decreassing, which agrees with the theoretical trend.
FIGURE 2.58
R-410A two-stage intermediate pressure varies with volume ratio
2.5.2 Influence of vapor injection on intermediate pressure

The suction pressure psuc, LS and the discharge pressure pdis, H S are assumed
to be fixed during interstage vapor injection process.
In two-cylinder operation mode, the ratio of the mass flow rate of the high-
pressure stage cylinder to that of the low-pressure stage cylinder with fixed
volume is
MH S ηv, H S Vr ev, H S /vsuc, H S
Mr at1 = = (2.81)
MLS1 ηv, LS1Vr ev, LS1 /vsuc, LS1
In triple-cylinder operation mode, the ratio of the mass flow rate of the
high-pressure stage cylinder to those of the low-pressure stage cylinder of fixed
volume and the low-pressure stage cylinder of variable volume is
MH S ηv, H S Vr ev, H S /vsuc, H S

Mr at2 = =
MLS1 + MLS2 ηv, LS1Vr ev, LS1 /vsuc, LS1 + ηv, LS2Vr ev, LS2 /νsuc, LS2
ηv, H S Vr ev, H S /vsuc, H S
=
(Vr ev, LS1 + Vr ev, LS2 )ηv, LS /vsuc, LS
(2.82)
For ease of analysis, Equation (2.81) and Equation (2.82) can be generally
written as
ηv, H S Vr ev, H S /vsuc, H S
Mr at = (2.83)
ηv, LS Vr ev, LS /vsuc, LS
Assume ηv, H S
ηv,r at = (2.84)
ηv, LS
vsuc, LS
vr at = (2.85)
vsuc, H S
Then
Mr at = ηv,r at vr at Rc (2.86)
The differentiation of Equation (2.86) is
d Mr at dηv,r at dvr at
= + (2.87)
Mr at ηv,r at vr at
The derivatives of Equation (2.68) and Equation (2.67) with respect to

pFT are, respectively,
b dpFT
dηv, H S = (pdis, H S /pFT )1/m (2.88)
m pFT
b dpFT
dηv, LS = − (pFT /psuc, LS )1/m (2.89)
m pFT
Combining the differentiation of Equation (2.84) with Equation (2.87) and
Equation (2.88), there is
" 1/m #
pdis, H S 1/m

b 1 1 pFT dpFT
dηv,r at = ηv,r at + (2.90)
m ηv, H S pFT ηv, LS psuc, LS pFT
When the suction pressure psuc, LS and the discharge pressure pdis, H S are
fixed, the suction specific volume νsuc, LS of the low-pressure stage is fixed,
then the specific volume ratio νr at of the compressor is only related to the
suction specific volume νsuc, LS of the high-pressure stage.
vsuc, LS
dvr at = − 2
dvsuc, H S (2.91)
vsuc, HS
By substituting Equations (2.90) and (2.91) into Equation (2.87), there is
dpFT d Mr at /Mr at + dvsuc, H S /vsuc, H S

= h i (2.92)
pFT b/m ηv,1H S (pdis, H S /pFT )1/m + ηv,1L S (pFT /psuc, LS )1/m
According to the first law of thermodynamics, the conservation equations
of mass and energy in the mixing process between the discharge gas of low-
pressure stage and the vapor injection can be expressed as
MH S = MLS + Mi (2.93)
MH S hsuc, H S = MLS hdis, LS + Mi hi (2.94)

Combining Equation (2.81) with Equation (2.93) and Equation (2.94),
there is
Mr at hsuc, H S = hdis, LS + (Mr at − 1)hi (2.95)
Setting hi = βhdis, LS , there is
Mr at hsuc, H S = hdis, LS + β(Mr at − 1)hdis, LS (2.96)
where β = the ratio of the specific enthalpy of injected refrigerant to the

discharge specific enthalpy of the low-pressure stage cylinder, in
the range of 0–1
Assuming that the mixing process is an isobaric mixing process, and the
isobaric specific heat cp is constant during the mixing process, then, Equation
(2.96) can be simplified as
Mr at Tsuc, H S = Tdis, LS + β(Mr at − 1)Tdis, LS (2.97)
The gas refrigerant is assumed to approximately obeys the ideal gas state
equation, then there is
Mr at vsuc, H S = vdis, LS + β(Mr at − 1)vdis, LS (2.98)
Equation (2.98) can be rewritten as
[β(Mr at − 1) + 1]vdis, LS
vsuc, H S = (2.99)
Mr at
When the suction pressure and discharge pressure of the compressor are
fixed, the interstage vapor injection process has little effect on the discharge
specific volume of the low-pressure stage cylinder and the effect can be ignored.
In addition, assuming that the specific enthalpy of the injected vapor can be
controlled during the vapor injection process, that is, when the interstage gas
injection flow rate is changed, the ratio of the specific enthalpy of the injected
vapor to the discharge specific enthalpy of the low-pressure stage cylinder can
be realized constant, so β is constant.
d Mr at
dvsuc, H S = vdis, LS (β − 1) (2.100)
Mr2at
By substituting Equations (2.99) and (2.100) into Equation (2.92), there

is
β
dpFT β(Mr at −1)+1
= 1/m pFT (2.101)
d Mr at
p di s, H S 1/m

pF T
b
m
1
ηv, H S pF T + 1
ηv, L S psu c, L S
2.5.3 Analysis of the relationship between intermediate

pressure and vapor injection parameters
Equation (2.101) shows the relationship between the intermediate pressure
and the parameters of the injected refrigerant. The numerator part of the
right side of Equation (2.101) is mainly related to the state of the injected
refrigerant and the mass flow rate of injected refrigerant, the denominator
part is mainly related to the operating parameters of the heat pump system.
Assume
β
Z= (2.102)
β(Mr at − 1) + 1

b 1 1
G= (pdis, H S /pFT )1/m
+ (pFT /psuc, LS ) 1/m
(2.103)
m ηv, H S ηv, LS
In Equation (2.102), because β > 0, M r at > 1, Z is greater than 0. In Equa-
tion (2.103), both pdis, H S /pFT and pFT /psuc, LS are greater than 1, while ηv, H S
and ηv, LS are positive but less than 1, so G is greater than 0. Therefore, Equa-
tion (2.101) is definitely greater than zero, that is, the intermediate pressure
pFT increases with the mass flow rate ratio Mr at increasing. When the suction
pressure psuc, LS , discharge pressure pdis, H S and volume ratio Rc are fixed, and
the injected refrigerant state is unchanged (β is constant), the mass flow rate
MLS of low-pressure stage is fixed, it can be known from Equations (2.83) and
(2.93) that the mass flow rate ratio Mr at increases with the mass flow rate
Mi of injected refrigerant increasing, therefore, the intermediate pressure pFT
increases with the mass flow rate Mi of injected refrigerant increasing.
Meanwhile, it can be seen from Equation (2.101) that the increasing rate
of the intermediate pressure pFT with the mass flow rate ratio Mr at is related
to the specific values of the three parameters β, Mr at (or Mi ) and pFT during
the vapor injection process.
(1) Relationship with the state parameter β of the injected refrigerant
It can be seen from Equation (2.102) that Z increases as β increases. There-
fore, when psuc, LS , pdis, H S , Rc and Mr at (or Mi ) are fixed, the intermediate
pressure pFT is fixed, it is known from Equation (2.101) that the increasing
rate of pFT with Mr at increases with β increasing. The increasing process of
β is essentially a process in which the injected refrigerant state changes from
an unsaturated state to a saturated state and then to a superheated state,
that is, a process in which the specific enthalpy of the injected refrigerant
gradually increases. Therefore, the larger the specific enthalpy of the injected
refrigerant, the greater the increasing rate of the intermediate pressure with
the mass flow rate of the injected refrigerant is.
(2) Relationship with mass flow rate ratio Mr at (or mass flow rate Mi of
injected refrigerant)
It can be seen from Equation (2.102) that Z decreases with Mr at increasing
when β is fixed. Therefore, when psuc, LS , pdis, H S , Rc and β are fixed, the larger
of the mass flow rate of injected refrigerant, the smaller of the increasing rate
of the intermediate pressure with the mass flow rate of injected refrigerant is.
Based on the analysis of the influence of β and Mr at on the increasing rate
of pFT , the smaller the mass flow rate of the injected refrigerant or the larger
the specific enthalpy of the injected refrigerant, the greater the increasing rate
of the intermediate pressure with the mass flow rate ratio or the mass flow
rate of the injected refrigerant is.
(3) Relationship with intermediate pressure pFT
During the vapor injection process, the value of the intermediate pressure
pFT also affects the variation rate of pFT .
The derivative of pFT /G with respect to pFT is
p di s, H S 1/m
1/m
pF T
d (pFT /G) (m + 1) ηv, H S pF T + (m − 1) ηv,1L S psu
1
c, L S
= 1/m 2 (2.104)
dpFT
1/m
p pF T
b ηv,1H S dipFs,TH S + ηv,1L S psu c, L S
Because m > 1, the right side of Equation (2.104) is always greater than
zero, therefore, pFT /G increases with the intermediate pressure pFT increas-
ing, thus the variation rate of the intermediate pressure with the mass flow
rate ratio (or the mass flow rate of injected refrigerant) increases with the
intermediate pressure increasing.
3
Triple-cylinder Two-stage Compressor with
Variable Volume Ratio
Hui Huang
CONTENTS
3.1 Operating Principle and Characteristics of the Rolling Piston
Compressor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
3.1.1 Compression mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
3.1.2 Working process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
3.1.3 Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
3.2 Operating Principle and Structure of a Two-stage Compressor
with Variable Volume Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
3.2.1 Operating principle and the switching of volume ratio . 118
3.2.2 Structure of two-stage compressor with variable volume
ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
3.3 Thermodynamic Performance Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
3.3.2 Volumetric efficiency of cylinder and its influencing
factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
3.3.3 Volumetric efficiency of compressor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
3.3.4 Displacement of compressor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
3.3.5 Indicated work and power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
3.4 Dynamic Analysis of Moving Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
3.4.2 Force analysis of crankshaft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
3.4.3 Total resistance moment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
3.4.4 Dynamic balance of rotor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
3.5 Main Structural Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
3.5.1 Structural parameters of cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
3.5.2 Structural dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
3.6 Lubrication and Influencing Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
109
3.6.1 The functions and requirements of lubricant oil and the

selection method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
3.6.2 Oil discharge and controlling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
3.6.3 Oil return and controlling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
3.6.4 Hazard and control measures of liquid return . . . . . . . . . . 191
Based on the operating principle and structure analysis of the compressor,

the rolling piston compressor is an ideal choice to realize the switching of two
volume ratios in one compressor.
In this chapter, firstly, the basic operating principle and characteristics
of the hermetic rolling piston compressor are briefly introduced. Secondly,
the operating principle, design method, structure and thermodynamics of the
triple-cylinder two-stage hermetic rolling piston compressor with variable vol-
ume ratio are presented. Finally, the lubrication and influencing factors of the
two-stage compressor with variable volume ratio with ASHP system operating
at low outdoor ambient temperature are discussed.
3.1 Operating Principle and Characteristics of the

Rolling Piston Compressor
The rolling piston compressor is a positive displacement compressor, which
belongs to the rotary type. An cylindrical rolling piston (also called as rolling
rotor or roller) driven by the crankshaft rolls eccentriclly in the cylinder,
the working volume of which changes so as to realize the compression of gas
refrigerant.
The hermetic rolling piston compressor mainly consists of a compression
mechanism (also known as pump assembly), a driving motor, a gas-liquid sep-
arator, a hermetic shell and other components. Figure 3.1 shows the schematic
diagram of the typical vertical single-cylinder rolling piston compressor.
As can be seen from the Figure 3.1, the driving motor is installed at the
upper part in the hermetic shell of the compressor, with the pump assembly
installed at the lower part. The rotor shaft of the motor and the crankshaft of
the pump assembly is integratively designed as one part. In order to reduce the
harmful overheating of the suction process, the gas refrigerant flows through
the gas-liquid separator before being directly sucked into the cylinder through
the suction pipe at the lower part of the shell. The gas refrigerant from the
evaporator enters the cylinder through a gas-liquid separator which plays the
roles of gas-liquid separation, liquid refrigerant and lubricant oil storage as well
as suction pressure pulsation buffering. After being compressed by the pump
assembly, the high-temperature and high-pressure gas refrigerant is discharged
into the lower space (the front chamber of the motor) of the motor through
Triple-cylinder Two-stage Compressor with Variable Volume Ratio 111
1
17
16
3
7
8
9
10
11
15
14 13 12
FIGURE 3.1
Schematic diagram of the typical vertical single-cylinder rolling piston compressor
1. Discharge pipe; 2. Top cap of shell; 3. Cylindrical shell; 4. Motor stator; 5. Motor
rotor; 6. Crankshaft; 7. Upper cover of cylinder (main bearing); 8. Discharge muffler;
9. Cylinder; 10. Lower cover of cylinder (sub bearing); 11. Lubricant oil; 12. Oil-
paddled pump; 13. Bottom cap of shell; 14. Mounting plate; 15. Rolling piston; 16.
Gas-liquid separator; 17. Suction pipe
the discharge valve and the discharge muffler. Then the gas refrigerant flows
separately through the air gaps between the rotor and the stator, and the
air passages between the stator and the shell before being discharged to the
upper space (the rear chamber of the motor) of the motor. And finally, the
gas refrigerant is discharged out of the compressor to the evaporator through
the discharge pipe at the top cap of shell.
The hermetic shell is filled with high-temperature and high-pressure gas
refrigerant discharged out of the cylinder when the compressor is operating.
The lubricant oil is stored at the bottom of the hermetic shell, with the com-
pression mechanism (pump assembly) immersed in it. Therefore, on the one
hand, the lubricant oil flows up to the lubrication points along the axial oil
path in the crankshaft under the effects of the oil-paddled pump and the cen-
trifugal force. On the other hand, the refrigerant reaches to all the lubrication
parts through the gaps between vane and vane slot as well as the gaps of the
sub bearing (lower bearing) under the pressure difference between the cylin-
drical chamber and gas refrigerant, so as to meet the lubrication and sealing
requirements of compressor. Counterweights are installed on the upper and
lower ends of the motor rotor to balance the unbalanced inertia force on the
crankshaft of the compressor.
When the compressor is assembled, the cylinder, the upper and lower end
covers, the rolling piston and the crankshaft are first assembled into a pump
assembly. The motor rotor is mounted over the crankshaft by heating, with the
motor stator fixed to the shell by heating or welding. After that, the cylinder
(can be the upper cover of the cylinder or special installation structure) is
welded to the shell to form an integral part. Then, the top and bottom caps
of the shell are welded to the shell. Finally, the lubricant oil is charged into
the compressor shell.
3.1.1 Compression mechanism

The compression mechanism of compressor mainly consists of a cylinder, a
rolling piston, a crankshaft, a vane, a spring, a discharge valve and two covers
(including main and sub bearings and thrust bearing) and so on. The basic
configurations are shown in Figure 3.2.
FIGURE 3.2
Schematic diagram of compression mechanism
As can be seen from the Figure 3.2, the compression mechanism is equipped
with a cylindrical rolling piston mounted over the eccentric of the crankshaft
which shares the same center with the eccentric. However, the rotation center
of the crankshaft coincides with that of the cylinder, so the outer wall of
the rolling piston is tangent to the inner wall of cylinder so as to form a
crescent space (in fact, there is a gap between them without contacting each
other and being sealed by the lubricant oil film formed therein). Moreover,
its two ends are sealed by the two end covers of the cylinder so as to form a
compression chamber. The sliding bearings are installed at the two end covers
to support crankshaft. Under the combination of the spring force at the back
of the vane and the gas refrigerant forces inside and outside of the cylinder,
the vane installed in the vane slot of the cylinder keeps in contact with the
outer circular wall of the rolling piston and separates the crescent space into
two parts which are not connected with each other. A suction port and a
discharge port are respectively arranged on both sides of the vane slot of the
cylinder, with a reed discharge valve arranged at the outlet of the discharge
port.
In the cylinder, the part being connected to the suction port is called
the suction chamber, also known as the rear chamber. While the part being
connected to the discharge port is called the compression chamber which is
also known as the front chamber. The upper and lower cover, the inner wall of
the cylinder, the outer wall of the rolling piston, and the tangent point as well
as the vane form a sealed cylinder volume known as the elementary volume.
3.1.2 Working process

Driven by the motor, the crankshaft rotates around the cylinder center when
the compressor is operating. As the crankshaft is rotating continuously around
the cylinder center, the volumes of the suction chamber and the compression
chamber change periodically. The gas pressures in the volumes change with
the size of the elementary volume so as to finish the four working processes of
compressor, namely suction, compression, discharge and clearance expansion.
The working process of the compressor is shown in Figure 3.3. In the Figure
3.3(a), the rotation angle of the rolling piston is 0◦ at which the connection line
between the rolling piston center and the cylinder center coincides with the
center line of the vane, and the cylinder elementary volume is filled with low-
pressure gas refrigerant. In the Figure 3.3(b), the cylinder elementary volume
is divided into two parts by the vane, with one side in suction process and the
other side in compression process. In the Figure 3.3(c), the suction chamber
of the cylinder continues to suck, and the pressure of the gas refrigerant in the
compression chamber reaches the pressure outside the cylinder before entering
into the discharge process. In the Figure 3.3(d), the suction chamber of the
cylinder still continues to suck, and the compression chamber is in discharge
process, and with the rotation of the rolling piston, the discharge process
is gradually approaching to the end before entering the clearance expansion
process.
FIGURE 3.3
Working process of compressor
Next, in order to illustrate the working process of the compressor, the

cylinder characteristic angles are used as shown in Figure 3.4. Point O is the
rotation center of the crankshaft (that is the center of the cylinder), and O1
is the rotation center of the rolling piston, so the connection line of O and O1
represents the position of the rotation angle θ of the rolling piston. When the
rolling piston is at the top position, where θ = 0◦ , the tangent point T of the
rolling piston and the cylinder is at the top of the inner wall of the cylinder.
In the Figure 3.4, α is the back edge angle of the suction port, β is the front
edge angle of the suction port, γ is the back edge angle of the discharge port,
δ is the front edge angle of the discharge port and ψ is the starting angle of
discharge.
(1) The rolling piston rotates clockwise starting with θ = 0◦ , and before the
rotation angle θ is approaching to the back edge angle α of the suction port,
the elementary volume expands continuously from 0 without contacting any
ports, so it constitutes the sealed suction volume. The gas refrigerant in the
sealed volume is mainly resulted from leakages. With the expansion of the gas
in the sealed chamber, its pressure is lower than the pressure ps in the suction
chamber. Moreover, α affects the gas expansion in the suction chamber before
FIGURE 3.4
Characteristic angle of rolling piston compressor cylinder
starting of suction process, and the greater the α, the lower the gas pressure
in the cylinder is.
(2) When the rotation angle θ is equal to the back edge angle α of the
suction port, the elementary volume is connected with the suction port, and
the gas refrigerant pressure in the volume decreases to the suction pressure ps
of the compressor.
(3) The rotation angle θ varying from the back edge angle α of the suction
port to 2π is called as the suction process which starts with θ = α and ends
with θ = 2π. The largest elementary volume takes place when θ = 2π.
(4) When the rolling piston starts to turn in the second cycle and the
rotation angle is 2π < θ < 2π + β, the suction chamber being filled with sucked
gas refrigerant is turned into a compression chamber. However, in the range of
front edge angle β of the suction port, the compression chamber is connected
with the suction port, so the gas in the elementary volume flows back, and the
gas refrigerant in the suction process flows back to the suction port, resulting
in a volumetric loss.
(5) When θ rotates from 2π + β to 2π + ψ, it is in the compression process
in which the elementary volume decreases gradually, and gas refrigerant pres-
sure in the elementary volume increases gradually until the discharge pressure
reaches pd .
(6) When the rotation angle varies from 2π+ψ to 4π−γ, the discharge valve
opens, this process is called as the discharge process. And the gas refrigerant
pressure in the elementary volume is the discharge pressure of the compressor.
At the end of the discharge process, there remains some high-temperature and
high-pressure gas in the cylinder, the volume of which is called as the clearance
volume.
(7) When the rotation angle varies from 4π − γ to 4π − δ, it is the expan-

sion process of gas refrigerant in the elementary volume (clearance volume).
The clearance volume is connected with the low-pressure elementary volume
(suction chamber) through the discharge port, and the high-pressure gas re-
frigerant expands to the suction pressure ps in the clearance volume, so the
gas refrigerant amount being sucked into the low-pressure elementary volume
is decreased.
(8) When the rotation angle varies from 4π − δ to 4π, it is in the re-
compression process of sealed volume during discharge. The gas pressure in
the working chamber rises sharply and exceeds the discharge pressure.
The variations of the elementary volume and gas refrigerant pressure with
the change of the rotation angle θ are shown in Figure 3.5.
FIGURE 3.5
Variations of elementary volume and gas refrigerant pressure with the change of the
rotation angle θ
3.1.3 Characteristics
From the above analysis carried out for the structure and working process, it
can be seen that the rolling piston compressor has the following characteristics.
(1) For a single working chamber, the suction, compression, discharge and
clearance expansion processes of compressor are finished by rolling piston, and
when it rotates 720◦ around the cylinder, an entire cycle completes. However,
the working chambers on the two sides of the vane both undergo the suction,
compression, discharge and clearance expansion processes simultaneously, so
it can be interpreted as a working cycle is finished with every 360◦ rotation.
Therefore, this structure features smooth suction and discharge processes, and
causes relative low flow rates both at suction and discharge ports.
(2) Because the suction and discharge ports are distributed separately
on both sides of the vane, there are neutral angles between the vane and
the suction port as well as discharge port. Moreover, the neutral angles are
related to the positions of the suction and discharge ports. The existence of
the neutral angle will bring following effects:
The neutral angle on the discharge side will become the clearance vol-
ume. When the discharge process ends, there remains high-pressure gas in the
clearance volume. Then the high-pressure gas in the clearance volume expands
with rotation of crankshaft and enters the suction chamber, so that the actual
suction volume will be decreased.
The neutral angle of the suction side has two effects. First, part of the gas
that has been sucked into the suction chamber is pushed out of the suction
port before start of the compression, which will reduce the actual volume
flow rate of the compressor. Second, it causes excessive low pressure in the
suction chamber before the next suction process, which will have the power
consumption of the compressor increased and the efficiency decreased.
Consequently, in order to improve the performance of the compressor, a
small neutral angle is suggested to be chosen.
(3) For the reason that there is no suction valve, the starting point of the
suction process has a strict corresponding relationship with the rotation angle
of the crankshaft.
(4) Due to the existence of the discharge valve, the starting angle of the
discharge process varies with the changes of gas pressure in the discharge pipe,
and the discharge pressure neither depends on the position of the discharge
port, nor corresponds strictly with the rotation angle of the crankshaft. As a
result, the rolling piston compressor features variable pressure ratio.
(5) The rolling piston compressor is driven directly by a motor to com-
plete the processes of suction, compression, discharge and clearance expan-
sion. Therefore, it features fewer components, simple structure, small size,
light weight and low cost etc.
(6) For the rolling piston compressor, only the vane does the reciprocating
motion, its reciprocating inertia force is small, and the rotation inertia force
can be balanced by dynamic balance. Therefore, the compressor characterizes
a relatively stable operation, small vibration and low noise.
(7) The clearances of moving parts are sealed by oil films; in order to sep-
arate lubricant oil from discharged gas, the shell must be designed such so as
to withstand high pressure. Under this condition, the compressor motor will
operate in high-temperature environment, and the windings get overheated
easily, so it is necessary to control the overheating and take protective mea-
sures.
(8) High machining accuracy and assembly accuracy are required to ensure
the performance and reliability of the compressor.
3.2 Operating Principle and Structure of a Two-stage

Compressor with Variable Volume Ratio
3.2.1 Operating principle and the switching of volume ratio
1. Operating principle
The compression mechanism of a two-stage compressor with variable vol-
ume ratio is composed of two-stage cylinders with high and low stages con-
nected in series. The intermediate chamber and connecting passage are set be-
tween the high-pressure and the low-pressure stage cylinders, and the chamber
is connected with the interstage vapor injection pipe located outside the com-
pressor. The low-pressure stage cylinder sucks the low-temperature and low-
pressure gas refrigerant from the evaporator and mixes with the intermediate
pressure gas refrigerant from the vapor injection pipe after being compressed
by the low-pressure stage cylinder. Then, the mixed refrigerant is sucked and
compressed by the high-pressure stage cylinder before being discharged out of
the compressor. Moreover, the low-pressure stage cylinder is composed of two
cylinders connected in parallel: one is the regular conventional cylinder and
the other is a special cylinder with variable volume. From the viewpoint of the
flow paths of gas refrigerant in the compressor, the compression mechanism
of the two-stage compressor with variable volume ratio is composed of two
low-pressure stage cylinders connected in parallel before being connected in
series with one high-pressure stage cylinder.
A mechanism is set up on a low-pressure stage cylinder with variable vol-
ume to control the vane motion. The vane experiences two working states,
one of which is to stop reciprocating motion and the other one is to do recip-
rocating motion. When the vane stops reciprocating motion, it retracts into
the vane slot and does not contact with the outer surface of the rolling piston
which means that the rolling piston rotates meaninglessly in the cylinder in
which low-pressure gas refrigerant is filled, and the discharge valve is closed.
At this time, the cylinder is not able to compress gas refrigerant, and only
the conventional cylinder operates in low stage. When the reciprocating mo-
tion is in progress, the low-pressure stage cylinder with fixed volume and the
cylinder with variable volume work simultaneously, with the working volume
of the low-pressure stage cylinder equal to the sum of the working volumes of
two cylinders. Therefore, by controlling the motion of the vane, the two-stage
compressor with variable volume ratio will realize the switching of two volume
ratios.
As shown in the Figure 3.6, a schematic diagram of the volume ratio switch-
ing principle of two-stage compressor with variable volume ratio is presented.
Along the gas refrigerant flow paths shown in the figure, the solid line rep-
resents the gas refrigerant flow, and the broken line represents the non-gas
refrigerant flow.
(a) Triple-cylinder operation mode
(b) Two-cylinder operation mode
FIGURE 3.6
Switching principle of triple-cylinder two-stage compressor with variable volume
ratio
In the actual system, the switching of compressor volume ratio and the
operation with or without vapor injection are carried out according to the
control logic of the air source heat pump system.
2. Switching of volume ratio
In a rolling piston compressor, there are many ways to realize switching of
the cylinder volume. These methods are mainly used to adjust the gas volume
flow rate in single-stage two-cylinder compressor. Similarly, they can also be
used to switch the cylinder volume ratio of the two-stage compressor with
variable volume ratio.
Figures 3.7 and 3.8 show the operating principles of volume ratio switching
proposed by Gree Electric Appliances Inc. of Zhuhai, China. It can be seen
from the figures that the switching of the compressor volume ratio is realized
by controlling the flow paths of gas refrigerant via solenoid valves located
outside the compressor.
Figure 3.7 shows the operation state of the compressor and the flow state of
the gas refrigerant when the compressor is operating in two-cylinder operation
FIGURE 3.7
Schematic diagram of two-cylinder operation mode principle
mode (large volume ratio). When the solenoid valve 1 closes and the solenoid
valve 2 opens, the low-pressure gas refrigerant on the suction side enters the
upper part of the sliding pin. Both ends of the sliding pin are filled with low-
pressure gas refrigerant introduced via the suction port. The sliding pin slides
into the limiting port on the vane of the low-pressure stage cylinder with
variable volume under the action of spring force and locks the vane in the
vane slot of the cylinder, which makes the vane away from the outer surface
of the rolling piston and stops the reciprocating motion. At this time, the
low-pressure stage cylinder with variable volume does not compress the gas
refrigerant.
Figure 3.8 shows the working state of the compressor and the flow state
of the gas refrigerant when the compressor is operating in triple-cylinder
operation mode (small volume ratio). When solenoid valve 1 opens and
solenoid valve 2 closes, the high-pressure gas refrigerant is introduced from
FIGURE 3.8
Schematic diagram of triple-cylinder operation mode principle
the discharge port at one end of the sliding pin with the low-pressure gas
refrigerant introduced from the suction port at the other end. With the effect
of gas pressure difference, the sliding pin overcomes the spring force and slides
out of the limiting port of the vane in the low-pressure stage cylinder with
variable volume. With the effects of both gas pressure difference and spring
force, the vane is in touch with the outer surface of the rolling piston and does
reciprocating motion in the vane slot. At this time, the cylinder with variable
volume compresses gas refrigerant normally, and the volume flow rate of the
low-pressure stage cylinder is the sum of the gas volume flow rates of the
conventional cylinder and the variable volume cylinder.
In the mixing process, the discharged gas from the low-pressure stage cylin-
der is mixed with the gas refrigerant separated by the flash tank (or evaporated
gas of interstage heat exchanger) and the suction process of high-pressure stage
cylinder occur simultaneously in the intermediate chamber, the gas refrigerant
pressure in the intermediate chamber changes dramatically during a rotating

cycle of the compressor. So, the gas pressure pulsation is very complex. It not
only affects the performance and noise of the compressor, but also leads to the
vibration of the vapor injection pipe resulting in secondary noise. In addition
to the reasonable design of compressor structure, the volume of intermediate
chamber and the connecting passages, the vapor injection buffer shown in Fig-
ure 3.7 and Figure 3.8 can also greatly attenuate the gas pressure pulsation
and the vibration of piping system.
3.2.2 Structure of two-stage compressor with variable vol-

ume ratio
Similar to the conventional rolling piston compressor shown in the Figure 3.1,
the hermetic two-stage compressor with variable volume ratio is also composed
of a compressor mechanism, a driving motor, a hermetic shell and a gas-liquid
separator. The schematic diagram of a two-stage compressor with variable
volume ratio is presented in Figure 3.9.
1. Arrangement of cylinder position
As mentioned above, from the flow path of gas refrigerant in the compres-
sor, the three cylinders of the two-stage compressor with variable volume ratio
are first connected in parallel and then connected in series, the low-pressure
stage cylinder with fixed volume and the cylinder with variable volume are
first connected in parallel and then connected in series with the high-pressure
stage cylinder. However, in the actual rolling piston compressor, the rolling
pistons of the three cylinders are all driven by the same crankshaft. There-
fore, from the viewpoint of mechanical structure, these three cylinders feature
a structure of coaxial parallel driving.
For the reason that these three cylinders are driven coaxially, the arrange-
ment of cylinders has a significant influence on the performance, structure
design and the stress state of crankshaft of the compressor.
Based on the principle of the shortest gas flow path, the cylinder near
the front chamber of the motor should be chosen as the high-pressure stage
cylinder. In this way, the gas refrigerant discharged by the high-pressure stage
cylinder can directly enter into the hermetic shell of the compressor to ensure
in the shortest gas flow path and the least flow loss. It is also convenient to
install an expanding muffler outside the discharge valve to reduce the discharge
noise of compressor.
In the low-pressure stage cylinder, the conventional cylinder is a regular
cylinder with relatively simple structure. However, the cylinder with variable
volume needs to set up a control mechanism for variable volume switching,
which will cause relatively complex structure and larger room. With consid-
eration to all the aspects including the design requirement of variable volume
switching mechanism (sliding pin, spring, etc.), the length of bearing span,
the deflection deformation of crankshaft, and the discharge flow resistance of
cylinder, the low-pressure stage cylinder with fixed volume is set in the middle,
13 1
12
2
11
10
6 3
5
4
FIGURE 3.9
Schematic diagram of triple-cylinder two-stage compressor with variable volume ra-
tio
1. Suction pipe; 2. Gas-liquid separator; 3. Low-pressure stage cylinder with vari-
able volume; 4. Intermediate chamber (expanding chamber muffler); 5. Crankshaft;
6. Interstage connection passage; 7. Low-pressure stage cylinder with fixed volume;
8. High-pressure stage cylinder; 9. Vapor injection port; 10. Vapor injection buffer;
11. Interstage vapor injection pipe; 12. Driving motor; 13. Discharge pipe
which means it is more reasonable to arrange the structure in the sequence

of the high-pressure stage cylinder, the low-pressure stage cylinder with fixed
volume and the cylinder with variable volume.
Figure 3.10 shows the structure diagram of one kind of cylinder arrange-
ment of two-stage compressor with variable volume ratio. From Figure 3.10,
it can be seen that the eccentric of the high-pressure stage cylinder is in same
phase with that of the low-pressure stage cylinder with fixed volume, and there
is a 180° phase angle difference from that of the low-pressure stage cylinder
with variable volume. The intermediate chamber is arranged on the upper
side of the low-pressure stage cylinder with fixed volume (middle partition
plate) and on the lower side of the low-pressure stage cylinder with variable
volume (the sub bearing), and it is designed as a structure with expanding-
chamber type muffler. A variable volume switching mechanism (including the
1
2
16
3
15
4
14
5
13
12
6
11
7
10
8
9
FIGURE 3.10
Schematic diagram of the cylinder arrangement of triple-cylinder two-stage compres-
sor with variable volume ratio
1. Crankshaft; 2. Upper cover (main bearing); 3. High-pressure cylinder; 4. Discharge
valve of low-pressure stage cylinder with fixed volume; 5. Low-pressure stage cylin-
der with fixed volume; 6. Low-pressure stage cylinder with variable volume; 7.Sliding
pin; 8.Diacharge valve of low-pressure stage cylinder with variable volume; 9. Lower-
cover (sub bearing); 10. Intermediate chamber of lower cover (expanding chamber
muffler); 11. Rolling piston of low-pressure stage cylinder with variable volume; 12.
Rolling piston of low-pressure stage cylinder with fixed volume; 13. Partition plate;
14. Intermediate chamber of lower partition plate (expanding chamber muffler); 15.
Rolling piston of high-pressure stage cylinder; 16. Discharge valve of high-pressure
stage cylinder
sliding pin and the spring) is installed on the sub bearing of low-pressure stage
cylinder with variable volume, so that the stiffness of the cylinder will not be
affected, while leaving enough room to arrange the variable volume switch-
ing mechanism and gas flow passage. The interstage vapor injection passage
is arranged on the high-pressure stage cylinder which is connected with the
discharge passage of the low-pressure stage cylinder with fixed volume and
variable volume.
2. Arrangement of working phase angle of the cylinder
The two-stage compressor with variable volume ratio has two operation
modes and the gas flow state in the intermediate chamber is very complex.
To avoid the gas flow interference between the discharge of two low-pressure
stage cylinders and the vapor injection, while reducing the pressure pulsation
in the intermediate chamber and realizig the smooth suction of the high-
pressure stage cylinder, it is necessary to arrange the phase angle between two
low-pressure stage cylinders and high-pressure stage cylinder of the two-stage
compressor with variable volume ratio reasonably. With this, the gas pressure
pulsation in the intermediate chamber will be restrained, the discharge re-
sistance of the low-pressure stage cylinder will be reduced, and high-pressure
stage cylinder will realize sufficient suction volume. All in all, the performance
of the compressor can be improved greatly with this arrangement.
In order to reduce the gas pressure pulsation in the gas-liquid separator
during the suction process while ensuring the sufficient suction volumes of
two low-pressure stage cylinders when suction is taking place simultaneously,
it is most reasonable that the two low-pressure stage cylinders are arranged
symmetrically with 180◦ phase angle difference. Therefore, in the two-stage
compressor with variable volume ratio, it is practical to determine the phase
angle between the high-pressure stage cylinder and the low-pressure stage
cylinder with fixed volume.
The two low-pressure stage cylinders work at the same time when the
compressor is operating in triple-cylinder mode, and there is a 180◦ phase
angle difference between these two low-pressure stage cylinders. Meanwhile,
the interstage pressure gas refrigerant is introduced into the cylinder through
interstage vapor injection pipe. Under this condition, the gas refrigerant in the
intermediate chamber of the compressor is sufficient, and the suction process
of the high-pressure stage cylinder is less influenced due to small gas pres-
sure pulsation. Moreover, the back pressure of the low-pressure stage cylinder
is relatively stable when the cylinder discharges, which is conducive to the
stability of the low-pressure stage cylinder.
When in two-cylinder operation mode, only the low-pressure stage cylinder
with fixed volume is operating. Therefore, the key point is how to design high-
pressure and the low-pressure stage cylinders to get high-efficient cooperation.
The unreasonable arrangement of cylinder phase angle will lead to gas pressure
pulsation in the intermediate chamber, the discharge loss at low-stage, and
the increase of suction loss at high-pressure stage and so on. Last but not
least, the volume of interstage vapor injection will be reduced.
The curve of the suction volume of the cylinder for a rolling piston com-
pressor is parabolic in theory, as shown in Figure 3.11. In the suction process,
the suction angle with sufficient gas volume is ranged from 30◦ to 330◦ , while
in the discharge process, the largest mass flow rate of discharge gas occurs at
the beginning of the discharge process. Theoretically, in order to let the high-
pressure stage cylinder make sufficient suction in the suction process while
minimizing the discharge resistance during the discharge process of the low-
pressure stage cylinder, the discharge opening angle of the low-pressure stage
cylinder should be designed somewhere near the position at which the max-
imum variation rate (180◦ ) of the suction volume of the high-pressure stage
cylinder can be achieved.
1200
Volume variation rate (cm3/s)

1000
800
600
400
200
0
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
Rotation angle of crankshaft (°)
FIGURE 3.11
Curve of volume variation rate of the cylinder for a rolling piston compressor
The experimental results show that the compressor will have a better per-
formance with the phase angle between the high-pressure stage cylinder and
the low-pressure stage cylinder with fixed volume is set at 150◦ .
For better explanation, a comparison experiment with two different phase
angles is carried out on a compressor test bench for a certain two-stage com-
pressor with variable volume ratio. R-410A is used as refrigerant, and the
test conditions refer to AHRI.ANSI/AHRI Standard 540 (formerly ARI Stan-
dard 540) 2004 Standard For Performance Rating of Positive Displacement
Refrigerant Compressors and Compressor Units, as presented in Table 3.1.
TABLE 3.1
Standard rating conditions for compressor (Unit: ◦ C)
Suction dew Discharge dew
Suction Ambient
point point Subcooling
temperature temperature
temperature temperature
7.2 54.4 18 8.3 35
The experimental data shows that in comparison with 180◦ phase angle,
when the phase angle between the high-pressure stage cylinder and the low-
pressure stage cylinder with fixed volume is set at 150◦ , the gas pressure pul-
sation amplitude in the intermediate chamber decreases by 51.6%, the power
consumption of the compressor decreases by 3.57%, and the COP increases
by 2.93%. The specific data used for comparison are shown in Table 3.2 and
Figure 3.12.
3. Intermediate chamber and vapor injection buffer
As shown in the Figure 3.9, the intermediate chamber of the compressor is
arranged on the discharge passage of the low-pressure stage cylinder with fixed
volume and the cylinder with variable volume, and also acts as the discharge
muffler of the two low-pressure stage cylinders as well as the intermediate
pressure refrigerant accommodation chamber. Under the allowable conditions
TABLE 3.2
The comparison of design performance difference of different phase angle
Intermediate Cooling
Input power
Items pressure capacity COP
(W)
(MPa) (W)
Phase angle 180◦ 1.750 3820.5 1230.5 3.105
Phase angle 150◦ 1.750 3792.8 1186.6 3.196
Relative deviation - −0.73% −3.57% +2.93%
Gas pressure of intermediate chamber (MPa)
1.8
1.7
0.305MPa 0.147MPa
1.6
1.5
1.4
The pulsation curve of gas The pulsation curve of gas
1.3 in intermediate chamber in intermediate chamber
with 180ephase difference with 150ephase difference
1.2
0 60 120 180 240 300 360 420 480 540 600 660 720
Rotation angle of crankshaft (°)
FIGURE 3.12
Gas pressure of intermediate chamber varies with rotation angle of crankshaft at
different phase angle
of compressor structure, the volume of the intermediate chamber should be

designed as large as possible so to reduce the pulsation amplitude of gas
refrigerant in it.
The vapor injection buffer is arranged on the passages of interstage vapor
injection port of the compressor and is connected with the interstage vapor
injection pipe of the cycling system. Its structure is similar to the gas-liquid
separator on the compressor, but the volume is much smaller. As long as it can
play the role of pressure buffering to some extent, the volume of gas pressure
pulsation buffer should not be designed too large, so that the vibration of
the interstage vapor injection pipe can be kept within the allowable range.
Or if the volume is undesirably large, the gas refrigerant in the intermediate
chamber will likely flow back to the interstage vapor injection pipe leading to
the drop of the compressor performance.
3.3 Thermodynamic Performance Analysis

The three cylinders of two-stage compressor with variable volume ratio share
the same analysis method of the thermal performance. In this section, the
thermal performance of a single cylinder is discussed followed by the analysis
to the thermal performance of the whole compressor.

cylinder
1. The change rule of working volume of the cylinder
The geometric relationship of the cylinder chamber of a rolling piston
compressor is shown in Figure 3.13. Point O is the center of the cylinder and
the O1 is the center of the rolling piston. The position of the rolling piston or
the crankshaft is represented by the rotation angle which formed by the line
OO1 and the center line of the vane. When OO1 coincides with the center line
of the vane, it is regarded as the starting point of the rotation angle of the
crankshaft, that is, the rotation angle θ of the crankshaft is 0.
The following geometric relations can be obtained from the Figure 3.13
r 2 = e2 + Rθ2 − 2eRθ cos(θ − φ) (3.1)
where r = radius of rolling piston, m

e = eccentricity that is the distance from the center of the rolling piston
to the center of the cylinder, m
θ = rotation angle of rolling piston, rad
φ = any angle between 0–θ, rad
Rθ = distance from the center of the cylinder to the outer
circle of the rolling piston at any angle, m
Rθ can be obtained as follows by solving the Equation (3.1)
q
Rθ = R[(1 − a) cos(θ − φ) ± (1 − a)2 cos2 (θ − φ) + (2a − 1)] (3.2)
where R = radius of the cylinder, m

a = radius ratio of the rolling piston to the cylinder, that is a = r/R
In the actual cylinder structure, the radius ratio a in the Equation (3.2)
is slightly less than 1, and the quantity (2a − 1) is positive, so the value in the
root is always greater than that outside the root. Ignoring the meaningless
minus, Rθ can be expressed as
q
Rθ = R[(1 − a) cos(θ − φ) + (1 − a)2 cos2 (θ − φ) + (2a − 1)] (3.3)
FIGURE 3.13
Geometrical relationship of the working chamber of the cylinder
In order to determine the cross-section area of the working chamber, the

area element dS is analyzed with θ at any rotation angle shown in Figure 3.13.
1 2
dS = (R − Rθ2 )dθ (3.4)
2
By ignoring the vane thickness, the cross-section area of the working cham-
ber surrounded by the inner surface of the cylinder, the outer surface of the
rolling piston and the vane with θ at any rotation angle is given by
∫ θ
1 θ 2
∫
S(θ) = dS = (R − Rθ2 )dθ (3.5)
0 2 0
By substituting the Equation (3.3) into the Equation (3.5) and integrating,
there is
R2 (1 − a)2

1
S(θ) = (1 − a2 )θ − sin 2θ − a2 arcsin[( − 1) sin θ]
2 2 a
s
2

1

− a(1 − a) sin θ 1 − ( − 1) sin2 θ


(3.6)
a 


The Equation (3.6) can be written as
1 2
S(θ) = R s(θ) (3.7)
2
where
(1 − a)2 1
s(θ) = (1 − a2 )θ − sin 2θ − a2 arcsin[( − 1) sin θ]
2 a
s
1 2
− a(1 − a) sin θ 1 − ( − 1) sin2 θ (3.8)
a
So, the working chamber volume V(θ) can be expressed by
1 2
V(θ) = S(θ)H = R Hs(θ) (3.9)
2
where H = cylinder height, m
When θ = 2π, the vane at this time is pushed out of the compression
chamber by the rolling piston, and the whole working chamber is filled with
sucked gas refrigerant. The cylinder volume here is called the cylinder working
volume of the compressor.
Vt = π(R2 − r 2 )H (3.10)
where Vt = the cylinder working volume, m3

At any rotation angle, the vane separates the whole working volume into
two parts, namely the suction chamber volume Vs and the compression cham-
ber volume Vc .
Obviously, the relation between them is given as follows
Vt = Vs + Vc (3.11)
So far, the effect of the vane thickness has not been considered yet in the
above discussions. When the influence of the vane thickness is considered, the
volume of the suction chamber at any rotation angle can be obtained by
1 1
Vs (θ) = V(θ) − hv tH = H[R2 s(θ) − hv t] (3.12)
2 2
where t = vane thickness, m
hv = vane length extended into the cylinder, m
As shown in Figure 3.13, hv can be expressed as
q
hv = R − (R)φ=0 = R[1 − (1 − a) cos θ − (1 − a)2 cos2 θ + 2a − 1] (3.13)
The compression chamber volume at any rotation angle can be written as

1
Vc (θ) = Vt − Vs (θ) − hv tH = Vt − H[R2 s(θ) + hv t] (3.14)
2
2. The gas pressure in working chamber
The pressure variation of the gas in the working chamber can be calculated
according to the polytropic exponent of each working process and the change
rule of the working chamber volume.
(1) Suction process

For the reason that there is no suction valve in the rolling piston compres-
sor, the pressure loss of the gas in the suction process is very small. So it can
be approximately considered that the gas pressure pb in the suction chamber
is same as pressure ps in the suction pipe, that is
pb = ps (3.15)
(2) Compression process

In the rolling piston compressor, the crankshaft rotates two cycles to com-
plete one work process. The second cycle is the compression process, which is
mainly divided into three stages:
The first stage is before the rolling piston reaches the front edge angle β of
the suction port (as shown in Figure 3.4). That is, θ = 2π + β, the compression
chamber is connected with the suction pipe, at this time no gas is compressed,
and the gas pressure in the cylinder is the pressure in the suction pipe, that
is
pθ = p s (3.16)
The second stage is from the rolling piston passing the front edge angle
of the suction port to the area before opening of the discharge valve, that
is 2π + β < θ < 2π + ψ. In this rotation angle range, the pressure of the
cylinder working chamber increases with the increase of the rotation angle of
the crankshaft. Assuming that the compression process is a polytropic process
with an exponent of m (pV m = constant). At this time, the pressure and volume
in the compression chamber satisfy the process equation, which is
pθ Vθm = ps Vβm (3.17)
where Vθ = elementary volume when rotation angle is θ, m3

Vβ = elementary volume at the very beginning of compression (θ = 2π
+β), m3
pθ = gas pressure in the elementary volume when the rotation angle is
θ, Pa
ps = suction pressure, Pa
Therefore, the gas pressure corresponding to the rotation angle θ is given
by m
Vβ
pθ = p s (3.18)
Vθ
By ignoring the vane thickness, the gas pressure in the elementary volume
can be expressed as follows after calculation.
m
(2 − ε)(π − 0.5β) + (1 − ε) sin β + 0.25ε sin 2β

pθ = p s (3.19)
(2 − ε)(π − 0.5θ) + (1 − ε) sin θ + 0.25ε sin 2θ
where ε = relative eccentricity, which can be written as ε = e/R.

The third stage is after the start of discharge, assuming the pressure pd0
in the compression chamber decreases linearly with the rotation angle to the
discharge pressure pd , so the pressure change in the compression chamber can
be expressed as follows
2π − θ
pθ = pd + (pd0 − pd ) (3.20)
2π − ψ
where pd0 = pressure of the compression chamber before discharge process, Pa
3.3.2 Volumetric efficiency of cylinder and its influencing

factors
1. Volumetric efficiency of cylinder
The working process of the cylinder is complex, and the volumetric loss is
caused by many factors. Therefore, displacement of cylinder is less than the
theoretical displacement.
The ratio of the actual displacement to the theoretical displacement is
called the volumetric efficiency (ηv ) of the cylinder, which can be expressed
as
Va
ηv = (3.21)
Vth
where Va = actual displacement, m3 /s
Vth = theoretical displacement, m3 /s
Note that the theoretical displacement of the cylinder is the product of
the cylinder volume and rotation speed, that is
n
Vth = Vt (3.22)
60
where n = speed of the compressor, rpm
2. Factors influencing volumetric efficiency of the cylinder
ηv is characterized as the effective utilization rate of the working volume of
the cylinder. The larger the value, the higher the cylinder volume utilization
rate is. It actually reflects the volumetric loss of the cylinder. In the rolling pis-
ton compressor, the volumetric loss of cylinder includes clearance volumetric
loss, suction gas backflow loss, suction gas resistance loss, suction heating loss
and gas leakage loss, which are respectively expressed as volumetric coefficient
λv , pressure coefficient λ p , temperature coefficient λT and leakage coefficient
λl . Volumetric efficiency ηv equals to the product of these four coefficients,
that is
ηv = λv λ p λT λl (3.23)
(1) Volumetric coefficient λv
The suction gas backflow loss and the clearance volumetric loss should be
considered separately when the volumetric coefficient is being analyzed.
1) Suction gas backflow loss. As shown in Figure 3.4, when the rolling
piston rotates between the back edge angle α of the suction port and the front
edge angle β of the suction port, the compression chamber is being connected
with the suction pipe, and the suction chamber is not closed. So the cylinder
does not compress the gas refrigerant in this rotation angle range, but squeezes
a part of the gas refrigerant sucked in the chamber back to the suction pipe.
This phenomenon is called backflow by which the suction gas backflow loss
will be caused. The loss is related to the value of the front edge angle β of the
suction port, so it is also known as the volumetric loss of the structure.
The suction gas backflow loss is expressed as the backflow coefficient, that
is
V 0β
λβ = (3.24)
Vt
where Vβ0 = volumetric loss of the structure, m3
Vβ0 = Vs (β) + Hhv t

1
q
t
= HR2 s(β) + 1 − (1 − a) cos β − (1 − a)2 cos2 β + 2a − 1 (3.25)
2 R
To simplify the equation, g(β) is introduced

q
t
g(β) = s(β) + 1 − (1 − a) cos β − (1 − a) cos β + 2a − 1
2 2
R
So the Equation (3.25) can be written as
1
Vβ = HR2 g(β) (3.26)
2
Therefore, the backflow coefficient can be described as
1 2
2 HR g(β) g(β)
λβ = = (3.27)
πH(R2 − r 2 ) 2π(1 − a2 )
With the increase of the front edge angle of the suction port, the backflow
coefficient increases gradually. The researches show that when β is less than
35◦ , the backflow coefficient is less than 0.01; and when β is greater than 35◦ ,
the backflow coefficient increases rapidly. Therefore, the value of the angle β
should be set less than 35◦ in general. In addition, the backflow coefficient
decreases with the increase of radius ratio a when the front edge angle β of
the suction port remains unchanged.
2) Volumetric loss of the clearance
When the rotation angle θ of the rolling piston is between 2π − γ and 2π −
δ, the compression chamber is connected with the suction chamber through
the discharge port. At this time, the residual high-pressure gas between the
discharge port and the discharge valve and the gas in the compression chamber
expand to the suction chamber. However, the suction chamber is connected
with the suction pipe, which makes part of the expanded gas flowing backward
to the suction pipe causing the flow loss which is related to clearance volume,
so it is called as volumetric loss of the clearance.
The volumetric loss of the clearance is expressed as the volumetric coeffi-
cient of the clearance. That is
" 0 #
1/m
Vci pd
λc = −1 (3.28)
Vt ps
where Vci = clearance volume, m3

m 0 = polytropic exponent of expansion process
The clearance volume Vci is the sum of the compression chamber volume
at rotation angle θ = 2π − γ plus the volume of the discharge valve passage.
The ratio of clearance volume to working volume is called relative clearance
volume, which is expressed by c
Vci
c= (3.29)
Vs
Because the clearance volume of rolling piston compressor is very small,
the relative clearance volume is generally not more than 1.5%.
3) Volumetric coefficient λv
With consideration to the volumetric loss of the structure and volumetric
loss of the clearance, the volumetric coefficient λv can be calculated as follows
λv = 1 − λ c − λβ (3.30)
(2) Pressure coefficient λ p
The pressure coefficient λ p represents the effect of suction pressure loss
on the gas volume flow rate of the cylinder. The rolling piston compressor
has no suction valve, so the suction pressure loss is relatively small, which
is usually ignored in the analysis. However, the gas pressure pulsation in the
suction pipe will cause the suction pressure loss, which is related to the design
and operation conditions of the suction pipe. The volumetric loss caused by
suction pressure loss is expressed as pressure coefficient λ p as follows
1 + c − λβ ∆ps
λp = 1 − (3.31)
λv ps
where ∆ps = amplitude of suction pressure pulsation, Pa
The pressure coefficient λ p mainly depends on the relative suction pressure
loss ∆ps /ps . In the two-stage compressor with variable volume ratio, due to
the suction of the low-pressure stage cylinder is directly connected with the
gas-liquid separator, the suction pressure loss ∆ps of the low-pressure stage
cylinder is relatively small and the value of ∆ps /ps is about 0.005. There-
fore, the value of pressure coefficient λ p is approximately 1. However, the
suction gas of high-pressure stage cylinder is connected with the intermediate
chamber of compressor and the volume of the intermediate chamber is small.
Therefore, under the influence of discharge gas of low-pressure stage cylinder

and vapor injection, the pressure pulsation amplitude of gas refrigerant in
the intermediate chamber is large, which means that the pressure loss λ p will
be influenced greatly. When ∆ps is positive, the high-pressure stage cylinder
will suffer suction pressure loss. When the value is negative, the suction vol-
ume of the high-pressure stage cylinder and the volumetric efficiency will be
increased. In practice, this rule can be applied to the compressor design to
improve the efficiency.
(3) Temperature coefficient λT
The temperature coefficient λT reflects the gas flow rate decrease caused by
the heating of gas refrigerant sucked in the cylinder. Although the suction pipe
is directly connected with the cylinder, the low-temperature gas refrigerant
in the suction chamber is still heated because the cylinder is in the high-
temperature and high-pressure environment inside the hermetic shell, and
there exists a temperature difference between the inside and the outside of
the cylinder. The specific volume of gas refrigerant will increase after the gas
refrigerant is heated, and the actual mass flow rate of compressor will be
reduced.
In the two-stage compressor with variable volume ratio, because the tem-
peratures of gas refrigerant sucked by the high-pressure and the low-pressure
stage cylinders are different, the temperature coefficients λT are different. That
is to say, the temperature coefficient λT of the low-pressure stage cylinder is
small and the temperature coefficient λT of the high-pressure stage cylinder is
large, so the influence of the temperature coefficient λT on the gas flow rate of
the low-pressure stage cylinder is greater than that of the high-pressure stage
cylinder.
(4) Leakage coefficient λl
The leakage coefficient λl represents the influence of gas refrigerant leakage
in compressor cylinder on gas flow rate. In the rolling piston compressor,
the clearances between the moving parts are very small and are filled with
lubricant oil which plays the role of lubrication and sealing. When leakage
occurs, the pressure of lubricant oil changes from high to low, which reduces
the solubility of lubricant oil and refrigerant. So a part of refrigerant in the
mixture escapes in the form of vapor resulting in the leakage of gas refrigerant.
The leakage in rolling piston compressor can be divided into two types:
leakage between inside and outside of cylinder and leakage inside the cylinder.
1) Leakage between inside and outside of cylinder. The rolling piston com-
pressor is a compressor with high-pressure shell. The cylinder is surrounded
by high-temperature and high-pressure gas refrigerant when the compressor
is operating. The gas refrigerant tends to leak from the outside of the cylinder
to the inside of the cylinder due to the pressure difference.
2) Inside the cylinder. In the cylinder, there are clearances between the
outer surface of the rolling piston and the inner surface of the cylinder, the
vane tip and the outer surface of the rolling piston, and between the ends of
the rolling piston, the vane and the covers of the cylinder. Therefore, the gas
refrigerant will leak from the compression chamber to the suction chamber.
Generally speaking, there are four types of leakages in the cylinder of a
rolling piston compressor: 1) The leakage from the clearance between the two
ends of the rolling piston. When the compressor operates, the lubricant oil
between the eccentric of crankshaft and the inner circumference of the rolling
piston leaks radically into the cylinder. Some leaks into the suction chamber,
and some leaks into the compression chamber. The leakage into the suction
chamber will affect volumetric efficiency. 2) The leakage through the gap be-
tween vane and vane slot. The lubricant oil at the back of vane leaks to the
suction chamber and compression chamber through the gaps of vane slot, and
similarly, the leakage into the suction chamber affects the volume efficiency. 3)
The leakage from clearance between rolling piston and cylinder inner wall as
well as vane tip. This leakage of gas refrigerant is from compression chamber
to suction chamber and affects volumetric efficiency. 4) The leakage through
the clearance between the two ends of vane. It also belongs to the gas refrig-
erant leakage from compression chamber to suction chamber and affects the
volumetric efficiency.
The amount of leakage is related to the clearances between moving parts,
compressor operating frequency, oil film sealing and other factors. The smaller
the clearance, the better the oil film sealing is, and the smaller the leakage
and the larger the coefficient is. While the higher the compressor operating
frequency, the smaller the leakage, and the larger the leakage coefficient is.
The test results show that the leakage coefficient is about 0.82-0.92 with the
compressor operating frequency set at 50 Hz, and is 0.75-0.88 at 25 Hz.
Leakage loss is the most important factor affecting the volumetric efficiency
of the cylinder. The power loss caused by the leakages can account for more
than 10% of the total power. Among these losses, the largest one is the leakage
caused by the clearance between the rolling piston and the inner wall of the
cylinder, which accounts for about 70% of the internal leakage of the cylinder.
3.3.3 Volumetric efficiency of compressor

The volumetric efficiency of two-stage compressor with variable volume ratio
is not a simple superposition of volumetric efficiency of each cylinder. In fact,
it is related to many factors such as volume ratio of compressor, suction pres-
sure, discharge pressure, interstage vapor injection pressure and compressor
operating frequency. So it is the result of the combined effects of these factors.
Here, the volumetric efficiency of the low-pressure stage cylinder is used
to express the volumetric efficiency of the two-stage compressor with variable
volume ratio.
The volumetric efficiency without interstage vapor injection process can
be written as
60M
ηv = (3.32)
ρs Vr ev, LS1 n
where M = refrigerant mass flow rate at compressor discharge port, kg/s

ρs = density of gas refrigerant at the suction port of the low-stage
cylinder of the compressor, kg/m3
Vr ev, LS1 = working volume of the low-pressure stage cylinder with fixed vol-
ume, m3
n = speed of compressor, rpm
With the interstage vapor injection, the volumetric efficiency can be ex-
pressed as
M − Mi
ηv = 60 (3.33)
ρs Vr ev, LS1 n
where Mi = mass flow rate of refrigerant of the interstage vapor injection,
kg/s
Without interstage vapor injection, the volumetric efficiency is given by
60M
ηv = (3.34)
ρs (Vr ev, LS1 + Vr ev, LS2 )n
where Vr ev, LS2 = working volume of the low-pressure stage cylinder with vari-
able volume, m3
With the interstage vapor injection, that is
M − Mi
ηv = 60 (3.35)
ρs (Vr ev, LS1 + Vr ev, LS2 )n
3.3.4 Displacement of compressor

(1) The displacement of high-pressure stage cylinder
The theoretical volumetric flow rate of high-pressure stage cylinder is ob-
tained by
n
Vth, H S = πHH S (RH
2 2
S − rH S ) (3.36)
60
where Vth, H S = theoretical volumetric flow rate of the high-pressure stage
cylinder, m3 /s
HH S = height of the high-pressure stage cylinder, m
RH S = radius of the high-pressure stage cylinder, m
rH S = radius of the rolling piston of the high-pressure stage, m
The theoretical mass flow rate is
Vth, H S πHH S (RH

2 − r 2 )n
S HS
Mth, H S = = (3.37)
vsuc, H S 60vsuc, H S
where Mth, H S = theoretical mass flow rate of high-pressure stage cylinder,

kg/s
vsuc, H S = suction specific volume of the high-pressure stage cylinder,
m3 /kg
The actual volume flow rate is as follows

n
VH S = πHH S ηv, H S (RH
2 2
S − rH S ) (3.38)
60
where VH S = actual volume flow rate of high-pressure stage cylinder, m3 /s
ηv, H S = volumetric efficiency of high-pressure stage cylinder
The actual mass flow rate is
VH S πHH S ηv, H S (RH

2 − r 2 )n
S HS
MH S = = (3.39)
vsuc, H S 60vsuc, H S
where MH S = actual mass flow rate of high-pressure stage cylinder,

kg/s
(2) Displacement of low-pressure stage cylinder
1) Two-cylinder operation mode
The theoretical volume flow rate of the low-pressure stage cylinder with
fixed volume is given as follow
n
Vth, LS1 = πHLS1 (RLS1
2 2
− rLS1 ) (3.40)
60
where Vth, LS1 = theoretical volumetric flow rate of low-pressure stage cylinder
with fixed volume, m3 /s
HLS1 = the height of the low-pressure stage cylinder with fixed vol-
ume, m
RLS1 = radius of low-pressure stage cylinder with fixed volume, m
rLS1 = radius of the rolling piston of low-pressure stage cylinder with
fixed volume, m
Vth, LS1 πHLS1 (RLS1

2 2 )n
− rLS1
Mth, LS1 = = (3.41)
vsuc, LS 60vsuc, LS
where Mth, LS1 = theoretical mass flow rate of conventional low-pressure cy-
linder, kg/s
vsuc, LS = suction specific volume of low-pressure stage cylinder, m3 /kg
The actual volume flow rate is
n
VLS1 = πHLS1 ηv, LS1 (RLS1
2 2
− rLS1 ) (3.42)
60
where VLS1 = actual volume flow rate of conventional low-pressure stage cylin-
der, m3 /s
ηv, LS1 = volumetric efficiency of low-pressure stage cylinder with fixed
volume
The actual mass flow rate is
VLS1 πHLS1 ηv, LS1 (RLS1

2 2 )n
− rLS1
MLS1 = = (3.43)
vsuc, LS 60vsuc, LS
where MLS1 = actual mass flow rate of the conventional low-pressure stage
cylinder, kg/s
2) Triple-cylinder operation mode
The theoretical volume flow of the low-pressure stage cylinder of the com-
pressor is calculated by
n
Vth, LS = π[HLS1 (RLS1
2 2
− rLS1 ) + HLS2 (RLS2
2 2
− rLS2 )] (3.44)
60
where Vth, LS = sum of theoretical volume flow rate of cylinder with fixed vo-
lume and low-pressure stage cylinder with variable volume,
m3 /s
HLS2 = height of low-pressure stage cylinder with variable volume, m
RLS2 = radius of low-pressure stage cylinder with variable volume, m
rLS2 = radius of the rolling piston of the low-pressure stage cylinder
with variable volume, m
Vth, LS π[HLS1 (RLS1

2 2 )+H
− rLS1 2 2
LS2 (RLS2 − r LS2 )]n
Mth, LS = = (3.45)
vsuc, LS 60vsuc, LS
where Mth, LS = sum of theoretical mass flow rates of low-pressure stage cylin-
der with fixed volume and cylinder with variable volume, m3 /s
The actual volume flow is
n
VLS = π[HLS1 ηv, LS1 (RLS1
2 2
− rLS1 ) + HLS2 ηv, LS2 (RLS2
2 2
− rLS2 )] (3.46)
60
where VLS = sum of the actual volume flow rate of the low-pressure stage
cylinder with fixed volume and cylinder with variable volume,
m3 /s
ηv, LS2 = volumetric efficiency of low-pressure stage cylinder with variable
volume
VLS π[HLS1 ηv, LS1 (RLS1

2 2 )+H
− rLS1 LS2 ηv, LS2 (RLS2 − r LS2 )]n
2 2
MLS = =
vsuc, LS 60vsuc, LS
(3.47)
where MLS = sum of the actual mass flow rate of the low-pressure stage cylin-
der with fixed volume and cylinder with variable volume, kg/s
3.3.5 Indicated work and power

1. Indicated work of theoretical cycle
The theoretical work to complete a theoretical cycle is equal to the area
a − b − c − d − a of the p − V diagram as shown in Figure 3.14.
∫ b
W= V dp (3.48)
a
where W = theoretical work to complete one theoretical cycle, J

V = volume of gas refrigerant, m3
p = pressure of gas refrigerant, Pa
a, b = range of gas refrigerant pressure in one cycle, Pa
pd
c b
n=κ
d a
ps
0 V
FIGURE 3.14
p-V diagram
For an ideal gas, the thermodynamics theory shows that when the com-
pression process is isentropic process, the work done in one theoretical cycle
can be obtained by
κ κ−1
Wad = ps Vt (ε κ − 1) (3.49)
κ−1
where ε = pressure ratio for compression process
κ = isentropic exponent of gas refrigerant
When the compression process is a polytropic process, the theoretical work
is expressed as
m m−1
W p = ps Vt (ε m − 1) (3.50)
m−1
where m = polytropic exponent during gas compression process
In the actual cycle, there are irreversible factors that will increase the
compression work. If the compressed gas refrigerant makes no heat transfer
with the outside, and all the work lost in the compression process is converted
to heat which is all absorbed by the gas refrigerant, thus the actual cycle work
can be written as follows
Wi = W p + Wr (3.51)
where Wi = indicated work of the actual cycle, J
W p = the indicated work of the theoretical cycle, J
Wr = the sum of all internal irreversible work losses, J
2. Indicated work of actual cycle

When the compressor operates in two-cylinder mode, the indicated work
of the compressor can be calculated by
mw n m w −1
o
Wi = λv, H S λ p, H S pFT Vr ev, H S [ε H (1 + δ01 )] m w − 1
mw − 1
mw n m w −1
o
+ λv, LS1 λ p, LS1 ps Vr ev, LS1 [ε L (1 + δ02 )] m w − 1 (3.52)
mw − 1
where Wi = indicated work of the compressor, J
λv, H S = volumetric coefficient of high-pressure stage cylinder
λv, LS1 = volumetric coefficient of low-pressure stage cylinder with fixed
volume
λ p, H S = pressure coefficient of high-pressure stage cylinder
λ p, LS1 = pressure coefficient of low-pressure stage cylinder with fixed vol-
ume
pFT = intermediate pressure (theoretical discharge pressure of low-
pressure or theoretical suction pressure of high-pressure), Pa
Vr ev, H S = working volume of the high-pressure stage cylinder, m3
Vr ev, LS1 = working volume of the low-pressure stage cylinder with fixed vol-
ume, m3
mw = polytropic exponent with equal work
δ01 = relative pressure loss of suction and discharge process of high-
pressure cylinder
δ02 = relative pressure loss of suction and discharge process of low-
pressure stage cylinder
ε H = nominal pressure ratio of high-pressure stage, ε H = pd /pFT
ε L = nominal pressure ratio of low-pressure stage, ε L = pFT /ps
The calculation equation of the indicated work of the compressor in the
triple-cylinder operation mode is
mw n mW −1 o
Wi = λv, H S λ p, H S pFT Vr ev, H S [ε H (1 + δ01 )] m w − 1
mw − 1
mw
+ (λv, LS1 λ p, LS1Vr ev, LS1 + λv, LS2 λ p, LS2Vr ev, LS2 )ps
mw − 1
m w −1
n o
[ε L (1 + δ02 )] m w − 1 (3.53)
where λv, LS2 = the volumetric coefficient for low-pressure stage cylinder with
variable volume
λ p, LS2 = the pressure coefficient for the low-pressure stage cylinder with
variable volume
Vr ev, LS2 = the working volume of the low-pressure stage cylinder with
variable volume, m3
The relative pressure losses of suction and discharge processes δ01 and
δ02 can be expressed as δ01 = δFT + δd (high-pressure stage cylinder) and
δ02 = δs + δFT (low-pressure stage cylinder).
For the reason that there is no suction valve in the rolling piston com-
pressor, the pressure loss of suction process is very small. It can be approxi-
mately considered that δ01 = δd (high-pressure stage cylinder) and δ02 = δFT ,
λ p, H S = λ p, LS1 = λ p, LS2 = 1 (low-pressure stage cylinder). Therefore, the
Equation (3.52) and the Equation (3.53) can be expressed as follows respec-
tively.
mw n mw
o
Wi = λv, H S pFT KH S HH S RH
2
Sπ [ε H (1 + δd )] m w −1 − 1
mw − 1
mw n mw
o
+ λv, LS1 ps K LS1 HLS1 RLS1
2
π [ε L (1 + δFT )] m w −1 − 1 (3.54)
mw − 1
And
mw n mw
o
2
Sπ [ε H (1 + δd )] m w −1 − 1
mw − 1
mw
+ (λv, LS1 K LS1 HLS1 RLS1 + λv, LS2 K LS2 HLS2 RLS2
2 2
)πps
mw − 1
mw
n o
[ε L (1 + δFT )] m w −1 − 1 (3.55)
where KH S = volumetric utilization coefficient of high-pressure stage cylinder,

is showed in Equation (3.153)
K LS1 = volumetric utilization coefficient of low-pressure stage cylinder
with fixed volume
K LS2 = volumetric utilization coefficient of low-pressure stage cylinder
with variable volume.
By considering the compressibility of the actual gas, the indicated work of
two-cylinder operation mode is given as
mw n mw
orZ
3
Wi = λv, H S pFT KH S HH S RH S π
2
[ε H (1 + δd )] m w −1 −1
mw − 1 Z2
mw n mw
orZ
2
+ λv, LS1 K LS1 HLS1 RLS1 πps
2
[ε L (1 + δFT )] w − 1
m −1 (3.56)
mw − 1 Z1
Or
mw n mw
o Z +Z
2 3
2
Sπ [ε H (1 + δd )] m w −1 − 1
mw − 1 2Z2
mw n mw
o Z +Z
1 2
+ λv, LS1 K LS1 HLS1 RLS1
2
πps [ε L (1 + δFT )] m w −1 − 1
mw − 1 2Z1
(3.57)
where Z1 = compression factor of the actual gas when low-pressure stage

suction ends
Z2 = compression factor of the actual gas when low-pressure stage dis-
charge begins and when high-pressure stage suction ends
Z3 = compression factor of the actual gas when the high-pressure stage
discharge begins
Therefore, the indicated work of triple-cylinder operation mode can be

expressed as
mw n mw
orZ
3
Wi = λv, H S pFT KH S HH S RH S π
2
[ε H (1 + δd )] m w −1 − 1
mw − 1 Z2
mw
+ (λv, LS1 K LS1 HLS1 RLS1 2
2
)πps
mw − 1
n mw
orZ
2
[ε L (1 + δFT )] m w −1 − 1 (3.58)
Z1
Or
mw n mw
o Z +Z
2 3
2
Sπ [ε H (1 + δd )] m w −1 − 1
mw − 1 2Z2
mw
+ (λv, LS1 K LS1 HLS1 RLS1 2
2
)πps
mw − 1
n mw
o Z +Z
1 2
[ε L (1 + δFT )] m w −1 − 1 (3.59)
2Z1
3. Indicated power and indicated efficiency
The indicated power is defined as the indicated work consumed per second
by the actual cycle of the compressor. With the indicated work obtained by
the above method, the indicated power can be obtained as
n
Pi = Wi (3.60)
60
where Pi = indicated power of the compressor, W
The indicated efficiency of refrigeration compressor refers to the ratio of the
indicated work of theoretical isentropic compression cycle needed to compress
unit mass refrigerant to the indicated work of the actual compression cycle,
which is expressed in terms of ηi
wad Pad
ηi = = (3.61)
wi Pi
where wad = theoretical work of isentropic compression cycle to compress unit
mass refrigerant, J/kg
wi = indicated work of actual compression cycle to compress unit
mass refrigerant, J/kg
4. Shaft power
The power transferred from the motor to the crankshaft of the compressor
is called the shaft power. As a part of the shaft power, namely the indicated
power, is directly used to complete the working cycle of the compressor, and
the other part is used to overcome the friction resistance between the moving
parts of the compressor. The shaft power can be written as
Pi n Wi
Pe = = (3.62)
ηm 60 ηm
where Pe = shaft power, W
ηm = mechanical efficiency
5. Electric power
The power consumed by the motor is the electric power of the compressor,
which is expressed as
Pe Pi
Pel = = (3.63)
ηel ηm ηmo
where Pel = electric power of compressor motor, W
ηel = electric efficiency
ηmo = motor efficiency
3.4 Dynamic Analysis of Moving Mechanisms

The motion and force analysis of the motion mechanism of the two-stage
compressor with variable volume ratio, the calculation of the total resistance
moment of the compressor, and the balance of inertia force are discussed in
this section.

cylinder
1. Motion and force analysis of vane
(1) Motion of vane
The schematic diagram of the cross section of cylinder is shown in Figure
3.15 in which point O is the center of the cylinder, point O1 is the center of
the rolling piston; the distance from point O to point O1 is the eccentricity e,
T is the tangent point of the outer circle of rolling piston and the inner circle
of cylinder, A is the contact point of the vane tip and the outer circle of rolling
piston; B is the intersection of the vane and the inner circle of the cylinder;
∠TO A is represented by θ, where the angle θ is the rotation angle of the
crankshaft. As seen from the Figure 3.15, the points O, O1 , and A constitute a
crank-connecting rod mechanism that pushes the vane to reciprocate, wherein
the eccentricity e is the length of the eccentric and the radius of the rolling
piston is the length of the connecting rod.
Assuming that the vane is a rigid body, the movement of any point on
the vane will indicate the movement of the vane. The displacement xv of the
vane is regarded as the distance from the highest point B to the point A.
Then, when the eccentric is at any rotation angle θ and the inner radius of
the cylinder is R, the displacement of point A of the vane tip is
xv = R − ρ (3.64)
where ρ can be obtained from the geometric relationship in the Figure 3.15,
that is p
ρ = e cos θ + r 2 − e2 sin2 θ (3.65)
FIGURE 3.15
Motion law of vane
Assuming the rotation angle of the rolling piston at the uppermost position
B is 0, then p
xv = R − e cos θ − r 2 − e2 sin2 θ (3.66)
By substituting e/R = ε into the Equation (3.66) and expanding the root
term of the Equation (3.66) with binomial theorem, omitting the terms of
ε above quadratic in the expansion, the displacement of the vane can be
approximated as
1 ε

xv = Rε (1 − cos θ) + sin2 θ (3.67)
21−ε
It can be seen from the Equation (3.67) that when θ = 0 or 2π, xv = 0 is

minimum. When θ = π, xv = 2e is maximum.
Through derivation of the Equation (3.67), the velocity v and acceleration
av of the vane can be obtained respectively.
1 ε
v = Rεω(sin θ + sin 2θ) (3.68)
21−ε
ε
av = Rεω2 (cos θ + cos 2θ) (3.69)
1−ε
where ω = angular velocity of the crankshaft, rad/s
(2) Force of vane
(a) Coordinate and instrumental variable
The rectangular coordinates and variables of the cylinder section are shown
in Figure 3.16. The x, y, and z axes are located on the cylinder, the origin
is located at the center O of the cylinder, the x axis is the center line of the
vane, the y axis is perpendicular to the x axis through the cylinder center O,
and the z axis is the center line of the crankshaft. The main variables include
the rotation angle θ of the crankshaft and the rotation angle ϕ of the rolling
piston. The angle α between the line OOv and the line Ov O1 is defined as an
instrumental variable.
FIGURE 3.16
Coordinates and variables
Assuming that the compressor is operating, the vane tip is reciprocating

against the outer surface of the rolling piston. Then the relationship between
angle α and other geometric parameters in the Figure 3.16 is as follows:
(rv + r) sin α = e sin θ (3.70)
where rv = radius of the vane tip, m

The expression between α and the rotation angle θ of crankshaft can be
obtained from the Equation (3.70) as follows
e sin θ

α = arcsin (3.71)
r + rv
(b) Force analysis of vane

The forces acting on the vane are illustrated in Figure 3.17. When recip-
rocating linearly in the vane slot, the vane is subjected to the gas pressure
differences between the inside and outside of cylinder, the compression and
suction chambers, the spring force Fs , the inertia force Fi of the reciprocat-
ing motion of the vane, the normal force Fn and the friction force Ft of the
contact point A between the vane and the outer surface of the rolling piston,
the reaction force and friction force of the vane slot to the vane. Due to the
FIGURE 3.17
Forces acting on vane
differences in gas pressure and oil film state on both sides of the vane, the
vane will tilt in the vane slot. There are two contact points G1 and G2 , which
are affected by the reaction forces FR1 , FR2 and the friction forces FRt1 , FRt2 .
In addition, the vane is also subjected to the viscous force of oil film and the
gas force acting on the upper and lower ends and both sides of the vane slot
when the vane is moving in the vane slot.
(c) Oil film pressure and gas pressure acting on the vane
According to theoretical calculation and experimental analysis, the oil film
pressures on both sides of the vane vary with time, and the two sides of the
vane do not always contact with the vane slot. Here, for convenience, it is
assumed that the oil film pressures on both sides of the vane are linearly
distributed, and the pressures in the gaps on both sides of the vane cancel
each other out.
From the Figure 3.17, the gas force Fqx in the x axis direction of the vane
is obtained as follows

1 1
Fqx = t pd − ( t − rv sin α)ps − ( t + rv sin α)pθ H (3.72)
2 2
where t = thickness of vane, m
ps = gas pressure of the suction chamber, Pa
pθ = gas pressure of the compression chamber, Pa
pd = gas pressure in the shell cavity, Pa
H = height of cylinder, m
The combined pressure Fqy of the gas pressure that the vane extends into
the cylinder is
Fqy = xv (pθ − ps )H (3.73)
where xv = length of the vane extended in the cylinder, m
(d) Spring force of the vane

The spring force Fs acting on the vane is
Fs = Fs0 + k s (2e − xv ) (3.74)
where Fs0 = spring force for xv = 2e, called as the spring pretightening load,
N
k s = spring stiffness coefficient, N/m
(e) Reciprocating inertia force of the vane
The reciprocating inertia force of the vane is constantly changing in mag-
nitude and direction. The reciprocating inertia force will change the pressure
between the vane and the outer surface of the rolling piston. The contact
pressure increases when the reciprocating inertia force is directed toward the
surface of the rolling piston, so that the vane is closely attached to the sur-
face of the rolling piston. The contact pressure decreases as the reciprocating
inertia force moves away from the direction of the rolling piston, causing the
vane to have a tendency to move away from the rolling piston.
The reciprocating inertia force of the reciprocating motion of the vane is
Fi = −mv av (3.75)
where mv = mass of the vane, kg

av = acceleration for the reciprocating motion of the vane, m/s2
(f) Friction and positive pressure
The friction force and corresponding positive pressure between vane and
rolling piston and vane slot are related as follows
Ft = µv Fn (3.76)
where µv = friction coefficient between the vane and the rolling piston
FR t1 = µs FR1 (3.77)
where µs = friction coefficient between the vane and the vane slot
FR t2 = µs FR2 (3.78)
In the rolling piston compressor, it is greatly difficult to theoretically obtain

the friction coefficient due to factors such as the material of the friction pair,
the surface condition, the relative sliding speed and the lubrication state,
which needs the experimental investigations.
By establishing a force balance equation along the x and y axes, the fol-
lowing equations are obtained
FRt1 + FRt2 − Fi − Fs − Fqx + Fn cos α + Ft sin α = 0 (3.79)

FR1 − Fqy − FR2 + Fn sin α − Ft cos α = 0 (3.80)
By establishing a moment balance equation center on the projection point
of the vane tip and the rolling piston tangent point on the center line of the
vane (clockwise direction is taken as the positive direction of the moment),
that is
t xv
(FRt2 − FRt1 ) + Fqy ( − ∆rv ) + FR2 (l − ∆rv )
2 2
− FR1 (xv − ∆rv ) − (Fn cos α + Ft sin α)rv sin α = 0 (3.81)
where l = vane length, m
∆rv = rv (1 − cos α)
By combining the Equations (3.76), (3.77), (3.78), (3.79), (3.80) and (3.81),
we can get
µs Fqy (l + µs t)+(Fs +Fqx +Fi )(xv −l)
Fn =
µs (sin α− µv cos α)(xv +l + µs t −2∆rv )+(cos α+ µs sin α)(xv −l −2µs rv sin α)
(3.82)
1 1 1 µv cos α
FR1 = Fqy + (Fs + Fqx + Fi )+ Fn (µv cos α − sin α −sin α − ) (3.83)
2 2µs 2 µs µs
1 1 1 µv cos α
FR2 = − Fqy + (Fs +Fqx +Fi )− Fn (µv cos α+ sin α−sin α+ ) (3.84)
2 2µs 2 µs µs
2. Force analysis of rolling piston
The rolling piston is in planetary motion when the compressor is operating.
It both revolves around center O of cylinder and its own center O1 . The rolling
piston rotates slowly with the rotation of the crankshaft, but the angular
speed of its own rotation is much slower than that of crankshaft. In fact, the
magnitude and direction of instantaneous angular velocity of the rolling piston
vary with time.
As shown in Figure 3.18, the forces and moments acting on the rolling
piston are as follows: gas force Fg , friction force Fvt and radial force Fvn of the
contact point A between the rolling piston and the vane tip, friction forces Fb1 ,
Fb2 and friction moments Mb1 , Mb2 between the upper and lower ends of the
rolling piston and the cylinder covers, friction force Fct and friction moment
Ma between the contact point T of the rolling piston and the cylinder inner
wall, the normal force Fcn generated by the hydrodynamic pressure of liquid
between the cylinder and the rolling piston, the oil film force Fen and viscous
moment Mc acting on the inner side of the rolling piston by the crankshaft
and the rotating inertia force FI e of the rolling piston.
(1) Gas forces and gas moments
Gas forces refer to the forces exerted by the gas refrigerant pressure in the
cylinder on the parts, which act on the cylinder inner surface and the end
caps, the outer surface of the rolling piston, as well as the two sides and upper
and lower ends of the vane. The gas forces acting on the rolling piston shown
in Figure 3.19 are from the compression chamber to the suction chamber. The
FIGURE 3.18
Forces acting on the rolling piston
FIGURE 3.19
Gas forces and moments acting on rolling piston
purpose is to produce bearing load causing bending of the crankshaft. Because

the resultant gas force acting on the rolling piston is through the geometric
center O1 of the rolling piston, not through the rotating center, the gas force
will generate a moment which is the main component of the resistance moment
of the compressor.
As shown in the Figure 3.19, when the rolling piston is at any position θ,
the gas in the curved triangle ABT is in a compression state with the pressure
of pθ . While the other part of the cylinder working volume is in a suction state
with the suction pressure of ps . The gas force acting on the outer surface of
the rolling piston cancels each other out with the gas force paralleling to the
AT chord. In the direction perpendicular to the AT chord, the gas force Fg is
the total resultant force produced by the difference of gas pressure on the AT
plane, so it can be expressed as
Fg = AT(pθ − ps )H (3.85)
The length of AT and pressure pθ vary with the position of the rotation
angle θ, and the magnitude and direction of gas force Fg also change, but this
force always points to the center O1 of the rolling piston.
From the geometric relationship in the Figure 3.19, we can obtain
r
δ 1 − cos δ
AT = 2r sin = 2r (3.86)
2 2
In ∆AOO1 , according to the cosine theorem, the relationship can be written
as
ρ2 = r 2 + e2 + 2re cos δ (3.87)
By substituting the Equation (3.65) into the cosine theorem (3.87), and
the root is expanded as per the quadratic theorem, with the higher order term
omitted, we can get
µ
cos δ = cos θ − (1 − cos 2θ)
2
where µ=e/r, so the relationship of them can be expressed as
p
AT = r 2(1 − cos θ) + µ(1 − cos 2θ) (3.88)
Meanwhile, with e/R = ε, r = R (1 − ε), µ = ε/(1 − ε), by substituting the

Equation (3.88) into Equation (3.85), we can obtain
ε
r
Fg = R(1 − ε)(pθ − ps )H 2(1 − cos θ) + (1 − cos 2θ) (3.89)
1−ε
where pθ is calculated by the Equation (3.19).
The Fg −θ curve calculated via the Equation (3.89) is shown in Figure 3.20
from which it can be seen that the peak value of resultant gas force occurs at
the beginning of discharge. The maximum load of bearing and the maximum
bending moment of rolling piston can be determined with this curve.
As can be seen from the Figure 3.19, the action line of the resultant gas
force does not pass through the rotating center, thus it will generate a moment
to the rotating center, which is called the gas moment. Moreover, its action
direction is opposite to the rotating direction of the compressor, and it is the
main component of the resistance moment of the compressor, so it is also
called the gas resistance moment.
FIGURE 3.20
Gas force varies with rotation angle
In the Figure 3.19, the length b of the force arm can be written as
δ 1 ε
r
b = e sin = Rε 2(1 − cos θ) + (1 − cos 2θ) (3.90)
2 2 1−ε
The gas moment Mg equals to the product of length b of the moment arm
of force and gas force Fg , that is
1 h ε i
Mg = R2 Hε(1 − ε) 2(1 − cos θ) + (1 − cos 2θ) (pθ − ps ) (3.91)
2 1−ε
From the Equation (3.91), it can be seen that the gas resistance moment
also varies with the change of rotation angle θ, and its peak value also appears
at the beginning of discharge.
(2) Viscous frictional force and viscous frictional moment at the ends of
the rolling piston
1) Viscous frictional force and viscous frictional moment at the upper end
of the rolling piston
The clearance between the upper end of the rolling piston and the upper
end of the cylinder is filled with lubricant oil, and is in fluid friction lubricating
state. The clearance between the two is very small compared with the radius
of the rolling piston, so the method of fluid lubrication analysis between large
plates can be used. Assuming that the velocity is linearly distributed in the
oil layer, the following can be obtained
du eω
τ=µ = µ1
dy δ1
where µ1 = dynamic viscosity of lubricant oil, Pa · s
δ1 = clearance between the rolling piston and the upper end of the
cylinder, m
ω = angular velocity of the crankshaft, rad/s
The frictional force Fb1 can be expressed as
π µ1 ωe(r 2 − r12 )
Fb1 = Aτ = (3.92)
δ1
where A = end area of the rolling piston, m2

r1 = radius of the inner circle of the rolling piston, m
When the rolling piston rotates at a certain angular speed ωr , the velocity
at the radius of its end surface is rr ωr , so
du rr ωr
τr = µ1 = µ1
dy δ1
Take one annular element area dA = 2πrr drr , then the moment Mb1 gen-
erated on dA is
ωr rr2 πωr rr3
d Mb1 = dAτr rr = µ1 dA = 2µ1 drr
δ1 δ1
By integrating the equation above, the following can be obtained
π µ1 ωr (r 4 − r14 )
Mb1 = (3.93)
2δ1
2) Viscous friction force and viscous friction moment at the lower end of
rolling piston
Compared with the friction state between the rolling piston and the upper
end of the cylinder, there is an extra friction force between the rolling piston
and the lower end of the cylinder, which is produced by the weight of the rolling
piston and the friction state changes from fluid to boundary. The viscous
friction force Fb2g produced by the weight of rolling piston can be written as
Fb2g = µ2 mr g (3.94)
where mr = mass of rolling piston, kg

µ2 = dynamic viscosity of lubricant oil, Pa · s
g = gravity acceleration, m/s2
The viscous friction moment produced by the weight of the rolling piston
is
2µ2 mr g(r 3 − r13 )
∫ r
Mb2g = d Mb2g = (3.95)
r1 3(r 2 − r12 )
The viscous friction force and viscous friction moment between the rolling
piston and the lower end of the cylinder are
π µ2 ωe(r 2 − r12 )
Fb2 = + µ2 mr g (3.96)
δ2
π µ2 ωr (r 4 − r14 ) 2µ2 mr g(r 3 − r13 )

Mb2 = + (3.97)
2δ2 3(r 2 − r12 )
Where δ2 = clearance between the rolling piston and the lower end of the
cylinder, m
(c) Friction resultant force and friction resultant moment
From the Equations (3.92), (3.93), (3.96) and (3.97), the friction resultant
force and moment between the rolling piston and the upper/lower end surfaces
of the cylinder can be calculated as
Fb = Fb1 + Fb2 (3.98)
Mb = Mb1 + Mb2 (3.99)

(3) Friction and friction moment between rolling piston and inner wall of
cylinder
The relative motion between the rolling piston and the inner wall of the
cylinder can be divided into relative sliding and relative rolling. The friction
of relative rolling is much smaller, so it can be ignored. The motion between
the rolling piston and the inner wall of the cylinder is relative sliding and the
friction Fct can be expressed as follows
µr c H Le f v
Fct = (3.100)
δr c
where µr c = dynamic viscosity of lubricant oil, Pa · s
v = relative sliding speed between the rolling piston and the cylinder,
v=eω + rωr , m/s
δr c = clearance between the rolling piston and the inner wall of cylin-
der, m
Le f = effective shear length of the radial clearance between the rolling
piston and the inner wall of cylinder, m
In the Equation (3.100), Le f is given by
2R(π − γr c )δr c
Le f = p
δr c (2e − δr c )
And γr c can be written as
ε0 − cos(∆φ/2)
γr c = cos−1
1 − ε0 cos(∆φ/2)
where ε0 = 1 − δer c
∆φ = angle occupied by the sealing oil film in the radial clearance
The friction moment Ma between the rolling piston and the cylinder wall
is
αF r 2 µr c H
Ma = (rωr + Rω) (3.101)
δ3
where αF = the radian of oil film, rad

δ3 = average thickness of oil film, m
(4) Normal force generated by hydrodynamic pressure in rolling piston and
cylinder
The normal force generated between the rolling piston and the inner wall of
the cylinder can be divided into two parts, namely the hydrodynamic pressure
of relative sliding and rolling, and the dynamic oil film pressure.
The hydrodynamic pressure generated by relative sliding and rolling be-
tween the rolling piston and the inner wall of the cylinder is calculated by
Matin equation. At the minimum radial clearance between the rolling piston
and the inner wall of the cylinder, the absolute speed of the rolling piston is
as follows
u1 = ωe + ωr r
The absolute speed of the cylinder is
u2 = 0
The minimum clearance point, that is the absolute velocity of the contact
point itself is
uc = ωR
The average velocity causing hydrodynamic pressure is
1
u= |(u1 − uc )| + (u2 − uc )
2
1
= (2ωR − ωe − ωr r)
2
The hydrodynamic pressure produced by the relative sliding and rolling of
the rolling piston and inner wall of cylinder can be expressed as

Rr 1
Fcn1 = 4.9µr c H ωR − (ωe + ωr r) (3.102)
(R − r)δr c 2
During the compressor operation, the gas pressure changes constantly, so

does the radial clearance between the rolling piston and the cylinder wall.
When the relative motion between the rolling piston and the inner wall of
the cylinder is at a certain speed, a desirable oil wedge is formed due to
sufficient lubrication, so as to produce hydrodynamic lubrication and generate
hydrodynamic oil film pressure, which greatly improves the load bearing force.
The value can be calculated as
R2 H dδr c
Fcn2 = −12π µH (3.103)
Cr2c (1 + η2 )3/2 dt
where Cr c = e
η = 1 − δr c /e.
Therefore, the normal force generated by hydrodynamic pressure between

rolling piston and inner wall of cylinder can be obtained by
Fcn = Fcn1 + Fcn2 (3.104)
(5) Friction moment of rolling piston bearing

The rolling piston and the journal of the crankshaft will compose a bearing
pair. Because of the rotation of the rolling piston which acts as a bearing,
and the magnitude and direction of the load acting on the bearing change
constantly, so the calculation is very complicated. For simplicity, assuming
that the oil film in the clearance between the journal of the crankshaft and
the rolling piston is uniform, the viscous friction moment Mc between the
journal of the crankshaft and the rolling piston can be obtained according to
the lubrication theory, which is expressed as
2π µ(ω − ωr )Re3 le
Mc = (3.105)
δe
where Re = radius of journal of crankshaft, m
le = length of journal of crankshaft, m
δe = clearance between the rolling piston and the journal of crankshaft,
m
ωr = angular speed of the rolling piston, rad/s
(6) Friction and radial forces between rolling piston and vane tip
When the rolling piston and vane move relatively, the friction force is
Fvt = Fnt µvr (3.106)
where Fvt = friction force, N

Fnt = radial force, N
µvr = friction coefficient
The direction of friction is opposite to the relative direction of operation,
and the radial force can be obtained from the motion equation of rolling piston.
The resistance moment produced by the radial force Fnt acting on the
rolling piston by the vane is
Mn = −eFnt sin(θ + α) (3.107)
The negative sign in the equation means that the radial force in the former
half rotation of the crankshaft produces the driving moment, and produces
the resistance moment in the latter half rotation.
(7) Rotating inertia force and inertia moment of rolling piston
Because the centroid of the rolling piston is not in the center of rotation,
the rotating inertia force will be generated when the rolling piston is rotating.
The magnitude of the rotating inertia force is invariable and always points to
the eccentric direction. If the unbalanced mass of the rolling piston is mx and
its rotation radius is rx , when the angular velocity of the crankshaft is ω, the
rotating inertia force is as follows
FI p = mx rx ω2 (3.108)
If the angular acceleration of the crankshaft is ω,

Û and the moment of inertia
of the rolling piston rotating around the center of the crankshaft is JI p , the
inertia moment is
MI p = JI p ωÛ (3.109)
(8) Load acting on eccentric bearing
In a single cylinder, the forces acting on crankshaft (also known as rolling
piston bearings) are as follows, the gas force Fg acting on the rolling piston, the
normal force Fn acting on the rolling piston by vane which is transmitted to
the crankshaft through the rolling piston, and the rotating inertia force FI e of
the crankshaft. The viscous friction moment acting on the crankshaft includes
Mc which is the moment between the crankshaft and the rolling piston.
1) The load acting on the eccentric bearing
The load acting on the eccentric bearing is decomposed in the coordinate
direction as shown in the Figure 3.18.
The load in x axis direction can be written as
θ−α
Fr x = Fg cos( ) + Fb sin θ + FI e sin θ − Fvn cos α − Fvt sin α
2
− Fcn cos θ + Fct sin θ (3.110)
The load in y axis direction is

θ−α
Fr y = −Fg sin( ) + Fb cos θ − FI e sin θ − Fvn sin α + Fvt cos α
2
+ Fcn sin θ + Fct cos θ (3.111)
The resultant force can be obtained by

q
Fen = Fr2x + Fr2y (3.112)
The direction of the resultant force is

Fr y
ηeb = arctan( ) (3.113)
Fr x
2) Viscous friction moment on crankshaft

The calculation of viscous friction moment is complicated because the
rolling piston itself rotates and the load on the eccentric bearing varies in
size and direction. In order to simplify the calculation, assuming that the
clearance between the rolling piston and the journal of the crankshaft is uni-
form, the friction moment Mc between the rolling piston and the journal of
the crankshaft is obtained according to the lubrication theory. The detailed

calculation equation is shown in the Equation (3.105).
(9) Differential equations of motion of the rolling piston
The differential equation of the motion of rolling piston can be expressed
as
dωr
I po = I po ωÛ r = r Ft − Ma − Mb + Mc (3.114)
dt
where I po = inertia moment of rolling piston, I po = 12 m p (r 2 + r12 ), kg · m2
ωÛ r = angular acceleration of rolling piston, rad/s2
By numerically integrating Equation (3.114), the change rule of ωr can be
obtained. In the approximate calculation, it can be assumed that the rolling
piston is in a stable state, the rolling piston is rotating at a constant speed as
a free body, ωÛ r = 0. According to Equation (3.114), the approximate equation
of ωr is obtained as follows
r Ft 2πωR 2
e le αF r 2 RωH
η + δe − δ4
ωr = (3.115)
π(r 4 −r14 ) 2πR 3
e le αF r 3 H
δ2 + δe + δ4
3.4.2 Force analysis of crankshaft

In a two-stage compressor with variable volume ratio, there are five sliding
bearings and one axial thrust bearing on the crankshaft. The five sliding bear-
ings are eccentric bearing of high-pressure stage cylinder, eccentric bearing
of low-pressure stage cylinder with fixed volume, eccentric bearing of low-
pressure stage cylinder with variable volume, main bearing and sub bearing.
The main bearing (upper bearing) and the sub bearing (lower bearing) are
used to support the crankshaft radially, and the axial thrust bearing is used
to support the crankshaft axially.
The forces acting on the crankshaft are: the bearing force of the three
eccentric bearing oil films, the bearing forces of the main and the sub bearings,
and the rotational inertia force of the crankshaft itself. The moments acting on
the crankshaft are: the frictional moment on the main and sub bearings, the
viscous frictional moment between the eccentric and the rolling piston, and
the frictional moment of the thrust bearing (the end face of the sub bearing).
1. Supporting forces of main and sub bearings
The crankshaft is supported by a main bearing and a sub bearing. In an
actual compressor configuration, the widths of the two bearings are different
and cannot be completely concentric for processing reasons. Therefore, under
actual operating conditions, the loads on the two bearings are different.
For simplification of the analysis, it is assumed that the main and sub
bearings have the same width and the two bearings are concentric. The loads
on the two bearings and work characteristics are the same.
The average width of the main and sub bearing is
Bmb + Bsb
Bm = (3.116)
2
where Bmb = width of the main bearing, m

Bsb = width of the sub bearing, m
Since the counterweights have been installed on the rotor to eliminate the
centrifugal action, the load direction acting on the main and sub bearings
is the same as the resultant force of the bearing force of the rolling piston
bearing oil film of the three cylinders.
LS1
LS2
FIGURE 3.21
Schematic diagram of force analysis for the main and sub bearings
Next, the bearing forces on the main and sub bearings will be analyzed
by taking the cylinder arrangement as shown in Figure 3.10 as an example.
The bearing forces of the main and sub bearings are shown in Figure 3.21.
The crankshaft is defined as the z axis, the x axis is parallel to the eccentric
plane of the low-pressure stage cylinder with fixed volume, and the y axis is
perpendicular to the xz axis plane. The forces of the three cylinders acting on
the eccentric of the crankshaft are decomposed into the component forces in
the x direction and the y direction, and then solved by the force balance and
the moment balance equations so to obtain the forces acting on the main and
sub bearings.
In the cylinder arrangement scheme shown in Figure 3.10, the three ec-
centrics of the crankshaft are on the same plane, wherein the eccentric of
the high-pressure stage cylinder is in the same direction as the eccentric of
the low-pressure stage cylinder with fixed volume and the low-pressure stage
cylinder with variable volume, and the eccentric is offset from the eccentric
of the low-pressure stage cylinder with fixed volume by 180◦ . However, the
vane in the high-pressure stage cylinder is not on the same plane as the
vane in the low-pressure stage cylinder with fixed volume, but is shifted by
150◦ (clockwise). The vane position of the low-pressure stage cylinder with vari-
able volume is 180◦ offset from the low-pressure stage cylinder with variable
volume. Therefore, the influence of the cylinder phase angle needs to be con-
sidered when calculating the forces acting on the eccentrics of the crankshafts
of the three cylinders. The distribution of the cylinder phase angles in the
axial direction is shown in Figure 3.22.
As shown in the Figure 3.22, the rotation angle of the rolling piston in
the high-pressure stage cylinder is expressed as θ H S , the rotation angle of the
rolling piston in the low-pressure stage cylinder with fixed volume is expressed
as θ LS1 , and the rotation angle of the rolling piston in the low-pressure stage
cylinder with variable volume is expressed as θ LS2 . When rotation angle of
θ LS1 the rolling piston in the low-pressure stage cylinder with fixed volume is
used as the reference angle, the equation below will be obtained
θ = θ − ∆θ
 HS




θ LS1 = θ (3.117)

 θ
 LS2 = θ − π

where ∆θ is the phase angle difference between the rolling pistons of the high-
pressure stage cylinder and the low-pressure stage cylinder with fixed volume.
By substituting the Equation (3.117) and the parameters of each cylinder
into the Equations (3.111) and (3.102), the forces acting on the crankshaft by
rolling piston bearing in each cylinder can be obtained.
(1) Operation mode of two-cylinder
In two-cylinder operation mode, assuming that the oil film bearing forces
of the rolling piston bearing for the low-pressure stage cylinder with variable
volume is zero, the bearing force in the x direction and the y direction of the
main bearing are respectively expressed as
Fr xH L H + Fr xL1 L L1
Fmbx = (3.118)
LB
Fr yH L H + Fr yL1 L L1
Fmby = (3.119)
LB
The bearing force in the x and y directions of the sub bearings are respec-
tively expressed as
Fr xH (LB − L H ) + Fr x L1 (LB − L L1 )
Fsbx = − (3.120)
LB
Fr yH (LB − L H ) + Fr yL1 (LB − L L1 )

Fsby = − (3.121)
LB
FIGURE 3.22
The cylinder phase angles scheme of the cylinder arrangement
where Fmbx = component of the bearing force of the main bearing in the x
axial direction, N
Fmby = component of the bearing force of the main bearing in the y
axial direction, N
Fr xH = component of the high-pressure stage cylinder acting on the
crankshaft in the x axial direction, N
Fr yH = component of the high-pressure stage cylinder acting on the
crankshaft in and y axial direction, N
Fr x L1 = component of the low-pressure stage cylinder with fixed volume
acting on the crankshaft in the x axial direction, N
Fr x L2 = component of the low-pressure stage cylinder with fixed volume
acting on the crankshaft in the x and y axial direction, N
L H = distance from the center of the crankshaft of the high-pressure

cylinder to the center of the sub bearing, m
L L1 = distance from the center of the crankshaft of the low-pressure
cylinder to the center of the sub bearing, m
LB = distance between the centers of the main bearing and the sub
bearing, m
(2) Operation mode of triple-cylinder
The bearing forces acting on the main bearing are
Fr xH L H + Fr x L1 L L1 − Fr x L2 L L2
Fmbx = (3.122)
LB
Fr yH L H + Fr yL1 L L1 − Fr yL2 L L2
Fmby = (3.123)
LB
The bearing forces acting on the sub bearing are
Fr xH (LB − L H ) + Fr x L1 (LB − L L1 ) − Fr x L2 (LB − L L2 )
Fsbx = − (3.124)
LB
Fr yH (LB − L H ) + Fr yL1 (LB − L L1 ) − Fr yL2 (LB − L L2 )

Fsby = − (3.125)
LB
where Fr x L2 = component of the low-pressure stage cylinder with variable
volume acting on the crankshaft in the x axial direction, N
Fr yL2 = component of the low-pressure stage cylinder with variable
volume acting on the crankshaft in the y axial direction, N
L L2 = distance from the center of the crankshaft of the low-pressure
cylinder with variable volume to the center of the sub
bearing, m
The bearing forces of the main and sub bearing in the two-cylinder oper-
ation mode and the triple-cylinder operation mode can be obtained from the
Equations (3.118) to (3.125), respectively.
q
Fmb = Fmbx 2 + Fmby
2 (3.126)
where Fmb = bearing force on the main bearing, N

q
2 + F2
Fsb = Fsbx sby
(3.127)
where Fsb = bearing force on the sub bearing, N

2. Friction moments of the main and sub bearings
Assuming that the counterweights completely balance the rotational in-
ertias of the rolling piston and the crankshaft, and the structures and sizes
of the main and sub bearings are the same, the friction moment Mmb of the
main bearing is
2π µm Bm ωRs3 cm εm
Mmb = + Fmb sin φm (3.128)
2
p
cm 1 − εm2
The friction moment of the sub bearing is
2π µm Bm ωRs3 cm εm
Msb = + Fsb sin φm (3.129)
2
p
cm 1 − εm2
where Rs = radius of the long and short journal, m

cm = radius clearance of the main and sub bearing, m
εm = eccentricity of the main and sub bearing
φm = angle between the bearing load direction and the eccentric direc-
tion of the bearing
µm = friction coefficient of the main and sub bearing
3. Friction moment of the thrust bearing
When the thrust bearing is in the boundary lubrication state, assuming the
friction coefficient is µs , the inner and outer diameters of the thrust bearing
are Rs1 and Rs2 respectively, the mass of the motor rotor and the shaft is m,
and the friction moment Ms is
3 − R3 )
2µs mg(Rs2 s1
Ms = 2 − R2 )
(3.130)
3(Rs2 s1
3.4.3 Total resistance moment

As described in the Section 3.3, there are various options for the arrangement
of the three eccentrics on the circumference of the crankshaft for the two-
stage compressor with variable volume ratio. Next, the calculation of the gas
resistance moment will be described by taking the scheme shown in the Figure
3.10 as an example.
1. Gas resistance moment
During the actual operation of the compressor, due to the complicated gas
pressure state in the intermediate chamber, various losses, and the influence
of the intermediate gas supply, the suction pressure of the high-pressure stage
cylinder is not equal to the discharge pressure of the low-pressure stage cylin-
der. The suction pressure and discharge pressure of the two low-pressure stage
cylinders are also not equal.
To simplify the analysis, the following are assumed:
(1) The suction pressure and the discharge pressure of the two low-pressure
stage cylinders are equal;
(2) The gas pressure in the intermediate chamber is stable, and the dis-
charge pressure of the low-pressure stage cylinder is equal to the suction pres-
sure of the high-pressure stage cylinder;
(3) In two-cylinder operation mode, the gas pressure in the cylinder with
variable volume is equal to the suction pressure of the low-stage cylinder, and
the gas resistance moment is zero.
According to the Equation (3.91), the gas resistance moments of three

cylinders can be expressed as
1 2
MgH S = RH S HH S ε H S (1 − ε H S )
2
εH S

2(1 − cos θ H S ) + (1 − cos 2θ H S ) (pθ H S − pFT ) (3.131)
1 − εH S
1 2
MgLS1 = RLS1 HLS1 ε LS1 (1 − ε LS1 )
2
ε LS1

2(1 − cos θ LS1 ) + (1 − cos 2θ LS1 ) (pθ L S1 − ps ) (3.132)
1 − ε LS1
1 2
MgLS2 = RLS2 HLS2 ε LS2 (1 − ε LS2 )
2
ε LS2

2(1 + cos θ LS2 ) + (1 − cos 2θ LS2 ) (pθ L S2 − ps ) (3.133)
1 − ε LS2
where MgH S = gas moment of the high-pressure stage cylinder, N·m

MgLS1 = gas moment of the low-pressure stage cylinder with fixed vol-
ume, N·m
MgLS2 = gas moment of the low-pressure stage cylinder with variable
volume, N·m
RH S = radius of the high-pressure stage cylinder, m
RLS1 = radius of the low-pressure stage cylinder with fixed volume, m
RLS2 = radius of the low-pressure stage cylinder with variable volume,
m
HH S = height of the high-pressure stage cylinder, m
HLS1 = height of the low-pressure stage cylinder with fixed volume, m
HLS2 = height of the low-pressure stage cylinder with variable volume,
m
ε H S = relative eccentricity of the high-pressure stage cylinder
ε LS1 = relative eccentricity of the conventional low-pressure stage
cylinder
ε LS2 = relative eccentricity of the low-pressure stage cylinder with
variable volume
pFT = gas pressure of the intermediate chamber, Pa
ps = gas pressure of the low-pressure stage cylinder, Pa
By substituting the Equation (3.117) into the Equations (3.131), (3.132)
and (3.133), the change rule of the gas resistance moment in each cylinder
with the crankshaft rotation angle can be obtained.
2. The total resistance moment
When the compressor is operating, the inertia resistance moment and the
counterweight wind resistance moment are not considered. The total resistance
moment includes the main bearing friction moment Mmb , the sub bearing
friction moment Msb , the thrust bearing friction moment Ms , the friction
moment Mc between the rolling piston and the eccentric bearing, and the
resistance moment Fen generated by the eccentric bearing load. The total
resistance moment can be calculated from the Equations (3.128), (3.129),
(3.130), (3.105), (3.112) and (3.113).
M = Mmb + Msb + Ms + Mc, H S + Mc, LS1 + e H S Fen, H S sin(θ H S − ηeb, H S )

+ e LS1 Fen, LS1 sin(θ LS1 − ηeb, LS1 ) (3.134)
where Mc, H S = friction moment between rolling piston of the high-pressure

cylinder and the eccentric bearing, N·m
Mc, LS1 = friction moment between rolling pistons of the conventional
low-pressure stage cylinder and the eccentric bearing, N·m
e H S = eccentricity of the eccentric bearing of the high-pressure stage
cylinder, m
e LS1 = eccentricity of the eccentric bearing of the low-pressure stage
cylinder with fixed volume, m
Fen, H S = eccentric bearing load of the high-pressure stage cylinder, N
Fen, LS1 = eccentric bearing load of the low-pressure stage cylinder with
fixed volume, N
ηeb, H S = angle between of the high-pressure stage cylinder in the
eccentric bearing load direction and the x axis
ηeb, LS1 = angle between of the low-pressure stage cylinder with fixed
volume in the eccentric bearing load direction and the x axis
M = Mmb + Msb + Ms + Mc, H S + Mc, LS1 + Mc, LS2

+ e H S Fen, H S sin(θ H S − ηeb, H S ) + e LS1 Fen, LS1 sin(θ LS1 − ηeb, LS1 )
+ e LS2 Fen, LS2 sin(θ LS2 − ηeb, LS2 ) (3.135)
where Mc, LS2 = friction moment of the rolling piston and eccentric bearing of
the low-pressure stage cylinder with variable volume, N·m
e LS2 = eccentricity of the eccentric bearing of the low-pressure stage
cylinder with variable volume, m
Fen, LS2 = eccentric bearing load of the low-pressure stage cylinder with
variable volume, N
ηeb, LS2 = angle between of the low-pressure stage cylinder with variable
volume in the eccentric bearing direction and the x axis
According to the Equation (3.134) and the Equation (3.135), the M - θ
curve of the two-cylinder operation mode and the triple-cylinder operation
mode are shown in Figure 3.23.
FIGURE 3.23
Resistance moment in two-cylinder and triple-cylinder operation modes
3.4.4 Dynamic balance of rotor

1. Vibration and noise caused by unbalanced inertia force of
rotation
Most vibrations of rotating machinery are caused by unbalanced inertia
forces generated by rotating parts (i.e. rotor system). Due to the asymmetric
shapes, uneven material, blank defects, heat treatment deformation, machin-
ing or assembly errors, and deformation related to rotation speed of the rotor
system, its mass distribution is not even and its centroid is not on center line
of the shaft. The vibrations of mechanical parts and noise will be caused due
to unbalanced centrifugal inertia forces or centrifugal inertia moments during
rotation of the rotor.
As the rolling piston compressor is a device with an eccentric mechanism,
the compressor rotor system formed by the motor rotor, the crankshaft and
the rolling piston is unbalanced during rotation, so the vibrations and noises
of the compressor will be caused due to the unbalanced centrifugal inertia
forces and the centrifugal inertia moments generated during operation.
The vibrations and noises caused by the unbalanced centrifugal inertia
force or centrifugal inertia moment of rotor system are composed of funda-
mental frequency and its higher harmonic, so its frequency can be expressed
as
n
f = i (3.136)
60
where f = vibration frequency generated by the unbalanced inertia force of
the rotor system, Hz
n = rotational speed of the rotor system, r/min
i = harmonic number, which is 1, 2, 3, 4, etc.
Therefore, the fundamental frequency of vibration and noise generated by

unbalanced centrifugal inertia force or centrifugal inertia moment of the rotor
system is the operating frequency of the compressor.
The vibration caused by unbalanced inertia force or centrifugal inertia mo-
ment of the rotor system of the rolling piston compressor has a great influence
on the vibration of the compressor, and the refrigerant pipe will break under
severe conditions.
In a rolling piston compressor, although the frequency of the fundamental
frequency noise generated by unbalanced inertia force or centrifugal inertia
moment is not high (the operating frequency range of variable speed com-
pressor is generally 5-130Hz) and the frequency of low-order harmonics is in
a region insensitive to human ears, the unbalanced centrifugal inertia force or
centrifugal inertia moment of the rotor system produces great impact force
during high-frequency operation, damaging the stable working state of other
parts (such as bearings etc.) and generating high-frequency vibration and
noise. That is to say, this kind of noise source often does not radiate air noise
itself, but is mainly used as the energy source of vibration, which is transmit-
ted to the compressor shell through transmission paths such as bearings and
cylinders, forcing the vibration of the shell so to radiate airborne noise.
A large resonant noise will be generated when the natural frequency of
a certain order of compressor parts is equal or close to the fundamental fre-
quency or harmonic frequency of the rotor system. Therefore, the unbalance
of the rotor system is the real noise source.
2. General methods to control unbalanced forces
The inertia force and inertia moment will cause dynamic reaction force and
vibration of rotor system support, so that the bearing load will be increased
and noise generated. In order to reduce the dynamic reaction and vibration,
and reduce the vibration and noise excited by the rotor system, the inertia
force and inertia moment of the compressor rotor system must be balanced.
The so-called balance refers to the process of selecting an appropriate
correction plane on the rotor system and adding an appropriate correction
mass (or set of correction masses) so to bring the vibration and dynamic
reaction force of the rotor system down to below a certain allowable value.
Assume that the rotor system rotates around the z axis, by simplifying the
unbalanced inertia force at each particle to any point, a force R0 and a moment
M0 can be obtained, and the sizes of which can be expressed respectively as
R0 = mc rc ω2 (3.137)
q
2 + I2
M0 = ω2 Ixz yz (3.138)
where mc = mass of the rotor system, kg
rc = distance from the centroid c to the z axis, m
ω = angular velocity of the rotor system, rad/s
Ixz , Iyz = moment of inertia (product of inertia) of the rotor system, kg · m2
The following conditions should be met to achieve balance

1) R0 = 0, namely, rc = 0;
2) M0 = 0, namely, Ixz = 0, Iyz = 0.
If the condition 1) is satisfied, that is, the z axis will pass through the
centroid; if the condition 2) is satisfied, then the z axis will be one of the main
inertia axes. So the condition should be satisfied to achieve the balance is that
the rotation z axis is one of the central principal inertia axes.
Due to the structural characteristics of the rolling piston compressor, the
rotor system itself is unbalanced, can be balanced by using counterweights.
3. Counterweight configuration
In a rolling piston compressor, the counterweight of the rotor system can
only be set at the ends of the motor rotor due to structural constraints. Two
counterweights are usually mounted to both ends of the motor rotor so to
balance the inertia force and inertia moment completely.
The three cylinders of the two-stage compressor with variable volumetric
ratio are asymmetric, i.e. the three eccentric masses (including rolling pistons)
on the crankahsft and the eccentricities may be different. There are many
ways to arrange the eccentric masses on the same plane (the three eccentric
masses are arranged on one plane) or have them arranged on different planes.
Next, the configuration and calculation method of the counterweights will be
FIGURE 3.24
Balance I of rotational inertia force and inertia moment of triple-cylinder rotor
system
explained by arranging the three eccentric centroids on the same plane as

shown in the Figure 3.24 and the Figure 3.25 as an example. In the figures,
the Mx is the eccentric mass and the rx is the eccentricity.
FIGURE 3.25
Balance II of rotational inertia force and inertia moment of triple-cylinder rotor
system
In the Figure 3.24, the force balance equation is
−mr1 e1 ω2 + mr2 e2 ω2 − mr3 e3 ω2 + m4 r4 ω2 − m5 r5 ω2 = 0 (3.139)
Moment balance equation (with clockwise direction taken as the positive

direction of moment and lower eccentric centroid as the moment balance point,
the same hereunder) is
−mr1 e1 ω2 L1 + mr2 e2 ω2 L2 − mr3 e3 ω2 L3 − m4 r4 ω2 L4 + m5 r5 ω2 L5 = 0 (3.140)
According to the Equations (3.139) and (3.140), the following can be ob-
tained
mr1 e1 (L1 + L5 ) − mr2 e2 (L2 + L5 ) + mr3 e3 (L3 + L5 )
m4 = (3.141)
r4 (L5 − L4 )
mr1 e1 (L1 + L4 ) − mr2 e2 (L2 + L4 ) + mr3 e3 (L3 + L4 )

m5 = (3.142)
r5 (L5 − L4 )
In the Figure 3.25, the force balance equation is
mr1 e1 ω2 − mr2 e2 ω2 − mr3 e3 ω2 + m4 r4 ω2 − m5 r5 ω2 = 0 (3.143)
The balance equation is
mr1 e1 ω2 L1 − mr2 e2 ω2 L2 − mr3 e3 ω2 L3 − m4 r4 ω2 L4 + m5 r5 ω2 L5 = 0 (3.144)

According to the Equation (3.143) and (3.144), the following can be ob-
tained
−mr1 e1 (L1 + L5 ) + mr2 e2 (L2 + L5 ) + mr3 e3 (L3 + L5 )
m4 = (3.145)
r4 (L5 − L4 )
−mr1 e1 (L1 + L4 ) + mr2 e2 (L2 + L4 ) + mr3 e3 (L3 + L4 )
m5 = (3.146)
r5 (L5 − L4 )
With above balance calculations of the rotor system for the compressor,
the rotor system is assumed as rigid. In practice, the rotor system has a certain
deflection when the compressor is operating at high speed, meaning, the rotor
system is deflected. The minimum centrifugal inertia force of the rotor system
cannot be guaranteed with the above general balancing scheme, and large
vibration and noise will be possibly resulted from high speed operation of the
compressor.
In order to ensure the stability of the rotor system when the compressor
is operating at high speed, the influence of the crankshaft deflection should
be considered if the dynamic balance performance of the rotor system is to
realized. And the deformation of the crankshaft must be considered in the
balance design in order to effectively reduce the vibration amplitude and noise
under the unbalanced centrifugal inertia force and inertia moment.
The design methods for balance of rotor system of the compressor with
consideration to the crankshaft deflection are described below. In static bal-
ance calculation, the product of deflection and centrifugal forces due to the
deflection of eccentric of crankshaft, main and auxiliary counterweights and
motor rotor is very small, so that the influence of deflection can be ignored. In
the calculation of dynamic balance, the additional centrifugal moment due to
deflection of eccentric of crankshaft and main and auxiliary counterweights is
much smaller than that of the motor rotor, so the influence of the additional
centrifugal moment due to deflection of eccentric of crankshaft and main and
auxiliary counterweights can be ignored.
Therefore, during design stage of the rotor system balance with consider-
ation to the crankshaft deflection, a satisfactory result can be obtained when
the additional moment generated by the rotor deflection is considered only.
With this, not only the balance calculation process can be simplified, but also
the impact of the deflection on the balance can be evaluated.
Next, by taking the crankshaft shown in the Figure 3.25 as an example,
the designs for the rotor system balance with consideration to the crankshaft
deflection will be described. The balance system of compressor rotor system
with consideration to the crankshaft deflection is shown in Figure 3.26.
The force balance equation (ignoring centrifugal force caused by deflection
of motor rotor) is
mr1 e1 ω2 − mr2 e2 ω2 − mr3 e3 ω2 + m4 r4 ω2 − m5 r5 ω2 = 0 (3.147)
The moment balance equation is
mr1 e1 ω2 L1 − mr2 e2 ω2 L2 − mr3 e3 ω2 L3 − m4 r4 ω2 L4 + m5 r5 ω2 L5 + mr δr ω2 Lr = 0
(3.148)
where mr = mass of the motor rotor, kg

δr = eccentricity of the motor rotor centroid due to shaft deflection, m
Lr = distance from the centroid of the motor rotor to the center of the
moment, m
Due to the complex structure of crankshaft, it is necessary to calculate the
crankshaft deflection with finite element analysis based on the force balance
FIGURE 3.26
Balance system of rotor system with consideration to deflection
and moment balance of general balance method, and iterate the deflection
result calculated with finite element in the balance equation until a reasonable
balance mass and deflection value are obtained. The flow chart of calculation
is shown in Figure 3.27.
The static balance coefficient and the dynamic balance coefficient are in-
troduced so to evaluate the balance performance, being defined as follows
mr2 e2 + mr3 e3 + m5 r5
Ks = (3.149)
mr1 e1 + m4 r4
mr1 e1 L1 + m5 e5 L5 + mr δr Lr
Kd = (3.150)
mr2 e2 L2 + mr3 e3 L3 + m4 e4 L4
where Ks = static balance coefficient
Kd = dynamic balance coefficient
Through repeated iterative calculation, taking account of the influence
of inertia moment of the counterweights, the imbalance of which is caused by
crankshaft deflection of motor rotor, the static balance coefficient and dynamic
balance coefficient should be approximately equal to 1 after the counterweight
of rotor system is finally determined.
Start
Kj=1
Kd <1
Assuming δr¢ = 0 ˈthe mass of the balance system is

calculated
Dimension design of balance system
Deflection calculation, outputs δr and δr¢
N
K d and δr check
Y
Output Parameters of the balance
system
End
FIGURE 3.27
Flow chart for balance calculation of rotor system balance
3.5 Main Structural Parameters

3.5.1 Structural parameters of cylinder
In the rolling piston compressor, main structural parameters of the cylinder
are the relative eccentricity and the relative height of the cylinder. These two
structural parameters are important to characterize the cylinder structure
and the perfect degree of its operation. In the compressor design stage, a
comprehensive analysis is required before making reasonable selections.
1. Relative eccentricity and relative cylinder height
Relative eccentricity refers to the ratio of the eccentricity to cylinder ra-
dius, that is
e
ε= (3.151)
R
The relative eccentricity has a great influence on the structural size of the
compressor and the volume utilization rate of the cylinder. According to the
Equations (3.10) and (3.151), the following can be obtained
Vt = πR2 Hε(2 − ε) (3.152)
The volume utilization rate of the cylinder is

πR2 H(2 − ε)
K= = ε(2 − ε) (3.153)
πR2 H
The cylinder volume utilization rate K reflects the effective utilization de-
gree of the cylinder volume. The larger the value of K, the higher the cylinder
volume utilization rate is, that is, the cylinder size is smaller with the same dis-
placement. On the contrary, the smaller the value of K, the lower the cylinder
utilization rate is, while the cylinder size is larger. Generally, K = 0.15–0.36.
The relative height of the cylinder λ refers to the ratio of the cylinder
height to the cylinder diameter, which can be expressed as
H H
λ= = (3.154)
2R D
where D = cylinder diameter, m
The Equation (3.152) can be rewritten as
Vt = 2πR3 ελ(2 − ε) (3.155)
With the Equation (3.155), the expression of cylinder diameter can be

obtained as follows 1/3
4Vt
D= (3.156)
πελ(2 − ε)
The Equation (3.156) reflects the relationship between cylinder diameter D
and dimensionless parameters ε and λ. When the cylinder volume is constant,
with the increase of ε, the size D and the compressor weight will decrease; and
with the decrease of ε, the size D and the compressor weight will increase.
Therefore, from the perspective of improving the volume utilization ratio
of cylinder and reducing the weight and volume of the compressor, the rel-
ative eccentricity ε should be larger. However, if the relative eccentricity ε
is undesirably large, as the eccentricity increases, the compressor structure is
difficult to be designed, while the contact force and wear between the sliding
vane and the rolling piston will increase, resulting in increase of the power
consumption and decrease of the compressor reliability. Therefore, the value
of the relative eccentricity ε ranges from 0.08 to 0.20.
It is known from the Equation (3.155), when Vt and ε are kept constant,
with the increase of the relative height λ of the cylinder, the radial size of the
compressor will decrease; when Vt and R are kept unchanged, the increase of
λ will inevitably lead to decrease of ε and decrease of the volume utilization
rate of the compressor.
2. Influence of relative eccentricity and relative cylinder height

on performance
The changes of relative eccentricity and relative cylinder height λ will affect
the stress state of rolling piston and vane, as well as the leakage from compres-
sion chamber to suction chamber, thus affecting the coefficient of performance
of the compressor.
(1) Influence on the gas force of rolling piston
According to the Equations (3.89) and (3.156), the gas force acting on the
rolling piston can be expressed as
"√ # 2/3
2Vt (1 − ε)3/2 ε
r
1
Fg = λ 3 (pθ − ps ) 2(1 − cos θ) + (1 − cos 2θ) (3.157)
πε(2 − ε) 1−ε
(2) Influence on the gas force of vane

According to the Equations (3.67), (3.73) and (3.156), the gas force acting
on both sides of the vane can be expressed as
"√ # 2/3
2Vt ε 1/2 1 ε

Fqy = λ 1/3
(1 − cos θ) + sin2 θ) (pθ − ps ) (3.158)
π(2 − ε) 2 1−ε
(3) Influence on leakage

The amount of leaked gas inside the cylinder increases with the increase
of the leakage gap length, which can be expressed as
1/3
λ+1

4Vt
L = 2H + 2D = 2(λ + 1)D = 2 (3.159)
λ1/3 πε(2 − ε)
It can be seen from the Equations (3.157) to (3.159) that with the increase
of the relative height of the cylinder, the gas force borne by the rolling piston
and the vane will increase, the leakage gap length and the friction area between
the rolling piston and the vane will increase, resulting in the deterioration of
the stress state and the increases of leakage and friction work.
However, the relative height λ of the cylinder should not be too small, or
the cylinder diameter will increase, the radial dimension of the cylinder will
be unacceptably large, resulting in an increase of the compressor volume. The
value of λ is generally recommended to be 0.25–0.6.
In summary, the relative eccentricity affects the volumetric efficiency of the
cylinder and the duration of the compression process to some extent, while
the relative cylinder height affects the stress state of the compressor.
3.5.2 Structural dimensions

During the design stage of the compressor, the displacement of the compres-
sor firstly depends on the refrigerant type, the heating capacity (or cooling
capacity) required by the system, the rated speed and other parameters. In
a two-stage compressor with variable volume ratio, the displacement under

rated condition depends on the displacement of the low-pressure stage cylinder
with fixed volume. After the working volume of the low-pressure stage cylin-
der with fixed volume is determined, the working volumes of the low-pressure
stage cylinder with variable volume and the high-pressure stage cylinder can
be determined according to the volume ratio of the compressor.
Generally, the structural parameters ε, λ and the rotational speed n of
the compressor are selected empirically. There is the following relationship
between the actual volume flow of the cylinder and the working volume
VLS1
Vr ev, LS1 = (3.160)
ηVL1 n
The radius of the low-pressure stage cylinder with fixed volume is
1/3
Vr ev, LS1
RLS1 = (3.161)
2πλK
With the working volume of the low-pressure stage cylinder with fixed
volume and the volume ratio of the compressor, the working volumes of the
high-pressure stage cylinder and the low-pressure stage cylinder with variable
volume can be obtained according to the Equations (2.65) and (2.66), and
then the radii of the low-pressure stage cylinder with variable volume and the
high-pressure stage cylinder can be calculated.
The main structural parameters of the compression mechanism are shown
in Table 3.3.
TABLE 3.3
The main structural dimensions and relative relations of the compression mechanism
Items Dimension relation
Cylinder diameter D D = 2R
Eccentricity e e = (0.08–0.20)R
Relative eccentricity ε ε = e/R = (0.08–0.20)
Rolling piston radius r r = R−e
Vane thickness t t = (0.6–1.0)e
Vane length l l = (5–10)e
Cylinder height H H = (0.25–0.6)D
Since the working volumes of the high-pressure stage cylinder and the low-
pressure stage cylinder with fixed volume of the two-stage compressor with
variable volume ratio are generally not equal in design, the relative cylinder
height and relative eccentricity of the high-pressure stage cylinder and the low-
pressure stage cylinder with fixed volume should be kept within a reasonable
range when the compressor with the same cylinder diameter is designed.
In addition, since the three cylinders of the compressor are driven by the
same crankshaft, the bearing distance of the main and sub bearings is much
larger than that of other types of rolling piston compressors. With the same
crankshaft diameter, the stiffness is relatively small and the deformation is
relatively large under the same radial force during operation, which will in-
crease the loads of the main and sub bearings, leading to bearing wear and
increase of the power consumption of the compressor, and finally causing re-
liability problems. Therefore, the cylinder height should be designed as short
as possible (flat design) and the rigidity of the crankshaft should be designed
as large as possible. At the same time, the design of the flexible slot structure
on the end covers of the main bearing and the sub bearing(as shown in Figure
3.28 for the structure of the flexible slot structure of the main bearing) is also
very important. A good design can homogenize the load on the main bearing,
thus avoiding the problem of excessive local load on the bearing.
Oil groove
Flexible slot
FIGURE 3.28
Schematic diagram of flexible slot structure of main bearing
3.6 Lubrication and Influencing Factors

In the rolling piston compressors, the lubricant oil is mainly used for lubri-
cation and sealing. When two-stage compressor with variable volume ratio is
used in low-temperature air source heat pump system, as the outdoor am-
bient temperature is as low as -35◦ C, which is much lower than that of the
conventional air source heat pump system, the number of factors affecting
lubrication will increase, and the force state of the moving parts of the two-
stage compressor with variable volume ratio is complex, the action force is
also greater than that of the ordinary single-stage and two-stage compressors.
The improper selection of the lubricant oil, or the unreasonable design of heat
pump circulating system and control system will bring up the problems like
wear of the compressor due to shortage of oil, and the blocking of the throttle
device such as the electronic expansion valve etc.
The functions and requirements of the lubricant oil, the selection method,
the oil discharge, oil return, as well as the harmful liquid return and other
related issues will be introduced in this section.
3.6.1 The functions and requirements of lubricant oil and

the selection method
1. The functions of the lubricant oil
In the rolling piston compressor, the lubricant oil (also known as refrigerant
oil) has the following main functions:
(1) Lubrication. The lubricant oil with a certain pressure enters the bear-
ings, oil films formed on the friction surfaces and in the clearances of the
moving parts will reduce friction and wear, and improve the reliability and
life of the compressor.
(2) Cooling. The lubricant oil is brought into the friction pair for lubrica-
tion by the movement of the friction pair, the friction heat produced by which
is carried away by the flow of the lubricant oil. The temperature of the friction
pair is lowered and the temperature of the moving parts such as the bearing
can be kept within the allowable range.
(3) Sealing. The oil film formed between the rolling piston and the inner
wall of the cylinder and at the ends of the vane etc., by the lubricant oil in the
cylinder plays the role of sealing, so as to reduce the leakage of gas refrigerant
and improve the volumetric efficiency.
(4) Rust prevention. The lubricant oil flowing through the friction surfaces
and clearances will take away the mechanical impurities and sludges, thus
plays the role of rust prevention and cleaning.
2. Requirements of lubricant oil
In the refrigeration compressor, the lubricant oil is in a special working
environment, it directly contacts the refrigerant in which it is solved. A small
amount of lubricant oil participates in the circulation with the refrigerant,
and is in close contact with the materials such as the motor coil and the seals,
and the lubricant oil works under extreme temperature conditions such as the
high discharge temperature of the compressor and the low temperature of the
evaporator.
The lubricant oil used in refrigeration compressor is different from other
oils. In order to meet the requirements of compressor and heat pump system,
while satisfying the basic characteristics of lubricant oil, special indexes such
as mutual solubility with refrigerant, chemical stability and material compat-
ibility should be considered. The basic characteristics include: (1) viscosity
and viscosity index; (2) total acid number; (3) water content; (4) pour point;
(5) flash point; (6) foaming property; (7) electrical insulation; (8) copper cor-
rosion. The mutual solubility with refrigerant includes: (1) the two-layer sep-
aration temperature of lubricant oil and refrigerant; (2) the solubility and
mixture viscosity of lubricant oil and refrigerant. Chemical stability includes:
(1) thermochemical stability; (2) oxidative stability; (3) hydrolysis stability.
Material compatibility includes: (1) compatibility with organic materials or

reagents; (2) compatibility with metallic materials. A few key indicators are
introduced as follow:
(1) Viscosity and viscosity index
Viscosity is an important indicator of lubricity under fluid lubrication con-
ditions. The viscosity determines the bearing force, frictional power consump-
tion, and sealing of the oil film in the sliding bearings. The higher the viscosity,
the stronger the bearing force and the better the sealing performance. But the
flow resistance is large, and the resistance overcome at the startup of the com-
pressor is also large, which leads to an increase of the power consumption of
the compressor. If the viscosity is too small, it is difficult to establish an oil
film with a certain rigidity resulting in acceleration of the mechanical wear.
Different types of lubricant oils will require quite different mutual solubility
between refrigerants and lubricant oils. Therefore, the different refrigerants
will require lubricant oils with different viscosities. The types of lubricant oil
are selected differently for the same refrigerant, and the requirements for the
viscosity are also different.
Table 3.4 shows the viscosity grade of lubricant oils required by several
commonly used refrigerants.
TABLE 3.4
Viscosity grade required for common refrigerants
Refrigerant R-22 R-410A R-32 R-290 R-134a
VG56 VG100
Lubricant (Mineral (Mineral
VG68 VG68 VG68
oil oil) oil)
(Synthetic (Synthetic (Synthetic
viscosity VG68 VG22
oil) oil) oil)
grade (Synthetic (Synthetic
oil) oil)
Generally, the viscosity of lubricant oil decreases with the increase of the
temperature and increases with the increase of the pressure. This property of
lubricant oil is important for practicality, and it is generally desirable to min-
imize the viscosity change of the lubricant oil when the temperature changes.
The index for evaluating the viscosity change of lubricant oil with temper-
ature is viscosity index. The calculation method refers to ASTM D2270-93.
The kinematic viscosity of lubricant oil used in rolling piston compressor at
100◦ C is usually between 2 and 70 mm2 /s, and the viscosity index calculation
method is described below.
1) For oils of viscosity index up to and including 100
L −U
VI = × 100 (3.162)
L−H
where U = kinematic viscosity at 40◦ C of the oil whose viscosity index is to
be calculated, mm2 /s
L = kinematic viscosity at 40◦ C of an oil 0 viscosity index having the

same kinematic viscosity at 100◦ C as the oil whose viscosity index
is to be calculated, mm2 /s
H = kinematic viscosity at 40◦ C of an oil 100 viscosity index having
the same kinematic viscosity at 100◦ C as the oil whose viscosity
index is to be calculated, mm2 /s
2) For oils of viscosity index of 100 and greater, it can be expressed as
10 N − 1
VI = + 100 (3.163)
0.00715
and
lg H − lg U
N= (3.164)
lg Y
where Y = kinematic viscosity at 100◦ C of the test specimen, mm2 /s
In the air source heat pump system, different working conditions have
different requirements for the viscosities of the lubricant oils. In practical
applications, besides the viscosity of the lubricant oil itself, more attention
should be paid to the viscosity of the lubricant oil and the refrigerant mixture
since the lubricant oil in the compressor is mixed with the refrigerant.
(2) Pour point
The pour point is an index being used to measure the fluidity of lubricant
oil at low temperature, specifically referring to the lowest temperature at
which the tested lubricant oil has been cooled can flow. For low-temperature
air source heat pump, the lubricant oil is required to have good fluidity at
low temperature. The fluidity of lubricant oil decreases with the decrease of
temperature. The fluidity at low temperature will be poor if the pour point of
lubricant oil is too high resulting in the blocking of the expansion valve holes
or deposits in the evaporator, deterioration of the heat transfer performance,
or solidification in the oil sump at the bottom of the compressor, failing to
play the role of lubrication.
(3) Water content
The sorptivity of lubricant oil is measured as the saturated water content.
A certain amount of water content will be brought into the system if the
lubricant oil has powerful hydrophilicity, and the large water content directly
affects total acid number of the lubricant oil. In addition, the ice crystals will
be formed easily by the water content in the throttle valve so the system will
be blocked, leading to an ice blockage, the water content of which needs to
be strictly controlled. Therefore, a filter dryer must be installed in the system
charged with a hydrophilic lubricant oil.
(4) Total acid number
Total acid number is an indicator of the acid content of the lubricant oil
and is expressed in milligrams of potassium hydroxide required to neutralize
all acidic components in the oil sample, the unit is mgKOH/g.
The corrosion property of the lubricant oil to the metal can be roughly
evaluated according to total acid number. The organic acid content in the
oil is small, and the effect of the corrosion on the metal is small under low
temperature and water-free conditions. But with large organic acid content
and existence of moisture, the effect of the corrosion on the metal is enhanced.
The smaller the molecular weight of the organic acid, the stronger the corrosive
effect is. A small amount of low molecular acid even has a strong corrosive
effect especially in the presence of moisture. Although naphthenic acid in
lubricant oil is a weak acid, certain non-ferrous metals will be corroded in
the presence of water. The corrosion results in the formation of metal soaps,
which accelerates the deterioration of lubricant oil. At the same time, the
deposits will appear with gradual concentration of the soaps in the lubricant
oil, leading to the destruction of the lubricating properties of the lubricant
oil. In general, the greater the total acid number of the lubricant oil during
operation, the worse the deterioration of the lubricant oil is. Therefore, the
total acid number can be used to determine the deterioration of the lubricant
oil in use.
(5) Mutual solubility with refrigerants
It is difficult to form oil film on the inner surface of the heat transfer pipe
of the heat exchanger because of the good mutual solubility between lubricant
oil and refrigerant, which is beneficial to heat transfer. If the mutual solubility
between lubricant oil and refrigerant is poor, the evaporation temperature will
decrease (under the premise of constant evaporation pressure), and the heat
transfer performance of the evaporator will decrease as well. In addition, the
pool accumulation phenomenon will not occur in the heat exchanger when the
mutual solubility is good, which is benefitial to oil return of the compressor.
However, the mutual solubility will make the lubricant oil thinner, so that the
viscosity of the lubricant oil will be reduced, resulting in very thin oil films in
the compressor and the deterioration of the lubrication.
(6) Chemical stability
The thermochemical stability indicates the capability of the lubricant oil
to withstand high temperature, the oxidation stability reflects the anti-aging
property of the lubricant oil, and the hydrolysis stability characterizes the
stability of the lubricant oil under the effect of water and metal (mainly cop-
per). A small amount of air or moisture is inevitably mixed in a system with
coexistence of the refrigerant, the lubricant oil and the metal, in such a case
the lubricant oil will decompose at high temperature, and the deposits and
coke will be formed along with the deterioration rate of the lubricant oil which
is accelerated due to the existence of the air and the moisture. When a syn-
thetic ester is used as the lubricant oil, the parts will be corroded by the
acidic substances formed due to hydrolysis of the lubricant oil resulting from
the existence of the moisture.
(7) Material compatibility
The hermetic compressor is charged with the lubricant oil, the mixture
of which with the refrigerant is required to be compatible with the organic
polymer material, various metallic materials in the compressor and traceable
metal processing agents. Under high-temperature and high-pressure sealing
conditions, the polymer materials and metallic materials (mainly Fe, Cu, Al)
should not be aged, deteriorated, dissolved or corroded, and the lubricant oil
should not contain impurities or deposits.
Besides the indicators mentioned above, there are some other physical and
chemical performance indicators. The lubricant oil can only be applied to air
source heat pump systems when all of these indicators meet the requirements.
3. Selections of lubricant oils
(1) Main types of lubricant oils
The lubricant oil used in the rolling piston compressor can be classified
mainly into mineral oil and synthetic oil.
1) Mineral oil
The mineral oil uses crude oil as raw material. After distilling, solvent
refining and de-waxing processes, the ‘semi-finished products’ of mineral oils
with various viscosities can be obtained. Various additives are added to these
semi-finished products to improve their properties before the mineral oils with
various specifications are obtained. The mineral oils are divided into naph-
thenic mineral oils and paraffin-based mineral oils. The main additives in-
clude anti-wear agents, water-proof agents, dispersants, anti-foaming agents,
antioxidants and antirust agents etc.
2) Synthetic oil
The most essential difference between synthetic oil and mineral oil is that
the synthetic oil is not refined with crude oil, but is formed by chemical reac-
tion of chemical raw materials. The semi-finished product of synthetic oil is
called base oil with which the corresponding additives are mixed before ob-
taining the synthetic oils with the required properties like suitable oxidation
resistance, hydrolysis stability and non chemical reaction with the refriger-
ant so as to protect the surfaces of the lubricated parts. Although they are
expensive, the synthetic oils feature a long life and better lubrication.
(2) Selections of lubricant oil types
In the rolling piston compressor, the selections of lubricant oil types mainly
depends on what types of the refrigerant are used. The refrigerants like R-22
and R-290 use mineral oil or synthetic oil, while the refrigerants like R-410A,
R-32 and R-134a use synthetic oil.
The commonly used synthetic oils in the rolling piston compressor, are of
two types like POE and PVE.
The POE (polyol ester) is an ester oil obtained by the dehydration of the
reaction products of polyols and fatty acids which can be divided into straight-
chain fatty acid and branched-chain fatty acid, the molecular structure of
which is shown in Figure 3.29. From the viewpoint of bond energy whose
ester group is higher than the carbon-carbon single bond, so that the POE
ester oil features higher thermal stability and better thermal stability. The
moisture index should be strictly controlled when this kind of lubricant oil is
used, because ester group is very sensitive to water.
The PVE (polyvinyl ether) is a polyvinyl ether oil, which is polymerized
with vinyl ether. The viscosity, pour point and other properties of the PVE oil
O O
O R2 C O H 2C C H2 O C R2
O C R1 C
(C H 2) n R2 C O H 2C CH O C R2
2
O C R1 O O
O
˖ R 2 ˖C H 3 (C H 2) nC H
R 1˖C H 3 (C H 2 )n ˖
C H3
(a) Straight-chain (b) Branched-chain

˅ ˅
˅ ˅
FIGURE 3.29
Molecular structure of POE synthetic lubricant oil
can be adjusted by changing the polymerization degree m and n of the olefin

ether. The higher the degree of polymerization, the greater the intermolecular
force is, and the viscosity of PVE oil increases accordingly. The existence of
ether bond gives PVE polarity, so it has better compatibility with polar hy-
drofluorocarbons (HFC), which can prevent capillary blockage, and balance
oil film strength and effectiveness of anti-wear additives in EHD (elastic hy-
drodynamic lubrication) area. At the same time, the existence of ether bond
also improves water absorption, but PVE lubricant oil does not hydrolyze.
The molecular structure of PVE lubricant oil is shown in Figure 3.30.
R1 CH 2 CH C H2 CH R4
O O
R2 R3
m n
FIGURE 3.30
Molecular structure of PVE synthetic lubricant oil
(3) Selections of other indicators of lubricant oil

The two-stage compressor with variable volume ratio is suitable for cold cli-
mate regions and can operate in low temperature environment with outdoor
temperature at −35◦ C. Because the outdoor ambient temperature is much
lower than that of air source heat pump installed with conventional compres-
sor, the selection of lubricant oil is different, and the evaporation temperature
of heat pump is the major factor to be considered. In summary, it is necessary
to identify the following performance indicators.
1) Viscosity of lubricant oil at low temperatures
Because the viscosity of lubricant oil increases with the decrease of tem-
perature, too high viscosity of lubricant oil in low-temperature environment
will make the compressor difficult to start, leading to increases of the fric-
tion of the moving pair and the power consumption. At the same time, it
also makes it difficult to let oil flow back to the compressor (including oil
backflow through the oil-gas separator). Therefore, the lubricant oil with a
slightly lower viscosity and good viscosity-temperature properties should be
selected for two-stage compressor with variable volume ratio based on the
lowest temperature at which the compressor to be operated, so to ensure that
the compressor is well lubricated under the entire operating conditions.
2) Pour point
For low-temperature heat pump system, the pour point of the lubricant
oil should be as low as possible, and the pour point temperature is more than
5◦ C lower than the minimum evaporation temperature.
3) Cloud point
The cloud point temperature should be lower than the evaporation tem-
perature. Otherwise, the throttle valve will be blocked and heat transfer per-
formance affected due to the paraffin precipitation of the lubricant oil. The
evaluations should be carried out if the mineral oil is to be used in low-
temperature heat pump.
4) Two-layer separation temperature
The mixture of refrigerant and lubricant oil may be stratified with the
change of temperature. Therefore, for a two-stage air-source heat pump sys-
tem with variable volume ratio, it is necessary to pay attention to the low-
temperature two-layer separation temperature.
When the compressor is shut down for a long time in a low-temperature
environment, the refrigerant density is higher than that of the lubricant oil and
the refrigerant settles at the bottom of the oil sump once the lubricant oil and
the refrigerant are separated. There will be a certain period of time without
oil lubrication after the startup of the compressor, resulting in compressor
wear. The component with the lowest temperature in the low-temperature
heat pump system is the evaporator at which the two-layer separation at
low temperature is most likely to occur. Two phases will be formed if the
evaporator temperature is lower than the two-layer separation temperature
of the mixture of lubricant oil and refrigerant at low temperature. Because
the viscosity of the oil-rich phase is higher, it will accumulate on the wall
of the evaporator to form an oil film, which will reduce the heat exchange
efficiency. In severe cases, the lubricant oil returned to the compressor will be
less, resulting in insufficient oil supply in the compressor, which will aggravate
the wear of the friction pair and cause the compressor failure as well.
Compared with the evaporator, the high-temperature two-layer separation
temperature has less influence on the condenser in which the temperature of
the lubricant oil and the refrigerant mixture is higher, and the mixture liquid
flows in the turbulent zone. Even if the two layers are separated, the oil-rich
phase is easily flushed through the condenser.
Therefore, in order to ensure the reliable operation of the heat pump sys-
tem, not only the mutual solubility of the lubricant oil and the refrigerant are
required, but also the low-temperature two-layer separation temperature of
the lubricant oil and the refrigerant mixture with different oil ratios is needed.
For the low-temperature heat pump systems, the low-temperature two-layer

separation temperature should not be higher than the ambient temperature.
3.6.2 Oil discharge and controlling

In the refrigeration compressor, the oil discharge rate refers to the percentage
of the lubricant oil in the mass flow of the refrigerant discharged from the
compressor per unit time during the discharge process.
The rolling piston compressor is a compressor incorporating high-pressure
shell. The cylinder is filled with a mixture of high-temperature and high-
pressure gas refrigerant and lubricant oil. The amount of lubricant oil in the
oil sump of the compressor is reduced after the lubricant oil is taken out of
the compressor during the discharge process. The oil discharge rate of the
compressor is related to factors such as discharge temperature, operating fre-
quency and lubricant oil characteristics.
The lubricant oil is easily to be accumulated in the evaporator when the
two-stage compressor with variable volume ratio operates at low tempera-
ture due to low evaporation temperature, therefore, the compressor structure
should be designed such that the lubricant oil discharged out of the compressor
with the discharge gas is minimized.
1. Relationship between oil discharge rate and discharge temper-
ature and pressure
In the mixture of the gas refrigerant and the lubricant oil, the lubricant
oil exists in the form of gas-liquid phase. The lubricant oil in the liquid phase
exists in the gas refrigerant in the form of minute oil droplets. lubricant oil
in the gas phase is produced by liquid phase evaporation, and the content
depends on the temperature and pressure of oil-gas mixture, and the saturated
vapor pressure of lubricant oil. The higher the temperature and pressure of the
oil-gas mixture, the higher the content of the gasified lubricant oil is; and the
lower the saturated vapor pressure of the lubricant oil, the higher the content
of the gasified lubricant oil is. Similar to other gases, the gasified lubricant oil
cannot be separated mechanically and can only be removed chemically.
In general, there is very little gasified lubricant oil in the oil-gas mixture.
This is because at normal discharge temperatures, the vapor pressure of the
lubricant oil in the mixture is very low; at the same time, the time of the
lubricant oil stayed in the cylinder is short and there is not enough time for
it to reach the equilibrium between the gas and liquid phases.
The lubricant oil contained in the oil-gas mixture is mostly in liquid phase,
and the size range of the liquid phase oil droplets is widely distributed. The
diameters of the most of the oil droplets range from 1 to 50 µm. A few of the
oil droplets can be as small as the gas molecules with the same magnitude and
only have a diameter of 0.01 µm. The size of the oil droplets has a significant
relationship with the oil discharge rate. Under the act of the gravity, as long as
the flow rate of the oil-gas mixture is not very high, the large oil droplets will
eventually fall into the oil sump of the compressor. The smaller the diameter
of the oil droplets, the longer the falling time will be. However, the oil droplets
with small diameters can be suspended in the gas for a long time and cannot
be separated from the gas by gravity.
The flow resistance of a small oil droplet is a viscous force, which can be
described by the free falling velocity for a given diameter of the particle. If
the gas velocity is much greater than the free falling velocity of a droplet
with given size, the oil droplet will move to the discharge port at the top of
the compressor shell waiting to be discharged out of the compressor. If the
gravity of a droplet with given size is much greater than the viscous force,
the oil droplet will return to the oil sump. Figure 3.31 shows the relationship
between oil droplet size and oil discharge.
FIGURE 3.31
Diagram of relationship between oil droplet size and oil discharge
2. Relationship between oil discharge rate and operating fre-

quency
The oil droplet size and gas flow velocity are important parameters related
to the oil discharge rate, and the flow velocity of the gas refrigerant inside the
compressor shell is closely related to the compressor operating frequency. And
the gas flow velocity increases with the increase of the compressor operating
frequency. Therefore, the oil discharge rate of the compressor also increases
with the increase of the operating frequency of the compressor.
3. Relationship between oil discharge rate and gas passage area
In the rolling piston compressor, the gas refrigerant discharged from the
cylinder first enters the front cavity of the motor before entering the rear
cavity of the motor through the passages between the stator and the shell of
the compressor and passages between the stator and the rotor of the motor,
and finally is discharged out of the compressor through the discharge pipe.
In the case of the same gas flow rate, the cross-sectional area of the passage
determines the gas flow speed. The larger the cross-sectional area, the lower
the gas flow speed is and the smaller amount of lubricant oil is discharged out
of the compressor.
4. Method for reducing oil discharge rate
(1) Method for oil and gas separation
In the rolling piston compressor, the oil and gas are separated mainly via
mechanical collision which is a method of separating large diameter oil droplets
from gas by the gravity of oil droplets. Generally, oil droplets with diameter
greater than 1 µm can be effectively separated via mechanical collision.
5 3
FIGURE 3.32
Flow passages of gas refrigerant inside the compressor
1. The motor rear cavity; 2. The passage between the motor stator and the shell; 3.
The air gap between the stator and rotor of the motor; 4. The motor front cavity; 5.
The gap between the enameled wires of the motor stator; 6. The centrifugal device
for oil retaining
When the mechanical collision is used, the obstacles are set in the flow
direction of oil-gas mixture, so that the oil-gas mixture collides with the ob-
stacles. The oil-gas mixture will accumulate on the surface of the obstacles and
fall to the bottom of the oil sump under the act of gravity after collision. The
velocity of oil-gas mixture hitting the obstacle must be within a certain range
when the mechanical collision is in progress. The optimum impact velocity is
turned into densities of the gas refrigerant and lubricant oil. When the velocity
is too low, the oil droplets in the oil-gas mixture will flow around the obstacle
like gas flow, failing to gather on the surface of the obstacle. The oil droplets
collected on the surface of the obstacle will be taken away by the high-speed
gas and returned to the gas when the velocity is too high.
In the rolling piston compressor, oil and gas separation is achieved by
mechanical collision of the oil-gas mixture flowing in the hermetic shell. The
gas flow paths in the compressor are: the motor front cavity → motor channels
→ motor rear cavity → compressor discharge pipe, as shown in Figure 3.32,
the motor channels include the channel between the motor stator and the
shell, the air gap between the stator and rotor of motor, and the gap between
the enameled wires of the motor stator. The shape of the channel formed
between the motor enameled wires is complicated, and the reasonable design
of the cross-sectional area of the motor (mainly the channel between the motor
stator and the shell, and the cross-sectional area between the stator and rotor
of the motor) will have the flow speed controlled within a certain range, so
as to achieve oil and gas separation. The oil discharge rate of the compressor
can be controlled within 2% in most cases with this.
The flow rate of the oil-gas mixture increases when the compressor is op-
erating at a high frequency, the problems like excessive oil discharge rate may
appear with above mentioned methods. At this time, a centrifugal device for
oil retaining can be arranged on top of the crankshaft. As shown in Figure
3.32, the oil retaining device rotates along with the crankshaft, and the oil
droplets are horizontally thrown toward the motor winding and the inner wall
surface of the compressor shell by centrifugal force. Oil droplets on the surface
of these objects will join into larger oil droplets and fall into the oil sump.
For the rolling piston compressors with large displacement, a flow port
can be made on the motor rotor (as shown in Figure 3.33). After which, the
centrifugal device for oil retaining needs to be maintained at a position with
a certain distance away from the upper end surface of the rotor, as shown in
Figure 3.34. When the compressor is operating, the effective return passages
can be formed among the channels on the motor rotor, the oil retaining device,
and the passages between the motor stator and the shell to reduce the oil
discharge rate of the compressor. Most of the oil-gas mixture in the front cavity
of the motor flows to the rear cavity of the motor through the channels on the
motor rotor, and collides with the oil retaining device. Under the centrifugal
force of the oil retaining device, the oil droplets are separated and thrown to
the inner wall surface of the shell on which the droplets are attached and are
brought back to the front cavity of the motor by the gas refrigerant flown
back (via the passages between the motor stator and the shell) before being
returned to the oil sump.
(2) Method for discharge temperature controlling
When the two-stage compressor with variable volume ratio is heating at
low outdoor ambient temperature, the discharge temperature is much lower
than that of the single-stage compressor due to the presence of an interstage
5 2
FIGURE 3.33
Gas refrigerant flow passages inside the motor
1. Motor stator; 2. Motor rotor; 3. Channels on motor rotor; 4. Air gap between
stator and rotor of the motor; 5. Passage between the motor stator and the shell
5 1
FIGURE 3.34
Assembly structure of the oil retaining device with the additional channels on the
rotor
1. Motor rotor; 2. Channels on motor rotor; 3. Main counterweight; 4. Crankshaft;
5. Sub counterweight; 6. Centrifugal device for oil retaining
vapor injection process. Therefore, during the interstage vapor injection, it is

necessary to strictly control the state of the gas refrigerant and the discharge
temperature to avoid excessive oil discharge rate of the compressor due to the
low discharge temperature.
3.6.3 Oil return and controlling

The lubricant oil entered the cycling system along with the gas refrigerant
during the discharge process of a rolling piston compressor will flow back to
the compressor through the suction pipe. But in the actual cycling system,
the lubricant oil entered the system cannot all flow back to the compressor
for various reasons. If the system is operated for a long time, it may cause
compressor damage and oil shortage in the compressor. In addition, the ex-
cessive lubricant oil kept in the heat exchanger also lead to a decrease of the
heat transfer efficiency. Therefore, besides the controlling of the oil discharge
rate of the compressor itself, more measures need to be taken for lubricant oil
return to the compressor. In the air source heat pump system, there are two
major ways for oil return: setting oil-gas separator and oil return operation.
1. Oil-gas separator setting
In multi-connected units, due to the long piping system, it takes a certain
period of time for the lubricant oil entrained in the discharge gas of the com-
pressor to return to the compressor. Some of the lubricant oil is easily kept in
heat exchangers, pipes and other containers, as well as in the indoor unit that
is not operating, which will cause the oil level in the oil sump of the compressor
to drop and there will be no oil supply to the moving parts. In order to reduce
the amount of lubricant oil discharged out of compressor to participate in the
system cycling, it is necessary to install an oil-gas separator in the discharge
pipe to separate the lubricant oil from the gas refrigerant effectively, so that
the lubricant oil can return to the compressor in time through a special pipe.
In the oil-gas separator of the heat pump system, the methods like me-
chanical collision and the affinity coalescence are mainly used for oil and gas
separation. The affinity coalescence method is to make oil-gas mixture pass
through component made with special material, so that oil droplets with a
diameter less than 1 µm are first coalesced into larger diameter oil droplets
before being separated.
When the mechanical collision method is used to separate oil and gas in the
oil-gas separator, the obstacle can be either the wall of the oil-gas separator or
the mesh specially manufactured. Sometimes the two methods are combined,
that is, the mixture of oil and gas is firstly allowed to impact the wall of the
oil-gas separator before the mesh is used to further separate the oil and gas.
The mesh material is generally woven with stainless steel wire, which has the
advantages of simple fabrication, corrosion resistance and low price. At the
same time, the mesh has the function of self cleaning, and it does not need to
be cleaned or replaced for a long time.
The affinity coalescence method is mainly used to separate oil droplets
smaller than 1 µm, which consists of two processes like filtration and coa-
lescence. The component used for the separation is actually a porous filter
material. Before the oil-gas mixture flows into the filter, the oil droplets with
diameter larger than the pore diameter of the filter material are filtered out
on the surface of the filter. Then the small-diameter oil droplets entering the
inside of the filter material coalesce into large-diameter oil droplets on the
fibers of the material under the action of inertia force and are filtered out by
varying the shape and size of the inner flow passage of the filter material.
Obviously, the pore size of the filter material for the affinity coalescence will
determine the effect of oil and gas separation. The small-diameter oil droplets
will not be separated if the pore size is too large, on the other hand, the
pore diameter should not be too small. Due to the large-diameter oil droplets
filtered out will coalesce on the filter material, and the effective flow cross
section of the pore size of the material will become smaller, so that small-
diameter oil droplets can be separated. If the pore diameter is too small, not
only the flow resistance is increased, and a large pressure drop is generated,
but also a part of the oil will pass through the separator under the function
of the gas pressure difference.
At present, the filter material for affinity coalescence is mainly ultrafine
glass fiber, which has the advantages of good separation, long life and low
pressure drop. Through separation with affinity coalescence, the oil content in
gas can be reduced to (5–10) × 10−6 .
Most of the oil-gas separators of the air source heat pump system use
the mechanical collision method for oil and gas separation. Only the systems
suffering difficult oil returning will combine the affinity coalescence with the
mechanical collision. Generally, the oil-gas separator with mechanical collision
is called primary separator, and the separator with affinity coalescence is called
secondary separator.
2. Oil return operation
When the compressor operates at low frequency, although the lubricant oil
content in the gas discharged from the compressor is not high, the condensed
lubricant oil cannot flow back to the compressor because of the low gas flow
rate. Some of the lubricant oil is left in the condenser, evaporator and system
pipe. After long-term operation, the remaining lubricant oil accumulates more
and more. The solution is to increase the operating frequency of the compres-
sor and bring the lubricant oil back to the compressor by increasing the speed
of refrigerant flow.
In addition to the oil return problem caused by the low-frequency operation
of the compressor, for the complex air source heat pump system with the
multi-connected cycling system, the lubricant oil will be retained in the un-
started indoor unit and the pipe even if the compressor is operating at a
high frequency. The longer the operating time, the more lubricant oil will be
retained. Therefore, after operating for a period of time, it is necessary to
open the electronic expansion valve of the indoor unit that is not operating,
and bring the lubricant oil retained in it back to the compressor.
3.6.4 Hazard and control measures of liquid return

1. Hazard of liquid return
The following hazards will be resulted with the excessive liquid refrigerant
entering the compressor:
(1) The excessive liquid refrigerant entering the cylinder will trigger liquid
slugging, resulting in sudden increase of pressure in the cylinder, impacting on
the cylinder and discharge valve, and leading to sudden change of compressor
load. The severe condition will have discharge valve damaged, the bearing
wear aggravated, motor windings burned out and the inverter over-current
protected.
(2) Excessive liquid refrigerant falling into the oil sump will dilute the
lubricant oil, resulting in decrease of the viscosity of the lubricant oil, and
aggravation of the wear of the moving parts such as bearings.
(3) The liquid refrigerant fallen into the oil sump evaporates rapidly after
heat absorption, and the lubricant oil is atomized and discharged out of the
compressor. In severe conditions, it will lead to oil shortage in the oil sump
and cause oil-free lubrication.
(4) The pressure of the mixture of saturated refrigerant and lubricant oil
suddenly drops, the solubility of the mixture drops, and the liquid refrigerant
is precipitated to form flash vapor, which causes the mixture of refrigerant and
lubricant oil to boil violently when heating or defrosting is started resulting
in the oil shortage in the compressor due to lubricant oil outflow from the
compressor in a short time. The duration of the bubble is related to the amount
of refrigerant dissolved in the lubricant oil. The foaming phenomenon closely
relates to motor rotor, vane motion and liquid disturbance, and increases with
the increase of refrigerant dissolution in the lubricant oil.
2. Causes of liquid return
There are many reasons for liquid return to the compressor in air source
heat pump system, which can be roughly divided into the following cases:
(1) Liquid return during operation
1) Improper opening of the throttle expansion valve and improper instal-
lation of the temperature sensor etc. will cause excessive refrigerant flow rate,
and the liquid refrigerant returns to the compressor before being completely
evaporated in the evaporator.
2) Excessive refrigerant charge, resulting in excessive liquid refrigerant
after throttling.
3) The liquid refrigerant returns to the compressor due to poor evaporation
on the evaporation side (such as fan not operating, air flow path blockage etc.).
4) For various reasons, the interstage vapor injection is entrained with
liquid, and the liquid refrigerant enters the intermediate chamber of the com-
pressor and is sucked by the high-stage cylinder.
(2) Liquid return during shutdown
The liquid return during shutdown can be roughly divided into two cases:
the differential pressure return and the refrigerant migration return.
1) The differential pressure return

The liquid refrigerant in the condenser and the accumulator enters the
evaporator through the throttle device under the pressure difference between
the high-pressure side and the low-pressure side immediately after the com-
pressor is stopped. Since the evaporator has no heat exchange, the liquid re-
frigerant enters the gas-liquid separator of the compressor through the suction
pipe and enters the cylinder and the compressor shell.
2) The refrigerant migration
Because of the different temperatures in the cycling system of air source
heat pump, especially in the cold winter, the ambient temperature of the out-
door unit is lower than that of the indoor unit, so the pressure difference is
formed. When the compressor is shut down, the pressure difference between
the compressor and the indoor unit forces the liquid refrigerant that has not
evaporated in the indoor unit to migrate to the low-pressure compressor, and
the liquid refrigerant gradually accumulates in the oil sump at the bottom
of the compressor. Because the heating capacity of the compressor is larger
than those of the condenser, the evaporator, the gas-liquid separator, even
when the ambient temperature rises from night to day, the compressor tem-
perature is not easy to rise, and becomes the lowest temperature part of the
cycling system, so that the refrigerant migrates into it. Since the lubricant oil
can dissolve the refrigerant, the refrigerant accumulated in the compressor is
dissolved in the lubricant oil, so that the liquid level mixed with liquid refrig-
erant and lubricant oil rises, and the refrigerant-dissolving phenomenon due
to long-term shutdown is called refrigerant migration which is related to fac-
tors such as refrigerant charge, system downtime and ambient temperature.
When the migrated refrigerant is saturated, it takes approximately 30% to
100% amount of the lubricant oil charged.
The amount of refrigerant migration depends on the pressure and temper-
ature. With the increase of the pressure difference, the amount of refrigerant
migration increases. In the normal temperature range, the amount of refriger-
ant migration is the largest when the system reaches saturated temperature
and pressure.
When the refrigerant migrates, the cylinder at the bottom of the compres-
sor is surrounded by the mixed liquid of the lubricant oil and the refrigerant.
As the lubricant oil is diluted by the refrigerant, the viscosity decreases, and
it enters the cylinder through various clearances and accumulates in it. The
amount of mixed liquid of lubricant oil and refrigerant entering the cylinder
is related to the amount of refrigerant dissolved, and increases as the amount
of dissolved refrigerant increases.
With the increase of liquid refrigerant, in the low-temperature environ-
ment, liquid phase separation will occur to the liquid mixture in the compres-
sor oil sump, with the liquid refrigerant (more refrigerant, less mixed liquid
of refrigerant and lubricant oil) at lower part, and the lubricant oil (more
lubricant oil and less mixed liquid of refrigerant and lubricant oil) at the up-
per part. If the compressor is started under this condition, the oil pump will
supply the lubricant oil consisting almost only refrigerant to the bearings and
other moving parts, which is liable to cause wear. The liquid phase separation
is related to the types of refrigerant and lubricant oil.
For the two-stage compressor with variable volume ratio, after long-term
shutdown in winter, the liquid refrigerant moves into the intermediate chamber
of the compressor through the interstage vapor injection inlet in addition to
the compressor oil sump, and the liquid refrigerant gradually deposits in the
cylinder and the intermediate chamber. When the compressor is started, a
large amount of foam appeared and will quickly fill the gap between the cavity
in the cylinder and various friction pairs, thereby reducing the lubricity of the
lubricant oil.
When the compressor is restarted, the lubricant oil will be diluted so as to
deteriorate the lubrication, leading to the problem of liquid compression. As
shown in Table 3.5, the oil temperature superheat and oil viscosity of the oil
sump at the bottom of the compressor (the refrigerant is R-410A, the lubricant
oil is POE68) are measured after the compressor is started at −15◦ C ambient
temperature.
The test results shown in the Table 3.5 indicate that the dilution of lubri-
cant oil is obvious in the first 10 minutes after the startup of the compressor,
the viscosity of the lubricant oil is low, the oil temperature superheat is low,
and the oil gradually returns to normal after operating for 15 minutes.
(3) Liquid return during defrosting
1) When the four-way reverse valve is used for defrosting, the condenser
and evaporator are converted, and the liquid refrigerant in the original con-
denser enters the compressor. Due to the cessation of forced convective heat
transfer, a large amount of liquid refrigerant is stored in the evaporator, and
the liquid refrigerant will also enter the compressor during defrosting. The
condenser and evaporator are converted again, and a large amount of liquid
refrigerant enters the compressor at the end of defrosting.
2) A large amount of gas refrigerant condenses in the outdoor heat ex-
changer when hot gas bypass defrosting is in progress. If the frost layer is
thicker, with the progress of defrosting, the discharge temperature and the
suction superheat continuously decrease. The condensed gas-liquid two-phase
refrigerant returns to the gas-liquid separator of the compressor, which easily
causes a large amount of liquid refrigerant to enter the compressor.
(4) Liquid return during startup
The liquid refrigerant will return to the compressor quickly during startup
if the excessive liquid refrigerant is accumulated in the gas-liquid separator,
pipe and other parts due to migration or other reasons.
(5) Liquid return during interstage vapor injection
In the variable volume ratio two-stage air source heat pump cycling system
installed with a flasher, the gas refrigerant with intermediate pressure comes
from the flasher after throttling. With the increase of interstage vapor injection
pressure, the vapor injection quantity increases continuously, the refrigerant
quality after first-step throttling decreases, the quantity of flashed refrigerant
TABLE 3.5
Data of lubricant oil superheat and oil viscosity at the bottom of compressor when
startup at −15◦ C
Time 5min 10min 15min 20min 25min 30min
Discharge
1.4 1.9 2.15 2.168 2.168 2.168
pressure (MPa)
Saturation
temperature
corresponding to 18.5 30 35 37.11 37.11 37.11
discharge
pressure (◦ C)
Compressor oil
sump 13.5 29 38.7 42.7 43.9 44.7
temperature (◦ C)
Oil temperature
-5 -1 3.7 5.59 6.79 7.59
superheat (◦ C)
Refrigerant
>60 >60 48 32 30 30
solubility (%)
Mixture viscosity
- - 1.25 2.86 3.42 3.45
(cp)
Note: the sensor range is 1-10cp, - indicates that the viscosity is too low to exceed the
measurable range of the sensor.
in the flasher decreases. The liquid refrigerant will enter the intermediate
chamber when the quality of the refrigerant charged into the compressor is
getting smaller and smaller.
In addition, the discharge temperature decreases with the increase of the
interstage vapor injection pressure. At high vapor injection pressure, the
liquid-carrying rate of refrigerant sucked by the vapor injection port is large,
the liquid-carrying rate sucked by the high-stage cylinder is large, and the dis-
charge temperature even drops to the condensation temperature at excessive
interstage vapor injection pressure. Too much refrigerant will be dissolved in
the lubricant oil so that the lubricant oil is diluted when the discharge tem-
perature is drastically lowered.
3. Control measures
(1) Control of oil temperature superheat
1) Oil temperature superheat
The oil temperature superheat is a parameter reflecting the state of lu-
bricant oil in the compressor oil sump, which indirectly indicates the mutual
solubility of the lubricant oil and the refrigerant. The oil temperature super-
heat can be used to determine the physical properties of the refrigerant and
the lubricant oil after mixing, such as the change in the dissolved viscosity
and the cooling state of the mixture of lubricant oil and refrigerant.
The rolling piston compressor is a compressor with high-pressure shell,
and the compressor shell is filled with high-temperature and high-pressure
gas refrigerant discharged from the cylinder. If the saturation temperature
corresponding to the gas refrigerant pressure in the shell is higher than the
temperature of the compressor lubricant oil, part of the high-temperature and
high-pressure gas refrigerant will be condensed into liquid by the lubricant oil,
and mixed with the lubricant oil to dissolve the lubricant oil.
The oil temperature superheat refers to the difference between the actual
temperature of the lubricant oil inside the compressor and the saturation
temperature corresponding to the discharge pressure.
2) Relationship between oil temperature superheat and oil viscosity
The solubility characteristics of lubricant oil and liquid refrigerant are
related to oil temperature superheat.
Hereinafter, the POE68 and R-410A refrigerant are taken as an example to
illustrate the change of the viscosity of the lubricant oil after being dissolved
in the refrigerant, and the relationship between the oil temperature superheat
and the mutual solubility of the lubricant oil and the liquid refrigerant.
Figure 3.35 shows the mixture viscosity of the refrigerant and lubricant oil.
It can be seen from the figure that the viscosity of the lubricant oil is greatly
reduced after the refrigerant is dissolved, and the larger the proportion of the
dissolved refrigerant, the lower the dissolved viscosity of the mixture is; it can
also be seen that when the lubricant oil temperature is higher, the dissolved
viscosity is also lowered, so that the higher the temperature of the lubricant
oil, the more the superheat is required.
The solubility curves of POE68 and R-410A refrigerant at different tem-
peratures and pressures are shown in Figure 3.36 in which the horizontal axis
represents the refrigerant proportion in the oil-liquid mixture, and the ver-
tical axis represents the absolute pressure and the corresponding saturation
temperature of the gas refrigerant.
As can be seen from the Figure 3.36, the refrigerant solubility is 65%
when the superheat is 0◦ C, the refrigerant solubility is below 35% at 5◦ C, the
refrigerant solubility is below 30% at 10◦ C, and the refrigerant solubility is
below 25% at 20◦ C.
If the superheat of the oil-liquid mixture inside the compressor can be
controlled above 5◦ C, the proportion of lubricant oil will be controlled above
65%. The higher the temperature, the lower the dissolved viscosity of the
lubricant oil and the refrigerant mixture is, so the superheat requirement is
relatively high, and it is to be kept above 10◦ C. The dilution of the refrigerant
in the lubricant oil has a great negative impact on the lubrication of the oil.
Taking the compressor oil sump temperature at 100◦ C as an example, for every
10% increase in refrigerant solubility, the dissolved viscosity of the mixture
drops by about 40%.
FIGURE 3.35
Curves of the mixture viscosity between refrigerant and lubricant oil (POE68/R-
410A)
(Figure courtesy of JXTG Nippon Oil & Energy Corporation)
4.5
80ć 70ć
4.0 62
60ć
Saturated vapor temperature (ć

20ć
3.5 superheat 55
50ć
3.0 49
Pressure (Mpa)
10ć superheat 40ć

2.5 41
2.0 30ć 32
ć superheat
1.5 5ć superheat 21
1.0 7
0.5 -14
0.0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Refrigerant solubility (%)
FIGURE 3.36
Solubility curves of lubricant oils and refrigerants
(Figure courtesy of JXTG Nippon Oil & Energy Corporation)
In the rolling piston compressor, with the changes of discharge pressure

and the oil temperature superheat of the oil sump, the solubility of lubricant
oil and refrigerant in the compressor varies. The more the refrigerant is mixed
in the oil sump, the lower the dissolved viscosity, and the more detrimental to
the compressor reliability. Under certain pressure conditions, the proportion
of refrigerant dissolved is related to the temperature of the oil sump. The
higher the temperature of the oil sump, the smaller the proportion of refrig-
erant dissolved. Therefore, on the basis of determining the lowest oil viscosity
for reliable operation of the compressor, the controlling of the oil tempera-
ture superheat of the compressor oil sump ensures reliable operation of the
compressor. The minimum oil temperature superheat is related to the type of
refrigerant and the property of the lubricant oil. Generally, the oil temperature
superheat should be greater than 5◦ C.
3) Control of oil temperature superheat
In a two-stage compressor with variable volume ratio, both the suction
superheat and the interstage vapor injection superheat will affect the oil tem-
perature superheat.
In the actual air source heat pump system, it is difficult to ensure the su-
perheat of the interstage vapor injection. In most cases, the interstage vapor
injection contains a certain amount of liquid. At this time, the control of suc-
tion superheat is especially important. Therefore, in the two-stage air source
heat pump system with variable volume ratio, the oil temperature superheat
is mainly controlled by the controlling of the suction superheat.
(2) Compressor preheating
In an air source heat pump system used in a low-temperature environment,
it is generally required to wrap an electric heating belt on the outer shell of
the oil sump locating at the bottom of the compressor. When the outdoor
ambient temperature is low and the compressor stops operation, the electric
heating belt is turned on to heat the lubricant oil inside the compressor, so as
to increase the temperature of the lubricant oil and lower the viscosity. At the
same time, a large amount of liquid refrigerant accumulation in the compressor
shell can be avoided so that lubricant oil is not diluted. It also can prevent the
liquid refrigerant from stratifying the lubricant oil and quick bring-out of the
lubricant oil by the boiling liquid refrigerant when the compressor is started.
Therefore, in a low-temperature environment, the power supply cannot be cut
off after the air source heat pump stops operation, so as to ensure the heating
of compressor oil sump by the electric heating belt. When there is a long-term
power outage, the power supply of the air source heat pump system should be
turned on in advance before starting the compressor, so that the compressor
can be preheated for at least 4 hours before the normal startup operation.
In order to ensure safety, the compressor preheating time is preferably more
than 6 hours.
The power of the heating belt is related to the capacity of the compressor
and the ambient temperature at which it is operated. In a small air source heat
pump system, the power of the heating belt is usually 50–150W. The heating
belt with large power should be selected when the compressor capacity is large
or the ambient temperature is low.
(3) Reasonable design of gas-liquid separator

Generally, the suction port of the rolling piston compressor is directly con-
nected with the gas-liquid separator, which can effectively reduce probability
of the liquid refrigerant entering the cylinder and the compressor. Because
the two-stage compressor with variable volume ratio is mainly used in an
air source heat pump in the low-temperature environment, the liquid return
state under the low-temperature condition is worse than that at the normal
temperature, and the amount of liquid refrigerant returned to the gas-liquid
separator is larger. Therefore, the volume of the gas-liquid separator needs to
be increased accordingly.
In addition to the gas-liquid separator of the compressor, the air source
heat pump system charged with a large amount of refrigerant also needs an
auxiliary gas-liquid separator in the cycling system so to control the liquid
refrigerant return to the compressor through the suction pipe.
In the auxiliary gas-liquid separator, special attention should be paid to
the design of pressure equalizing ports. When the compressor stops operation,
a small amount of liquid refrigerant will flow from the evaporator to the aux-
iliary gas-liquid separator due to gravity through the connecting pipe. If the
liquid refrigerant level in the gas-liquid separator is above the oil return port,
the liquid refrigerant will flow through the oil return port into the suction pipe
and siphon into the compressor until the liquid refrigerant in the gas-liquid
separator is lowered to the position of the oil return port or the pressure in the
compressor is balanced with the pressure in the gas-liquid separator. Accord-
ing to the principle of pressure balance, a pressure equalizing port is arranged
on the suction pipe of the gas-liquid separator to avoid the liquid refrigerant
flowing into the suction pipe of the compressor. Since the pressure equalizing
ports can be set to balance the liquid column on both sides no matter whether
the compressor is in operation or shutdown, the liquid refrigerant in the U-
pipe can be effectively prevented from entering the compressor, as shown in
Figure 3.37.
In addition, after the pressure equalizing port is provided, although the
liquid column in the U-pipe rises immediately after the compressor starts to
operate, the liquid refrigerant rapidly evaporates and enters the compressor
in a saturated vapor state.
It is very important to design the size of the pressure equalizing port. If the
pressure equalizing port is too large, the effect of oil return will be worse due to
bypass. If the pressure equalizing port is too small, the pressure between the
compressor and the gas-liquid separator cannot be quickly balanced during
shutdown, the liquid refrigerant will migrate to the compressor. The ratio of
the diameter of pressure equalizing port to the diameter of oil return pipe in
gas-liquid separator should be less than 0.12. Usually, the diameter of pressure
equalizing port is set to 1.5mm or 2mm. The position of pressure equalizing
port is shown in Figure 3.37.
The size design of the pressure equalizing port needs to be verified by
experiments. During the test, sight glasses are installed on the gas-liquid
(a) Without pressure equalizing port
(b) With pressure equalizing port
FIGURE 3.37
Schematic diagram of pressure equalizing port and refrigerant migration
separator and the compressor to observe the liquid rising speed and level
inside the compressor after shutdown.
(4) Control of the pressure of interstage vapor injection
Strictly controlling the pressure of the interstage vapor injection is an
effective way to prevent the interstage vapor injection from carrying liquid.
In practice, the discharge temperature should be monitored to determine
whether there is a large amount of liquid in the interstage vapor injection.
When the discharge temperature superheat is less than the critical value, it
means that the interstage vapor injection is entrained with liquid.
In Figure 3.38, the relationship between the pressure of interstage vapor
injection and the discharge temperature of a certain type of compressor is
shown. It can be seen from the figure that when the superheat of the va-
por injection is less than 0◦ C, the discharge temperature decreases dramat-
ically. The corresponding discharge temperature at this point is called the
critical discharge temperature. If the temperature is higher than the critical
discharge temperature, the problem regarding vapor injection with liquid can
100
50
Temperature (ć)
0
Discharge temperature
Injected gas temperature
Injected gas superheat
-50
1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9
Intermediate pressure (MPa)
FIGURE 3.38
Discharge temperature, injected gas temperature and injected gas superheat vary
with intermediate pressure
be prevented. The pressure of interstage vapor injection has a corresponding

relationship with the discharge temperature. In the actual system, the pres-
sure of interstage vapor injection can be controlled by measuring the discharge
temperature, so as to avoid the problem like excessive liquid in the interstage
vapor injection.
(5) Control method during defrosting process
In the process of hot gas bypass defrosting, the refrigerant discharged from
the compressor is directly bypassed to the outdoor heat exchanger for defrost-
ing. The refrigerant from the outdoor heat exchanger is cooled and converted
to liquid and returned directly to the compressor without being evaporated.
In order to solve the liquid return problem, an auxiliary electric heating sleeve
device and a gas-liquid separator are added to the suction pipe of the com-
pressor, so that the liquid refrigerant is heated and vaporized through the
auxiliary electric heating sleeve before returning to the compressor. Then, the
gas refrigerant is returned to the compressor through the gas-liquid separator.
Since the power of the auxiliary electric heating is additionally increased, this
also solves the problem regarding the heat that cannot be absorbed from the
indoor side, where the defrosting heat is insufficient, and the defrosting speed
is slow.
The size selection of auxiliary electric heating power needs to match the
design according to the unit heat capacity. An unreasonably large size will
trigger negative effects, resulting in excessive suction temperature and in-
crease of the compressor load. Therefore, it is necessary to control the suction
temperature of the compressor.
4
Basic Principles of System Control
Huan Zhao, Hui Huang, Youlin Zhang
CONTENTS
4.1 Control Method of Throttling Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
4.1.1 Throttling control methods for the two-stage
compression one-step throttling interstage incomplete
cooling heat pump system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
4.1.2 Throttling control methods for the two-stage
compression two-step throttling interstage incomplete
cooling heat pump system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
4.2 Control Method of Compression Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
4.2.1 Control strategy in startup phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
4.2.2 Control strategy in operation phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
4.2.3 Defrosting operation control strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
4.2.4 Control strategy of oil return operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
The air source heat pump system using a triple-cylinder two-stage rolling pis-
ton compressor with variable volume ratio (referred to as two-stage compressor
with variable volume ratio) has many characteristics, such as many sampling
points and executing parts, complex operation modes, diversified system cycle
schemes, and wide applicable temperature range. The control of the system
is more complicated than that of the single-stage compression air source heat
pump system.
In general, the control system of the air source heat pump consists of three
parts: the feedback system, the control process and the control object. The
feedback system mainly contains temperature sensor, pressure sensor, pressure
switch and flow switch, which are used to monitor the operating parameters of
the air source heat pump system in real time. The control process analyzes the
system operation state of the air source heat pump according to the parame-
ters collected by the feedback system and the control setting parameters, and
sends out control instructions, which is the command center of the air source
heat pump. The control objects mainly contain compressor, four-way valve,
solenoid valve, electronic expansion valve (referred to as EEV), outdoor fan,
201
and indoor fan (or pump). According to the control instructions, the control
objects run, and the state of the system is changed, and then state feedback
is carried out through the feedback system to realize the system control of
the air source heat pump. The schematic diagram of the air source heat pump
control system using the two-stage compressor with variable volume ratio is il-
lustrated in Figure 4.1, and its basic composition and function module division
are shown in Figure 4.2.
As shown in Figure 4.2, the control object is divided into three modules:
the compression function module, the throttling function module and the heat
exchange function module. The compression function module mainly contains
compressor, four-way valve and solenoid valve (including variable volume ra-
tio control solenoid valve, oil-balancing solenoid valve and oil return solenoid
valve). The throttling function module contains first-step and second-step elec-
tronic expansion valve (or main and branched electronic expansion valve) and
vapor injection control solenoid valve, etc. The heat exchange function module
mainly contains indoor fan (or water pump) and outdoor fan.
returned air/water
FIGURE 4.1
Schematic diagram of the variable volume ratio two-stage compression air source
heat pump control system
The basic principles of variable volume ratio two-stage compression air

source heat pump system control are discussed in this chapter (different types
of systems with special control principles will be discussed in Chapter 6 and
Chapter 7), focusing on the differences in principle and control methods with
single-stage compression air source heat pump system, such as the throttling
control of the first-step and second-step throttling circuits, the frequency con-
trol and the volume ratio switching control of the two-stage compressor with
variable volume ratio, defrosting control, oil return control, etc. The control
principles of outdoor fan, indoor fan (or water pump) and four-way valve are
basically the same as those of single-stage compression air source heat pump
system, and are not discussed in this chapter.
Basic Principles of System Control 203
FIGURE 4.2
Control system composition and module division of the variable volume ratio two-
stage compression air source heat pump
4.1 Control Method of Throttling Module

Recall from Chapter 2, the two-stage compression air source heat pump cycle
can be divided into four cycle types according to the different throttling times
and interstage cooling modes: one-step throttling interstage complete cool-
ing cycle, one-step throttling interstage incomplete cooling cycle, two-step
throttling interstage complete cooling cycle and two-step throttling interstage
incomplete cooling cycle. The control method of throttling module varies with
the type of heat pump cycle.
Since the interstage mixing chamber of the two-stage compressor with
variable volume ratio is set inside the compressor and it is not suitable for
the interstage complete cooling cycle mode, this section mainly introduces
the throttling module control methods of the two cycle systems: the one-
step throttling interstage incomplete cooling cycle and the two-step throttling
interstage incomplete cooling cycle.
In addition, it is difficult to describe the working state of the throttling
module accurately in the process of volume ratio switching of the two-stage
compressor with variable volume ratio because the working state of the throt-
tling module is unstable; only the control method of the stable state of the
throttling module is introduced here. Therefore, the triple-cylinder operation
mode and the two-cylinder operation mode are not distinguished in the dis-
cussion.

sion one-step throttling interstage incomplete cooling
heat pump system
1. Characteristics of the two-stage compression one-step throt-
tling interstage incomplete cooling system
cooling cycle, the refrigerant passes through only one throttling device. The
cycle schematic and the pressure-enthalpy diagram are shown in Figure 4.3
and Figure 4.4, respectively.
Vapor injection branch 5 4

Condenser
Main
High-pressure
circuit
Branched electronic stage cylinder
expansion valve
Internal heat 3
5′ exchanger
Mixing
chamber
5″
2
6
Low-pressure
Main electronic stage cylinder
expansion valve
7
1
Evaporator
FIGURE 4.3
Two-stage compression one-step throttling interstage incomplete cooling cycle sys-
tem
As shown in Figure 4.3, the main electronic expansion valve and the
branched electronic expansion valve are connected in parallel to adjust the
refrigerant flow rate of the main circuit and the vapor injection branch, re-
spectively. The refrigerant is divided into a main circuit and a vapor injec-
tion branch at the outlet of the condenser (state 5). In the vapor injection
branch, liquid refrigerant enters the internal heat exchanger to absorb heat
and evaporate to gas refrigerant after being throttled and depressurized by
the branched electronic expansion valve. Then the gas refrigerant enters the
interstage mixing chamber of the compressor, mixed with the discharge gas
from the low-pressure stage cylinder of the compressor. The mixture enters the
lgp
6 5
4
2
5 5 3
1
7
FIGURE 4.4
Pressure-enthalpy diagram of two-stage compression one-step throttling interstage
incomplete cooling cycle
high-pressure stage cylinder at last. In the main circuit, the liquid refrigerant
enters the internal heat exchanger to release heat and is further subcooled. Af-
ter being throttled and depressurized by the main electronic expansion valve,
the refrigerant enters the evaporator to absorb heat and evaporate into gas
refrigerant, which is sucked by the low-pressure stage cylinder of the compres-
sor.
(1) The branched electronic expansion valve is turned off.
When the branched electronic expansion valve is turned off, the vapor
injection stops. The pressure in the interstage mixing chamber of the two-
stage compressor is defined as the critical intermediate pressure, expressed as
pFT 0 .
For the liquid refrigerant in the main circuit not further subcooled in
the internal heat exchanger, the state 5 in the system cycle coincides with
the state 6 regardless of pressure drop and heat leakage. At the same time,
the suction state point (state 3) of the high-pressure stage cylinder coincides
with the discharge state point (state 2) of the low-pressure stage cylinder
regardless of the pressure drop and heat leakage between the discharge of the
low-pressure stage cylinder and the suction of the high-pressure stage cylinder
of the compressor. Therefore, the pressure-enthalpy diagram of the cycle is
shown in Figure 4.5, which is similar to the single-stage compression cycle.
(2) The opening of branched electronic expansion valve is greater than the
valve’s close opening, and the superheat of injected vapor is greater than 0◦ C.
The superheat of injected vapor is defined as the difference between the
injected vapor temperature and the saturation temperature corresponding to
the intermediate pressure.
When the branched electronic expansion valve is turned on and the flow
area is small, the flow rate of injected vapor is small, and the superheat of the
injected vapor is large after passing through the internal heat exchanger, that
is, the injected vapor entering the interstage mixing chamber of the compressor
lgp
5,6
4
Vapor injection flow = 0

pFT0 2,3
6′
1
7
FIGURE 4.5
Pressure-enthalpy diagram without vapor injection
is in an superheated state (state 500). At this time, the superheat of injected

vapor is greater than 0◦ C, and the pressure-enthalpy diagram of the cycle is
shown in Figure 4.6.
lgp
6 5
4
5′ 5″
pFT0 2
3
1
7
FIGURE 4.6
Pressure-enthalpy diagram of cycle with superheated injected vapor
As the opening of the branched electronic expansion valve increases, the

flow rate of injected vapor increases. The intermediate pressure pFT gradu-
ally deviates from the critical intermediate pressure and approaches to the
condensation pressure at the same time. In the internal heat exchanger, the
refrigerant temperature difference between the main circuit and the vapor in-
jection branch decreases, the superheat of the injected vapor branch at the
outlet of the internal heat exchanger decreases, the two-phase heat transfer
area of the vapor injection branch increases, and the subcooling of the main
circuit increases.
On the other hand, as the key component of the system, the heat exchange
efficiency of the internal heat exchanger has a great influence on the system
parameters. When the superheat of injected vapor is greater than 0◦ C, the
phase state and temperature distribution of two refrigerant passes (the main
circuit and the vapor injection branch) in the internal heat exchanger are
shown in Figure 4.7. Since the heat exchange efficiency cannot reach 100%,
the outlet temperature T6 of the main circuit in internal heat exchanger is
higher than the saturation temperature T50 corresponding to the intermediate
pressure.
Refrigerant temperature of T
5
main circuit
Refrigerant temperature of T T6
5″
vapor injection branch
T5′
Superheated region Two phase region
T5″ T5′
Branched circuit
Main circuit
T5 T6
Liquid refrigerant Gas refrigerant
FIGURE 4.7
The schematic diagram of refrigerant phase state and temperature distribution in
internal heat exchanger with branched circuit outlet superheat
(3) The opening of branched electronic expansion valve is greater than the
valve closing degree, and the superheat of injected vapor is 0◦ C.
As the opening of the branched electronic expansion valve continues to
increase, the flow rate of the injected vapor continues to increase, and the
heat transfer temperature difference between the two sides of the internal
heat exchanger further decreases. When the superheat of injected vapor at
the outlet of the internal heat exchanger decreases to 0◦ C and the opening
of the branched electronic expansion valve continues to increase, the injected
vapor will carry liquid and the gas-liquid two-phase refrigerant will enter the
interstage mixing chamber of the compressor.
When the flow rate of the liquid refrigerant carried by the injected vapor
is small, the vapor and liquid injection (state 500) and the discharge of the low-
pressure stage cylinder (state 2) are mixed in the interstage mixing chamber of
the compressor to be the suction of the high-pressure stage cylinder (state 3),
which is still in the superheated zone. The system pressure-enthalpy diagram
is shown in Figure 4.8, that is, vapor injection with a little liquid refrigerant
will not affect the compressor.
As shown in Figure 4.9, when the flow rate of the liquid refrigerant carried
by the injected vapor is large, the vapor and liquid injection (state 500) and
the discharge of the low-pressure stage cylinder (state 2) are mixed in the
interstage mixing chamber of the compressor to be the suction of the high-

pressure stage cylinder (state 3), which is in the two-phase region. If a large
amount of liquid refrigerant is carried by the injected vapor, the high-pressure
stage cylinder of the compressor will experience wet compression, the lubricant
oil will be diluted by liquid refrigerant, the lubricating effect will be worse,
and the service life and performance of the compressor will be affected. It may
cause an irreversible wreck of the compressor in severe cases.
lgp
6 5
4
5′ 5″ 3
pFT0 2
1
7
FIGURE 4.8
Pressure-enthalpy diagram of cycle with vapor and small amount of liquid injection
lgp
6 5
4
5′ 5″ 3
2
pFT0
1
7
FIGURE 4.9
Pressure-enthalpy diagram of cycle with vapor and large amount of liquid injection
Some important parameters of the system varying with the opening of

the branched electronic expansion valve are shown in Figure 4.10. The outlet
temperature of the main circuit of the internal heat exchanger (state 6) shows
a trend of decreasing firstly, and then rising slowly, which is the lowest in the
transition region between the superheated vapor injection region and the vapor
injection with liquid region. When the outlet temperature of the main circuit
of the internal heat exchanger reaches its minimum temperature, the corre-
sponding specific cooling capacity is the largest, so the optimal performance
of the system is close to zero superheat of injected vapor (saturated gas).
With the increase of the opening of the branched electronic expansion

valve, the outlet temperature (state 500) of the vapor injection branch of the
internal heat exchanger is in line with the variation trend of the outlet temper-
ature of the main circuit. The discharge superheat of the high-pressure stage
cylinder decreases slowly first, then decreases rapidly after the high-pressure
stage cylinder experiencing wet compression, and the saturation temperature
corresponding to the intermediate pressure rises slowly.
Superheated Two-phase
vapor injection refrigerant
region injection region
45
40
35
30
Temperature (ć)
25
20
15
10 Outlet temperature of IHX branch

Saturation temperature corresponding to pFT
5 Discharge superheat of high-pressure cylinder
Outlet temperature of IHX main circuit
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
The opening of branched EEV (%)
FIGURE 4.10
Outlet temperature of IHX, intermediate saturation temperature, discharge super-
heat vary with the opening of the branched EEV
To sum up, in the control of the two-stage compression one-step throttling

interstage incomplete cooling system, the state of the injected vapor (state 500)
should be controlled in the superheated region and close to saturated state in
order to optimize the system performance and reliability.
2. The control method of electronic expansion valve for two-
stage compression one-step throttling interstage incomplete cooling
system
cooling system, the refrigerant flow of the evaporator and the internal heat
exchanger are respectively controlled by two electronic expansion valves in
parallel. In order to ensure complete evaporation of the refrigerant in the two
heat exchangers and prevent wet compression, the decoupling control of the
system is required. The principle of the control system is shown in Figure 4.11.
As can be seen from Figure 4.11, the control target of the main electronic
expansion valve is the suction superheat of the compressor, and the control
target of the branched electronic expansion valve is the superheat of injected
vapor of the compressor.
injected vapor
injected vapor
FIGURE 4.11
Schematic diagram of main and branched EEVs control system for two-stage com-
pression one-step throttling interstage incomplete cooling cycle
The variable of the EEV opening in the Nth cycle can be expressed as
∫ tn
∆P(n) = K p (en − en−1 ) + KI e(t)dt (4.1)
tn−1
The discretized form is

τ/τ
Õ0
∆P(n) = K p (en − en−1 ) + KI τ0 ei (4.2)
i=0
where ∆P(n) = control variable for the EEV opening of the Nth
control period
en = temperature deviation for the Nth cycle, ◦ C
K p = proportionality factor
KI = integral factor
τ = update cycle of the EEV opening, s
τ0 = integral discrete time, s
In the control of the main electronic expansion valve, the temperature de-
viation e is equal to ∆tsh − ∆tsh,0 , where ∆tsh is the actual suction superheat
feedback and ∆tsh,0 is the target suction superheat. The control method of
branched electronic expansion valve is the same as that of main electronic
expansion valve. The target suction superheat and the target superheat of
injected vapor are selected by region according to the system discharge tem-
perature td , as shown in Figure 4.12. In Figure 4.12, the curve of td and the
broken line form three regions A, B, and C, each zone is related to a different
target suction superheat and target superheat of injected vapor. In order to
ensure the stability of the control system, the discharge temperature entering
region B from region C is higher than the discharge temperature exiting from
region B to region C.
A
100ć
80ć
B
70ć
60ć
C
td
he target superheat
FIGURE 4.12
The selection of the target superheat
The target superheat of each region has a relationship of ∆tsh,0A <

∆tsh,0B < ∆tsh,0C . Similarly, the target superheat has a relationship of
∆tsh,i0A < ∆tsh,i0B < ∆tsh,i0C , where subscripts A, B, and C correspond to
three regions A, B, and C in Figure 4.12, respectively.

sion two-step throttling interstage incomplete cooling
heat pump system
1. Characteristics of the two-stage compression two-step throt-
tling interstage incomplete cooling heat pump system
Unlike the two-stage compression one-step throttling interstage incomplete
cooling heat pump system, two electronic expansion valves of the two-stage
compression two-step throttling interstage incomplete cooling heat pump sys-
tem are connected in series, and the refrigerant at the outlet of the condenser
passes through the first-step throttling and the second-step throttling in se-
quence. The system cycle schematic diagram and pressure-enthalpy diagram
are shown in Figure 4.13 and Figure 4.14, respectively.
As can be seen from Figure 4.13, the liquid refrigerant at the outlet of the
condenser is throttled and depressurized into gas-liquid two-phase refrigerant
by the first-step electronic expansion valve, and then enters the flash tank for
gas-liquid separation. After being throttled and depressurized by the second-
step electronic expansion valve, the separated liquid refrigerant from the flash
tank enters the evaporator to absorb heat. The liquid refrigerant evaporates
into gas refrigerant and then is sucked by the low-pressure stage cylinder of
the compressor. The separated gas refrigerant from the flash tank enters the
interstage mixing chamber of the compressor and is mixed with the discharge
gas of the low-pressure stage cylinder of the compressor. Then the mixture
gas is sucked in the high-pressure stage cylinder of the compressor.
5
Condenser
4
High-pressure
First-step electronic
stage cylinder
expansion valve
6
3
Flash tank Mixing
chamber
6″
2
Low-pressure
6′
Second-step electronic stage cylinder
expansion valve
7
1
Evaporator
FIGURE 4.13
Two-stage compression two-step throttling interstage incomplete cooling cycle sys-
tem
lgp
Mc
5 4
6′ xFT Mi 6″ 3
2
6
Me
1
7
FIGURE 4.14
Pressure-enthalpy diagram of two-stage compression two-step throttling interstage
incomplete cooling cycle
Assuming that the two-phase refrigerant after the first-step throttling is

completely separated into the gas and liquid refrigerant in the flash tank, the
system will go through four stages (vapor injection with liquid, normal vapor
injection, a little vapor injection and reverse flow) when the intermediate
pressure pFT of the system is adjusted from high to low. The system change
of the four stages is on the premise that the volume ratio of the high-pressure
stage and low-pressure stage cylinders of the compressor, the suction state of
the low-pressure stage cylinder and the outlet state of the condenser remain
unchanged, as described later.
For the convenience of analysis, the refrigerant quality xFT after the first-
step throttling and the compressor vapor injection ratio φi are defined respec-
tively as
Mi,g
xFT = (4.3)
Mc
And
Mi
φi = (4.4)
Mc
where Mi,g = mass flow rate of flashing saturated vapor after the first-step
throttling, kg/s
Mc = circulating mass flow rate of the condenser, kg/s
Mi = mass flow rate from the flash tank into the interstage mixing
chamber of the compressor, kg/s
In the four stages of the adjustment process of the intermediate pressure
pFT from high to low in the two-stage compression cycle system, the relation-
ship between the refrigerant quality xFT after the first-step throttling and the
compressor vapor injection ratio φi changes.
(1) The stage of vapor injection with liquid: xFT < φi
The vapor injection with liquid is caused by insufficient mass flow rate
of flashing saturated vapor after the first-step throttling and the liquid level
in the flash tank rises to the vapor injection port. With the increase of the
opening of the first-step electronic expansion valve, the intermediate pressure
increases, the specific volume of the suction of the high-pressure stage cylinder
decreases, the mass flow rate Mc of the suction of the high-pressure stage cylin-
der increases and the mass flow rate Me of the discharge of the low-pressure
stage cylinder remains unchanged. The mass flow rate Mi from the flash tank
into the compressor interstage mixing chamber increases, and the mass flow
rate Mi,g of flashing saturated vapor is less than Mi when the intermediate
pressure is close to the condensation pressure. On the other hand, with the
increase of the opening of the first-step electronic expansion valve, the sub-
cooling of the condenser outlet decreases or even becomes a two-phase state,
the refrigerant mass distribution in the system changes, the liquid level of the
flash tank becomes too high or even rises to the vapor injection port.
At the vapor injection with liquid stage, the liquid level in the flash tank
and the refrigerant state at the inlet and outlet of the flash tank are shown
in Figure 4.15, and the pressure-enthalpy diagram of the cycle is shown in

Figure 4.16.
Vapor injection (6 ):
Gas-liquid mixed
From first-step state To second-step
throttling outlet (6): throttling inlet (6 ):
Gas-liquid mixed Saturated liquid
state
FIGURE 4.15
Refrigerant state in flash tank under vapor and liquid injection conditions
lgp
5
4
6 2
6 6 3
7 1
FIGURE 4.16
Pressure-enthalpy diagram of cycle with vapor and liquid injection
At the vapor injection with liquid stage, a large amount of liquid refrigerant
enters the interstage mixing chamber of the compressor, causing the suction
superheat of the high-pressure stage cylinder of the compressor to be reduced
or even wet compression, so that the discharge superheat of the high-pressure
stage cylinder is reduced or even terribly low.
(2) The stage of normal vapor injection: xFT = φi
When the opening of the first-step electronic expansion valve is moder-
ate, the refrigerant level of the flash tank is between the liquid refrigerant
outlet and the vapor injection port and close to the liquid refrigerant out-
let. The saturated gas refrigerant enters the interstage mixing chamber of the
compressor through the vapor injection port, and the saturated liquid refrig-
erant enters the evaporator after being throttled and depressurized by the
second-step electronic expansion valve. Figure 4.17 shows the liquid level in
the flash tank and the refrigerant state at the inlet and outlet of the flash
tank, and Figure 4.18 shows the pressure-enthalpy diagram of the cycle.
Vapor injection (6″):

Saturated gas state To second-step
From first-step throttling inlet (6′):
throttling outlet (6): Saturated liquid state
Gas-liquid mixed
state
Vapor injection port
Saturated
gas Liquid level
Saturated
liquid
Liquid outlet
FIGURE 4.17
Refrigerant state in flash tank under normal vapor injection condition
lgp
5 4
6 6 3
2
6
1
7
FIGURE 4.18
Pressure-enthalpy diagram of cycle with normal vapor injection
(3) The stage of normal vapor injection: xFT > φi > 0

When the opening of the first-step electronic expansion valve is small and
the mass flow rate of the injected vapor is less than the mass flow rate of
the flashing saturated gas after the first-step throttling, the liquid level in
the flash tank will be equal to the liquid refrigerant outlet. One part of the
saturated gas flashed in the flash tank enters the interstage mixing chamber
of the compressor through the vapor injection port, and the other part is
mixed with liquid refrigerant and enters the second-step electronic expansion
valve through the liquid outlet. At this time, the liquid level in the flash tank
and the refrigerant state at the inlet and outlet of the flash tank are shown
in Figure 4.19, and the pressure-enthalpy diagram of the cycle is shown in
Figure 4.20.
liquid
FIGURE 4.19
Refrigerant state in flash tank under a little vapor injection condition
lgp
5 4
6′ 6″ 3
2
6
7 1
Δh h
FIGURE 4.20
Pressure-enthalpy diagram of cycle under a little vapor injection condition
At this point, the discharge superheat of the high-pressure stage cylinder

is high due to the small amount of injected vapor and the low intermediate
pressure.
Since the refrigerant charge of the heat pump system is fixed, it is difficult
to retain the state of xFT = φi under each working condition. Although the
system performance in the state of xFT > φi is lower than that in the state of
xFT = φi , but the reliability of the system can be ensured. Therefore, the state
of insufficient vapor injection is accepted in system control, and this state is
also a state of normal vapor injection.
(4) Reverse flow stage: φi < 0
FIGURE 4.21
Refrigerant state in flash tank under reverse flow condition
lgp
5 4
6 ,6
6 2,3
7 1
FIGURE 4.22
Pressure-enthalpy diagram of cycle with reverse flow
When the opening of the first-step electronic expansion valve is too small,
making the intermediate pressure lower than a certain pressure value, the
mass flow rate Mc of the suction of the high-pressure stage cylinder is reduced
while the mass flow rate Me of the discharge of the low-pressure stage cylin-
der is unchanged, resulting in Mc less than Me . At this point, a refrigerant
reverse flow phenomenon occurs in the vapor injection pipe, i.e., a part of
the superheated gas separated from the discharge of the low-pressure stage
cylinder flows into the flash tank through the vapor injection pipe. The liquid
level in the flash tank and the refrigerant state at the inlet and outlet of the
flash tank are shown in Figure 4.21, and the pressure-enthalpy diagram of the
cycle is shown in Figure 4.22.
2. Analysis of the reverse flow phenomenon of the two-stage com-
pression two-step throttling interstage incomplete cooling system
In the two-stage compression two-step throttling interstage incomplete
cooling system, when the suction state of the low-pressure stage cylinder is
unchanged, the pressure ratio ε LS of the low-pressure stage decreases with the
decrease of the intermediate pressure pFT , while the vapor injection ratio φi
decreases with the decrease of ε LS . When ε LS decreases to a certain value,
there is a state of φi = 0, and the pressure ratio of the low-pressure stage is
called the critical pressure ratio ε LS0 at this point, and the cycle state is called
the critical state. When ε LS < εLS0 and φi < 0, the reverse flow phenomenon
occurs in the system.
When xFT ≥ φi and the volumetric efficiency of the high-pressure stage
cylinder and low-pressure stage cylinder is assumed to be equal, i.e. ηv, H S =
ηv, LS , the ratio Rv of displacement of the high-pressure stage cylinder and low-
pressure stage cylinder of the two-stage compressor is equal to the volume ratio
Rc of the high-pressure and low-pressure stage cylinder volume, as shown in
Equation (2.56). According to the law of mass conservation, in the mixing
chamber of the compressor there is
Mi = Mc − Me (4.5)
Substituting Equations (2.53), (2.54), (2.56) and (4.5) into Equation (4.4),
the vapor injection ratio is expressed as
vsuc, H S
φi = 1 − (4.6)
Rc vsuc, LS
According to the above analysis, the vapor injection ratio φi under a spe-
cific working condition can be calculated. The calculation condition is that
the suction pressure psuc, H S of the low-pressure stage cylinder is 0.5MPa; the
suction superheat ∆tsh,sc is 3◦ C; the discharge pressure of the high-pressure
stage cylinder is 2.4MPa; the subcooling of the condenser outlet is 5◦ C; the
isentropic efficiency ηis, LS of the low-pressure stage cylinder is 1.0; The volume
ratios Rc are 0.4, 0.6, 0.8 and 1.0, respectively, and the refrigerant is R-410A.
The pressure ratio ε LS of the low-pressure stage is in the range of 1–6, and the
vapor injection ratio varying with the pressure ratio ε LS of the low-pressure
stage is shown in Figure 4.23.
From the calculation results, it can be seen that when the volume ratio
Rc of the compressor is constant, the vapor injection ratio φi decreases with
the decrease of the pressure ratio ε LS of the low-pressure stage. There are
different critical pressure ratios ε LS0 for different volume ratios Rc , and the
larger the volume ratio Rc , the smaller the critical pressure ratio ε LS0 is. When
the volume ratio is equal to 1, the critical pressure ratio of the low-pressure
stage is 1.
90
Volume ratio 1.0
80 Volume ratio 0.8
Volume ratio 0.6
Vapor injection ratio (%) 70
Volume ratio 0.4
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6
Pressure ratio of low-pressure stage
FIGURE 4.23
Vapor injection ratios vary with pressure ratio of low-pressure stage at various vol-
ume ratios
At the critical pressure ratio, when φi = 0, pFT = pFT 0 and Equation (4.6)
becomes
vsuc, H S = Rc vsuc, LS (4.7)
At this point, the suction of the high-pressure stage cylinder is all from
the discharge of the low-pressure stage cylinder, and the specific volume of the
discharge of the low-pressure stage is equal to the specific volume of the suction
of the high-pressure stage without considering the loss of the suction and
discharge processes and the process through the interstage mixing chamber of
the compressor, that is νdis, LS = νsuc, H S .
Therefore, according to Equation (4.7), when ηis, LS = 1, the critical inter-
mediate pressure pFT 0 can be determined by the intersection of the isentropic
line of S = Ssuc, LS and the isochore of ν = Rc νsuc, LS , as shown in Figure 4.24.
According to the isentropic compression equation of ideal gas, the pressures
and specific volumes of suction and discharge in low-pressure stage possess the
following relationship
κ κ
psuc, LS · vsuc, LS = pdis, LS · vdis, LS (4.8)
where κ = isentropic exponent

Combined with Equations (4.7) and (4.8), and given the definition of the
pressure ratio ε LS of the low-pressure stage, the following relationship between
the low-pressure stage critical pressure ratio and the volume ratio under the
isentropic compression of the low-pressure stage condition can be concluded

1
ε LS0 = Rc − κ (4.9)
Ssuc,LS
lgp
5,6
4
Vapor injection flow=0 Rcvsuc,LS
6ą
pFT0
2,3
vsuc,LS
psuc,LS
7 1
h
Isochore
Isentropic line
of cycle under critical

FIGURE 4.24
Pressure-enthalpy diagram of cycle under critical condition
Volume ratio 1.0

2.2 Volume ratio 0.8
Volume ratio 0.6
2
Critical pressure ratio
Volume ratio 0.4

1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
0.8
1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7
Isentropic exponent
FIGURE 4.25
Critical pressure ratio varies with isentropic exponent
Taking R-410A refrigerant as an example, the isentropic exponent of the

low-pressure stage compression in the system ranges from 1.3 to 1.7, and the
critical pressure ratios at different volume ratios are calculated in this range as
shown in Figure 4.25. It can be seen that as the volume ratio decreasing, the
variability of critical pressure ratio increases with the variation of isentropic
exponent.
In summary, the following conclusions can be drawn:

1) In the isentropic compression process of ideal gas, the relationship be-
tween the critical pressure ratio of the low-pressure stage and the volume
ratio is shown in Equation (4.9). When the volume ratio is not less than 0.6,
the critical pressure ratio of the low-pressure stage in isentropic compression
process is almost invariant.
2) When the volume ratio is constant, the smaller the pressure ratio ε LS
of the low-pressure stage, the lower the vapor injection ratio φi is; when ε LS
is smaller than the critical pressure ratio ε LS0 of the low-pressure stage, the
reverse flow occurs.
3) The smaller the volume ratio, the larger the critical pressure ratio of
the low-pressure stage is, the more likely the reverse flow phenomenon occurs.
4) When the volume ratio Rc is equal to 1, the critical pressure ratio ε LS0
of the low-pressure stage is 1, that is, the intermediate pressure, i.e., discharge
pressure of the low-pressure stage is equal to the suction pressure of the low-
pressure stage, and there is no reverse flow in theory.
3. Analysis of vapor injection with liquid in the two-stage com-
pression two-step throttling intermediate incomplete cooling system
(1) The variation trend of condenser outlet temperature with intermediate
pressure under ideal vapor injection condition
The ideal vapor injection state is that the quality xFT after the first-
step throttling equals the vapor injection ratio φi . At this point, the gas-
liquid refrigerant in the flash tank are completely separated. The saturated
gas enters the interstage mixing chamber of the compressor, while the satu-
rated liquid enters the second-step electronic expansion valve. The pressure-
enthalpy diagram of the cycle under ideal vapor injection condition is shown in
Figure 4.26.
lgp tc,out
5 4
6′ 6″ 3
pFT0 2
6
7 1
Constant quality line
FIGURE 4.26
Pressure-enthalpy diagram of cycle with ideal vapor injection
In the ideal injected vapor state of xFT = φi , when the compressor volume
ratio, suction state, isentropic efficiency of the low-pressure stage and con-
densation pressure are fixed, the intermediate pressure increases, the specific
volume of the suction of the high pressure stage decreases, and xFT increases,
which is shown by Equation (4.6). In combination with Figure 4.26, the con-
denser outlet temperature increases and the subcooling decreases.
By assuming the calculation conditions, taking R-410A refrigerant as an
example, the suction pressure of the low-pressure stage is 0.5MPa, the suction
superheat is 3◦ C, the isentropic efficiency of the low-pressure stage cylinder
is 0.7, the discharge pressure of the high pressure stage is 2.4MPa, and the
compressor volume ratio is 0.6. The calculated outlet temperature of the con-
denser in the ideal injected vapor state approximately linearly increases with
the intermediate pressure, as shown in Figure 4.27.
41
39
Condenser outlet temperature (ć)
37
35
33
31
29
27
25
1.06 1.08 1.1 1.12 1.14 1.16 1.18 1.2 1.22
Intermediate pressure (MPa)
FIGURE 4.27
Condenser outlet temperature varies with intermediate pressure under ideal injected
vapor condition
(2) Refrigerant mass distribution under ideal injected vapor condition

cooling heat pump system, the main components with large internal volume
are condenser, evaporator, flash tank, gas-liquid separator and compressor.
During the normal operation of the system, the refrigerant in the gas-liquid
separator and compressor is in gas state, which is a small proportion of the
refrigerant charge in the system, and the refrigerant is mainly distributed in
the condenser, evaporator and flash tank.
The schematic diagram of refrigerant mass distribution is shown in Fig-
ure 4.28. It shows that when the refrigerant charge is fixed, the greater the
subcooling, the larger the refrigerant mass proportion is (the ratio of the refrig-
erant mass inside the component to the total refrigerant charge of the system)
in the condenser, and vice versa. The smaller the quality of the second-step
throttling outlet xe,in , the larger the proportion of refrigerant mass in the
evaporator. The effect of the subcooling on the proportion of refrigerant mass

in the flash tank is analyzed below.
Condenser
lgp
Flash tank
Evaporator
Gas refrigerant h
Liquid refrigerant
FIGURE 4.28
Schematic diagram of refrigerant mass distribution
During normal operation of the system, the variation trend of the refrig-
erant mass ratio of the condenser with subcooling and the refrigerant mass
ratio of the evaporator with the evaporator inlet quality are shown in Figure
4.29 and Figure 4.30, respectively. In the system, with the increase of the
subcooling, the refrigerant mass ratio of the condenser gradually increases. As
the quality of the evaporator inlet increases, the refrigerant mass ratio of the
evaporator gradually decreases.
100
Refrigerant mass ratio (%)
0 max
Subcooling (ć)
FIGURE 4.29
Refrigerant mass ratio of condenser varies with subcooling
From the above analysis and Figure 4.28, it can be seen that when the
opening of the first-step electronic expansion valve increases and the interme-
diate pressure increases, the inlet quality of the evaporator increases, resulting
in the decrease of the refrigerant mass proportion of the evaporator. More-

over, the outlet temperature of the condenser increases and the subcooling
decreases when the condensation pressure is fixed, resulting in the decrease of
the refrigerant mass proportion of the condenser. Therefore, the proportion of
refrigerant mass in the flash tank increases.
FIGURE 4.30
Refrigerant mass ratio of evaporator varies with quality of evaporator inlet
In summary, if the gas-liquid refrigerant after the first-step throttling are

completely separated in the flash tank, when the volume of the flash tank is
large and the liquid level cannot rise to the vapor injection port, the vapor
injection with liquid will not occur in the system. However, when the volume
of the flash tank is small and the liquid level can rise to the vapor injec-
tion port, the vapor injection with liquid occurs in the system. When a large
amount of liquid refrigerant enters the interstage mixing chamber of the com-
pressor, it causes wet compression in the high-pressure stage cylinder. Thus
the compressor will be worn or even damaged.
4. Control method of electronic expansion valve of two-stage
compression two-step throttling interstage incomplete cooling sys-
tem
In a two-stage compression two-step throttling interstage incomplete cool-
ing system, the refrigerant flow rates of high-pressure and low-pressure stage
circuits are affected by the opening adjustment of the first-step electronic
expansion valve and the second-step electronic expansion valve. During the
operation of the system, the first-step and the second-step electronic expan-
sion valves need to be controlled cooperatively to ensure the reliability of the
system. The control strategy of the electronic expansion valves is shown in
Figure 4.31.
(1) Control method of the second-step electronic expansion valve
cooling system, the control target of the second-step electronic expansion valve
is the suction superheat of the compressor, and the control method is similar
to that of the main electronic expansion valve of the two-stage compression
vapor injection
℃ ℃
FIGURE 4.31
EEV control strategy of two-stage compression two-step throttling system
first-step throttling interstage incomplete cooling system. The control prin-

ciple of the second-step electronic expansion valve is shown in Figure 4.32.
FIGURE 4.32
Schematic diagram of second-step EEV control
(2) Control method of the first-step electronic expansion valve

Combined with the above analysis, the variation trend of key parameters
of the two-stage compression two-step throttling interstage incomplete cooling
system with the increase of the opening of the first-step electronic expansion
valve is shown in Figure 4.33. When the opening of the first-step electronic
expansion valve is too large, the phenomenon of the vapor injection with
liquid occurs easily. On the other hand, when the opening of the electronic
expansion valve with first-step throttling is too small, the reverse flow easily
occurs. Therefore, in the two-stage compression two-step throttling interstage

incomplete cooling system, the first-step electronic expansion valve needs to
be controlled to avoid reverse flow and vapor injection with liquid.
Discharge superheat
0
Ĭ
Subcooling
Ĭ
Vapor injection port
Liquid level of flash tank
Liquid outlet
Ĭ
0
Region of
Vapor injection mass flow normal
Ĭ vapor
injection
˄φ i<xFT˅
εLS=εLS0 Region of normal

Region of vapor
injection with
Intermediate pressure Reverse flow
vapor injection
˄φ i= xFT˅ liquid (φ i>xFT )
region
˄φ i<0˅
Min Opening degree of the first-step EEV Max
FIGURE 4.33
Key parameters vary with opening of first-step EEV
The first-step electronic expansion valve is an adopted bivariate control

method, in which the one-dimensional control parameter is the intermediate
pressure aimed at preventing reverse flow by retaining pFT > pFT 0 . The two-
dimensional control parameter is the subcooling aimed at preventing vapor
injection with liquid by retaining ∆tsc > ∆tsc,0 (target subcooling).
In the one-dimensional control, the variable of the opening of the electronic
expansion valve in the Nth cycle can be expressed as
∫ tn
∆P1 (n) = K P1 (en − en−1 ) + KI 1 e(t)dt (4.10)
tn−1

τ/τ
Õ0
∆P1 (n) = K P1 (en − en−1 ) + KI1 τ0 ei (4.11)
i=0
where ∆P1 (n) = one-dimensional control variable of the EEV opening

of the Nth control period
en = one-dimensional pressure deviation for the Nth cycle, Pa
K P1 = one-dimensional proportionality factor
KI1 = one-dimensional integral factor
τ = update cycle of the EEV opening, s
τ0 = integral discrete time, s
The control deviation is
e1 = pFT − (pFT 0 + ∆pFT ) (4.12)
where ∆pFT is a positive value. According to Equation (4.9), when the critical
intermediate pressure pFT 0 is equal to psuc, LS /Rc1/κ , the target value of the
one-dimensional control is psuc, LS /Rc1/κ + ∆pFT .
In the two-dimensional control, the variable ∆P2 (n) of the EEV opening in
the Nth cycle can be expressed as
∫ tn
∆P2 (n) = K P2 (bn − bn−1 ) + KI 2 b(t)dt (4.13)
tn−1

τ/τ
Õ0
∆P2 (n) = K P2 (bn − bn−1 ) + KI2 τ0 bi (4.14)
i=0
where ∆P2 (n) = two-dimensional control variable of the EEV opening of the
Nth control period
bn = two-dimensional control temperature deviation for the Nth
cycle, ◦ C
K P2 = two-dimensional control proportionality factor
KI2 = two-dimensional control integral factor
The control deviation is
b1 = ∆tsc − ∆tsc,0 (4.15)
where ∆tsc = actual subcooling

∆tsc,0 = target subcooling
The target subcooling ∆tsc,0 is selected by region according to the discharge
temperature of the system td . As shown in Figure 4.34, the change curve of
discharge temperature td and the broken line form three regions A, B and
C, and each region has a different target subcooling. In order to ensure the
stability of the control system, the discharge temperature from region C to

region B is higher than that from region B to region C. The relationship
between the target subcooling of each region is ∆tsc,0A < ∆tsc,0B < ∆tsc,0C ,
where subscripts A, B and C correspond to the three regions A, B and C in
Figure 4.34, respectively.
A
100ć
80ć
B
70ć
60ć
C
td
FIGURE 4.34
Selection of target subcooling
According to the bivariate control method, the opening variation of the

first-step electronic expansion valve in the control period is
∆P(n) = G1 ∆P1 (n) + G2 ∆P2 (n) (4.16)
where G1 = weighting coefficient of the intermediate pressure control

G2 = weighting coefficient of the subcooling control
G1ǃG2
G1 G2
1
0
0 pFT0 (Δtsc,0) pFT(Δtsc)
FIGURE 4.35
Weighting coefficient of bivariate control
With G1 + G2 = 1, the variations of the two weighting coefficients at

different intermediate pressures and different subcoolings are shown in Figure
4.35.
When the intermediate pressure pFT is close to the critical intermediate

pressure pFT 0 , the weighting coefficient G1 of the intermediate pressure con-
trol becomes larger and makes the pFT deviate from the pFT 0 . When the pFT
deviates from the pFT 0 and the actual subcooling ∆tsc approaches the target
subcooling ∆tsc,0 , the system is executed with the target subcooling control, so
the weighting coefficient G2 of the subcooling control becomes larger, and si-
multaneously the weighting coefficient G1 of the intermediate pressure control
becomes smaller.
(3) Emergency control
During the operation of the two-stage compression two-step throttling in-
terstage incomplete cooling system, the bivariate control method of the first-
step EEV is adopted to avoid reverse flow and vapor injection with liquid.
Under some extreme working conditions or external disturbances, when it is
not possible to adjust in time, the solenoid valve of vapor injection installed
on the vapor injection pipe must be forcibly turned off in order to prevent
reverse flow or vapor injection with liquid.
Taking the air source heat pump system using R-410A refrigerant as an
example, when the superheat of injected vapor is detected to be greater than
5◦ C, it can be judged to be in the reverse flow state; when it is detected that
the discharge superheat of the high-pressure stage is less than 10◦ C, it can
be judged that the system is in the state of vapor injection with liquid under
the condition that the suction superheat of the low-pressure stage is normal.
Therefore, when the superheat of injected vapor is greater than 5◦ C or the
discharge superheat of the compressor is less than 10◦ C, the vapor injection
valve is forcibly turned off.
(4) Startup control of vapor injection valve
6800
Compressor power (W)
6600
6400
6200
6000
Turn-on moment of Time (min)

vapor injection valve
FIGURE 4.36
Variation of compressor power before and after turning on vapor injection valve
When the vapor injection valve is turned on, gas or even liquid refrigerant
in the flash tank enters the high-pressure stage cylinder through the interstage
mixing chamber of the compressor, and the instantaneous increase of the mass
flow rate in the high-pressure stage cylinder causes a sharp rise of the compres-
sor load, which affects the stability of the compressor motor control. Figure
4.36 shows the variation of the compressor power at the moment when the
vapor injection valve is turned on in actual operation.
In order to avoid excessive injected vapor when the vapor injection valve is
turned on, before opening the vapor injection valve, the intermediate pressure
pFT is controlled to approach the critical intermediate pressure pFT0 , at this
point, the mass flow rate of injected vapor is close to zero, after the vapor
injection valve is turned on, a bivariate control method is adopted to adjust
the opening of the first-step EEV and makes the system operating in the
normal vapor injection state.
The control algorithm of the first-step EEV before the vapor injection
valve is turned on is as follows
∫ tn
∆P(n) = K P (en − en−1 ) + KI e(t)dt (4.17)
tn−1
τ/τ
Õ0
∆P(n) = K P (en − en−1 ) + KI τ0 ei (4.18)
i=0
where ∆P(n) is the control variable of the opening of the first-step EEV when
the vapor injection valve is turned off, and the control deviation e is pFT −pFT 0 .
After the control is carried out, no large amount of refrigerant flushes into
7000
Compressor power (W)
6500
6000
5500
Turn-on moment of Time (min)

vapor injection valve
FIGURE 4.37
Variation of compressor power after adjusting to target intermediate pressure
the interstage mixing chamber of the compressor when the vapor injection
valve is turned on, and as shown in Figure 4.37, the variation of compressor
power before and after the vapor injection valve is turned on. Compared with
Figure 4.36, the variation of compressor power is relatively gentle, realizing
the smooth operation of the system at the moment when the vapor injection
valve is turned on.
4.2 Control Method of Compression Module

The two-stage compressor with variable volume ratio has the functions of fre-
quency conversion, two-stage compression, vapor injection and variable vol-
ume ratio. Therefore, the control design of compression module needs to si-
multaneously consider such aspects as startup control, operating frequency
control, switching of the volume ratio, selection of vapor injection, selection
of compressor operation mode during defrosting and oil return operation. The
control flow chart of the variable volume ratio two-stage compression air source
heat pump system is shown in Figure 4.38.
Stop
Indoor unit on
System
abnormality
Startup control Restart & standby
System abnormality
abnormality
System
Indoor unit off
Cooling/Heating
operation
Yes
Oil return ? Oil return operation
No
No
Yes
Defrosting ? Defrosting operation
FIGURE 4.38
Control flow chart of heat pump system
4.2.1 Control strategy in startup phase

The variable volume ratio two-stage compression low temperature air source
heat pump system is suitable for wide outdoor ambient temperature range
(-35◦ C–20◦ C), and the state of lubricant oil and refrigerant in the compressor
is affected by the outdoor ambient temperature and compressor downtime.
Therefore, when the compressor is started, the corresponding startup control

strategy is adopted according to the outdoor environment temperature, the
duration of turnoff and other conditions. Generally, compressor startup is
divided into two modes, i.e. normal startup and flooded startup.
1. Normal startup
The normal startup mode refers to the heating startup mode when the
turnoff time is short or the outdoor ambient temperature is higher than −5◦ C,
and the control flow chart is shown in Figure 4.39.
No Pressure checkup
Stop pd-ps<0.3MPa ?
Four-way valve is
switched to heating Yes
mode Starting frequency 1
Shut off vapor
injection valve Starting frequency 2
Variable volume cylinder No

is switched to idle state pd-ps>0.6MPa?
Yes
Normal operation control
FIGURE 4.39
Control flow chart of normal startup mode
Before the compressor is started, the vapor injection valve is turned off
and the variable volume cylinder is switched to the idle state. In order to
reduce the load of the compressor and realize smooth startup when it starts,
it needs to check the pressure difference between the suction and discharge of
the compressor firstly and make sure that the pressure difference is less than
a certain value before starting the compressor.
The control sequence diagram of the compressor startup stage in normal
startup mode is shown in Figure 4.40.
After the compressor is started, the compressor operating frequency first
rises to the starting frequency 1 and runs for a period of time (to evaporate
the liquid refrigerant in the compressor), then rises to the starting frequency
2 and runs for a period of time (establishing the suction and discharge pres-
sure difference), and finally enters the normal operation stage. In the normal
operation stage, the compressor frequency is controlled according to the work-
ing conditions and system control requirements, as well as the vapor injection
control, variable volume ratio control, etc.
2. Flooded startup
After the outdoor unit is turned off for a long time in a low temperature
environment, a large amount of liquid refrigerant is accumulated inside the
pdis,HS -psuc,LS <0.3MPa pdis,HS -psuc,LS >0.6MPa

Frequency control
Compressor frequency (Hz)
Starting frequency2
+2Hz/s
Starting frequency1
+2Hz/s
Time (min)
Pressure checkup Starting Starting Normal control
first stage second stage
FIGURE 4.40
Sequence diagram of compressor startup stage in normal startup mode
compressor shell due to refrigerant migration or other factors. Liquid refrig-

erant is also stored in the interstage mixing chamber and cylinders of the
compressor. Starting the compressor at this time will cause the compressor to
wear out due to oil dilution or lack of oil, and may even cause liquid slugging
and damage the components of the compressor. In addition, due to the heavy
load under flooded startup condition, the instantaneous current may exceed
the protection current of the inverter, causing the compressor to fail to start
normally.
On the other hand, for a compressor driven by a permanent magnet syn-
chronous motor or a permanent magnet auxiliary synchronous reluctance mo-
tor using ferrite permanent magnets, when the temperature inside the com-
pressor is low, the demagnetization current of the permanent magnet de-
creases, and the current abnormally increases when the compressor fails to
start and the motor occurs out of step, leading to the risk of demagnetization
of the motor. Therefore, before starting the compressor, the liquid refriger-
ant inside the compressor must be discharged and the temperature inside the
motor must be raised.
An effective way to discharge the liquid refrigerant inside the compressor
shell is to directly heat the refrigerant. Due to the influence of low outdoor
temperature and the power limitation of the electric heater, the traditional
way of heating the compressor shell with the electric heater has limited ef-
fect on discharging liquid refrigerant inside the compressor and increasing the
internal temperature of the motor.
Practices have proved that in the variable speed compressor, the heating
of motor winding can effectively increase the temperature inside the motor,
and especially when the liquid level inside the compressor shell is high, the
liquid refrigerant inside the compressor shell can be quickly vaporized and
discharged from the compressor. The mode of heating first and then starting
is called the flooded startup .
The flooded startup mode can be divided into three stages. The first stage
is the motor winding heating; the second stage is the open-loop start; the third
stage is the normal startup.
(1) Heating of motor winding
The compressor motor winding positioning vector heating method is that
the current flows into the motor winding phase-by-phase when the inverter
compressor is stopped. The working principle is that current of I flows into
the A-phase winding of the motor, and B-phase and C-phase windings are
used as loops of current with −0.5I, and the magnetic field of the permanent
magnets of the rotor points to the A-phase winding. After heating for a while,
current of −I flows into the B-phase winding, A-phase and C-phase windings
are used as loops of current with 0.5I, and the magnetic field of the permanent
magnets of the rotor points to the B-phase winding. Similarly, after a while,
current of I flows into the C-phase winding, A-phase and B-phase windings are
used as loops of current with −0.5I, and the magnetic field of the permanent
magnets of the rotor points to the C-phase winding. The above process is
repeated to heat the compressor motor and the surrounding liquid refrigerant
evenly.
Heating cycle 1 Heating cycle 2 (Rotate 60°) Heating cycle 3 (Rotate 120°)
A-phase winding current=I A-phase winding current =0.5I A-phase winding current =-0.5I
Magnetic field
direction of rotor N S
N
permanent magnet S N
S
B-phase winding current =-I B-phase winding current=-0.5I

B-phase winding current =-0.5I
C-phase winding current =-0.5I C-phase winding current =0.5I C-phase winding current =I
Heating cycle 4 (Rotate 180°) Heating cycle 5 (Rotate 240°) Heating cycle 6 (Rotate 300°)
A-phase winding current =-I A-phase winding current =-0.5I A-phase winding current =0.5I
S N
S
N S
N
B-phase winding current =0.5I B-phase winding current =I B-phase winding current =0.5I
C-phase winding current =0.5I C-phase winding current =-0.5I C-phase winding current =-I
FIGURE 4.41
Current vector diagram of compressor motor winding positioning heating
The current vector diagram and current waveform diagram of the compres-
sor motor winding positioning heating are shown in Figure 4.41 and Figure
4.42, respectively.
(2) Open-loop starting
After the outdoor unit is turned off for a long time in a low temperature
environment, the interstage mixing chamber of the compressor is filled with
Vector positioning
Vector heating Vector heating
Cyclic heating
t
Figure 4.42 Current waveform diagram of compressor
FIGURE 4.42
Current waveform diagram of compressor motor winding positioning heating
liquid mixture of refrigerant and lubricant oil due to refrigerant migration

and other reasons, and the discharge valve seat is immersed in it. It is still
difficult to completely gasify and discharge the liquid refrigerant by ways of
the compressor motor winding positioning heating and the electric heater,
resulting in large resistance when the discharge valve of the low-pressure stage
cylinder is opened, leading to unstable current waveform of the motor or
failed startup when the compressor is started. This will only happen if the
compressor is started for the first time after standing still for a long time in a
low temperature environment.
The solution is open-loop starting for a short period of time (usually about
8 seconds) and then stopping the machine after discharging some refrigerant-
oil mixture from the interstage mixing chamber and the vapor injection buffer.
(3) Normal startup
After the above two startup stages, the normal startup process is initiated.
At this stage, although the liquid refrigerant in the compressor has reduced
greatly, it has not been completely eliminated and still has an impact on the
startup of the compressor. Therefore, the normal startup procedure is different
from the above conventional startup procedure.
Before starting the compressor, the vapor injection valve and the variable
volume cylinder control valve are turned off. After the compressor is started, it
operates in the two-cylinder operation mode and continues to operate for more
than 5 minutes. During this period, the liquid refrigerant in the interstage
mixing chamber of the compressor is further discharged. Then the compressor
speed is slowed down and switched to the triple-cylinder operation mode, and
the vapor injection valve is turned on, before entering the normal operation
control. If the triple-cylinder operation mode is switched quickly after start,
the liquid refrigerant accumulated in the interstage mixing chamber of the
compressor will cause a large discharge resistance of the low-pressure stage
cylinder and a large amount of liquid refrigerant sucked into the high-pressure
stage cylinder instantaneously, and the compressor may have a roar of 1-2 min
(sound pressure level over 70dB(A)). The sequence diagram of the compressor
normal starting of an air conditioner of air source heat pump type is shown
in Figure 4.43.
Frequency(Hz)
76Hz 76Hz
60s 60s
56Hz 56Hz
90s 90s
36Hz 36Hz
60s 10s 20s
5min Switch to triple-cylinder Time(s)
FIGURE 4.43
Sequence diagram of compressor normal starting
The purpose of running the two-cylinder operation mode for 5 minutes

after the compressor is started is:
(1) Establishing the pressure difference between the high and low pressure
for switching of the variable volume cylinder;
(2) Further discharging the liquid refrigerant mixture in the interstage
mixing chamber of the compressor.
4.2.2 Control strategy in operation phase

1. Normal operation control strategy
The operating frequency control principle of the variable speed compressor
is shown in Figure 4.44. The normal heating operation of the air source heat
pump system takes the condensation temperature as the control target, and
the cooling operation takes the evaporation temperature as the control target.
The target condensation (evaporation) temperature is determined by the

indoor environment temperature, set temperature, indoor unit capacity re-
quirements (the heat pump hot water unit is determined by the target outlet
water temperature), etc. The compressor operating frequency is adjusted ac-
cording to the heat (or cold) requirements, which is exactly the same as the
Target Actual
condensation KP condensation
(evaporation) + (evaporation)
temperature + e Δf Compressor temperature
frequency
control
- +
KIT/(1-Z-1)
FIGURE 4.44
Schematic diagram of compressor frequency control
operation control of the variable speed compressor of the conventional single-

stage compression air source heat pump system.
2. Selection of volume ratio
The volume ratio of variable volume ratio two-stage compression air source
heat pump system needs to be selected according to the actual working con-
ditions. As mentioned in Chapter 2, the volume ratio of the compressor is
designed according to the operation conditions of the air source heat pump
system, i.e., the different volume ratios correspond to the optimal working
range. Therefore, when the air source heat pump system is running, it is
necessary to select the volume ratio of the compressor according to the con-
densation temperature, evaporation temperature and compressor frequency,
that is, to select a triple-cylinder operation mode or a two-cylinder operation
mode.
TABLE 4.1
Two operation modes of the two-stage compressor with variable volume ratio
Two-cylinder Triple-cylinder
Mode
operation mode operation mode
Applicable condition Light load condition Heavy load condition
High-pressure stage cylinder Run Run
Low-pressure stage cylinder
Run Run
with fixed volume
Low-pressure stage cylinder
Unload Run
with variable volume
Working volume of
Vr ev, H S Vr ev, H S
high-pressure stage
Working volume of
Vr ev, LS1 Vr ev, LS1 + Vr ev, LS2
low-pressure stage
Vr ev, H S /(Vr ev, LS1 +
Volume ratio Vr ev, H S /Vr ev, LS1
Vr ev, LS2 )
Then, an air conditioner of air source heat pump type is described as an

example, and the other air source heat pump (chiller) unit can refer to this
method. The adaptive operation conditions of two operation modes of the
two-stage compressor with variable volume ratio are shown in Table 4.1.
(1) Selecting volume ratio according to condensation temperature and
evaporation temperature
In order to avoid unstable control caused by fluctuations of system param-
eters in the actual variable volume ratio two-stage compression air source heat
pump air conditioner, the volume ratio of the compressor can be determined
according to stable sampling parameters.
In the air source heat pump air conditioner, the indoor and outdoor ambi-
ent temperatures have a relatively stable corresponding relationship with the
system condensation temperature and evaporation temperature, which can
be used as the basis for selecting the triple-cylinder or two-cylinder opera-
tion mode of the compressor. Table 4.2 illustrates the selection method (since
the air conditioner of air source heat pump type has the cooling function at
the same time, the selection method of the volume ratio of the compressor
in cooling mode is listed in Table 4.3). Since factors such as volume ratio of
compressor and system configuration affect the selection of triple-cylinder or
two-cylinder operation mode, Tables 4.2 and 4.3 are for reference only and
should be modified according to the test results in practice.
TABLE 4.2
Selection of compressor operation mode in heating mode (unit: ◦ C)
TOut door 2
(−∞, −5] (−5, 2] (2, 6] (6, 10] (10, +∞)
T I ndoor 1
Triple- Triple- Triple- Triple- Two-
(−∞, 10]
cylinder cylinder cylinder cylinder cylinder
Triple- Triple- Triple- Two- Two-
(10, 20]
Triple- Triple- Two- Two- Two-
(20, +∞)
1 Indoor ambient temperature;
2 Outdoor ambient temperature.
(2) Selecting volume ratio according to the operating frequency

When the room thermal load is small and the compressor is running at low
frequency, the heating coefficient of performance (COP) of the two-cylinder
operation mode is higher than that of the triple-cylinder operation mode. In
fact, with the variation of heat demand, there is a crossing point in the curves
of heating COP in the triple-cylinder operation mode and the two-cylinder
operation mode. Therefore, when the operating frequency of the compressor
is lower than a certain value, it is necessary to switch to the two-cylinder
operation mode and vice versa. For different air source heat pump systems,
it is necessary to determine the operating frequency range of the compressor
with the optimal COPs of the two modes by experiments.
TABLE 4.3
Selection of compressor operation mode in cooling mode (unit: ◦ C)
TOut door 2
1
(−∞, 24] (24, 30] (30, 38] (38, 44] (44, +∞)
T I ndoor
Two- Two- Two- Two- Triple-
(30, +∞)
Two- Two- Two- Triple- Triple-
(20, 30]
Two- Two- Triple- Triple- Triple-
(−∞, 20]
1 Indoor ambient temperature;
2 Outdoor ambient temperature.
Under the condition that the condensation temperature remains un-

changed, the operating frequency range of two modes can be obtained through
experiments. The heating frequency range of the two-stage compressor with
variable volume ratio in two operation modes of a certain model of air condi-
tioner of air source heat pump type is shown in Figure 4.45.
100
90 Upper limit of two-cylinder operation

Compressor operating frequency (Hz)
80 Upper limit of
triple-cylinder operation
70
60
50
40 Lower limit of two-cylinder operation

30
Lower limit of
20 triple-cylinder
operation
10
0
-35 -30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Outdoor ambient temperature (ć)
FIGURE 4.45
Heating frequency range of the two-stage compressor with variable volume ratio in
two operation modes
In order to avoid continual switching between the two modes of operation,

a certain frequency range needs to be set on both sides of the switching line
as a stable operation range.
(3) Flow chart of selecting operation mode

According to the above analysis, the flow chart of the operation mode
selection method is shown in Figure 4.46.
FIGURE 4.46
Flow chart of compressor operation mode selection
3. Control method of volume ratio switching

(1) Volume ratio switching
As mentioned in Chapter 3, the two-stage compressor with variable vol-
ume ratio can switch to triple-cylinder mode, by passing high-pressure gas
refrigerant from the compressor discharge into the upper part of the sliding
pin, which overcomes the spring force to slide out of the limiting port of the
vane of the low-pressure stage variable volume cylinder under the action of
the pressure difference, the vane of the variable volume cylinder contacts the
surface of the rolling piston, and the variable volume cylinder restores the
function of gas compression, finally realize the triple-cylinder operation mode.
Therefore, in the initial stage of start, the compressor operates in the
two-cylinder operation mode, and the two-cylinder operation mode can be
switched to the triple-cylinder operation mode only after a certain pressure
difference of the high and low pressure is formed. The actual test results show
that the pressure difference between high and low pressure needs to be greater
than 0.3MPa for the switching of the above operation modes.
(2) Equivalent displacement switching of compressor
The influence on system parameters when switching between the two op-
eration modes is shown in Figure 4.47.
In order to avoid the instability of the system caused by sudden changes in
the displacement of the low-pressure stage cylinders when the volume ratio is
switched, the displacement of the low-pressure stage cylinders should be made
DisplacementĘVolume ratioĖ
Triple–cylinder Two–cylinder
operation operation
mode DisplacementĖ Volume ratioĘ mode
FIGURE 4.47
Influence of operation mode switching on system parameters
equal by frequency adjustment around the switching. That is
fL Vr ev, LS1 = fH (Vr ev, LS1 + Vr ev, LS2 ) (4.19)
where fL = operating frequency of the compressor at large volume ratio, Hz

fH = operating frequency of the compressor at small volume ratio, Hz
Let A = (Vr ev, LS1 + Vr ev, LS2 )/Vr ev, LS1 and define fe as the equivalent fre-
quency i.e. the frequency corresponding to equivalent displacement, that is
fe = fL = A fH (4.20)
where A is the equivalent coefficient in the triple-cylinder operation mode and
the equivalent coefficient in the two-cylinder operation mode is 1.
TABLE 4.4
Frequency of equivalent displacement (unit: Hz)
Actual operating frequency
Target frequency of
Two-cylinder Tripler-cylinder
equivalent displacement
operation mode operation mode
fe fe /1 fe /A
0 0 0
20 20 13.3
24 24 16
28 28 18.6
32 32 21.3
36 36 24
40 40 26.6
··· ··· ···
When setting the compressor frequency, the equivalent frequency should be

taken as the control target instead of the actual frequency. Assuming an equiv-
alent coefficient of 1.5 in the triple-cylinder operation mode, the equivalent
frequency can be set and selected according to Table 4.4. Switching between
the triple-cylinder operation mode and the two-cylinder operation mode in the
same equivalent frequency can minimize the impact of the sudden variation
of the compressor displacement on the system.
In addition, when the volume ratio is switched, the sudden variation of the
compressor volume ratio will also lead to the sudden variation of the refriger-
ant gas pressure in the compressor interstage mixing chamber, resulting in the
instantaneous variation of the injected vapor, generating the instantaneous in-
crease of the injected vapor or the instantaneous reverse flow in the interstage
mixing chamber, which will have an impact on the load of the compressor
motor, the compressor and the vibration of the pipes. In order to avoid the
sudden variation of the injected vapor state caused by the compressor volume
ratio switching, the vapor injection valve is turned off before the volume ratio
switching.
The solenoid valve of vapor injection is turned off in the two-stage com-
pression system with flash tank, while the electronic expansion valve of the
vapor injection branch is turned off in the two-stage compression system with
internal heat exchanger. The control sequence diagram of compressor volume
ratio switching is shown in Figure 4.48.
ON
Vapor injection
valve
OFF
fe
Actual operating
frequency
fe/A
Triple-cylinder
operation mode
Two-cylinder
operation mode
FIGURE 4.48
Sequence diagram of compressor operation mode switching
4.2.3 Defrosting operation control strategy

There is no essential difference of the defrosting method between the variable
volume ratio two-stage compression air source heat pump system and the
conventional single-stage compression air source heat pump system. There are
also the reverse-cycle defrosting method and the hot-gas bypass defrosting
method, etc. However, the variable volume ratio two-stage compression air
source heat pump system possesses its own particularity in defrosting control
due to its functions of two-stage compression, variable volume ratio and vapor
injection.
1. Reverse-cycle defrosting control
As mentioned in Chapter 1, the reverse-cycle defrosting method has the
advantages of simplicity and convenience, without adding additional pipes and
control devices, and has been widely used in air source heat pump systems.
Therefore, most of the variable volume ratio two-stage compression air source
heat pump systems adopt the reverse-cycle defrosting method.
When the indoor heat exchanger is a refrigerant-air heat exchanger, the
operation of the indoor fan and the outdoor fan should be first stopped during
defrosting. The heat required to defrost is mainly generated by the compressor
power, while a small amount of heat is from the absorbing room heat by the
indoor heat exchange. The defrosting time is relatively long.
When the indoor heat exchanger is a refrigerant-water heat exchanger,
the heat required for defrosting comes from the compressor power and the hot
water heat in the indoor heat exchanger. Due to the large heating capacity
of water, the heat absorbed from the hot water for defrosting will not have
much impact on the indoor temperature. Meanwhile, in order to prevent the
refrigerant-water heat exchanger from freezing and cracking during defrost-
ing, the water pump system works normally during defrosting, so that the
defrosting time is shorter than that of the refrigerant-air heat exchanger.
In the case of defrosting, the defrosting time can be reduced by 20%–30%
in the triple-cylinder mode compared with the two-cylinder mode. However,
a large amount of liquid refrigerant enters the gas-liquid separator during de-
frosting, and if the liquid level in the gas-liquid separator is higher than the
suction port or gas and liquid refrigerant cannot be completely separated, a
large amount of liquid refrigerant will enter the low-pressure stage cylinder
of the compressor, resulting in a sharp increase of the load of the compres-
sor motor, which may cause the compressor to be out of step or overcurrent
protection, and the compressor shuts off consequently. Meanwhile, the revers-
ing process of the four-way valve during reverse-cycle defrosting also leads
to the deterioration of the system operation stability. Therefore, when the
reverse-cycle defrosting method is adopted, the two-cylinder operation mode
is generally adopted and the vapor injection valve is turned off.
The control flow chart for reverse-cycle defrosting of the variable volume
ratio two-stage compression air conditioner of air source heat pump type (the
water pump of the air source heat pump (water chiller) unit runs continuously
during defrosting) is shown in Figure 4.49, and the sequence diagram for the
operating frequency of the two-stage compressor with variable volume ratio
during reverse-cycle defrosting is shown in Figure 4.50.
Enter defrosting program
Operation mode
checkup
Triple-cylinder operation mode Two-cylinder operation mode
Turn off vapor injection valve Turn off vapor injection valve
Switch to the two-cylinder Turn off fans of

operation mode indoor and outdoor
Stop and restart
Enter defrosting process
Defrosting ends
FIGURE 4.49
Control flow chart of reverse-cycle defrosting of variable volume ratio two-stage
compression air source heat pump
Frequency(Hz)
Frequency2
Frequency1
Until the end of Time(min)

0.5min 2~3min
defrosting
FIGURE 4.50
Sequence diagram of operating frequency of two-stage compressor with variable vol-
ume ratio during reverse-cycle defrosting
2. Hot-gas bypass defrosting

When hot-gas bypass defrosting is used, a gas-liquid separator with a large
volume needs to be installed on the suction side of the compressor to prevent
and reduce liquid refrigerant from entering the low-pressure stage cylinder of
the compressor.
As the same as the reverse cycle defrosting, the hot-gas bypass defrosting is
generally performed in a two-cylinder operation mode without vapor injection.
The flow chart of the hot-gas bypass defrosting of the variable volume ratio
two-stage compression air conditioner of air source heat pump type is shown
in Figure 4.51.
Enter defrosting program
Operation mode
checkup
Triple-cylinder operation mode Two-cylinder operation mode
Turn off vapor injection Turn off vapor injection

valve valve
Switch to two-cylinder Turn off fans of the

operation mode indoor and outdoor
Turn on bypass valve
Defrosting ends
FIGURE 4.51
Flow chart of the hot-gas bypass defrosting of the variable volume ratio two-stage
compression air source heat pump
3. Problems and solutions in defrosting

During defrosting of the variable volume ratio two-stage compression air
source heat pump system, the compressor shutoff due to overcurrent protection
of the compressor inverter module occurs occasionally, which mainly occurs in
the early defrosting period (within 1.5min to 3min since the defrost begins). If
the liquid level of the gas-liquid separator is higher than the suction port inside
the gas-liquid separator or the gas and liquid cannot be completely separated,
a large amount of liquid refrigerant will carry the lubricant oil into the low-
pressure stage cylinder of the compressor, which will increase the load of the
compressor. If the low-pressure stage cylinder sucks too much lubricant oil,
the lubricant oil can be easily accumulated in the interstage mixing chamber,
causing an increasing mechanical resistance when the discharge valve of the
low-pressure stage cylinder is turned on.
To solve the above problems, the following methods can be adopted:
1) The volume of the gas-liquid separator of the compressor should be
suitable, and the structure of the filter should be reasonable to prevent a
large amount of refrigerant-oil mixture from being directly sucked into the
suction pipe. For the air source heat pump system with large internal volume
for refrigerant, an auxiliary gas-liquid separator should be added to store the
refrigerant-oil mixture.
2) The position and size of the interstage mixing chamber of the compressor
should be placed properly for accommodating a small amount of refrigerant-oil
mixture.
3) At the beginning of defrosting, reduce the increase speed of the operat-
ing frequency of the compressor and the opening of the electronic expansion
valve, to prevent large amount of refrigerant-oil mixture from entering the
low-pressure stage cylinder of the compressor in a short time.
4.2.4 Control strategy of oil return operation

The air source heat pump system should adopt a proper control strategy of oil
return operation to bring the lubricant oil accumulated in system components
such as heat exchangers and pipes back to the compressor.
1. Basic requirements for oil return operation
There is an amount of two-phase refrigerant or subcooled liquid in the
condenser, evaporator and the connecting pipe between the condenser and
evaporator; at this point the lubricant oil and liquid refrigerant are mutually
soluble, so that the lubricant oil flows with the liquid refrigerant. However,
in the refrigerant superheated region of the suction pipe, discharge pipe, con-
denser and evaporator, lubricant oil adheres to the inner wall of the pipe and
has a high viscosity, making it difficult to flow with gas refrigerant.
When the interfacial friction force between the gas refrigerant and the
lubricant oil is greater than the maximum static friction force between the
lubricant oil and the inner wall of the pipe, the lubricant oil can flow with the
gas refrigerant under the action of the gas-liquid shear stress, and the gas-
liquid interfacial shear stress between the gas refrigerant and the lubricant oil
is related to the flow speed of the gas refrigerant. It is generally believed that
the lubricant oil can flow with the gas refrigerant when the flow speed of the
gas refrigerant in the horizontal tube reaches 5m/s and the flow speed of the
gas refrigerant in the vertical tube reaches 10m/s.
Reducing the superheat of the refrigerant at the evaporator outlet is bene-
ficial to the oil return in the refrigerant superheated region in the evaporator.
2. Oil return cycle
The oil return cycle is related to the operating frequency of the compressor,
the length of the connecting pipe, the height difference between indoor and
outdoor units, the efficiency of the oil separator, the type of heat pump and
other factors.
The connecting pipe of the minitype air source heat pump is generally
short and oil return is relatively easy. However, for systems with large heating
capacity and long connecting pipe, such as variable refrigerant flow (VRF)
multi-split heat pump, the mass flow rate of the refrigerant at the lowest
operating frequency of the compressor is small, and the flow speed of the
refrigerant in the system is low, so it is almost impossible to return oil. On
the other hand, the air source heat pump system has a low oil discharge rate at
low frequency operation and the unit with large capacity is usually equipped
with an oil separator, so that the oil discharge rate through the oil separator
is even lower. Therefore, the oil return cycle of the heat pump system needs
to be designed according to the operating frequency of the worst oil return
situation.
The cycle of oil return operation depends on the reduction speed of the
lubricant oil of the compressor. There are different oil return cycles for different
systems.
During normal operation, when the compressor frequency is low, the flow
speed of the refrigerant is low so that it is difficult to return oil. The lubricant
oil is gradually accumulated to the low-pressure side until a balance between
oil discharge and oil return of the compressor is formed. The lower the oper-
ating frequency of the compressor and the efficiency of the oil separator, the
shorter the time to reach balance, and the easier it is to cause the compres-
sor running with little lubricant oil. Therefore, it is necessary to start the oil
return operation before the compressor is short of oil.
In summary, the oil return cycle is determined by the refrigerant flow speed,
the oil discharge rate of the compressor, the efficiency of the oil separator and
the system experiment.
3. Oil return runtime
The oil return runtime is the duration of the oil return process. The control
system must ensure that the sufficient lubricant oil return to the compressor
through the oil return operation. The cycle time of the refrigerant in the
VRF multi-split heat pump along the system is related to the length of the
connecting pipe and the flow speed of the refrigerant, while the cycle time
of lubricant oil is relatively long, which is a very important parameter for
designing a reasonable oil return runtime.
For the VRF multi-split heat pump, the oil return of the cooling operation
is relatively difficult, so the cooling operation of the system is taken as an
example. During the oil return process, lubricant oil stored in the indoor side
needs to be brought back into the compressor through the flow of refrigerant.
When performing oil return control, the electronic expansion valves of all
indoor units will be turned on. For the indoor units that are not turned on by
the user, the electronic expansion valves are also forcibly turned on, but the
indoor fans are not turned on. The electronic expansion valves of the off-duty
indoor units forcibly are turned on directly affects the oil return runtime. If the
oil return runtime is too short, it will be difficult for the lubricant oil to return
to the compressor in time, but if the time is too long, the compressor will suck
more liquid refrigerant, which will affect the reliability of the compressor.
The selection of the operating frequency of the compressor for oil return
must ensure that the minimum flow speed of the refrigerant mentioned above
is met. In practice, a reasonable margin should be considered to ensure the
oil return effect, and the compressor operating frequency for oil return should
be increased as much as possible. The higher the compressor operating fre-
quency, the better the oil return effect is and the lower the suction pressure of
the system is. For the VRF multi-split heat pump, the higher the compressor
operating frequency for oil return, the more liquid refrigerant is sucked into
the suction side when only some of indoor units operate. Therefore, in the
process of product design, it is necessary to determine the amount of liquid
refrigerant flooding back that can be taken in the system according to the
effective volume of the gas-liquid separator. The compressor operating fre-
quency for oil return should be considered according to the test conditions,
and the oil return runtime should be appropriately extended.
4. Other problems in oil return process
(1) Requirements for pressure difference
The pressure difference between high pressure and low pressure in the
oil return process should be kept to a certain value to overcome the flow
resistance and to meet the minimum flow speed of the refrigerant for oil return,
which is considered from many aspects such as the compressor displacement,
the compressor load and the size of the gas returning pipe of the unit. The
larger the size of the gas returning pipe, the greater the required compressor
load. However, if the displacement or load is too large, other problems will
arise: first, too much liquid returned back into the compressor during the oil
return period will have the lubricant diluted, so that the lubrication among
the moving parts inside the compressor will be deteriorated, which easily leads
to the compressor operation failure during the oil return period. Meanwhile,
it is not conducive to leaving the returned lubricant oil inside the compressor;
second, the suction pressure is too low and the pressure ratio increases during
the system oil return. These problems can affect the normal operation of the
compressor.
(2) Discharge temperature control
The phenomenon of too high a discharge temperature and too much liq-
uid refrigerant flooding back should be avoided in the oil return process. If
the discharge temperature is too high, the viscosity of the lubricant oil will
decrease and the lubrication will be deteriorated, and the thickness of the oil
film will also decrease. Too much liquid refrigerant flooding back leads to an
increase in the oil discharge rate inside the compressor, and the liquid refrig-
erant boiling and vaporizing in the compressor will have more lubricant oil be
discharged from the compressor.
If the discharge temperature is too high, the opening of the electronic
expansion valve of the indoor unit will need to be adjusted, which easily
leads to liquid refrigerant flooding back. Therefore, the compressor operating
frequency for oil return and the opening of the electronic expansion valve need
to be considered comprehensively in the design of the control logic.
5
Optimization Analysis of Low Temperature
Air Source Heat Pump System
Xiangfei Liang, Hui Huang
CONTENTS
5.1 Optimization Analysis of Electronic Expansion Valve . . . . . . . . . . 250
5.1.1 General mass flow rate correlation of electronic
expansion valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
5.1.2 Optimization of first-step and second-step electronic
expansion valves for two-stage compression two-step
throttling cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
5.1.3 Optimization of main and branched electronic
expansion valves for two-stage compression one-step
throttling cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
5.2 Optimization Analysis of Heat Exchanger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
5.2.1 Analysis of refrigerant thermophysical property . . . . . . . . 259
5.2.2 Simulation analysis of fin-and-tube heat exchanger . . . . . 261
5.3 Optimization Analysis of Suction Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
A low temperature air source heat pump system, using a triple-cylinder two-
stage rolling piston compressor with variable volume ratio (referred to as two-
stage compressor with variable volume ratio), can work and show better eco-
nomic efficiency at the outdoor ambient temperature of as low as −35◦ C. Com-
pared with the conventional single-stage compression air source heat pump
system, the low temperature air source heat pump system with variable vol-
ume ratio two-stage compression two-step throttling interstage incomplete
cooling cycle has the following differences:
1) In the two-stage compression two-step throttling interstage incomplete
cooling cycle, the throttling pressure drop shared by each stage is significantly
smaller than that of the conventional single-stage compression cycle; in the
two-stage compression one-step throttling interstage incomplete cooling cycle,
the branched throttling pressure drop and the branched mass flow rate are also
significantly smaller than the conventional single-stage compression system.
249
2) The evaporation temperature of a low temperature two-stage compres-

sion system is significantly lower than that of conventional single-stage com-
pression system, which causes great differences in thermophysical properties
of refrigerants in low pressure side such as gas density and liquid dynamic
viscosity with conventional single-stage compression system.
3) During the heating operation, the refrigerant is further subcooled be-
fore entering the outdoor heat exchanger (evaporator), thus inlet quality and
enthalpy of refrigerant in the evaporator are significantly reduced. The mass
flow rate of refrigerant is reduced at the same as the heat exchange capacity.
4) At a low outdoor ambient temperature, the displacement of compressor
in the triple-cylinder operation mode is greatly increased compared with the
conventional single-stage compression air source heat pump system. The mass
flow rate of refrigerant is remarkably increased.
Therefore, component design and selection of an air source heat pump
system using a two-stage compressor with variable volume ratio is of certain
difference from that of a conventional single-stage compression air source heat
pump system.
This chapter will analyze these differences and their influencing factors to
provide design guidance for a variable volume ratio two-stage compression air
source heat pump system.
5.1 Optimization Analysis of Electronic Expansion Valve

5.1.1 General mass flow rate correlation of electronic expan-
sion valve
The general mass flow rate correlation of the electronic expansion valve (EEV)
is
M = CD A 2ρ∆p
p
(5.1)
where M = mass flow rate of refrigerant, kg/s
A = flow cross section area of EEV, m2
ρ = inlet density of refrigerant, kg/m3
∆p = throttling pressure drop, Pa
CD = flow coefficient
For the flow coefficient CD of refrigerant, there is no empirical correla-
tion with high prediction accuracy. Here, the Wile empirical correlation with
experimental correction factor is applied, that is
√
CD = k c (0.02005 ρ + 0.634ν) (5.2)
where ν = specific volume of outlet two-phase refrigerant

k c = experimental correction factor, for R-22, R-410A and R-32,
k c = 1.1–1.2
Low Temperature Air Source Heat Pump System 251
The flow cross section area of the EEV can be calculated according to the
structural parameters of the valve body. The flow cross section area of an EEV
with an ideal conical valve head as shown in Figure 5.1 is expressed as follows
h sin α α
A = πh(D − ) sin (5.3)
2 2
where A = flow cross section area of EEV, mm2
h = valve head lift of EEV, mm
α = valve head taper angle of EEV
D = inner diameter of valve seat of EEV, mm
α
r
h
FIGURE 5.1
Schematic diagram of flow passage for electronic expansion valve with conical valve
head
The head lift of EEV (axial displacement from valve closing to valve open-
ing) can be expressed as n
n − n0
h=H (5.4)
N − n0
H H = valve head maximum lift of EEV, mm n
where
n = number of pulseN
n0 = valve closing pulse number
N = valve full opening pulse number
When the flow cross section area A of the EEV is known, the expression
corresponding to the number of pulses of EEV can be obtained from the
Equation (5.3) and Equation (5.4), that is
p
D sin (α/2) − D2 sin2 (α/2) − 2A sin α sin (α/2)/π
n = n0 + (N − n0 ) (5.5)
H sin α sin (α/2)
5.1.2 Optimization of first-step and second-step electronic

expansion valves for two-stage compression two-step
throttling cycle
In the two-stage compression two-step throttling interstage incomplete cooling
cycle heat pump system, the pressure drop shared by the first-step and second-
step EEVs will be significantly lower than that of the conventional single-
stage compression heat pump system. Therefore, under the same operating
TABLE 5.1
Flow cross section area of EEV for variable volume ratio two-stage compression
two-step throttling heat pump system with a rated heating capacity of 4 kW
R-410A R-410A R-134a R-134a R-32 R-32
te 0 -30 0 -30 0 -30
Rv 0.8 0.4 0.8 0.4 0.8 0.4
qm,c 200.3 231.1 182.2 198.8 308.6 367.5
tFT 17.11 10.29 14.14 3.42 16.55 11.06
xFT 0.203 0.247 0.198 0.264 0.159 0.187
xe,in 0.122 0.236 0.097 0.200 0.094 0.197
Mc 71.9 62.3 79.0 72.4 46.7 39.2
Me 57.3 46.9 63.4 53.3 39.3 31.9
ρ1 980.6 980.6 1147.9 1147.9 896.3 896.3
v1 0.0047 0.0066 0.0092 0.0168 0.0052 0.0068
dp1 1397.7 1635.8 684.9 829 1456.1 1652.6
CD,1 0.725 0.727 0.788 0.794 0.694 0.695
ρ2 1096.6 1127.1 1246.5 1283.4 994.9 1015.7
v2 0.0048 0.0233 0.0074 0.0457 0.0051 0.0265
dp2 535.1 827.4 182.2 246.5 525.6 868.8
CD,2 0.767 0.791 0.820 0.859 0.731 0.754
A1 0.526 0.420 0.703 0.581 0.366 0.288
A2 0.606 0.381 1.008 0.685 0.462 0.280
Note: te , evaporation temperature, ◦ C; R v , volume ratio of compressor; qm, c , specific

heating capacity, kJ/kg; tF T , intermediate temperature, ◦ C; x F T , quality after first-step
EEV; x e, i n , quality after second-step EEV; Mc , mass flow rate of first-step EEV, kg/h;
Me , mass flow rate of second-step EEV, kg/h; ρ1 , inlet density of first-step EEV, kg/m3 ;
v1 , outlet specific volume of first-step EEV, m3 /kg; dp1 , pressure drop of first-step EEV,
kPa; C D,1 , flow coefficient of first-step EEV; ρ2 , inlet density of second-step EEV, kg/m3 ;
v2 , outlet specific volume of second-step EEV, m3 /kg; dp2 , pressure drop of second-step
EEV, kPa; C D,2 , flow coefficient of second-step EEV; A1 , flow cross section area of
first-step EEV, mm2 ; A2 , flow cross section area of second-step EEV, mm2
conditions and at the same heating capacity, the flow cross section area of
each step of the EEV will be larger than that of the conventional single-stage
compression heat pump system.
Take the two-step throttling interstage incomplete cooling heat pump cycle
using a two-stage compressor with variable volume ratio as an example. When
the subcooling is 5◦ C, the evaporation temperature and volume ratio are as
shown in Table 5.1 (other parameters are the same as Table 2.2), and the
rated heating capacity of heat pump is 4 kW, the flow cross section areas of
the first-step and the second-step EEVs are calculated according to Equation
(5.1). The calculation results are listed in Table 5.1, where the correction
factor k c in Equation (5.2) is 1.15.
As shown in Table 5.1, when the evaporation temperature is 0◦ C and
−30◦ C, the flow cross section areas of the first-step and the second-step EEVs
are relatively close for the same refrigerant. However, when the refrigerant is
different, the flow cross section areas of the EEVs differ considerably due to the
difference in pressure drop and thermophysical properties. For example, the
flow cross section areas of the first-step and the second-step EEVs of R-134a
are obviously larger than those of R-410A and R-32, wherein the system with
R-32 has the smallest flow cross section areas.
The structural parameters of the three EEVs with conical valve head are
listed in Table 5.2. The flow cross section area of the corresponding EEV can
be obtained by the Equation (5.3) and Equation (5.4). The variation of flow
cross section area with the pulse number is shown in Figure 5.2.
TABLE 5.2
Structural parameters of EEV with conical valve head
D(mm) α(◦ ) H(mm) n0 N
EEV1 1.3 10 2.5 50 500
EEV2 1.6 10 2.5 50 500
EEV3 2 13 2.5 50 500
By substituting the flow cross section area in Table 5.1 into Equation (5.5),
the pulse numbers of the EEVs 1, 2 and 3 corresponding to R-410A, R-134a
and R-32 are calculated in turn. The calculation results of the evaporation
temperatures of 0◦ C and −30◦ C are listed in Tables 5.3 and 5.4, respectively.
As can be seen from Tables 5.3 and 5.4, the EEVs 1, 2 and 3 are suitable for
the R-32, R-410A and R-134a heat pump systems, respectively.
For comparison, the calculation results of the flow cross section area of the
EEV of the single-stage compression air source heat pump with a rated heating
capacity of 4 kW are shown in Table 5.5. In addition, the flow cross section
areas of the first-step and second-step EEVs of the two-stage compression
two-step throttling interstage incomplete cooling cycle air source heat pump
system calculated in Table 5.1 is compared with that of the EEVs of single-
stage compression heat pump system. The results are listed in Table 5.5.
254 Heat Pumps
ć for Cold Climate Heating
1.8
1.6 EEV 1
Flow cross section area (mm2)

1.4 EEV 2
EEV 3
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0 100 200 300 400 500
Pulse number
60
410A
FIGURE 5.2 134a
Flow cross section area of -32
EEV with conical valve head varies with pulse number
TABLE 5.3
Pulse number of first-step and second-step EEVs at evaporation temperature of 0◦ C
R-410A R-134a R-32
First- Second- First- Second- First- Second-
step step step step step step
EEV1 349 403 471 - 250 308
EEV2 282 321 370 ć - 208 252
EEV3 189 212 239 329 145 172
TABLE 5.4
Pulse number of first-step and second-step EEVs at evaporation temperature of
−30◦ C
R-410A R-134a R-32
First- Second- First- Second- First- Second-
step step step step step step
EEV1 282 259 386 458 204 200
EEV2 233 215 309 361 173 169
EEV3 160 150 204 234 125 123
From Table 5.5, the flow cross section areas of the first-step and second-step
EEVs of the two-stage compression two-step throttling interstage incomplete
cooling cylce heat pump are larger than those of the EEV of the single-stage
compression heat pump with the same heating capacity.
TABLE 5.5
Flow cross section area of EEV for single-stage heat pump system with rated heating
capacity of 4 kW
Refrigerant
R-410A R-410A R-134a R-134a R-32 R-32
Condensation
45 45 45 45 45 45
temperature (◦ C)
Outlet subcooling
5 5 5 5 5 5
of condenser (◦ C)
Evaporation
0 -30 0 -30 0 -30
temperature (◦ C)
Specific heating
202.9 240 182.9 202.3 311.8 378.2
capacity (kJ/kg)
Quality after EEV 0.3042 0.4376 0.284 0.4355 0.2388 0.3526
Mass flow rate
70.97 60.00 78.73 71.18 46.18 38.08
(kg/h)
Inlet density of
980.6 980.6 1147.9 1147.9 896.3 896.3
EEV (kg/m3 )
Outlet specific
volume of EEV 0.0107 0.0424 0.0202 0.0988 0.0115 0.0467
(m3 /kg)
Pressure drop of
1932.8 2463.2 867.1 1075.5 1981.7 2521.4
EEV (kPa)
Flow coefficient of
0.730 0.753 0.796 0.853 0.699 0.724
EEV
Flow cross section
area of single-stage 0.439 0.318 0.616 0.466 0.308 0.217
EEV (mm2 )
Flow cross section
area ratio of
1.199 1.319 1.141 1.246 1.188 1.325
first-step EEV to
single-stage EEV
Flow cross section
area ratio of
1.381 1.196 1.637 1.469 1.499 1.289
second-step EEV to
single-stage EEV
5.1.3 Optimization of main and branched electronic expan-

sion valves for two-stage compression one-step throt-
tling cycle
Two-stage compression one-step throttling interstage incomplete cooling
cycle (referred to Figure 2.7) and two-stage compression two-step throttling
interstage incomplete cooling cycle (referred to Figure 2.9) are widely applied
to engineering practice. In the two heat pump cycle systems under ideal op-
erating conditions(no heat transfer temperature difference, no pressure drop
in the heat exchanger and complete separation of gas and liquid in the flash-
tank), the suction, discharge and intermediate pressures of the one-step throt-
tling cycle shown in Figure 2.7 are the same as those of the two-step throt-
tling cycle shown in Figure 2.9. The mass flow rate of the refrigerant flowing
through the branched EEV and the main EEV in the one-step throttling cy-
cle obey the Equation (2.34) and the Equation (2.36), respectively, where the
entrainment ratio E = 0. Because the mass flow rate of refrigerant flowing
through the condenser in two-step throttling cycle is the same as that flow-
ing through the first-step EEV, the mass flow rate of the refrigerant flowing
through the second-step EEV also satisfies Equation (2.36) where the entrain-
ment ratio E = 0. Therefore, when the heating capacity is the same, the ideal
one-step throttling cycle and the two-step throttling cycle have the following
similarities:
1) The state of the inlet and outlet refrigerants of the branched and main
EEVs in one-step throttling cycle are the same as those of the first-step and
second-step EEVs in two-step throttling cycle, respectively, except for the
inlet pressure of the main and the second-step EEVs. According to Equation
(5.2), the flow coefficient and the inlet refrigerant density in Equation (5.1)
are correspondingly identical between the above two systems;
2) The throttling pressure drop of the branched EEV in the one-step throt-
tling cycle corresponding to Equation (5.1) is the same as the throttling pres-
sure drop of the first-step EEV in two-step throttling cycle;
3) The refrigerant mass flow rate of the main EEV in the one-step throt-
tling cycle is the same as that of the second-step EEV in the two-step throttling
cycle.
However, the following differences exist:
1) The throttling pressure drop of the main EEV in one-step throttling
cycle is the sum of the throttling pressure drops of the first-step and the
second-step EEVs in the two-step throttling cycle;
2) The refrigerant mass flow rate of the branched EEV in the one-step
throttling cycle is equal to that of the first-step EEV in the two-step throttling
cycle multiplied by the first-step throttling quality (flash quality).
From the above analysis, combined with Equation (5.1) and Equation
(2.34), it can be deduced that when the heating capacity is constant, under
ideal operating conditions, the ratio of the flow cross section area of branched
EEV in the one-step throttling cycle to the flow cross section area of the
first-step EEV in the two-step throttling cycle is equal to the first-step throt-
tling quality (flash quality). In addition, the ratio of the flow cross section
area of the main EEV in the one-step throttling cycle to the that of the
second-step EEV in the two-step throttling cycle is equal to the square root
of the ratio of the second-step throttling pressure drop to the total throttling
pressure drop.
Taking the variable volume ratio two-stage compression one-step throt-
tling interstage incomplete cooling heat pump cycle as an example, the flow
cross section areas of the branched and main EEVs of heat pump system are
calculated as described above. The results are listed in Table 5.6. The rated
heating capacity of heat pump is 12kW and other calculation conditions are
the same as Table 5.1. When calculating, firstly the flow cross section areas
of the branched and main EEVs in one-step throttling cycle with the rated
heating capacity of 4kW are calculated referred to Table 5.1; then, accord-
ing to the Equation (5.1), the flow cross section area of the EEV of one-step
throttling cycle of 12kW is converted.
TABLE 5.6
Flow cross section area of EEV for variable volume ratio two-stage compression
one-step throttling heat pump system with rated heating capacity of 12 kW
R-410A R-410A R-134a R-134a R-32 R-32
Evaporation
0 -30 0 -30 0 -30
temperature (◦ C)
Volume ratio of
0.8 0.4 0.8 0.4 0.8 0.4
compressor
Mass flow rate of
branched EEV 43.8 46.2 46.9 57.4 22.3 22.0
(kg/h)
Mass flow rate of
171.9 140.8 190.2 159.9 117.7 95.6
main EEV (kg/h)
Pressure drop of
1397.7 1635.8 684.9 829 1456.1 1652.6
branched EEV (kPa)
Pressure drop of
1932.8 2463.2 867.1 1075.5 1981.7 2521.4
main EEV (kPa)
Flow cross section
area of branched 0.320 0.311 0.417 0.460 0.174 0.161
EEV (mm2 )
Flow cross section
area of main EEV 0.956 0.663 1.386 0.984 0.712 0.492
(mm2 )
Similarly, the selection design of EEV can be processed after calculating

the above mentioned flow cross section area.
For comparison, referring to Table 5.5, the calculation results of the flow
cross section area of EEV in the single-stage heat pump system of 12 kW
are listed in Table 5.7. According to Tables 5.5 and 5.7, when the heating
capacity is the same, the flow cross section area of the branched EEV of
the variable volume ratio two-stage compression one-step throttling interstage
incomplete cooling heat pump system is much smaller than that of the single-
stage heat pump system and that of the two-step throttling heat pump system.
In addition, the flow cross section area of the main EEV of the variable volume
ratio two-stage compression one-step throttling interstage incomplete cooling
heat pump system is smaller than that of the single-stage heat pump system
and that of the two-step throttling heat pump system.
TABLE 5.7
Flow cross section area of EEV for single-stage heat pump system with rated heating
capacity of 12 kW
Refrigerant
R-410A R-410A R-134a R-134a R-32 R-32
Condensation
45 45 45 45 45 45
temperature (◦ C)
Outlet subcooling
5 5 5 5 5 5
of condenser (◦ C)
Evaporation
0 -30 0 -30 0 -30
temperature (◦ C)
Mass flow rate
212.9 180.0 236.2 213.5 138.6 114.2
(kg/h)
Flow cross section
area of single-stage 1.316 0.955 1.847 1.399 0.924 0.652
EEV (mm2 )
Flow cross section
area ratio of
0.243 0.326 0.226 0.329 0.189 0.248
branched EEV to
single-stage EEV
Flow cross section
area ratio of main
0.727 0.694 0.750 0.703 0.771 0.755
EEV to
single-stage EEV
In the the single-stage compression heat pump, the outlet subcooling of

condenser is generally greater than that of the two-stage compression inter-
stage incomplete cooling heat pump, resulting in a decrease in the inlet tem-
perature of EEV, and increases in the inlet density and flow coefficient. In
addition, the outlet specific enthalpy of the condenser decreases while the
inlet specific enthalpy of the condenser increases (as the discharge temper-
ature of single-stage compression is higher), so the specific heating capacity
increases and actual mass flow rate is reduced compared with the theoretical
calculation result. It can be known from Equation (5.1) that the actual flow
cross section area of EEV of the single-stage compression heat pump will be
smaller than the theoretical calculation result. Therefore, the actual ratio of
the flow cross section areas of the first-step EEV and the second-step EEV
of two-stage compression two-step throttling heat pump to that of the EEV

of single-stage compression heat pump, or the actual ratio of the flow cross
section areas of the branched EEV and the main EEV of the two-stage com-
pression one-step throttling heat pump to that of the EEV of single-stage
compression heat pump, will be larger than the theoretical calculation result.
5.2 Optimization Analysis of Heat Exchanger

The operating conditions of the indoor heat exchanger in the variable volume
ratio two-stage compression air source heat pump are in close proximity with
those in the single-stage compression air source heat pump. Howerver, its
outdoor heat exchanger operates at much lower outdoor ambient temperature,
so the differences of refrigerant thermophysical properties, inlet quality and
mass flow rate lead to the different design in flow path number with the
outdoor heat exchanger of the single-stage compression air source heat pump.
This section will take R-410A, R-134a and R-32 and fin-and-tube heat
exchanger as examples to analyze and illustrate the optimization design of
the outdoor heat exchanger.
5.2.1 Analysis of refrigerant thermophysical property

The variation of saturated liquid dynamic viscosity and saturated gas den-
sity with evaporation temperature of R-410A, R-134a and R-32 are shown in
Figure 5.3 and Figure 5.4, respectively.
600
R-410A
Saturated liquid dynamic viscosity
500 R-134a
R-32
400
(μpa·s)
300
200
100
0
-60 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30
FIGURE 5.3 EEV 1

Saturated liquid dynamic viscosity varies with evaporation temperature
EEV 2
EEV 3
&
@'$! A
()*+,)*-./H)8/.-481*3/:IHJ5#>
% @'!#$)
@'#"
$
"
'& '% '$ '# '" '! ! " #

?7)<9,)*194/*-5<-,)*+,-/: >
FIGURE 5.4
Saturated gas density varies with evaporation temperature
%!
% >&%" ?
()*+,)*-./01,233+,2&*2412,)*+,20
>&"$%)
$!
>&$#
5,)6-2/* 78)9!"
$
#!
#
"!
"
!
&' &! &% &$ &# &" " # $

:;)1.,)*-./0*2412,)*+,20<!=
FIGURE 5.5
Saturation pressure-temperature gradient varies with evaporation temperature
As shown in Figures 5.3 and 5.4, as the evaporation temperature decreases,

the saturated liquid dynamic viscosity increases while the saturated gas den-
sity decreases significantly, which will lead to an increase in frictional pressure
drop or corresponding saturation temperature drop of the two-phase refriger-
ant in the heat exchange tube.
The variations of saturated pressure-temperature gradients of R-410A, R-
134a and R-32 with evaporation temperature are indicated in Figure 5.5. The
saturated pressure-temperature gradient decreases significantly with the de-
crease of evaporation temperature. It means that the saturation temperature
drop corresponding to the same pressure drop increases as the evaporation
temperature decreases, which will lead to a decrease of the effective heat trans-
fer temperature difference and a decrease in heat transfer capacity.
5.2.2 Simulation analysis of fin-and-tube heat exchanger

A fin-and-tube evaporator of single smooth copper tube with plain aluminum
fin is simulated by heat exchanger simulation software with distributed pa-
rameters. The variable volume ratio two-stage compression two-step throttling
interstage incomplete cooling heat pump cycle is analyzed. The refrigerants
are R-410A and R-134a.
The parameters of the fin-and-tube heat exchanger (Unit: mm) are as
follows:
1) Tube size φ7 × 0.25 (smooth inner surface);
2) Fin pitch 1.6;
3) Fin thickness 0.1;
4) Fin type: Plain fin;
5) Transverse tube pitch × longitudinal tube pitch=22 × 19.05.
The operating conditions of the heat exchanger simulation are as follows:
1) When the evaporation temperature is 0◦ C, the inlet air dry/wet bulb
temperature is 10/5.5◦ C (dew point temperature is 0◦ C);
2) When the evaporation temperature is −30◦ C, the inlet air dry/wet bulb
temperature is −20/21◦ C (dew point temperature is −30◦ C);
3) Evaporator outlet superheat is 0◦ C;
4) The inlet liquid temperature of the second-step throttling device in a
variable volume ratio two-stage compression heat pump is the intermediate
temperature in Table 5.1. The inlet liquid temperature of the throttling device
in a single-stage compression heat pump is 40◦ C.
@
>&%" ?
()*+,)*-./0*2412,)*+,206,.10<!=
' !"#$%!&
!"#$%!!&$
!
!"#$%!!#&
%
"
# % ' A " "# "%

B2/5*C0.D0C2)*02EFC)/520*+G200<4=
FIGURE 5.6
Saturation temperature drop varies with length of heat exchange tube in two-stage
compression heat pump
The simulation results of the variation of the saturation temperature drop,

logarithmic mean temperature difference and heat transfer rate per unit length
with the length of heat exchange tube in the outdoor fin-and-tube heat ex-
changer of R-410A and R-134a variable volume ratio two-stage compression
heat pumps are shown in Figure 5.6, Figure 5.7, Figure 5.8, respectively. The
temperature in Figures 5.6–5.8 refers to the evaporation temperature.
%&
)*+,-./01.2314,53/4164-,/7-43
$
8.994-45243: ;
" >?(%&@!&
!"#$%!&
! !"#$%!!&$
!"#$%!!#&
& ' ( ! # %& %' %(

)45+/03*9304,/34<20,5+43/7=43:1;
FIGURE 5.7
Logarithmic mean temperature difference varies with length of heat exchange tube
in two-stage compression heat pump
%#
&'()*)+(,-.'+*+()'*/'+*0,1)*2',3)4**56789
%"
%!
# ?@"% A!
!"#$%!&
"
!"#$%!!&$
! !"#$%!!#&
! " # $ % %! %"
:',3)4*;.*4'()*'<=4(,3'*)0>'*589
FIGURE 5.8
Heat transfer rate per unit length varies with length of heat exchange tube in two-
stage compression heat pump
%
>?$! @
()*+,)*-./0*1231,)*+,104,.3005 6
$ >?!#$)
>?#"
"
" $ & ' ! !" !$

71/8*90.:091)*01;<9)/810*+=10526
!
B >?$! @
()*+,)*-./0*1231,)*+,104,.3005 6
' >?!#$)
A >?#"
&
%
$
#
"
!
" $ & ' ! !"

71/8*90.:091)*01;<9)/810*+=10526
FIGURE 5.9
Saturation temperature drop varies with length of heat exchange tube in single-stage
compression heat pump
As shown in Figures 5.6–5.8, for the outdoor heat exchanger of a two-stage

compression heat pump, the saturation temperature drop is increased with
the length of heat exchange tubes while the logarithmic mean temperature
difference is decreased. The evaporation heat transfer rate per unit length
increases at first and then decreases, which means there is an optimal length
of heat exchange tubes to maximize the evaporation heat transfer rate per
unit length. For example, when the evaporation temperature is reduced from
0◦ C to −30◦ C (the difference between the inlet dry bulb temperature and the
evaporation temperature is maintained at 10◦ C), the saturation temperature
drop of the heat exchanger is increased remarkably. When the length of the
("!""#
+,-./012304#35.6#15375/.18/5
'!""#
#90::5/5645#; <
&!""#
%!""#
?@*("A
$!""# ?@(B*.
?@B)
!""#
" ) * $ & (" () (*
+56-12#,:#25.1#5=42.6-5#18>5#;3<
("
+,-./012304#35.6#15375/.18/5#
'
&
90::5/5645#; <
$
?@*("A
?@(B*.
* ?@B)
B
" ) * $ & (" ()
+56-12#,:#25.1#5=42.6-5#18>5#;3<
FIGURE 5.10
Logarithmic mean temperature difference varies with length of heat exchange tube
in single-stage compression heat pump
heat exchange tube is 10m, the saturation temperature drop of the system with
R-410A increases from 0.79◦ C to 3.37◦ C while that of R-134a increases from
2.9◦ C to 6.6◦ C. In addition, the logarithmic mean temperature difference of
R-410A decreases from 8.23◦ C to 7.32◦ C while that of R-134a decreases from
7.53◦ C to 5.73◦ C. The optimal length of heat exchange tube of the system
with R-410A is reduced from 10m to 6m, and that with R-134a is reduced
from 6m to 5m.
As a comparison, when evaporation temperatures are 0◦ C and −30◦ C,
the simulation results of saturation temperature drop, logarithmic mean
#(!
)*+,-,.+/01*.-.+,*-2*.-3/4,-5*/6,7--89:;<
#'!
#&!
#%!
#$!
##!
BC&#!D
#!!
BC#%&+
"! BC%$
!
! $ & ( #! #$ #&
=*/6,7->1-7*+,-*?@7+/6*-,3A*-8;<
(a) Evaporation temperature 0 ◦ C
#(!
)*+,-,.+/01*.-.+,*-2*.-3/4,-5*/6,7--89:;<
BC&#!D
#&! BC#%&+
BC%$
#$!
#!!
(!
&!
! $ & ( #! #$
=*/6,7->1-7*+,-*?@7+/6*-,3A*-8;<
FIGURE 5.11
Heat transfer rate per unit length varies with length of heat exchange tube in single-
stage heat pump
temperature difference and evaporation heat transfer rate per unit length of
the outdoor heat exchanger tubes of the single-stage compression heat pump
with R-410A, R-134a and R-32 are shown in Figures 5.9–5.11, respectively.
From Figure 5.9, Figure 5.10 and Figure 5.11, the variations of above
three physical quantities with length of heat exchange tubes and evaporation
temperature in the single-stage compression heat pump are similar to those in
the two-stage compression heat pump with the same refrigerants, i.e., R-410A,
R-134a. As shown in Figure 5.9, when the evaporation temperature and the
length of heat exchange tube are fixed, the saturation temperature drop of
outdoor heat exchanger in a single-stage compression heat pump system with

R-134a is the largest and that with R-32 is the smallest.
Comparing Figure 5.6 with Figure 5.9, Figure 5.7 with Figure 5.10, Figure
5.8 with Figure 5.11, respectively, for the two-stage compression variable vol-
ume ratio heat pumps with R-410A, R-134a and R-32, when the evaporation
temperature and length of heat exchange tube are constant, the saturation
temperature drops of outdoor heat exchangers are significantly lower than
those in single-stage compression heat pumps. At the same time, compared
with the single-stage compression heat pump, the logarithmic mean temper-
ature difference is larger and the optimal length of the heat exchange tube
is longer at the same evaporation temperature in the two-stage compression
heat pump.
The above analysis reveals the optimization direction of flow path number
for the outdoor heat exchanger of a variable volume ratio two-stage compres-
sion heat pump. In practical applications, it is necessary to take the following
factors into account when optimizing an outdoor heat exchanger of a variable
volume ratio two-stage compression heat pump, such as the characteristics
of heat transfer and pressure drop in tube, refrigerants used, the inherent
characteristics and operating range of the heat pump system.
5.3 Optimization Analysis of Suction Pipe

The frictional pressure gradient of single-phase turbulent flow in a round tube
is as follows
dp u2
= fz ρ (5.6)
dz 2d
where p = static pressure, Pa
z = length, m
fz = friction coefficient
ρ = density, kg/m3
u = mean velocity, m/s
d = inner diameter, m
The expression of friction coefficient of single-phase turbulent flow in a
round tube is as follows
fz = 0.184Re−0.2 (5.7)
where Re = Reynolds number, ranging from 30000 to 1000000
ud
Re = ρ (5.8)
µ
where µ = dynamic viscosity, Pa·s

The mass flow rate of single-phase refrigerant in the round tube is ex-
pressed as
ud 2
M = πρ (5.9)
4
where M = mass flow rate, kg/s
By substituting Equations (5.7), (5.8) and (5.9) into Equation (5.6), the
pressure gradient of single-phase turbulent flow in round tube is
dp µ0.2 M 1.8
= 0.1421 (5.10)
dz ρd 4.8
As shown in Equation (5.10), if the mass flow rate M and inner diameter
d are fixed, the pressure gradient of single-phase flow in the tube is inversely
proportional to the fluid density ρ and is proportional to the dynamic viscosity
µ to the power of 0.2.
The variations of the saturated gas density and dynamic viscosity of R-
410A, R-134a and R-32 with evaporation temperature are shown in Figures
5.4 and 5.12, respectively. With the decrease of evaporation temperature, the
saturated dynamic viscosity decreases linearly but the relative change is small,
while the saturated gas density decreases rapidly with a significant relative
change.
"&
*+,-./,-01*2,3*145,678*9738:37-4*;<=,>3?
A'&"#B
"% A'"%&,
A'%$
"$
""
"#
'(# ')# '&# '%# '$# '"# # "# $# %#

@9,=:/,-7:5*-06=0/,-./0*; ?
FIGURE 5.12
Saturated gas dynamic viscosity varies with evaporation temperature
When the outlet subcooling of a condenser is 5◦ C and the evaporation

temperature is 0◦ C and −30◦ C (the other parameters refer to Table 2.2),
respectively, a single-stage compression heat pump and a variable volume ratio
two-stage compression heat pump (volume ratio refers to Table 5.1) are still
taken as examples, of which the rated heating capacities are 4kW. R-410A,
R-134a and R-32 mass flow rate in suction pipe calculated is shown in Figure
5.13. From Figure 5.13, we find that under the same conditions, R-32 mass
flow rate in suction pipe is the smallest among the three refrigerants, and for
the three refrigerants, the mass flow rate in suction pipe of the variable volume
ratio two-stage compression heat pump is significantly lower than that of the
single-stage compression heat pump. Moreover, for the three refrigerants, the
mass flow rate at −30◦ C (evaporation temperature) is significantly lower than
that at 0◦ C. For R-410A, the mass flow rate of the variable volume ratio
two-stage compression heat pump is about 80.7% and 78.2% of that of the
single-stage compression heat pump at 0◦ C and −30◦ C, respectively, and the
mass flow rate at −30◦ C is about 81.8% of that at 0◦ C for the variable volume
ratio two-stage compression heat pump.
!#
+752E0'3-,20*;#
!"#$%&'()*$& '+,
A0D/720/,5-*6,33*DE:F/,-0*;G2HI?
#
!"#$%&'(!)
!"#$%&'(!#)*
C#
(#
)#
&#
%#
A'&"#B A'%$ A'"%&,
FIGURE 5.13
Refrigerant mass flow rate in suction pipe
The inner diameter of the suction pipe is obtained according to Equation

(5.10). Here, the dynamic viscosity and density of gas refrigerant are the satu-
rated gas dynamic viscosity and density in suction pipe when the evaporation
temperatures are 0◦ C and −30◦ C, respectively, the mass flow rates are shown
in Figure 5.13; the pressure gradient is determined in accordance with the
saturation temperature gradient (saturation temperature drop corresponding
to the pressure drop per unit length) of 0.15◦ C/m. Finally, the results of
inner diameter of suction pipe are shown in Figure 5.14. In Figure 5.14, com-
pared with evaporation temperature of 0◦ C, the inner diameters of suction
pipes of the variable volume ratio two-stage compression heat pump and the
single-stage compression heat pump are remarkably increased at evaporation
temperature of −30◦ C. For a variable volume ratio two-stage compression heat
pump and a single-stage compression heat pump, the inner diameters of suc-
tion pipes of R-134a are significantly larger than those of R-410A and R-32,
if the evaporation temperature is fixed.
By substituting the saturated gas density in Figure 5.4, the refrigerant
mass flow rate in suction pipe in Figure 5.13, and the inner diameter of suction
$#
<1-=>.'63*=. #
+,--./+01*2.3./+45+678314-+919.+:22;
"!
!"#$%&'()#%!&*+
!"#$%&'(!)
"
!"#$%&'(!#)*
"%
"$
"#
&'%"#( &')$ &'")%*
FIGURE 5.14
Inner diameter of suction pipe
pipe in Figure 5.14 into Equation (5.9), the gas refrigerant velocity in suction
pipe can be obtained and the result is shown in Figure 5.15. In Figure 5.15,
when the evaporation temperature is fixed, the velocity in suction pipe of the
variable volume ratio two-stage compression heat pump is lower than that of
the single-stage compression heat pump. Furthermore, the velocity in suction
pipe with R-410A is significantly lower than those with R-32 and R-134a.
When the refrigerant is the same, the velocity in suction pipe at −30◦ C is
significantly higher than that at 0◦ C.
"!
"
+*,-./0.12/.*34-5/678149-:;<,=
"%
"$
"# >1326/',4*2/!#
!"#$%&'()#%!&*+
! !"#$%&'(!)
!"#$%&'(!#)*
&'%"#( &')$ &'")%*
FIGURE 5.15
Gas refrigerant velocity in suction pipe
The shear stress τw at the inner wall of the suction pipe is expressed as
u2 d dp
τw = fz ρ = (5.11)
8 4 dz
The shear stress at the inner wall of the suction pipe can be calculated
by substituting the pressure gradient (converted value corresponding to satu-
ration temperature gradient of 0.15◦ C/m) and the inner diameter of suction
pipe in Figure 5.14 into Equation (5.11). The calculated results are shown in
Figure 5.16. In Figure 5.16, when the evaporation temperature is fixed, the
wall shear stress of R-410A is larger than those of R-32 and R-134a in turn.
When the evaporation temperature decreases, the wall shear stress decreases,
but the dynamic viscosity of lubricant oil carried by the suction gas increases.
If the wall shear stress is too small, it is unfavorable for the lubricant oil in
suction pipe to return. Therefore, it is necessary to balance the pressure drop
(saturation temperature drop) and the effect of oil return in practice.
'
.-//0123-40154311067-8
&
# 9:;</3+15-<3!
!"#$%&'()#%!&*+
"
!"#$%&'(!)
! !"#$%&'(!#)*
*+$! , *+#" *+!#$-
FIGURE 5.16
Wall shear stress in suction pipe
The influence of lubricant oil is not taken into consideration in the above
calculations. The dynamic viscosity of the mixture of lubricant oil and gas
refrigerant in suction pipe is significantly greater than that of pure gas refrig-
erant, causing the increases of the pressure gradient and the wall shear stress
according to Equations (5.10) and (5.11).
6
Low Temperature Air-to-Air Heat Pump
Hui Huang, Huan Zhao
CONTENTS
6.1 Split-type Room Air conditioner of Air Source Heat
Pump Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
6.1.1 System solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
6.1.2 System control strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
6.1.3 System performance comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
6.2 Mini Variable Refrigerant Flow Multi-split Heat Pump . . . . . . . . . 290
6.2.1 System solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
6.2.3 Performance comparison analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
6.3 Variable Refrigerant Flow Multi-split Heat Pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
6.3.1 System solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
6.3.2 System configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
6.3.4 Performance comparison analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
6.4 Modular Variable Refrigerant Flow Multi-split Heat Pump . . . . 314
6.4.1 System solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
6.4.2 Compressor capacity control strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
6.4.3 Oil-balancing control strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
6.4.4 Subcooling control strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
6.4.5 Defrosting control strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
The air source heat pump belongs to the air-to-air heat pump type. The
system principles and various heat pump types are described in section 1.1.
This chapter introduces the application of the two-stage compressor with
variable volume ratio in low temperature air source heat pump including sys-
tem solution, configuration, control and performance comparison analysis, etc.
The split-type room air conditioner, variable refrigerant flow (VRF) multi-split
heat pump, mini and modular VRF multi-split heat pump are illustrated in
detail.
271
6.1 Split-type Room Air conditioner of Air Source Heat

Pump Type
6.1.1 System solution
In the split-type room air conditioner of air source heat pump type(referred to
as split-type room air conditioner), the connecting pipe is short, therefore the
two-step throttling interstage incomplete cooling cycle is generally adopted in
the two-stage compression system for the performance and economy of system.
1
10
9 8
11
12
16
15
13
7
2 14
17
6
4
3 5
FIGURE 6.1
Split-type room air conditioner system
1. Four-way valve; 2. Outdoor heat exchanger; 3. First-step throttling device; 4. Flash
tank; 5. Second-step throttling device; 6&8. Connecting pipe; 7. Indoor heat ex-
changer; 9&10. Solenoid valve; 11. High-pressure cylinder; 12. Vapor injection buffer;
13. Low-pressure cylinder with fixed volume; 14. Low-pressure cylinder with variable
volume; 15. Gas-liquid separator; 16. Interstage mixing chamber; 17. Solenoid valve
Figure 6.1 shows the system schematic diagram of split-type room air
conditioner using a triple-cylinder two-stage rolling piston compressor with
variable volume ratio (referred to as two-stage compressor with variable vol-
ume ratio), which is contained in the broken frame. In Figure 6.1, each end of
Low Temperature Air-to-Air Heat Pump 273
solenoid valves 9 and 10 is connected to the suction pipe and discharge pipe,
respectively, and the other end is connected to the variable volume switch-
ing controller of the compressor variable volume cylinder 14. The function of
compressor variable volume cylinder 14 is achieved by the on-off of solenoid
valves 9 and 10. When the solenoid valve 10 is turned on and valve 9 is turned
off, the compressor operates in triple-cylinder operation mode; conversely, the
compressor operates in two-cylinder operation mode. The solenoid valve 17
is an vapor injection valve, which is connected with the flash tank 4 and the
vapor injection buffer 12. The system runs in the vapor injection mode when
solenoid valve 17 is turned on, and vapor injection stops when solenoid valve
17 is turned off.
6.1.2 System control strategy

The basic control principles of the variable volume ratio two-stage compression
low temperature air source heat pump system have been introduced in Chapter
4. Here, some specific issues of the system controls are discussed.
1. System configuration
The system control strategy is analyzed by taking a 7.2kW split-type room
air conditioner as an example. Cylinder volume and volume ratio of the com-
pressor, main configuration parameters of the system are shown in Table 6.1.
2. Intermediate temperature control
(1) Intermediate temperature
In Chapter 2, for a two-stage compression two-step throttling cycle with
interstage incomplete cooling, when the volume ratio of the compressor is
fixed, and the evaporation pressure and condensation pressure are constant,
there exists an optimal intermediate pressure to maximize the system COP.
Temperature sensors are generally used to collect the system operation
data in split-type room air conditioner for cost saving. Since evaporation
pressure and condensation pressure cannot be obtained directly from the
temperature sensor data, data conversion is required. Therefore, the inter-
mediate pressure is determined based on the compressor operating frequency,
the intermediate temperatures of outdoor heat exchanger and indoor heat
exchanger in the split-type room air conditioner. Because the intermediate
pressure and intermediate temperature, the evaporation pressure and evapo-
ration temperature, the condensation pressure and condensation temperature
are corresponding to each other, Equation (2.60) can be converted into
p
TFT = kT Tc × Te (6.1)
where TFT = optimal intermediate temperature of the system, K
kT = correction factor of the intermediate temperature
Tc = condensation temperature, K
Te = evaporation temperature, K
In the actual air conditioner of low temperature air source heat pump
type, the intermediate temperature of indoor and outdoor heat exchangers
TABLE 6.1
Main parameters of a 7.2kW split-type room air conditioner
Volume of high-pressure
19.16
cylinder (cm3 )
Compressor Volume of low-pressure cylinder

21.78
with fixed volume (cm3 )
Volume of low-pressure cylinder
10.16
with variable volume (cm3 )
Dimensions (length × height ×
980×748×38
depth) (mm)
Outdoor heat exchanger Number of rows/Tube diameter 2/7/34

(mm)/U-tube number
1.4/Hydrophilic wavy
Fin pitch (mm)/Fin type
fin
Dimensions (length × height ×
952×214×25
depth) (mm)
Indoor heat exchanger Number of rows/Tube diameter

2/7/49
(mm)/U-tube number
1.3/Hydrophilic
Fin pitch (mm)/Fin type
louver fin
Type R-32
Refrigerant
Charge (g) 1700
can be approximately expressed as evaporation temperature and condensation

temperature in the cooling operation mode. Consequently, the evaporation
temperature and condensation temperature in Equation (6.1) can be replaced
by the intermediate temperatures, which are measured by the temperature
sensors of indoor and outdoor heat exchangers. That is
p
TFT = kT Tc1 × Te1 (6.2)
where Tc1 = intermediate temperature of the condenser, K
Te1 = intermediate temperature of the evaporator, K
Therefore, the control of intermediate pressure PFT can be converted to the
control of intermediate temperature TFT in split-type room air conditioner.
(2) Correction factor of intermediate temperature
For the split-type room air conditioner of low temperature air source heat
pump type using two-stage compressor with variable volume ratio, due to the
wide range of outdoor ambient temperatures and large variation of compressor
displacement depending on the room thermal load, the optimal correction
factor of intermediate temperature should be determined by experiments in
order to ensure the system is always in an optimal COP operation.
The correction factor of the optimal intermediate temperature is related
to many factors, such as compressor operation mode, operating frequency,
refrigerant type, indoor and outdoor ambient temperature, subcooling and

air volume flow rate of indoor and outdoor fans. Therefore, the correction
factor kT of the optimal intermediate temperature is different under different
indoor and outdoor ambient temperatures, compressor operating frequencies
and operation modes.
When the configuration parameters of air conditioning system (including
indoor and outdoor air volume flow rate) are determined, the temperature
correction factor is mainly related to the compressor frequency and outdoor
ambient temperature, the correlation is established as
kT = a f + btout + c (6.3)
where f = compressor operating frequency, Hz

tout = outdoor ambient temperature, ◦ C
a,b,c = fitting coefficients determined by the tests
Through large numbers of experiments, the optimal intermediate temper-
ature correction factor kT of the system in two-cylinder and triple-cylinder
operation modes is proposed.
In two-cylinder operation mode
kT = −0.23 × 10−2 f + 0.30 × 10−2 tout + 0.866 (6.4)
In triple-cylinder operation mode
kT = 0.73 × 10−4 f − 0.12 × 10−2 tout + 1.125 (6.5)
According to the empirical correlations Equation (6.4), Equation (6.5) and

the relational Equation (6.2), the optimal intermediate temperatures of the
system in two-cylinder and triple-cylinder modes can be obtained through the
compressor frequency, outdoor ambient temperature and intermediate temper-
ature of indoor and outdoor heat exchangers and then the system is controlled
and operates near the optimal COP.
3 Effect of vapor injection on system performance
In a two-stage compression system, the improvement of system perfor-
mance by the vapor injection depends on the operating condition and op-
erating frequency of compressor. That is, the system performance would be
decreased because of the vapor injection under some operating conditions and
compressor frequencies. Experimental results show that the system cooling
COP does not increase or even decrease with vapor injection under the half
cooling capacity condition and low-frequency operation of the compressor.
Referring to several standard operating conditions in the Chinese National
Standard GB/T 7725-2004 Room Air Conditioners, the influence of the inter-
stage vapor injection on system performance is analyzed.
(1) Half heating capacity condition
For half heating capacity condition (indoor dry/wet bulb temperatures
are 20◦ C/15◦ C, outdoor dry/wet bulb temperatures are 7◦ C/6◦ C), Table 6.2
shows the system performance and pressures with and without vapor injec-
tion when the compressor operating frequency and heating capacity are fixed,
respectively.
TABLE 6.2
Performance and pressures of the system with or without vapor injection in two-
cylinder operation mode under half load heating condition
Interme-
Vapor Operating Heating Discharge Suction
Power COP diate
injection frequency capacity pressure pressure
(W) pressure
(Hz) (W) (MPa) (MPa)
(MPa)
With 33 4897 1093 4.48 1.072 2.045 0.774

Without 33 4625 1049 4.41 - 2.026 0.778
Without 34 4890 1106 4.42 - 2.040 0.776
It can be seen from Table 6.2 that when the compressor operates at same
frequency, the system discharge pressure is reduced and suction pressure is
basically the same after the vapor injection valve is shut off. And the heating
capacity and power is reduced by 5.6% and 4%, respectively. The reduction of
heating capacity is greater than that of the compressor power thus the heating
COP decreases.
Through increasing operating frequency of the compressor, the heating
capacity of the system without vapor injection is basically the same as that
of the system with vapor injection. Test results show without vapor injection,
the power of the system is 1.2% higher than the one with vapor injection. The
COP is 98.7% of system with vapor injection.
(2) Rated heating condition
For rated heating condition (indoor dry/wet bulb temperatures are
20◦ C/15◦ C, outdoor dry/wet bulb temperatures are 7◦ C/6◦ C), Table 6.3
shows the performance and pressures of the system with and without va-
por injection when the compressor operating frequency and heating capacity
are fixed, respectively.
frequency, the system discharge pressure is reduced and suction pressure is
slightly raised without vapor injection. The input power reduces by 4.6% and
the heating capacity reduces by 5.2% which is greater than the decrease of
input power, thus the COP decreases. The COP of the system without vapor
injection is 3.16% lower when its heating capacity is raised to the same as the
one with vapor injection by increasing compressor operating frequency.
(3) Low temperature heating condition
For low temperature heating condition (indoor dry/wet bulb temperatures
are 20◦ C/15◦ C, outdoor dry/wet bulb temperatures are 2◦ C/1◦ C), Table 6.4
shows the performance and pressures of the system with and without vapor
TABLE 6.3
Performance and pressures of the system with or without vapor injection in two-
cylinder operation mode under rated heating condition
Opera- Inter-
Heating Inter- Suction
Vapor ting Discharge mediate
fre- capac- Power mediate pres- pres-
injec- COP pres- pressure
quency ity (W) sure sure
tion sure (MPa)
(Hz) (W) (MPa) coeffi-
(MPa)
cient
With 64 9805 3008 3.26 1.136 3.097 0.700 0.77
Without 64 9294 2869 3.24 - 2.978 0.720 -
Without 67 9725 3077 3.16 - 3.098 0.698 -
injection when the compressor operating frequency and heating capacity are
fixed, respectively.
TABLE 6.4
Performance and pressures of the system with or without vapor injection in triple-
cylinder operation mode under low temperature heating condition
Opera- Inter-
Heating Inter- Suction
Vapor ting Discharge mediate
fre- capac- Power mediate pres- pres-
injec- COP pres- pressure
quency ity (W) sure sure
tion sure (MPa)
(Hz) (W) (MPa) coeffi-
(MPa)
cient
With 59 9811 4103 2.39 1.434 3.425 0.538 1.02
Without 59 9196 3883 2.37 - 3.264 0.536 -
Without 64 9866 4447 2.22 - 3.489 0.520 -
frequency, the system discharge pressure is reduced and the heating capacity
is significantly reduced without vapor injection. The heating capacity of the
system without vapor injection is reduced by 6.3%, and the power reduces by
5.4%, so the heating COP decreases.
Through increasing the compressor frequency of the system without vapor
injection, the heating capacity could reach basically the same level as that
the one with vapor injection, however the power of the system without vapor
injection is 8.4% higher, therefore the heating COP is 0.17 lower, which only
achieved 92.9% of the system with vapor injection.
(4) Half cooling condition
For intermediate cooling condition (indoor dry/wet bulb temperatures are
27◦ C/19◦ C, outdoor dry/wet bulb temperatures are 35◦ C/24◦ C), Table 6.5
shows the performance and pressures of the system with and without vapor
injection.
TABLE 6.5
Performance and pressures of the system with or without vapor injection under half
load cooling condition
Vapor Interme- Inter-

Cooling Discharge Suction
injec- Power EER diate mediate
capacity pressure pressure
tion (W) pressure pressure
(W) (MPa) (MPa)
(MPa) coeffi-
cient
With 3644.3 762.2 4.781 1.533 2.433 1.243 0.885
Without 3625.9 749.7 4.836 1.574 2.423 1.232 0.913
It can be seen from Table 6.5 that the discharge pressure and suction pres-
sure of the system are reduced without vapor injection. The cooling capacity
is slightly reduced by 0.5%, which can be regarded as basically the same. But
the power is significantly reduced more than 1.6%. The EER of the system
without vapor injection is improvd by 1.2% in comparison to the one with
vapor injection.
4. Operating range in two-cylinder mode and triple-cylinder
mode
As described in the Chapter 4, the volume ratio is selected based on in-
door/outdoor ambient temperature and compressor frequency in the split-type
room air conditioner using two-stage compressor with variable volume ratio.
That means, to achieve the optimal heating COP in the entire heating capac-
ity range, two-cylinder or triple-cylinder operation modes need to be selected
for the system through experiments.
(1) To determine by outdoor ambient temperature
In the heating operation of spilt-type room air conditioner, the condensa-
tion temperature of indoor heat exchanger changes very small and the outdoor
ambient temperature changes in a large range. It leads to the wide range of
evaporation temperature. Therefore, the outdoor ambient temperature can
be taken as a judgment for selecting two-cylinder or triple-cylinder operation
mode. When the volume ratio of compressors, the system configuration of
split-type room air conditioner and the heating capacity are determined, the
COPs of two-cylinder and triple-cylinder operation modes under different out-
door ambient temperatures are obtained by testing. Finally, according to the
COP optimal principle, the outdoor ambient temperature for switching point
between the two-cylinder and triple-cylinder operation mode is determined.
(2) To determine by compressor operating frequency
Because the efficiency of the compressor is related to operating frequency,
it is also an important factor for the selection of two-cylinder or triple-cylinder
operation mode. Generally, the compressor operates in triple-cylinder mode

with high speed and in two-cylinder mode with low speed.
When the outdoor ambient temperature is −15◦ C, the heating COPs of
split-type room air conditioner using two-stage compressor with variable vol-
ume ratio are tested in two-cylinder and triple-cylinder operation modes, re-
spectively, as shown in Figure 6.2. The heating capacity ratio is the ratio of the
measured heating capacity to the rated heating capacity. It can be seen that
the COPs in two-cylinder and triple-cylinder operation modes both increase
firstly and then decrease with the increase of heating capacity. The highest
COPs of two-cylinder and triple-cylinder operation modes are reached when
the heating capacity ratios are about 40% and 55%, respectively. The COP
curves in the two operation modes are crossed when the heating capacity ratio
is around 44%.
2.3
2.2
2.1
COP
2.0
1.9
1.8 Two-cylinder operation mode

Triple-cylinder operation mode
1.7
20 40 60 80 100
Capacity ratio (%)
ć
FIGURE 6.2
COP in two-cylinder/three-cylinder operating mode at −15◦ C outdoor ambient tem-
perature, 75% relative humidity
Thus, when the outdoor ambient temperature is −15◦ C and the measured
heating capacity is less than 44% of the rated heating capacity, the COP in
two-cylinder operation mode is higher than that in triple-cylinder operation
mode. Conversely, the COP in triple-cylinder operation mode is higher than
that in two-cylinder operation mode when the heating capacity ratio is higher
than 44%.
During product development, in order to determine the optimal operating
frequency range of the compressor in two-cylinder and triple-cylinder oper-
ation modes, it is necessary to find out the intersection of COPs between
two compressor operation modes under various outdoor ambient temperature
conditions by tests.
6.1.3 System performance comparison

In the following, three units of split-type room air conditioner using single-
stage compressor, conventional two-stage compressor and two-stage compres-
sor with variable volume ratio are taken as examples for system performance
comparison analysis.
The parameters and configurations of the three units are exactly the same
including indoor and outdoor heat exchangers (area, heat exchange tube size,
fins, etc.) and air volume flow rate, except the compressor model and heat
pump cycle mode are different. Three systems with rated cooling capacities
of 3.5kW, 5kW and 7.2kW, respectively, are tested.
1. Compressor parameters
The rolling piston compressors are used in the three systems of split-type
room air conditioner for performance comparison analysis. The parameters
like compressor cylinder volume and volume ratio are shown in Table 6.6,
Table 6.7, and Table 6.8, respectively.
TABLE 6.6
Compressor parameters for 3.5kW systems
Volume
Compressor type Cylinder Volume ratio
(cm3 )
High-pressure
9.9
cylinder
Low-pressure 0.9 (Two-cylinder
Two-stage
cylinder with fixed 11.0 operation mode)
compressor with
volume 0.55 (Triple-cylinder
variable volume ratio
operation mode)
Low-pressure
cylinder with 6.8
variable volume
High-pressure
7.68
Two-stage cylinder
0.8
compressor Low-pressure
9.6
cylinder
Single-stage
Cylinder 9.6 -
compressor
The operation conditions of comparative tests are shown in Table 6.9.

2. Comparison analysis of heating capacity and heating COP
(1) Comparison of maximum heating capacity
The test results show that the maximum heating capacity of the split-type
room air conditioner using two-stage compressor with variable volume ratio is
improved greatly among the entire outdoor temperature range, compared with
the air conditioners using single-stage compressor and conventional two-stage
TABLE 6.7
Compressor parameters for 5kW systems
Volume
(cm3 )
High-pressure
12.51
cylinder
Two-stage
compressor with
operation mode)
Low-pressure
cylinder with 6.7
variable volume
High-pressure
8.85
Two-stage cylinder
0.73
12.1
cylinder
Single-stage
Cylinder 14.1 -
compressor
TABLE 6.8
Compressor parameters for 7.2kW systems
Volume
(cm3 )
High-pressure
19.16
cylinder
Two-stage
compressor with
operation mode)
Low-pressure
cylinder with 10.16
variable volume
High-pressure
14.4
Two-stage cylinder
0.73
19.7
cylinder
Single-stage
Cylinder 23.06 -
compressor
compressor. The upper limit of the maximum heating capacity of the air
conditioner is the rated heating capacity.
Figure 6.3 shows the variation of the maximum heating capacity of 3.5kW
split-type room air conditioner with the outdoor ambient temperature. When
TABLE 6.9
Test conditions for performance comparison (unit: ◦ C)
Outdoor side Indoor side
Conditions
DBT WBT DBT WBT
I 2 1
20 15
II -7 -8
III -15 -
IV -20 -
20 15
V -25 -
VI -35 -
Note: DBT, dry bulb temperature; WBT, wet bulb temperature.
the outdoor ambient temperature is −20◦ C, the heating capacity of the vari-
able volume ratio two-stage compression air conditioner (referred to as vari-
able volume ratio two-stage system) is improved by 62% and 37%, respectively,
compared to the single-stage compression air conditioner and the conventional
two-stage compression air conditioner.
6.0
5.5
Heating capacity (kW)
5.0
4.5
4.0 37%
62%
3.5 37%
3.0
2.5 Variable volume ratio two-stage system
2.0 Two-stage system
1.5 Single-stage system
1.0
-40 -35 -30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0
FIGURE 6.3
Maximum heating capacity of 3.5kW system varies with outdoor ambient tempera-
ture
Figure 6.4 shows the variation of the maximum heating capacity of 5kW
split-type room air conditioners with the outdoor ambient temperature. When
able volume ratio two-stage compression air conditioner is improved by 67%
and 44%, respectively, compared to the single-stage compression air condi-
tioner and the conventional two-stage compression air conditioner.
9.0
8.0

7.0
6.0
67% 44%
5.0
˄kW˅
4.0
Two-stage system
1.0
-40 -35 -30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0
FIGURE 6.4
Maximum heating capacity of 5kW system varies with outdoor ambient temperature
Figure 6.5 shows the variation of the maximum heating capacity of 7.2kW
split-type room air conditioners with the outdoor ambient temperature. When
able volume ratio two-stage compression air conditioner is improved by 54%
and 20%, respectively, compared to the single-stage compression air condi-
tioner and the conventional two-stage compression air conditioner.
10.0
9.0
8.0
7.0 54% 20%
6.0
5.0
Single-stage system
2.0
-40 -35 -30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0
FIGURE 6.5
Maximum heating capacity of 7.2kW system varies with outdoor ambient tempera-
ture
It can be seen from Figure 6.3 to Figure 6.5 that when the split-type room
air conditioner is working, the maximum heating capacity tends to attenuate
with the decrease of the outdoor ambient temperature. When the outdoor
ambient temperature is reduced from 2◦ C to −20◦ C, the attenuation rate of
the maximum heating capacity of the air conditioner using two-stage com-
pressor with variable volume ratio is 18.3% to 19.7%, which is 22.9% to 30.0%
using the conventional two-stage compressor, and 33.4% to 35.7% using single-
stage compressor, respectively. Thus, the split-type room air conditioner using
two-stage compressor with variable volume ratio has the lowest attenuation
rate of the maximum heating capacity when outdoor ambient temperature is
decreased.
(2) Comparison of heating COP at maximum heating capacity
Figure 6.6, Figure 6.7 and Figure 6.8 show the heating COP variation of
the 3.5kW, 5kW and 7.2kW split-type room air conditioners with the outdoor
ambient temperature at maximum heating capacity, respectively.
3.0
2.6
2.2
1.8
COP
1.4

Two-stage system
0.2
-40 -35 -30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0
FIGURE 6.6
Heating COP of 3.5kW system varies with outdoor ambient temperature at maxi-
mum heating capacity
3.0
2.6
2.2
1.8
COP
1.4

Two-stage system
0.2
-40 -35 -30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0
FIGURE 6.7
Heating COP of 5kW system varies with outdoor ambient temperature at maximum
heating capacity
3.0
2.6
2.2
COP 1.8
1.4

Two-stage system
0.2
-40 -35 -30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0
FIGURE 6.8
Heating COP of 7.2kW system varies with outdoor ambient temperature at maxi-
mum heating capacity
According to the figures, when operating at the maximum heating capac-

ity, the heating COP of the air conditioner using two-stage compressor with
variable volume ratio is slightly lower than that of the conventional two-stage
compression system, and is basically the same or slightly lower than that of
single-stage compression system. The reason is that the maximum heating
capacity of the air conditioner using two-stage compressor with variable vol-
ume ratio is significantly higher than that of other two systems, operating
at the maximum heating capacity. When the indoor and outdoor heat ex-
changers and air volume flow rate are the same, the evaporation temperature
decreases, the condensation temperature and pressure ratio rise, which cause
the increase of compressor power and the decrease of heating COP.
(3) Comparison of heating COP at the same heating capacity
Based on the maximum heating capacity of single-stage compression split-
type room air conditioner, the COP of the three systems are compared when
heating capacities are the same.
Figure 6.9 shows the comparison of heating COP when the heating capac-
ity of 3.5kW variable volume ratio two-stage compression air conditioners is
same as that of single-stage compression system and conventional two-stage
compression system. Compared with the single-stage compression system, the
heating COP of the variable volume ratio two-stage compression system is
improved by 9.9%–20.4%, which is improved by 1.4%–4.4% compared with
the conventional two-stage compression system.
Figure 6.10 shows the comparison of heating COP when the heating ca-
pacity of 5kW variable volume ratio two-stage compression air conditioners is
same as that of single-stage compression system and conventional two-stage

3.5
3.0
COP
2.5 4.4%

20.4% Two-stage system
Single-stage system
1.5
-20 -15 -10 -5 0 5
FIGURE 6.9
Heating COP comparison of 3.5kW system at the same heating capacity
3.5
Variable volume ratio two-stage system
Two-stage system
COP
7.4%
2.5
2.0
21.5%
1.5
-20 -15 -10 -5 0 5
FIGURE 6.10
Heating COP comparison of 5kW system at the same heating capacity
Figure 6.11 shows the comparison of heating COP when the heating ca-
pacity of 7.2kW variable volume ratio two-stage compression air conditioner
is same as that of single-stage compression system and conventional two-stage
3.5
Two-stage system
COP
2.5
8.2%
2.0
18.1%
1.5
-20 -15 -10 -5 0 5
FIGURE 6.11
Heating COP comparison of 7.2kW system at the same heating capacity
(4) Relationship between heating capacity ratio and COP

Taking 7.2kW model as an example, for the split-type room air condi-
tioner using two-stage compressor with variable volume ratio, the relationship
between the heating capacity ratio and the heating COP in triple-cylinder
operation mode is shown in Figure 6.12.
3.4
3.2 triple-cylinder,-20ć
triple-cylinder,-15ć
2.8 triple-cylinder,2ć
two-stage,-20ć
2.6 two-stage,-15ć
COP
2.4 two-stage,-7ć
two-stage,2ć
2.2 single-stage,-20ć
single-stage,-15ć
1.8 single-stage,2ć
1.6
1.4
1.2
30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140
Capacity ratio(%)
FIGURE 6.12
COP varies with capacity ratio
It can be seen from Figure 6.12 that with the increase of the heating ca-
pacity ratio of the split-type room air conditioner, the heating COP increases
firstly and then decreases under various outdoor ambient temperature condi-
tions. The heating COP will reach the maximum at a certain heating capacity.
After the heating COP reaches the maximum, if heating capacity continues to
increase, the heat transfer rate of the condenser and evaporator increase, the
condensation temperature rises and the evaporation temperature decreases,
and the heating COP decreases. When the heating capacity is reduced, the
operating frequency of the compressor is lowered, the motor efficiency and
isentropic efficiency of the compressor are decreased, at the same time, the
refrigerant mass flow rate is reduced, and the refrigerant side heat transfer
coefficients of the condenser and evaporator are decreased, all of these lead
to the decrease of heating COP. On the other hand, the COP reduces with
the decrease of outdoor ambient temperature. When the heating capacities
are the same, the split-type room air conditioner using two-stage compressor
with variable volume ratio has higher COP, compared with other two systems.
(5) Annual performance factor (APF) comparison
The annual performance factor (APF) is the annual energy efficiency evalu-
ation index of variable speed split-type room air conditioner. According to the
test methods and calculation methods stipulated in GB/T 7725-2004 Room
Air Conditioner, APF comparison of above three units is carried out.
Table 6.10 shows the APF test conditions stipulated in GB/T 7725-2004.
TABLE 6.10
APF test conditions (unit: ◦ C)
Indoor side Outdoor side
Test items
DBT WBT DBT WBT
RC 27 19 35 24
LTC 27 19 29 19
LHC 27 <16 29 -
IC 27 <16 29 -
RH 20 - 7 6
IH 20 - 7 6
LTH 20 <15 2 1
Note: RC, rated cooling; LTC, low temperature cooling; LHC, low humidity cooling; IC,
intermittent cooling; RH, rated heating; IH, intermittent heating; LTH, low temperature
heating.
The performance test data and APF calculation results of 3.5kW, 5kW,
and 7.2kW variable speed split-type room air conditioners are shown in Tables
6.11, 6.12, and 6.13, respectively. It can be seen that according to the GB/T
7725-2004 standard and APF calculation method, the APF of the 3.5kW,
5kW, and 7.2kW air conditioner using two-stage compressor with variable
volume ratio are 4.73, 4.31 and 4.05, respectively, all of which are slightly bet-
ter than that of the conventional two-stage air conditioner and the single-stage
compression air conditioner.
(6) Seasonal energy efficiency ratio (SEER) and heating seasonal perfor-
mance factor (HSPF) comparison
TABLE 6.11
Performance test results of 3.5kW variable speed room air conditioners
Variable volume ratio
Two-stage Single-stage
two-stage compression
compression system compression system
system
Test
items Capa-
city Power EER/ Capa- Power EER/ Capa- Power EER/
(W) COP city (W) COP city (W) COP
(W)
(W) (W)
RC 3426 808 4.24 3456 844 4.09 3437 816 4.21
50%RC 1714 310 5.53 1728 305 5.67 1669 295 5.66
RH 4535 1136 3.99 4488 1124 3.99 4499 1133 3.97
50%RH 2221 430 5.17 2278 444 5.13 2271 443 5.13
LTH 5699 2190 2.60 4797 1691 2.84 4247 1550 2.74
APF 4.73 4.69 4.66
Note: 50%RC, half load rated cooling; 50%RH, half load rated heating.
TABLE 6.12
Performance test results of 5kW variable speed room air conditioners
system
Test
items Capa-
(W)
(W) (W)
RC 5379 1394 3.86 5133 1347 3.81 5007 1318 3.80
50%RC 2580 505 5.11 2524 490 5.15 2583 495 5.22
RH 7177 1945 3.69 7163 1947 3.68 7137 1952 3.66
50%RH 3551 764 4.65 3548 760 4.67 3573 771 4.63
LTH 7687 3235 2.38 6195 2401 2.58 5768 2364 2.44
APF 4.31 4.30 4.27
Seasonal Energy Efficiency Ratio (SEER) is that the total heat removed
from the conditioned space during the annual cooling season, Btu, divided
by the total electrical energy, W·h, consumed by the air conditioner or heat
pump during the same season, Btu/(W·h). Heating Seasonal Performance
TABLE 6.13
Performance test results of 7.2kW variable speed room air conditioners
system
Test
items Capa-
(W)
(W) (W)
RC 7181 2019 3.56 7150 2063 3.47 7109 2025 3.51
50%RC 3659 750 4.88 3656 747 4.89 3632 734 4.95
25%RC 1894 408 4.64 1836 379 4.84 1911 387 4.94
RH 9750 2978 3.27 9750 3040 3.21 9611 3070 3.13
50%RH 4912 1102 4.46 4862 1093 4.45 4734 1027 4.61
25%RH 2567 593 4.33 2489 576 4.32 2382 527 4.52
LTH 9753 4449 2.19 8462 3408 2.48 7885 3514 2.24
APF 4.05 4.01 3.97
Note:25%RC, 25% load rated cooling; 25%RH, 25% load rated heating.
Factor (HSPF) is that the total space heating required during the space heat-
ing season, Btu, divided by the total electrical energy, W·h, consumed by the
heat pump system during the same season, Btu/(W·h). According to the test
methods and the calculation methods stipulated in AHRI Standard 210/240
2017 “Performance Rating of Unitary Air-conditioning & Air source Heat
Pump Equipment,” SEER and HSPF comparison of above three units is car-
ried out. Table 6.14 shows the SEER and HSPF test conditions stipulated in
AHRI Standard 210/240 2017.
The SEER and HSPF test data of 7.2kW split-type variable speed room
air conditioner is shown in Table 6.15. It can be seen that according to the
AHRI Standard 210/240 2017 the SEER and HSPF of the air conditioner using
two-stage compressor with variable volume ratio are 22.55 and 11.79, both of
which are better than that of the single-stage compression air conditioner.
6.2 Mini Variable Refrigerant Flow Multi-split Heat

Pump
Variable refrigerant flow (VRF) multi-split heat pump is composed of one or
more outdoor units connected with several direct evaporative indoor units of
TABLE 6.14
SEER and HSPF test conditions (unit: ◦ C)
Indoor side Outdoor side Compressor Indoor
Test Name
DBT WBT DBT WBT speed airflow rate
A2 26.7 19.4 35.0 23.9 Full Full
B2 26.7 19.4 27.8 18.3 Full Full
EV 26.7 19.4 30.6 20.3 Interme- Interme-
Cooling diate diate
B1 26.7 19.4 27.8 18.3 Low Low
F1 26.7 19.4 19.4 11.7 Low Low
H01 21.1 15.6 16.7 13.4 Low Low
H12 21.1 15.6 8.3 6.1 Full Full
H11 21.1 15.6 8.3 6.1 Low Low
Heating Interme- Interme-
H2V 21.1 15.6 1.7 0.6
diate diate
H32 21.1 15.6 -8.3 -9.4 Full Full
TABLE 6.15
SEER and HSPF of 7.2kW variable speed room air conditioner
Single-stage
two-stage
compression system
compression system
Test items
Capacity Power EER/ Capacity Power EER/
(W) (W) COP (W) (W) COP
A2 6967 1877 3.71 6641 1768 3.76

B2 8064 1600 5.03 7056 1525 4.63
EV 4984 908 5.49 2576 512 5.03
Cooling
B1 2642 339 7.76 2553 430 5.94
F1 3109 220 14.04 2609 202 12.92
SEER 22.55 19.70
H12 8797 2328 3.78 8669 2229 3.89
H2V 4315 1093 3.95 3590 920 3.9
H32 5685 1895 3.00 4761 1954 2.44
Heating
H01 2297 406 5.27 1652 303 5.44
H11 1465 320 4.73 1581 350 4.52
HSPF 11.79 10.12
same or different types and capacity, which can provide the treated air to one
or several zones directly.
The mini VRF multi-split heat pump (referred to as mini VRF unit) refers
to the unit whose cooling capacity is small (less than 28kW) and mainly is
used in small buildings such as family houses.
16 15
3
4
11
14 12
13
4 9 10 1 7 8
18
To indoor
unit
17 6
FIGURE 6.13
Outdoor unit system of mini VRF multi-split heat pump
1. Compressor; 2. Four-way valve; 3. Oil separator; 4. Gas-liquid separator; 5. Out-
door heat exchanger; 6. Flash tank; 7. Vapor injection electronic expansion valve; 8.
Second-step electronic expansion valve; 9&10. Solenoid valve; 11. Oil return solenoid
valve; 12. Discharge pressure sensor; 13. Intermediate pressure sensor; 14. Suction
pressure sensor; 15. Oil return filter; 16. Oil return capillary; 17&18. Stop valve
Since the connecting pipe length of the mini VRF unit is generally not long,
the two-stage compression two-step throttling interstage incomplete cooling
cycle is also adopted as the mini VRF unit.
Figure 6.13 shows the schematic diagram in heating operation mode of
the mini VRF outdoor unit using two-stage compressor with variable volume
ratio. As can be seen from the diagram, the oil separator 3 is installed at
the discharge pipe of the compressor 1, and the refrigerant discharged by
the compressor enters the oil separator firstly. After the oil separation, the
refrigerant enters the condenser through the four-way valve 2, the separated
lubricant oil is returned to compressor through the filter 15, oil return capillary
16 and oil return solenoid valve 11; the liquid refrigerant condensed is throttled
through the first-step electronic expansion valve and then flashed in flash tank
6. The flashed gas refrigerant enters the interstage mixing chamber of the
two-stage compressor through the vapor injection electronic expansion valve

7 then mixes with the discharge gas of the low-pressure stage cylinder. The
vapor injection state is controlled by the electronic expansion valve 7. The
liquid refrigerant from flash tank 6 enters the evaporator through the second-
step electronic expansion valve 8. The refrigerant from evaporator 5 (outdoor
heat exchanger) goes through the gas-liquid separator 4 and then enters the
gas-liquid separator inside the compressor and is sucked into the low-pressure
stage cylinder of the compressor.
In the system, pressure sensors 12, 13, and 14 are used to detect the dis-
charge pressure, intermediate pressure, and suction pressure of the system,
respectively.

1. System configuration
The system control strategy is analyzed by taking a 16kW heating capacity
mini VRF unit using two-stage compressor with variable volume ratio as an
example. The parameters of the main system components are shown in Table
6.16.
2. Optimal control of intermediate pressure in two-stage com-
pression
For the mini VRF unit, the high-pressure stage discharge pressure and low-
pressure stage suction pressure can be detected by the corresponding pressure
sensors, and the intermediate pressure sensor detects the intermediate pres-
sure value when system is actually operating. According to the optimal in-
termediate pressure model, the system intermediate pressure is adjusted in
real time by controlling the opening of first-step electronic expansion valve to
reach optimal intermediate pressure value. The control method is described
in Chapter 4.
From Equation (2.60), in the case where the volume ratio of the com-
pressor high-pressure and low-pressure stage cylinders, and the suction and
discharge pressures are fixed, the optimal intermediate pressure correction
factor is needed to calculate the optimal intermediate pressure. For two-stage
compression two-step throttling interstage incomplete cooling system, the op-
timal intermediate pressure correction factor is mainly related to the discharge
pressure, suction pressure, subcooling and compressor frequency. Through ex-
perimental analysis, the empirical correlation of optimal intermediate pressure
correction factor k p in two-cylinder and triple-cylinder operation modes can
be obtained, so that the system can be controlled near the optimal COP.
6.2.3 Performance comparison analysis

The mini VRF unit of air source heat pump type using single-stage com-
pressor, conventional two-stage compressor, and two-stage compressor with
TABLE 6.16
Parameters of system components
Components Specification
Volume of high-pressure stage cylinder 31.0cm3 ,
volume of low-pressure stage cylinder with fixed
Compressor
volume 31.0cm3 , volume of low-pressure stage
cylinder with variable volume 20.67cm3
Tube-and-fin heat exchanger: double rows with
Outdoor heat exchanger φ7.94mm tube, hydrophilic wavy fin, rated
heating capacity 16.0kW
Second-step electronic Orifice: φ3.2mm, rated flow (150 pulses):
expansion valve 2.55±0.8 m3 /h
Vapor injection electronic Orifice: φ3.2mm, rated flow: (150 pulses)
expansion valve 2.52±0.6 m3 /h
Solenoid valve Orifice: φ1.9mm, flow rate: >1.8L/min
Rated capacity: 20.0kW, pressure drop:
Four-way valve
0.015MPa
Pressure range: 0.448–4.2MPa, temperature
Discharge pressure sensor
range: −40–120◦ C
Intermediate pressure Pressure range: 0.448–4.2MPa, temperature
sensor range: −40–120◦ C
Pressure range: 0–2.0MPa, temperature range:
Suction pressure sensor
−40–120◦ C
50kΩ, temperature range: −23–140◦ C
sensor
Suction temperature sensor 20kΩ, temperature range: −40–60◦ C
Vapor injection
temperature sensor
Axial fan×2, motor power: 0.12kW×2, maximum
Fans of outdoor unit
air flow rate: 3300 m3 /h×2
Gas-liquid separator Effective volume: 7L
Flash tank Effective volume: 2.7L
Refrigerant and charge R-410A, 6500g
variable volume ratio are taken as examples for the performance comparison
analysis. The parameters of the three units are exactly the same at 16kW
rated heating capacity including indoor and outdoor heat exchangers (area,
heat exchange tube size, fins, etc.) and air volume flow rate, except the com-
pressor and heat pump cycle mode are different.
1. Compressor parameters
The rolling piston compressors are used in the mini VRF units for perfor-
mance comparison analysis. The parameters like compressor cylinder volume
and volume ratio are shown in Table 6.17.
TABLE 6.17
Compressor parameters of mini VRF units
Volume
(cm3 )
High-pressure
31.0
cylinder
Two-stage
compressor with
operation mode)
Low-pressure
cylinder with 20.67
variable volume
High-pressure
28.8
Two-stage cylinder
0.73
39.4
cylinder
Single-stage
Cylinder 42.8 -
compressor
2. Comparison analysis of the heating capacity and COP

The operating conditions of comparative tests are same as the split-type
room air conditioner, as shown in Table 6.9.
(1) Comparison of maximum heating capacity
The test results show that the maximum heating capacity of the mini
VRF unit using two-stage compressor with variable volume ratio (referred to
as variable volume ratio two-stage system) is improved greatly, compared with
the mini VRF units using single-stage compressor (referred to as single-stage
system) and the conventional two-stage compressor (referred to as two-stage
system). The upper limit of the maximum heating capacity of mini VRF units
is the rated heating capacity, which is 16kW.
Figure 6.14 is the comparison of maximum heating capacities of three
mini VRF units under various outdoor ambient temperature conditions. It
can be seen that the maximum heating capacities of the three units are all
attenuated with the decrease of the outdoor ambient temperature. However,
when outdoor temperature is higher than −25◦ C, the heating capacity of the
variable volume ratio two-stage system can be maintained more than 95% of
the rated heating capacity. When outdoor ambient temperature is −20◦ C, the
heating capacity of the variable volume ratio two-stage system is improved by
107% and 44%, respectively, compared with the single-stage and the two-stage
system.
16
14

107% 44%
12
10
6
4 Two-stage system
Single-stage system
2
-40 -35 -30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5
FIGURE 6.14
Comparison of maximum heating capacity under various outdoor ambient temper-
ature conditions
(2) Comparison of system COP at maximum heating capacity

Figure 6.15 shows the variation of heating COP of the three units with the
outdoor ambient temperature under the maximum heating capacity condition.
At the maximum heating capacity, the heating COP of the variable volume
ratio two-stage system is basically the same as that of two-stage and single-
stage system as shown in Figure 6.15, which is only slightly advantageous
when the outdoor ambient temperature is below −20◦ C. The reason is the
same as the split-type room air conditioner in Section 6.1.
3.5
Single-stage system
2.5
COP
2.0
1.5
1.0
-40 -35 -30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5
FIGURE 6.15
Heating COP varies with outdoor ambient temperature at maximum heating
capacity
(3) Comparison of heating COP at the same heating capacity

Figure 6.16 shows the comparison of heating COP of the variable volume
ratio two-stage system and single-stage, two-stage system when their heating
capacities are same.
When the outdoor ambient temperature is −15◦ C, the heating COP of the
variable volume ratio two-stage system is improved by 31.9%, compared with
the single-stage system. It is improved by 10.5% compared with two-stage
system at −20◦ C outdoor ambient temperature.
4.0

COP
3.0
31.9%
2.5
2.0
-25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5

(a)
3.6
3.2
Two-stage system
3.0
2.8
COP
2.6
2.4
2.2 10.5%
2.0
1.8
-25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5
(b)
FIGURE 6.16
Comparison of heating COP at the same heating capacity
(4) Comparison of heating capacity at same heating COP

Figure 6.17 shows the comparison of heating capacities of the variable vol-
ume ratio two-stage system, single-stage and two-stage system when the heat-
ing COP is same. The heating capacities of variable volume ratio two-stage
system are improved by 20.2%–109.3% and 8.6%–43.6%, respectively, com-

pared with the single-stage and two-stage systems.
20
Heating capacity (kW) 18
16
14 41.6%
43.6%
12
10 109.3%
107.1%
8 Variable volume ratio two-stage system
Two-stage system
6
Single-stage system
4
-25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10
FIGURE 6.17
Comparison of heating capacity at the same heating COP
(5) Relationship between heating capacity ratio and COP

For the mini VRF unit using two-stage compressor with variable volume
ratio, the relationship between the heating capacity ratio and the heating COP
in triple-cylinder operation mode is shown in Figure 6.18. It can be seen that
when outdoor ambient temperature is above −7◦ C, the heating COP decreases
with the increase of the heating capacity ratio. When the temperature is below
−7◦ C, the heating COP increases firstly and then decreases, which reaches the
maximum under a certain heating capacity ratio.
4.0
3.8
triple-cylinder,-7ć
3.2 triple-cylinder,2ć
3.0 two-stage,-20ć
COP
2.8 two-stage,-15ć
two-stage,-7ć
2.6 two-stage,2ć
single-stage,-7ć
2.0 single-stage,2ć
1.8
1.6
30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150
Capacity ratio(%)
FIGURE 6.18
The heating capacity is based on the maximum heating capacity of single-

stage and two-stage systems under various operating conditions. The heating
COPs of variable volume ratio two-stage system are improved by 15.2%–31.9%
and 4.3%–10.5%, respectively, compared with single-stage and two-stage sys-
tems.
(6) Annual performance factor (APF) comparison
The APF is the annual energy efficiency metric of the VRF unit of air
source heat pump type. According to the test methods and calculation meth-
ods stipulated in GB/T 18837-2015 Multi-connected Air Conditioner (Heat
Pump) Unit, APF comparison of above mini VRF units using two-stage com-
pressor with variable volume ratio and single-stage compressor is carried out.
Table 6.18 shows the APF test conditions stipulated in GB/T 18837-2015.
TABLE 6.18
APF test conditions (unit: ◦ C)
Test items
DBT WBT DBT WBT
RC 27 19 35 24
50%RC 27 19 35 24
MC 27 19 35 24
RH 20 <15 7 6
50%RH 20 <15 7 6
MH 20 <15 7 6
LTH 20 <15 2 1
Note: MC, minimum cooling; MH, minimum heating.
Table 6.19 is the performance test data of the mini VRF units with 16kW
rated cooling capacity (18 kW rated heating capacity). It shows the APF of
the variable volume ratio two-stage system is 4.90 which is superior to the
single-stage system.
(6) Seasonal energy efficiency ratio (SEER) and heating seasonal perfor-
mance factor (HSPF) comparison
Table 6.20 shows the SEER and HSPF test data of the mini VRF units
with 16kW rated cooling capacity (18 kW rated heating capacity). According
to the AHRI Standard 210/240 2017, the SEER and HSPF of the variable
volume ratio two-stage system are 18.17 and 13.2, respectively, and both of
them are better than that of the conventional two-stage compression system
and the single-stage compression system.
TABLE 6.19
APF of mini VRF units
Single-stage
two-stage
compression system
Test items compression system
RC 15780 4210 3.75 15475 4685 3.30
50%RC 8034 1433 5.61 8523 1744 4.89
MC 4355 600 7.23 4357 758 5.75
RH 17822 4620 3.85 17663 4673 3.78
50%RH 8960 1707 5.25 8884 1689 5.26
MH 5286 976 5.41 6241 1186 5.26
LTH 14643 5331 2.78 14332 5898 2.43
APF 4.90 4.59
TABLE 6.20
SEER and HSPF of the mini VRF units
Variable volume ratio Two-stage Single-stage
two-stage compression compression
compression system system system
Test items
Capa- Capa- Capa-
Power EER/ Power EER/ Power EER/
city city city
(W) COP (W) COP (W) COP
(W) (W) (W)
A2 14048 4699 2.99 14562 5473 2.661 14539 4764 3.05

B2 15161 4128 3.673 15394 4765 3.231 14942 4091 3.65
Cool- EV 8003 1591 5.029 6030 1196 5.042 6272 1281 4.89
ing B1 5058 805 6.284 5778 1059 5.456 3662 635 5.77
F1 5498 553 9.942 6219 861 7.223 4447 460 9.67
SEER 18.17 16.83 16.79
H12 15720 4568 3.441 15856 4575 3.46 15492 4613 3.358
H2V 6260 1533 4.083 5668 1444 3.93 5623 1786 3.148
Heat- H32 13538 4587 2.952 11316 4196 2.70 9409 3828 2.458
ing H11 4301 861 4.995 5042 1031 4.89 3366 831 4.05
H01 5433 953 5.701 6443 1006 6.4 4891 787 6.211
HSPF 13.2 11.52 9.58
6.3 Variable Refrigerant Flow Multi-split Heat Pump

The variable refrigerant flow multi-split heat pump (referred to as VRF unit)
refers to the unit whose cooling capacity is usually 28kW–50kW. The VRF
unit is mainly used in commercial places such as office building, apartment
and so on.

The system could be catalogued based on the compressor number such as
one-, two- or multi-compressors. In this section, the 28kW VRF unit with
two parallel connected compressors is taken as an example to introduce the
application of variable volume ratio two-stage compression technology.
Figure 6.19 shows the schematic diagram of the outdoor unit of VRF
heat pump system using two parallel connected two-stage compressors with
variable volume ratio. Since the VRF system has the larger capacity and
the longer refrigerant pipes, the two-stage compression one-step throttling
interstage incomplete cooling cycle is generally adopted in VRF unit. In the
figure, intermediate heat exchanger 7 is a plate heat exchanger. In addition,
due to parallel connection of the two compressors, oil-balancing solenoid valve
12, pressure-balancing solenoid valves 13 and 14 are installed for lubricant oil
distribution and pressure control, respectively.
6.3.2 System configuration

The parameters of main VRF system components are shown in Table 6.21,
where the specifications of two compressors are the same.

1.Vapor injection control
The schematic diagram of the vapor injection control system at heating op-
eration mode is shown in Figure 6.20. It can be seen that the high-temperature
and high-pressure liquid refrigerant from condenser (indoor heat exchanger)
is cooled by the plate heat exchanger 7 and divided into the main circuit and
branched circuit for vapor injection. The liquid refrigerant in branched circuit
is throttled by the branched electronic expansion valve 9 to two-phase state at
intermediate temperature and intermediate pressure. The branched two-phase
refrigerant absorbs heat from the high-temperature and high-pressure liquid
refrigerant at main circuit in plate heat exchanger 7, and becomes gas refriger-
ant and finally enters the interstage mixing chamber of the two-stage compres-
sor. The liquid refrigerant in main circuit is cooled with certain subcooling and
then throttled by the main electronic expansion valve 8 to low-temperature
and low-pressure two-phase state. The liquid refrigerant is evaporated to gas in
the outdoor heat exchanger 6 and then enters gas-liquid separator 4. Finally,
5
15 16
19
13 14
6
21
3
12
1 2
20 10 11
18 8
17
7 9
FIGURE 6.19
Outdoor unit system of VRF multi-split heat pump
1. Compressor 1; 2. Compressor 2; 3. Oil separator; 4. Gas-liquid separator; 5.
Four-way valve; 6. Outdoor heat exchanger; 7. Internal heat exchanger (plate heat
exchanger); 8. Main electronic expansion valve; 9. Branched electronic expansion
valve; 10. Oil return solenoid valve 1; 11. Oil return solenoid valve 2; 12. Oil-
balancing solenoid valve; 13. Pressure-balancing solenoid valve 1; 14. Pressure-
balancing solenoid valve 2; 15. Solenoid valve for low-pressure switching; 16. Solenoid
valve for high-pressure switching; 17. Vapor injection solenoid valve; 18. Subcooling
solenoid valve; 19. Discharge pressure sensor; 20. Intermediate pressure sensor; 21.
the gas refrigerant enters the compressor suction port and is compressed by the
low-pressure stage cylinder and discharged into the interstage mixing chamber,
then mixed with the gas refrigerant from vapor injection branch. The mixed
gas refrigerant enters the high-pressure stage cylinder and is discharged into
the condenser (indoor heat exchanger) through the oil separator and four-way
valve.
In the system, the discharge pressure and suction pressure of the com-
pressor are directly measured by pressure sensors. The optimal intermediate
pressure is calculated by Equation (2.60). The actual intermediate pressure is
detected by the intermediate pressure sensor and is adjusted by the branched
electronic expansion valve to form closed-loop control. Similarly, the correction
factor k p of the intermediate pressure from Equation (2.60) needs to be deter-
mined by experiments and fitted into empirical correlation for the calculation
of intermediate pressure.
2. Control strategy of parallel connected compressors
(1) Compressor volume control strategy
For the VRF unit using two parallel connected compressors, due to the
larger system capacity, more indoor units, more irregular on or off of indoor
TABLE 6.21
Parameters of system components
Components Specification
Volume of high-pressure stage cylinder 31.0cm3 ,
volume of low-pressure stage cylinder with fixed
Compressor
volume 31.0cm3 , volume of low-pressure stage
cylinder with variable volume 20.67cm3
Tube-and-fin heat exchanger: three rows with
Outdoor heat exchanger φ7.94mm tube, hydrophilic wavy fin, rated
heating capacity 28.0kW
Main electronic expansion
Orifice: φ3.2mm
valve
Branched electronic
Orifice: φ1.8mm
expansion valve
Solenoid valve Orifice: φ1.9mm, flow rate: >1.8L/min
Four-way valve Rated capacity: 28.0kW
Pressure range: 0.448–4.2MPa, temperature
Discharge pressure sensor
range: −40–120◦ C
Intermediate pressure Pressure range: 0.448–4.2MPa, temperature
sensor range: −40–120◦ C
Pressure range: 0–2.0MPa, temperature range:
−40–120◦ C
Outdoor ambient
temperature sensor
sensor
Plate heat exchanger Rated capacity: 8kW
Oil separator Effective volume: 3.85L
Gas-liquid separator Effective volume: 22.6L
Refrigerant and charge R-410A, 11000g
units and wider variation range of the room thermal load, the refrigerant
volume flow rate should be in a larger range to ensure a bigger gap between the
minimum and maximum loads. In order to ensure the full load (all indoor units
working) of the VRF unit operating well and meet the highest energy efficiency
requirement of system when only part of the indoor units are working, a good
control strategy of compressor volume is needed.
The energy efficiency of the compressor during operation is generally
parabolic with its operating speed. When the thermal load of indoor units
is low, it is only necessary to run single compressor in the frequency range
corresponding to the optimal energy efficiency. When the total load of indoor
units increases to a certain extent, the operating speed of single compressor
1 2
4
7 8
FIGURE 6.20
Schematic diagram of vapor injection control system
1. Compressor 1; 2. Compressor 2; 4. Oil separator; 6. Outdoor heat exchanger; 7.
Plate heat exchanger; 8. Main electronic expansion valve; 9. Branched electronic
expansion valve
exceeds the optimal energy efficiency range. Under that condition, the system
is switched to the operation state of two compressors connected in parallel. At
this time, the two compressors are operated in the optimal energy efficiency
range. The system efficiency would be effectively improved by this control
strategy and energy saving is approached. In order to prevent system fluctu-
ations caused by the frequent startup and shutoff of compressors due to load
variation, the control strategy of the operation maintenance of single compres-
sor and two compressors is adopted to maintain the original operating status
for a certain range.
(2) Pressure-balancing control strategy
During the startup of compressors, it is necessary to minimize pressure dif-
ference between the discharge port and suction port of compressors to reduce
the starting load and prevent failure of the compressor startup. Figure 6.21
shows the schematic diagram of pressure-balancing control of the VRF unit
using two compressors connected in parallel. For balancing the pressure dif-
ference of the compressor discharge port and suction port, pressure-balancing
solenoid valves 13 and 14 are installed between discharge and suction ports of
the each compressor.
The system will execute the pressure-balancing control strategy firstly be-
fore the startup of the first compressor. The pressure-balancing solenoid valves
13 and 14 are turned on simultaneously, the discharge and suction ports of
the compressors 1 and 2 are connected to reduce the startup pressure dif-
ference between compressors. The pressure-balancing solenoid valves 13 and
14 are turned off after the first compressor is started successfully. In order
4 13 14
1 2
FIGURE 6.21
Schematic diagram of pressure-balancing control of two parallel connected compres-
sors
1. Compressor 1; 2. Compressor 2; 3. Oil separator; 4. Gas-liquid separator; 13.
Pressure-balancing solenoid valve 1; 14. Pressure-balancing solenoid valve 2
to avoid the second compressor startup with pressure difference, the second
compressor will be performed pressure-balancing control when the first com-
pressor is started and the second compressor is not started. For example as
shown in Figure 6.21, if compressor 1 starts first and compressor 2 starts later,
the pressure-balancing solenoid valve 14 is turned on and valve 13 is turned
off when the compressor 2 is started. The pressure-balancing control strategy
can effectively prevent the compressor startup with pressure difference and
starting failure.
(3) Oil-balancing control strategy
Since the two compressors connected in parallel are not started or stopped
at the same time in the actual operation, the running time of compressors is
different which will cause the different oil discharge rate and oil return in the
operation of two compressors. That is, the lubricant oil in two compressors is
unbalanced. It is possible that one compressor lacks lubricant oil and another
one is rich in lubricant oil. In severe cases, the operating compressor may be
damaged due to shortage of lubricant oil for a long time. Therefore, the oil-
balancing control strategy is very important for the system with the parallel
connected compressors.
There are many control methods for achieving the oil level balance of
the parallel connected compressors. Combined with characteristics of the two-
stage compressor with variable volume ratio, an active oil level control strategy
for the parallel connected compressors is introduced.
Figure 6.22 shows schematic diagram of oil-balancing operation of the
parallel connected two-stage compressors with variable volume ratio. In order
to achieve the oil balance of compressors, oil-balancing hole is usually set
between the lowest allowable oil level and the discharge valve of compressor.
When solenoid valves 12 and 10 are simultaneously turned on, the oil-
balancing state in two compressor shells can be expressed by Bernoulli
Equation as follows
p1 v12 p2 v22
z1 + + = z2 + + + h12 (6.6)
ζ 2g ζ 2g
where z1 ,z2 = lubricant oil level of compressors 1 and 2, m

v1 ,v2 = lubricant oil velocity in discharge pipes of compressors 1 and
2, m/s
p1 ,p2 = pressure in shells of compressors 1 and 2, Pa
ζ = bulk density of lubricant oil, Pa/m
h12 = energy loss, m
g = gravitational acceleration, m/s2
4 24 25 3
4 24 25 3
1 2 12 1 2 12
22 23 22 23
10 10
(a) Before oil-balancing operation (b) After oil-balancing operation
FIGURE 6.22
Schematic diagram of oil-balancing operation
1. Compressor 1; 2. Compressor 2; 3. Oil separator; 4. Gas-liquid separator; 10. Oil
return solenoid valve; 12. Oil-balancing solenoid valve; 22. Oil-balancing check valve
1; 23. Oil-balancing check valve 2; 24. Discharge check valve 1; 25. Discharge check
valve 2
Since the velocity of lubricant oil at compressor oil-balancing hole is much

lower than that of gas refrigerant in compressor discharge pipe, it can be seen
from Equation (6.6) that the high-speed refrigerant at compressor discharge
pipe can effectively entrain the redundant lubricant oil which is above oil-
balancing hole under the high pressure inside compressor shell. The refrigerant
with lubricant oil enters oil separator through oil-balancing check valves 22
or 23 and solenoid valve 12. Finally, the lubricant oil returns to compressor
suction pipe through the oil separator 3, filter and solenoid valve 10, and then
enters the compressor.
Through above operation control, in the VRF system the compressor with
oil level higher than oil-balancing hole will discharge the redundant lubricant
oil through oil-balancing hole. Thus, the slugging due to exorbitant oil level
of the compressor is prevented effectively. And high oil level occupies too
much volume of compressor shell and affects compressor performance, which

is avoided. For a oil-short compressor with the level of the lubricant oil lower
than oil-balancing hole, no lubricant oil is discharged from oil-balancing hole,
but some lubricant oil can be obtained by suction. Therefore, the oil level
of the oil-short compressor is increased gradually during the operation. The
problem that the operating compressor is short of lubricant oil for a long time
is avoided.
3. Oil return control
In the operation of VRF system, the lubricant oil discharged from com-
pressor can be returned to the compressor through two circuits: a part of the
lubricant oil is separated from gas refrigerant in the oil separator and then
returns to compressor suction pipe through the oil return pipe of oil separa-
tor, finally enters the compressor. Another part of lubricant oil which is not
separated from oil separator is entrained into the pipe, condenser, evaporator
and gas-liquid separator by refrigerant and participates in the entire system
cycle. Finally it is brought back to the compressor by the refrigerant. During
the lubricant oil flow, maintaining the dynamic balance of the lubricant oil
in system can ensure that the compressor is not short of oil. Otherwise the
lubricant oil quantity in the compressor will continue to decline.
When operating in low temperature environment, the compressor is usu-
ally operated at high speed to improve the heating capacity of the VRF sys-
tem, and the lubricant oil discharged from the compressor per time increases.
Meanwhile, due to low ambient temperature, the viscosity of the lubricant
oil is increased, which is difficult for the lubricant oil from oil separator to
return back the compressor through the oil return capillary. The lubricant oil
remains in the oil separator. In addition, because of much more indoor units
in large capacity units, the longer connecting pipes and the possibly larger
height difference between units, the lubricant oil is easily retained in system
components, such as connecting pipe and heat exchangers, especially in the
off-duty indoor unit. It is difficult for refrigerant flow to bring the lubricant oil
back to the compressor. With the increase of operating time, the lubricant oil
remained in connecting pipe and heat exchangers gradually increases. There-
fore, it is necessary to adopt reasonable oil return control method in large
capacity VRF unit for solving problem in terms of oil return to compressor
from oil separator and system components in low temperature environment.
In the design of the oil separator, the oil return capillary is critical for im-
proving separation efficiency to reduce entrained oil by the refrigerant. When
the VRF unit is operated in low temperature environment, due to the large
viscosity of lubricant oil it is difficult to return to the compressor for lubri-
cant oil from oil separator with conventional oil return capillary. Therefore, it
is necessary to increase the diameter of the oil return capillary. However, the
capillary of large diameter can cause the problem that the gas refrigerant from
oil separator returns to the compressor with the lubricant oil under normal
conditions (including cooling condition), resulting in the decrease of capacity
and energy efficiency in VRF system.
In order to solve above problems, for the VRF unit of low temperature
air source heat pump type, two kinds of oil return capillary with different
diameters are used in parallel which are selected according to outdoor ambient
temperature during operation. Under normal operating conditions, the oil
return capillary with small diameter is used to reduce the system capacity
loss. In the outdoor low temperature environment, the oil return capillary of
large diameter is used to ensure the lubricant oil from oil separator returns to
the compressor successfully.
The schematic diagram of oil return control in the VRF unit of low tem-
perature air source heat pump type is shown in Figure 6.23. The oil return
solenoid valves 10 and 11 are used to control the oil return from oil separator
under normal and low temperature operating conditions.
6
4 31
1 2
28
10 26
8 30
11 27
29
FIGURE 6.23
Schematic diagram of oil return control system
1. Compressor 1; 2. Compressor 2; 3. Oil separator; 4. Gas-liquid separator; 6. Out-
door heat exchanger; 8. Main electronic expansion valve; 10. Oil return solenoid
valve 1; 11. Oil return solenoid valve 2; 26. Oil return capillary 1; 27. Oil return
capillary 2; 28. Indoor heat exchanger; 29. Indoor side electronic expansion valve;
30. Check valve; 31. Filter
During the operation of the VRF system, a part of lubricant oil brought
into system by the refrigerant is retained in the pipes and heat exchangers
which needs to be brought back to the compressor by specific oil return control
program. The usual method is to adjust compressor operating frequency and
the opening of indoor electronic expansion valve to return the lubricant oil to
compressor with the refrigerant flow. The oil return operation control strategy
is introduced in section 4.2.4 of Chapter 4.
In the VRF unit, there are many methods for oil return control. Here,
a smart oil return control method based on the refrigerant velocity is intro-
duced. The principle is: firstly, the minimum refrigerant velocity required for
oil return is corrected by detecting operating parameters of the VRF system;
secondly, to determine whether it needs oil return operation and the time
interval of oil return operation by comparing the actual refrigerant velocity

with corrected minimum refrigerant velocity.
In the outdoor low temperature environment, in order to ensure the lubri-
cant oil circulated in the system can be returned to the compressor success-
fully, the oil return operation control method of the VRF unit needs careful
study and verification.
The calculation equation of oil return time interval is shown in Equation
(6.7). The real-time refrigerant velocity can be calculated through compressor
operating parameters, structural parameters and system parameters, and the
oil return interval is obtained consequently.



 v = ηv f AVr ev
 v1 min = a1 + a2 t 2 + a3 t 3



(6.7)


 v2 min = b1 + b2 t 2 + b3 t 3
 τ = f (v, v1 min, v2 min )



where τ = oil return interval, s
v = refrigerant velocity, m/s
ηv = volumetric efficiency of the compressor
v1 min = minimum oil return velocity for vertical pipe, m/s
v2 min = minimum oil return velocity for horizontal pipe, m/s
f = operating frequency of the compressor, Hz
Vr ev = compressor cylinder working volume, m3
A = maximum cross-sectional area of the low-pressure suction pipe, m2
t = outdoor ambient temperature, ◦ C
a1 ,a2 ,a3 = fitting coefficients
b1 ,b2 ,b3 = fitting coefficients
6.3.4 Performance comparison analysis

The VRF units using single-stage compressor and two-stage compressor with
variable volume ratio are taken as examples for performance comparison. The
rated heating capacities of above two VRF units are 28kW. The scroll com-
pressor is used in single-stage compression system. Two parallel connected
two-stage compressors with variable volume ratio are adopted in variable vol-
ume ratio two-stage compression system. The parameters of the two units are
exactly the same including indoor and outdoor heat exchangers (area, heat
exchange tube size, fins, etc.) and air volume flow rate, except the compressor
and heat pump cycle mode are different.
The parameters such as cylinder volume and volume ratio of comparison
compressors are shown in Table 6.22. The test conditions for performance
comparison are shown in Table 6.19.
1. Comparison of maximum heating capacity
The test results show that the heating capacity and heating COP of the
VRF unit using the two-stage compressors with variable volume ratio are
greatly improved compared with single-stage compression unit.
TABLE 6.22
Compressor parameters
Volume
(cm3 )
High-pressure cylinder 31
Two-stage 1 (Two-cylinder
compressor with Low-pressure cylinder operation mode)
31
variable with fixed volume 0.6 (Triple-cylinder
volume ratio Low-pressure cylinder operation mode)
20.67
Single-stage
Cylinder 53 -
compressor
Figure 6.24 shows the comparison of the maximum heating capacity of

two units under various outdoor ambient temperature conditions. When the
outdoor ambient temperature is −15◦ C, the heating capacity of the variable
volume ratio two-stage compression system is improved by 46% compared to
the single-stage compression system. And the increasing ratio is 61% at −20◦ C
outdoor ambient temperature.
40
Single-stage system
30
46%
61%
20
10
-35 -30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5
FIGURE 6.24
Heating capacity of 28kW VRF units vary with outdoor ambient temperature
2. Heating COP at maximum heating capacity

Figure 6.25 shows that the heating COP of the two units vary with the
outdoor ambient temperature at the maximum heating capacity. It can be
seen that under various outdoor temperature conditions, when the two units
are operated at the maximum capacity, the heating COP of variable volume
ratio two-stage compression system is significantly higher than that of the
single-stage compression system. The heating COP is improved by 11.6% and
14.7% at −15◦ C and −20◦ C outdoor ambient temperature, respectively.
4.0
3.0
COP
2.5
14.7%
2.0
11.6%
1.5
-20 -15 -10 -5 0 5
FIGURE 6.25
Heating COP of 28kW VRF units vary with outdoor ambient temperature
3. Relationship between heating capacity ratio and COP

For the VRF unit using the two-stage compressor with variable volume
ratio, the relationship between the heating capacity ratio and heating COP
in triple-cylinder operation mode is shown in Figure 6.26. It can be seen that
under different outdoor ambient temperature conditions, with the increase of
the heating capacity ratio, the heating COP shows the trend of rising firstly
and then declining. The heating COP is maximized under a certain heating
capacity.
4
COP
2
-20ć -7ć
-15ć 7ć
1
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Capacity ratio (%)
FIGURE 6.26
COP varies with capacity ratio in triple-cylinder operation mode
4. Annual performance factor (APF) comparison

Table 6.23 is the performance test data of the VRF units whose rated
heating capacities are 22.4kW. It can be seen that the APF of the VRF unit
using two-stage compressor with variable volume ratio is 5.00 which is superior
to the VRF unit using single-stage compressor.
TABLE 6.23
APF of 22.4kW VRF units
Variable volume ratio Single-stage
two-stage compression system compression system
Test items Capacity Power EER/ Capacity Power EER/
RC 21809 5549 3.93 21368 6070 3.52
50%RC 11802 2384 4.95 11683 2491 4.69
MC 6857 1282 5.35 4493 859 5.23
RH 23766 4982 4.77 23971 5832 4.11
50%RH 12150 2233 5.44 12874 2328 5.53
MH 7533 1385 5.44 4305 796 5.41
LTH 28556 9713 2.94 19495 7925 2.46
APF 5.00 4.64
5. IPLV(C) performance comparison

IPLV (Integrated Part Load Value) is integrated part load performance co-
efficient, which uses single value to express the cooling efficiency performance
at part load, and is an important performance metric for the VRF unit. The
unit performance is tested under various loads including 100%, 75%, 50% and
25% of full load. And the integrated part load value IPLV is calculated by
weighted coefficient. In China, the IPLV standard of the VRF unit is the na-
tional standard GB/T 18837-2015 Multi-connected Air Conditioning (Heat
Pump) Unit.
Figure 6.27 shows the test data for each load point under the IPLV(C)
test conditions. It can be seen that compared with the 22.4kW VRF unit
with single-stage compressor, under the same 25% and 100% load conditions,
the cooling energy efficiency ratio of the variable volume ratio two-stage com-
pression system is improved by 27.5% and 15.1%, respectively, and the cooling
integrated part load performance coefficient i.e. IPLV(C) of that is improved
by 20%.
6. Integrated energy efficiency ratio (IEER) comparison
Integrated Energy Efficiency Ratio (IEER) for air-cooled system
capacity≥65,000 Btu/h has been developed to represent a single metric for
the annualized performance of the mechanical cooling system. It is based on a
volume weighted average of 3 building types and 17 climate zones and includes
4 rating points at 100%, 75%, 50% and 25% load at condenser conditions seen
during these load points.
According to the test methods and calculation methods stipulated in AHRI
Standard 1230 with Addendum 1 2014 “Standard for Performance Rating
of Unitary Air-conditioning & Air source Heat Pump Equipment,” IEER
7.5
6.5
27.5%
EER 6.0 20.7%
5.5
17.6%
5.0
15.1%
4.5
4.0
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
Capacity ratio (%)
FIGURE 6.27
EER of VRF units under various loads
comparison of two units is carried out. Table 6.24 shows the operating condi-
tions for performance tests for systems≥65,000 Btu/h.
Table 6.25 shows the performance test results of the 28kW VRF units. It
can be seen that the IEER of the variable volume ratio two-stage compres-
sion system is 23.3, which is superior to the single-stage compression system.
The heating capacity of the variable volume ratio two-stage compression sys-
tem is 25682W, which is improved by 30.1% compared with the single-stage
compression system at the same COP.
TABLE 6.24
Performance test conditions (unit: ◦ C)
Test items
DBT WBT DBT WBT
RC 26.7 19.4 35.0 23.9
100%RC 26.7 19.4 35.0 -
Cooling 75%RC 26.7 19.4 27.5 -
50%RC 26.7 19.4 20.0 -
25%RC 26.7 19.4 18.3 -
RH 21.1 ≤15.6 8.3 6.1
Heating
LTH 21.1 ≤15.6 -8.3 -9.4
Note: RC, rated cooling; RH, rated heating; LTH, low temperature heating.
TABLE 6.25
Performance test results of the VRF units
Single-stage
two-stage
compression system
Test items compression system
RC 28010.5 8260.5 3.39 27100 8482 3.19
75%RC 20101.1 3766 5.34 20527 4247 4.83
50%RC 13661.5 1625.7 8.40 13562 1552 8.73
25%RC 6839.7 576 11.87 6990 730 9.54
IEER 23.3 21.5
RH 31305 8514 3.67 30188 8402 3.54
LTH 25682 11082 2.32 19740 8481 2.33
6.4 Modular Variable Refrigerant Flow Multi-split Heat

Pump
The modular variable refrigerant flow multi-split heat pump (referred to as
modular VRF unit) is composed of several outdoor units connected in par-
allel. In modular VRF unit, each outdoor unit can be used alone or parallel
connected with other outdoor units. The capacity of modular VRF unit can
range from 40kW to 240kW through modular design and parallel connection
of outdoor units.
The modular VRF unit is mainly used in commercial and large office
spaces.

Figure 6.28 is the schematic diagram of the single outdoor unit of the mod-
ular VRF unit, which is basically same as the VRF system shown in Figure
6.19. Only the oil-balancing solenoid valve 13 for oil-balancing control be-
tween unit modules (also called outdoor units), and gas-bypass solenoid valve
18 controlled by pressure are added.
6.4.2 Compressor capacity control strategy

Similar to the conventional VRF unit, when the thermal load demand of indoor
units is small, one unit module is turned on. With the increase of indoor unit
thermal load, the number of the unit module is gradually increased according
to energy-saving control strategy and thermal load demand.
5
18
16 17
21
14 15
13 6
23
3
12
1 2
10 11
20 22
8
19
7 9
FIGURE 6.28
Single outdoor unit system of modular VRF multi-split heat pump
1. Compressor 1; 2. Compressor 2; 3. Oil separator; 4. Gas-liquid separator; 5. Four-
way valve; 6. Outdoor heat exchanger; 7. Plate heat exchanger; 8. Main electronic
expansion valve; 9. Branched electronic expansion valve; 10. Oil return solenoid valve
1; 11. Oil return solenoid valve 2; 12. Oil-balancing solenoid valve; 13. Modular
oil-balancing solenoid valve; 14. Pressure-balancing solenoid valve 1; 15. Pressure-
balancing solenoid valve 2; 16. Solenoid valve for low-pressure switching; 17. Solenoid
valve for high-pressure switching; 18. Solenoid valve for modular gas bypass; 19.
Vapor injection solenoid valve; 20. Subcooling solenoid valve; 21. Discharge pressure
sensor; 22. Intermediate pressure sensor; 23. Suction pressure sensor
In order to prevent the frequent start and stop of outdoor units caused
by indoor unit thermal load fluctuation, it is necessary to set a load control
range to maintain the start-stop state in modular VRF system. When the
load demand of the modular VRF system is kept in the load control range, the
system maintains the original start-stop state and only adjusts the compressor
operating frequency of the operating unit module to meet the room thermal
load demand.
Figure 6.29 shows the load switching control diagram of the modular VRF
unit. In Figure 6.29, the Q denotes the rated capacity of the modular VRF
unit, and the room thermal load demand curve and broken lines form four
regions A, B, C, and D. The number of operating unit modules corresponding
to each area is different. To avoid frequent start and stop of the outdoor
units, the load demand from the region B to region C is greater than the load
demand from region C to region B.
D
75%×Q Load Number of
C 70%×Q demand operating
55%×Q
range modules
B 50%×Q
A One
25%×Q
B Two
A 20%×Q
C Three
Load demand D Four
FIGURE 6.29
Capacity control diagram of the modular VRF unit
6.4.3 Oil-balancing control strategy

When the modular VRF unit is operating, there is obvious difference in dis-
charged oil and oil return of each unit module due to different operating time
of each unit module, especially in low temperature environment. It easily leads
to large difference of oil level between the compressors of each unit module.
In addition, since each outdoor unit module has also two (or more) compres-
sors connected in parallel, the oil level state of compressors in modular VRF
unit is complicated during operation. It requires solving the problem of the
oil balance of the parallel connected compressors inside unit module as well
as the oil balance problem between unit modules. Therefore, it is necessary
to adopt the combination control strategy of unit modules oil-balancing and
parallel connected compressors oil-balancing.
Figure 6.30 shows the system diagram for oil-balancing control of the single
module in the modular VRF system. When the modular VRF system performs
oil-balancing operation between unit modules, the oil-balancing solenoid valve
13 is turned on, and oil-balancing solenoid valve 12 is turned off. At this
time, the compressor with excessive oil in which the oil level is higher than
the compressor oil-balancing hole discharges the redundant lubricant oil into
the modular system pipe, and the compressor that is short of oil obtains
the lubricant oil from the system by suction. The redundant lubricant oil is
transported from compressor with excessive oil to compressor with insufficient
oil, and the oil balance between modular units is finally achieved.
When the modular VRF system is operated in single module or several
modules without oil balance between the modules, the oil-balancing solenoid
valve 12 is turned on, and oil-balancing solenoid valve 13 is turned off. At this
time, the compressor with excessive oil in which the oil level is higher than the
compressor oil-balancing hole discharges the redundant lubricant oil into the
oil separator during operation, while the compressor with insufficient oil does
13
6
3
4 12
1 2 8
FIGURE 6.30
Schematic diagram of oil-balancing control in modular VRF unit
1. Compressor 1; 2. Compressor 2; 3. Oil separator; 4. Gas-liquid separator; 5. Four-
way valve; 6. Outdoor heat exchanger; 8. Main electronic expansion valve; 12. Oil-
balancing solenoid valve; 13. Modular oil-balancing solenoid valve
not discharged the lubricant oil into oil separator due to its oil level below
compressor oil-balancing hole. The lubricant oil returned from oil separator is
obtained by the compressor with insufficient oil, causing redundant lubricant
oil transferred from the compressor with excessive oil to the compressor with
insufficient oil, until oil levels of all operating compressors are balanced.
6.4.4 Subcooling control strategy

1. Height difference analysis
Since the modular VRF unit are mainly used in commercial applications
and the medium-sized buildings, long connecting pipe should be considered
in the system design as well as the influence of the height difference between
indoor and outdoor units on the system performance and reliability.
Friction pressure drop and gravity pressure drop exist when the liquid
refrigerant flows in pipes with height difference. When the liquid refrigerant
flows upward in the pipes, the pressure gradually decreases along flow direction
resulting in the decrease of the subcooling and even flashing. It will make the
main electronic expansion valve work unstable and induce vibration and noise.
The mass flow of refrigerant and the performance of the modular VRF unit
will be loss. In order to avoid above adverse effects, it is necessary to ensure
sufficient subcooling at the inlet of the main electronic expansion valve in the
design and operation control of the modular VRF unit. Figure 6.31 shows
pressure-enthalpy diagram of the height difference calculation.
p Δtsc
1
p1
2
p1
FIGURE 6.31
Pressure-enthalpy diagram of height difference calculation
According to Bernoulli equation
ρ(v12 − v22 )
ρgH = (p1 − p2 ) + − ∆pl1−2 (6.8)
2
where p1 ,p2 = low-position and high-position pressures, Pa
v1 ,v2 = refrigerant velocity at low-position and high-position, m/s
H = height difference between the low-position and the high-
position, m
ρ = refrigerant density, kg/m3
g = gravitational acceleration, m/s2
∆pl1−2 = energy loss, Pa
In order to simplify analysis, only considering gravity effect, Equation (6.8)
can be simplified to
ρgH = p1 − p2 (6.9)
When the outdoor units are located lower than indoor units in the cooling
operation mode and when outdoor units are located higher than indoor units
in the heating operation mode, the high-pressure liquid refrigerant flows from
low position to high position, which is easily vaporized. In both cases, the
subcooling required by height difference should be greater than the difference
of the saturation temperatures corresponding to the low-position and high-
position pressures.
Taking R-410A system as an example, the upper-limit pressure of the
normal operation of the system is 3.8MPa as the low-position pressure (Point
1). The relationship between the height difference of the indoor and outdoor
units and the subcooling is obtained by Equation (6.9). Result is shown in
Figure 6.32.
From Figure 6.32, in order to meet the requirements that the maximum
allowable height difference is 90m when the outdoor units of the modular
VRF unit are installed higher than the indoor units, and that the maximum
allowable height difference is 50m when the outdoor units are installed lower
than the indoor units, the modular VRF unit must satisfy the subcooling
greater than 18◦ C in the heating operation mode, as well as greater than 8◦ C
in the cooling operation mode.
90
Height difference (m)

80
70
60
50
40
30
4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Subcooling in heating operation mode (ć ć
(a) Outdoor units are higher than indoor units
110
100
Height difference (m)
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
ć Subcooling in cooling operation mode (ć)
(b) Outdoor
(b) Outdoor unit
units are is below
lower thanindoor
indoorunit
units
FIGURE 6.32
Height difference of the indoor and outdoor units varies with the subcooling
In the above analysis, the heat exchange between connecting pipe and
environment is not considered. The connecting pipe must be insulated in the
actual unit installation to reduce the influence of the ambient temperature on
the system.
2. Control strategy of subcooling and vapor injection
Figure 6.33 is the schematic diagram of the subcooling and vapor injection
control system.
When the modular VRF unit needs vapor injection control, the vapor
injection solenoid valve 19 is turned on, and the subcooling solenoid valve
20 is turned off. When the modular VRF unit needs subcooling control, the
subcooling solenoid valve 20 is turned on, and the vapor injection solenoid
valve 19 is turned off. The detailed control is as follows:
6
4
1 2
20 19
FIGURE 6.33˗ ˗ ˗ ˗
Schematic diagram of ˗
subcooling and vapor injection
˗
control
1. Compressor
˗ 1; 2. Compressor 2; 4.
˗ Gas-liquid separator; 6. Outdoor heat ex-
changer; 7. Plate heat exchanger; 8. Main electronic expansion valve; 9. Branched
electronic expansion valve; 19. Vapor injection solenoid valve; 20. Subcooling
solenoid valve
(1) Vapor injection control mode

As shown in Figure 6.33, when the vapor injection control is implemented,
the vapor injection solenoid valve is turned on and subcooling solenoid valve
is turned off. The pressure-enthalpy diagram of the vapor injection control
mode is shown in Figure 6.34(a).
(2) Subcooling control mode
As shown in Figure 6.33, the main refrigerant flow in subcooling control
mode is basically same as that in vapor injection control mode. The difference
between two control modes is mainly reflected in the branched circuit. After
cooling the main refrigerant flow in plate heat exchanger 7, the branched
refrigerant enters gas-liquid separator 4 through subcooling solenoid valve 20
and mixes with the main refrigerant. Then the refrigerant together enters
the compressor and is discharged after compression. The pressure-enthalpy
diagram of the subcooling control mode is shown in Figure 6.34(b).
(3) Control method
The detailed selection method of two control modes is as follows: when
the subcooling of the unit is low, it is necessary to increase unit subcooling
in order to ensure the stability and reliability of system operation and the
subcooling control mode is selected. When the unit is in heating operation
under low temperature condition, it is necessary to increase heating capacity
and the vapor injection control mode is selected.
lgp
1
2
3 4
h
(a) Vapor injection control
˄ ˅
˄ ˅
lgp 1
2
h
(b) Subcooling control
˄ ˅
FIGURE 6.34 ˄ ˅
Pressure-enthalpy diagram of vapor injection control and subcooling control
6.4.5 Defrosting control strategy

In the heating operation of the VRF unit of air source heat pump type, the
frost on the surface of the outdoor heat exchanger will cause the decrease
of the unit heating performance and influence the operating stability of the
VRF system. In air source heat pump units, delaying frost-forming, accurately
determining the amount of frost-forming, and rapidly defrosting are effective
ways to solve the frost-forming and defrosting problems.
The high-pressure and low-pressure values of the system are accurately
detected by the pressure sensors of the VRF heat pump unit. The inlet and
outlet temperatures of the evaporator and condenser can be measured by the
temperature sensors assembled on heat exchanger. The evaporator superheat
and condenser subcooling are calculated based on the measured data. Mean-
while, combined with the main electronic expansion valve of the outdoor unit
and the electronic expansion valve of the indoor unit, the superheat of evap-
orator, subcooling of condenser and system low pressure can be effectively
adjusted to minimize the speed of the frost-forming.
Real-time control is adopted in the control of the electronic expansion

valve. The control feature is to enable the system to improve control precision
effectively as well as quick responding. The calculation equation of the EEV
opening is ∫ n
∆PS(n) = K P × ∆e + KI × edt (6.10)
n−1
where ∆PS(n) = adjusting variable of EEV opening
n = sampling time
KP = proportional coefficient
KI = integral coefficient
Where
∆e = e(n) − e(n − 1) (6.11)
e = ∆tsh − ∆tsh,0 (6.12)

where e = difference between the actual superheat and the target superheat,
◦C
∆tsh = actual suction superheat, ◦ C

∆tsh,0 = target suction superheat, ◦ C
During the adjustment of the electronic expansion valve, the superheat
deviation e is read every 1 second and the opening variable is calculated every
20 seconds. According to these, the superheat of the VRF unit of air source
heat pump type is adjusted effectively in real time to ensure it within the
optimum range.
Saturation temperature (ć)

corresponding to low pressure Outdoor ambient temperature (ć)
-30 0 10 20
No defrosting zone
Shortest defrosting
interval Δt1
Shortest defrosting
interval Δt2
FIGURE 6.35
Schematic diagram of defrosting control
Figure 6.35 shows the control diagram of the defrosting judgment. By

jointly analyzing the detected suction pressure and the outdoor ambient tem-
perature, the amount of frost-forming and the time of starting defrosting of
the unit can be accurately determined. The occurrence of defrosting without

frost would be avoided effectively.
In addition, the continuous defrosting method of the outdoor units is also
adopted in the modular VRF unit. That is, one outdoor unit firstly enters
the defrosting process, and other outdoor units are kept in heating operation.
The unit entering the defrosting process not only absorbs the heat of its own
compressor operation, but also absorbs additional heat from other normal
heating operation units to accelerate defrosting. The outdoor units that need
defrosting can be switched into the defrosting process by turns. With this
defrosting method, the indoor temperature fluctuation during defrosting can
be reduced, while completing the defrosting of all modular units effectively.
7
Low Temperature Air-to-Water Heat Pump
Hui Huang, Haijia Lin
CONTENTS
7.1 Air Source Heat Pump Water Heating System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
7.1.2 Indoor terminals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
7.2 Household Low Temperature Air Source Heat Pump (Water
Chilling) Packages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
7.2.1 System solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
7.2.2 Outlet water temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
7.3 System Control Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
7.3.2 Intermediate pressure control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
7.3.3 Vapor injection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
7.3.4 Two-cylinder and triple-cylinder operation modes . . . . . . 340
7.4 System Performance Comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
7.4.1 Compressor parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
7.4.2 Comparison analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
For an air-to-water heat pump, the heat transfer medium for the outdoor heat
exchanger is air while that for the indoor heat exchanger is water. There are
many types of air-to-water heat pumps, for example, air source water chilling
package, air source heat pump water heater, air source heat pump (water
chilling) package and so on. They are similar in names but quite different in
their application where the first type is mainly designed for cooling only, the
second type for domestic hot water production while the third type is mostly
designed for space heating and cooling.
In this chapter, attention is paid to the air source heat pump (water chill-
ing) package and its heating application. An air source heat pump (water
chilling) package itself cannot realize the indoor temperature control unless it
combines with indoor terminals, which will influence the performance of the
unit conversely, to form a heating system, as shown in section 7.1.
325
Then the application of the two-stage compressor with variable volume

ratio to household low temperature air source heat pump (water chilling)
package is discussed in detail in the following sections, including system config-
uration, control strategy and performance comparison with other compressor
technologies.
7.1 Air Source Heat Pump Water Heating System

A complete air source heat pump water heating system (referred to as water
heating system) normally should consist of one or more air source heat pump
(water chilling) packages, several indoor terminals, connecting pipes, etc.
As shown in Figure 7.1, a water heating system normally involves two
circuits: the refrigerant circuit, i.e., the air source heat pump (water chill-
ing) package, and the water circuit. And the two circuits share one water-
refrigerant heat exchanger.
Water pipe
Compressor
Air-refrigerant
Indoor heat exchanger
terminal
Water-refrigerant
heat exchanger
Water pump Throttling device
Water circuit Refrigerant circuit
FIGURE 7.1
Schematic diagram of air source heat pump water heating system
The refrigerant circuit, i.e., the air source heat pump (water chilling) pack-
age, is normally composed of one or more compressors, an air-refrigerant heat
exchanger (mostly fin-and-tube heat exchanger), a water-refrigerant heat ex-
changer (normally tube-in-tube heat exchanger or plate heat exchanger), a
throttling device and so on.
The water circuit is mainly composed of the water-refrigerant heat ex-
changer, water pump, indoor terminals, water pipes, bypass valves and some
Low Temperature Air-to-Water Heat Pump 327
related accessories. Normally some components of the water circuit, such as

the water-refrigerant heat exchanger, sometimes the water pump and stop
valves, will be encapsulated in the air source heat pump (water chilling) pack-
age.
In heating mode, water is heated by high temperature refrigerant in the
water-refrigerant heat exchanger and then delivered by the water pump to the
indoor terminals to release heat to indoor environment.
According to the layout, the air source heat pump (water chilling) package
can be classified into the integral type and the split type. For the integral
type, the air source heat pump (water chilling) package only has an outdoor
unit; while for the split type, it has an outdoor unit and an indoor unit.
For a water heating system using the integral unit, some components of
the water circuit mentioned above and the refrigerant circuit are all placed
in the outdoor unit, which is connected with the indoor terminals directly
through water pipes. Thus some components of the water circuit are exposed
to the outdoor environment.
On the contrary, for a water heating system using the split units, some
components of the water circuit mentioned above are arranged in the indoor
unit and the refrigerant circuit is placed in the outdoor unit. The outdoor unit
is connected with the indoor unit through refrigerant pipes. Thus all compo-
nents of the water circuit are located in indoor side. As a result, frost crack risk
for the water circuit, especially for the water-refrigerant heat exchanger and
water pipes, etc., can be effectively reduced as long as the indoor temperature
is kept above 0◦ C during system shutdown.
However, for the water heating system using the integral unit, certain
measures must be taken to prevent the frost crack in case the outdoor ambient
temperature drops below 0◦ C.
7.1.2 Indoor terminals

Indoor terminals are used for heat exchange between the hot water and the
indoor environment. There are different types of terminals in order to meet
various requirements, among which three kinds of terminals are widely used,
i.e., the radiant floor, the radiator and the fan coil. According to the terminal
type, the water heating system can also be sorted as the floor heating system,
the radiator heating system and the fan coil heating system.
As the terminals will greatly affect the performance of the air source heat
pump (water chilling) package, it is necessary to study the selection and uti-
lization methods of terminals.
1. Radiant floor
For the radiant floor, pipes are laid under the floor surface. Low tem-
perature hot water (generally lower than 45◦ C) circulates through the pipes,
delivering heat to the surrounding materials and heating the floor surface
by conduction, then the heated floor surface releases heat to the room
via radiation and convection, maintaining a stable and comfortable indoor
temperature.
As the floor is warm, air near the floor surface is heated and flows upwards,
forming a gradual vertical upward temperature reduction. This phenomenon
is called the warm-foot and cool-head state, which is generally acknowledged
as great comfort.
The supply water temperature for the radiant floor can be as low as 30◦ C,
which can effectively reduce the condensation temperature and improve the
COP of the air source heat pump. Therefore, the radiant floor and the air
source heat pump (water chilling) package can make a great match, which has
been widely used. And with the development of low temperature air source
heat pump technology, it will be further promoted to cold and extremely cold
climate regions.
(1) Structures
There are different structures of radiant floor, such as the concrete filling
type, the prefabricated trench insulation panel type, the cement mortar pre-
fabricated filling panel type, the prefabricated light weight heating panel type,
etc. The structure of the concrete filling type radiant floor is shown in Figure
7.2. Several layers are laid around the pipes, which are generally plastic pipes
of φ16 or φ20.
Decorative layer
Aligning layer
Isolation layer˄in humid room˅
Filling layer of gravel concrete
Plastic foam insulation layer
Moisture proof layer (adjacent to soil)
Exterior wall Floor or ground
Plaster layer
Expansion joint Pipe
FIGURE 7.2
Structure of the concrete filling type radiant floor
(2) Thermal output

The thermal output of radiant floor is determined by radiation and con-
vection.
The radiant output is part of the heat that is released from the floor sur-
face via infrared waves. As air is transparent for radiation and little radiant
heat can be absorbed by air directly, most of radiant heat is firstly absorbed
by interior walls, ceiling and furniture, etc., and then transferred to air indi-
rectly. Meanwhile, radiant heat exchange also occurs among surfaces of other
objects in the room, for example, floor surface can radiate heat to human
body directly, bringing a warm feeling. Generally speaking, radiant output

can account for more than 50% of the overall thermal output.
The specific radiant output of radiant floor is calculated by Equation (7.1)
qr = αr (t f − ti ) (7.1)
where qr = specific radiant output of floor, W/m2
αr = equivalent radiant heat transfer coefficient, W/(m2 · K)
t f = surface temperature of radiant floor, ◦ C
ti = indoor temperature, ◦ C
As for convection, because the floor is warm while some walls and win-
dows are cold due to the heat leakage, the density of indoor air is unevenly
distributed, resulting in air movement driven by buoyancy forces.
The specific convective output of radiant floor is calculated by Equation
(7.2)
qc = αc (t f − ti ) (7.2)
where qc = specific convective output of floor, W/m2
αc = convective heat transfer coefficient, W/(m2 · K)
The specific thermal output of the radiant floor is the sum of the specific
radiant output and the specific convective output.
q = qr + qc = (αr + αc )(t f − ti ) = α(t f − ti ) (7.3)
where q = specific thermal output of floor, W/m2

α = overall heat transfer coefficient, W/(m2 · K)
The empirical values of the convective heat transfer coefficient and the
overall heat transfer coefficient are shown in Table 7.1.
TABLE 7.1
Empirical values of heat transfer coefficient (unit: W/(m2 · K))
Overall heat transfer coefficient
Convective heat transfer coefficient αc
α = αr + αc
4–5.5 11
(3) Floor surface temperature

The temperature of radiant floor surface is affected by the insulation of
the room and the covering area of heating pipes. Assuming that the room
thermal load is 50–80 W/m2 and the covering area ratio is 70%, the specific
thermal output required for radiant floor is 71.4–114.3 W/m2 . To maintain
a room temperature of 20◦ C, the temperature of radiant floor surface should
range from 26.5◦ C to 30.4◦ C, calculated by Equation (7.4)
q
tf = + ti = 26.5–30.4◦ C (7.4)
α
Research shows that in the floor heating system, the temperature of radiant
floor surface should not be too high. For example, the temperature of radiant
floor surface should be controlled below 30◦ C in case of sole sweating, and
below 33◦ C when wearing shoes. When the indoor temperature is set from 18
to 23◦ C, the recommended temperature of radiant floor surface ranges from
around 25 to 31◦ C.
(4) Supply water temperature
The supply water temperature of the floor heating system depends on
the thermal resistance of the radiant floor structure and the temperature of
radiant floor surface. Generally, the supply water temperature should be in
the range of 30 to 45◦ C.
2. Radiator
As a kind of high temperature water terminal for heating, the radiator is
most popular, which is widely used in the north of China. Inside the radiator
channels, high temperature steam or water releases heat to the radiator wall,
heating the room mainly by natural convection.
Facts have proven that in well insulated buildings, low temperature hot
water can also be used to achieve a good heating effect as long as the radiator
area and material are properly selected. What’s more, in buildings with excel-
lent insulation, the performance of the radiator heating system is equivalent
to and sometimes even higher than that of the floor heating system.
Meanwhile, as the thermal inertia of the radiator heating system is much
smaller than that of the floor heating system, the indoor temperature can be
stabilized in much shorter time.
Therefore, the radiator is also quite suitable for the air source heat pump
heating (water) system.
(1) Types
So far, there are many types of radiators. From the aspect of material, cast
iron and steel are most popular, while for structure, cylindrical type, airfoil
type, tubular type, plate type and so on are quite common in the market.
(2) Thermal output
The radiator transfers heat mainly by natural convection, together with a
certain proportion of radiation. Given a room heat demand of Q, the radiator
area is calculated by Equation (7.5)
Q
F= β (7.5)
K(tw − ti )
where F = heat transfer area of the radiator, m2

tw = mean water temperature of the inlet and outlet of the radiator,
◦C
K = overall heat transfer coefficient of the radiator, W/(m2 · K)

β = correction factor of the radiator
The K represents the heat transfer capacity of the radiator at given con-
ditions, which is defined as the heat release per unit area of the radiator per
unit time when the temperature difference between mean water temperature of
the radiator and the room temperature is 1◦ C. It is affected by many factors,

whose influences are difficult to be characterized by the theoretical mathe-
matical model, so the test method is normally used instead. The following
are the measures to improve K, such as enhancing the outflow disturbance of
the radiator, increasing the flow velocity inside and outside the radiator, and
increasing the emissivity of the outer surface of the radiator, etc.
The correction factor of the radiator β = β1 β2 β3 , which takes into
account the influence of number of assembly fins, flow arrangement and
installation method, respectively, can be found in relevant engineering design
documents.
From the Equation (7.5), it can be seen that for the radiator, the higher
the supply water temperature, the smaller heat transfer area of the radiator
is needed. But for the air source heat pump, higher supply water temperature
will increase the condensation temperature and reduce the COP.
When using an air source heat pump to supply heat, the basis for selecting
the radiator is that ∆t = tw − ti should be less than 35◦ C, which means if the
target indoor temperature is 20◦ C, the supply water temperature should be
controlled below 55◦ C, and not exceed 60◦ C even in extreme cases.
3. Fan coil
The fan coil releases heat to the room by forced convection through a fin-
and-tube heat exchanger. The hot water flows inside the tubes, while indoor
air, which is driven by the fan, flows through the fin surfaces to bring heat
into the room. The fan coil can also be used as the terminal for cooling.
(1) Types
There are many types of fan coil. According to the fan type, they can be
divided into the centrifugal type and the cross flow type. According to the
structure type, they can be divided into the vertical type, the horizontal type,
the pillar type, the ceiling suspended type and the ceiling concealed type.
According to the installation type, they can be divided into the open type
and the concealed type.
The supply water temperature for a fan coil is usually about 45◦ C, between
the radiant floor and the radiator.
7.2 Household Low Temperature Air Source Heat Pump

(Water Chilling) Packages
As the water heating system using the air source heat pump is introduced
above, the following is the introduction to the air source heat pump unit,
which is particular for the household applications here.
According to the outdoor ambient temperature in heating mode, house-

hold air source heat pump (water chilling) packages can be classified into two
categories.
One is the conventional type, which is normally used in mild climate region.
This kind of heat pump is designed based on a rated heating condition of
outdoor air dry bulb(wet bulb) temperature of 7◦ C(6◦ C), as specified in GB/T
18430.2-2016.
The other one is the low temperature type, which is applicable for cold
climate region. This kind of heat pump is designed based on a rated heating
condition of −12◦ C(-14◦ C) according to GB/T 25127.2-2010 and can operate
stably when the outdoor ambient temperature drops even to −20◦ C.
As for the conventional type, usually a single-stage compression heat pump
is enough, while for the low temperature type, a two-stage compression heat
pump is necessary and some special designs must be done.

In the low temperature air source heat pump (water chilling) package, the
refrigerant circuit is relatively short, therefore the two-stage compression two-
step throttling interstage incomplete cooling cycle is adopted.
Figure 7.3 shows the system schematic diagram of low temperature air
source heat pump (water chilling) package using a triple-cylinder two-stage
rolling piston compressor with variable volume ratio (referred to as two-stage
compressor with variable volume ratio), which is in the smallest broken frame.
The heat pump system is mainly composed of the compressor 1, the oil
separator 3, the four-way valve 4, the water-refrigerant heat exchanger 14, the
throttling devices 6 and 8, the flash tank 7, the air-refrigerant heat exchanger
5 and others.
In heating mode, after leaving the compressor 1, refrigerant of high pres-
sure and temperature state enters the water-refrigerant heat exchanger 14,
releasing heat to water and being cooled down to liquid. Then it’s throttled
by the throttling device 8 and flashes in the flash tank 7, where the refriger-
ant is separated into the liquid refrigerant and the gas refrigerant. The liquid
refrigerant is throttled for the second time and then enters the air-refrigerant
heat exchanger 5, where the refrigerant is vaporized and overheated by the
outdoor air. Later it’s sucked into the low pressure stage cylinder and com-
pressed. The discharge gas enters the interstage mixing chamber, mixing with
the gas refrigerant from the flash tank and being sucked into the high pressure
stage cylinder to complete an entire cycle.
In Figure 7.3, the solenoid valves 10 and 11 are used for switching the
cylinder operation mode. To realize this function, one end of each valve is
connected to the switch device, which is arranged on the low-pressure stage
cylinder with variable volume. Another end of valve 10 is connected to the
suction pipe while that of valve 11 is connected to the discharge pipe. When
valve 10 is off and valve 11 on, the compressor operates in the triple-cylinder
operation mode; conversely, the two-cylinder operation mode is on instead.
FIGURE 7.3
System schematic diagram of low temperature air source heat pump (water chilling)
package
1. Compressor; 2. Muffler; 3. Oil separator; 4. Four-way valve; 5. Air-refrigerant
heat exchanger; 6. Throttling device; 7. Flash tank; 8. Throttling device; 9. Vapor
injection solenoid valve; 10. Solenoid valve; 11. Solenoid valve; 12. Oil-return solenoid
valve; 13. Gas-liquid separator; 14. Water-refrigerant heat exchanger; 15. Water
pump
7.2.2 Outlet water temperature

Most household low temperature air source heat pump (water chilling) pack-
ages are designed for dual functions: cooling in summer and heating in
winter.
Generally speaking, in cooling mode, the outlet water temperature of the
unit (approximately equal to the supply water temperature for the terminals)
ranging from about 7 to 18◦ C can meet the requirements of the terminals such
as fan coils; while in heating mode, a temperature ranging from about 30 to
55◦ C is enough to cover the need for almost all kinds of terminals, i.e., radiant
floor, fan coil, radiator, etc.
According to the outlet water temperature range, low temperature air
source heat pump (water chilling) packages can be classified into two types:
the dedicated type and the general type. The former is designed for specific
terminals which have special need for supply water temperature, while the
latter is designed for most terminals and its outlet water temperature can be
adjusted according to different on-site terminals.
So the outlet water temperature of the general type must be designed
with a much wider range than that of the dedicated one. So far, most units
are general type, which can match with different types of terminals flexibly to
form different heating (or cooling) systems.
7.3 System Control Strategy

The low temperature air source heat pump (water chilling) package is the core
part of the air source heat pump water heating system, and its performance
has a great influence on the heating system.
In this section, the performance characteristics of low temperature air
source heat pump (water chilling) package with two-stage compressor with
variable volume ratio are studied in many aspects, including optimal inter-
mediate pressure, vapor injection mode, cylinder operation mode and so on,
which can provide the basis for design and control of the unit.

A low temperature air source heat pump (water chilling) package with heating
capacity of 14kW is taken as an example to analyze the control strategy of
the system, shown in Figure 7.3. Cylinder volumes of the compressor and
the main configuration parameters of the system are shown in Table 7.2.
The volume ratios of the compressor in the two-cylinder and triple-cylinder
operation modes are 0.9 and 0.54, respectively.
7.3.2 Intermediate pressure control

(1) Optimal intermediate pressure
According to Chapter 2 and the characteristics of the low temperature air
source heat pump (water chilling) package, the Equation (2.60) for calculating
the optimal intermediate pressure is rewritten as follows
√
pFT = k t k f pdis, H S psuc, LS (7.6)
where pFT = intermediate pressure, MPa

psuc, LS = evaporation pressure, MPa
pdis, H S = condensation pressure, MPa
kt = intermediate pressure coefficient related to outdoor ambient
temperature and outlet water temperature
k f = intermediate pressure coefficient related to compressor operating
frequency
(2) Correction factor
k t and k f are called the temperature correction factor and the operat-
ing frequency correction factor, respectively, and the intermediate pressure
coefficient is expressed as k p = k t k f .
TABLE 7.2
Main parameters of 14kW low temperature air source heat pump (water chilling)
package
Volume of high-pressure
27.86
cylinder (cm3 )
Compressor Volume of low-pressure cylinder

31.0
with fixed volume (cm3 )
Volume of low-pressure cylinder
20.67
with variable volume (cm3 )
Type Fin-and-tube heat exchanger
Dimensions(length × height ×
758 × 1320 × 38
Air-refrigerant depth) (mm)
heat exchanger Number of rows/Tube diameter
2/7.94/60
(mm)/U-tube number
Fin pitch (mm)/Fin type 1.8/Hydrophilic wavy fin
Type Tube-in-tube heat exchanger
Water-refrigerant Heat exchange area (m2 ) 1.58
heat exchanger Inner tube Copper tube φ33 × 0.8
Outer tube Seamed steel tube φ38 × 2
Type R-410A
Refrigerant
Charge (g) 4000
In order to realize intelligent control of vapor injection and ensure the

optimal operation of system, it is necessary to make the parameters (k t , k f )
clear for the unit.
The k t and k f are related to many factors, such as volume ratio, cylin-
der operation mode (triple-cylinder or two-cylinder operation mode), com-
pressor operating frequency, refrigerant type, outdoor ambient temperature,
outlet water temperature, water volume flow rate, air volume flow rate, and
subcooling, etc. Therefore, k t and k f will vary with the changes of outdoor
ambient temperature, outlet water temperature, cylinder operation mode and
operating frequency.
For the dedicated type of low temperature air source heat pump (water
chilling) package, variation range of the outlet water temperature is small,
which means its influence on the intermediate pressure is small, so the main
influencing factor is the outdoor ambient temperature.
As for the general type, the designed outlet water temperature varies in a
wide range. But for a specific terminal, the temperature range of the required
outlet water is also small. So the main influencing factor of the intermediate
pressure is also the outdoor ambient temperature. The difference is that in
the unit design, the temperature correction factors in different ranges of outlet
water temperature for different terminals should be studied, respectively.
The temperature correction factor k t is mainly determined by outdoor
ambient temperature and outlet water temperature, which can be expressed
as below
k t = f (tc1, te1 ) (7.7)
where tc1 = outlet water temperature, ◦ C
te1 = outdoor ambient temperature, ◦ C
The condition of outdoor dry/wet bulb temperature −12◦ C/-14◦ C and
outlet water temperature 41◦ C is defined as a reference condition, where the
temperature correction factor k t = 1, which means the intermediate pressure
coefficient k p = k f . But for other conditions, the temperature correction fac-
tor k t will be quite different and need to be studied based on corresponding
experiment data.
The relationship between the operating frequency correction factor k f and
the compressor operating frequency can be established as follows
kf = a f 2 + b f + c (7.8)
where f = compressor operating frequency, Hz

a, b, c = factors, determined by tested data
The operating frequency correction factors k f of two-cylinder and triple-
cylinder operation modes can be fitted by tested data. When the outdoor
dry/wet bulb temperature is −12◦ C/-14◦ C and outlet water temperature is
41◦ C, the empirical correlations are as below.
TABLE 7.3
Measured values and the relative deviations of the fitted values of intermediate
pressure coefficient k p
Operating kp Relative kp Relative
frequency (Two-cylinder deviation (Triple-cylinder deviation
(Hz) operation mode ) (%) operation mode) (%)
25 0.899 2.9 1.192 1.5
35 0.828 -1.4 1.143 -0.4
45 0.817 -0.1 1.131 -0.0
45 0.817 -0.1 1.131 -0.0
55 0.816 1.0 1.127 0.2
65 0.815 0.7 1.128 -0.3
In triple-cylinder operation mode (volume ratio is 0.54)
k f = 5.5230 × 10−5 f 2 − 0.00607 f + 1.292 (7.9)
In two-cylinder operation mode (volume ratio is 0.9)
k f = 5.7802 × 10−5 f 2 − 0.00678 f + 1.006 (7.10)
Table 7.3 shows the relative deviations between the fitted and the measured
values of k p for different operating frequencies in two-cylinder and triple-
cylinder modes when the outdoor dry/wet bulb temperature is −12◦ C/-14◦ C.
7.3.3 Vapor injection

According to the test method specified in GB/T 25127.2-2010, the influence of
vapor injection in triple-cylinder operation mode on the heating performance
is compared for different outdoor ambient temperatures. In this section, the
outlet water temperature is fixed at 41◦ C.
1. Fixed operating frequency
When the compressor operating frequency remains 35Hz, COP and heating
capacity with and without vapor injection in triple-cylinder operation mode
at different outdoor ambient temperatures are shown in Table 7.4, Figure 7.4
and Figure 7.5.
6.0
Triple-cylinder with vapor injection
Triple-cylinder without vapor injection
5.0
4.0
COP
3.0
25.3%
2.0

1.0
-15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
FIGURE 7.4
COP varies with outdoor ambient temperature at the same operating frequency
The following conclusions can be drawn:

1) The COP of the system decreases with the outdoor ambient temperature
drop either with or without vapor injection in triple-cylinder operation mode.
2) In triple-cylinder operation mode, compared to the system without va-
por injection, COP of system with vapor injection is always higher, and the
TABLE 7.4
Comparison of performance with/without vapor injection in triple-cylinder operation
mode at the same operating frequency
Outdoor Improvement Improvement
Vapor Heating Power
ambient of heating of COP
capacity COP
temperature injection (W) capacity (%)
(W)
(◦ C) (%)
With 5792 2659 2.18

-12 33.1 25.3
Without 4351 2501 1.74
With 7143 2682 2.66
-6 27.0 20.9
Without 5626 2553 2.20
With 8351 2798 2.98
0 22.2 16.9
Without 6833 2683 2.55
With 10061 2680 3.75
7 15.3 7.8
Without 8726 2510 3.48
With 12074 2844 4.25
15 6.9 4.4
Without 11298 2779 4.07
With 12944 2693 4.81
20 1.7 3.2
Without 12726 2730 4.66
With 14430 2671 5.40
25 1.4 0.2
Without 14228 2639 5.39
15000 Triple-cylinder with vapor injection

Triple-cylinder without vapor injection
12000
Heating capacity (W)
9000
33.1%
6000
3000
0
-15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
FIGURE 7.5
Heating capacity varies with outdoor ambient temperature at the same operating
frequency
advantage is more obvious along with the drop of outdoor ambient tempera-
ture.
When outdoor ambient temperature is 25◦ C, the difference of COP is al-
most neglectable, but when it drops to −12◦ C, the COP of system with vapor
injection can be increased by 25.3%.
3) Compared to the system without vapor injection, the heating capacity
of the system with vapor injection is always higher. When outdoor ambient
temperature is 25◦ C, the difference of heating capacity is small, but when the
temperature drops to −12◦ C, the heating capacity of the system with vapor
injection can be improved by 33.1%.
2. Fixed heating capacity
As shown in Table 7.5, when the heating capacity of the system is kept
around 10kW, the performance comparison between with and without va-
por injection in triple-cylinder operation mode is made at different outdoor
ambient temperatures.
TABLE 7.5
Comparison of performance with/without vapor injection in triple-cylinder operation
mode at the same heating capacity
Outdoor
Operating Heating Improvement
ambient Vapor Power
frequency capacity COP of COP
temperature injection (W)
◦ (Hz) (W) (%)
( C)
With 56 10015 4271 2.34
-12 25.1
Without 70 10025 5363 1.87
With 49 10145 3795 2.67
-6 20.3
Without 58 10132 4556 2.22
With 42 9989 3244 3.08
0 17.1
Without 49 9812 3738 2.62
With 35 10061 2680 3.75
7 8.7
Without 39 9995 2897 3.45
With 29 10151 2400 4.23
15 5.2
Without 31 10042 2497 4.02
With 25 10012 1740 5.75
25 0.7
Without 25 10065 1763 5.71
As shown in Table 7.5 and Figure 7.6(a), to achieve a constant heating ca-
pacity, the COP decreases enormously along with the drop of outdoor ambient
temperature no matter the system is with or without vapor injection. But the
decrease rates of COP in the two operation modes are quite different, that is,
the one for system with vapor injection is much smaller than that for system
without vapor injection. Meanwhile, it can also be seen that at high outdoor
ambient temperature, the COP improvement is not obvious for systems with
vapor injection.
6.0
Triple-cylinder
70.0 Triple-cylinder
Operating frequency (Hz)

5.0 With vapor injection
With vapor injection
Without vapor injection 60.0
4.0 Without vapor injection
50.0
COP
3.0
25.1% 40.0
2.0
30.0
1.0 20.0
-15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Outdoor ambient temperatureć(ć) ć
(a) COP varies with outdoor ambient tem- (b) Operating frequency varies with outdoor
perature ambient temperature
FIGURE 7.6
COP and operating frequency vary with outdoor ambient temperature at the same
heating capacity
Figure 7.6(b) shows the relationship between the outdoor ambient tem-
perature and the compressor operating frequency. In order to obtain the same
heating capacity, the operating frequency difference increases along with the
drop of outdoor ambient temperature for the systems with and without va-
por injection. That is, at lower outdoor ambient temperature, the compressor
without vapor injection needs to operate at a higher frequency to achieve the
same heating capacity. In conclusion, vapor injection can significantly improve
the heating capacity.
7.3.4 Two-cylinder and triple-cylinder operation modes

Theoretically, for an air source heat pump (water chilling) package using a
two-stage compressor with variable volume ratio, as long as the compressor is
selected, which means the volume ratio is certain, the theoretical displacement
ratio of the high-pressure stage cylinder to the low-pressure stage cylinder
should also be fixed. Actually, the displacements for both stages of the com-
pressor will vary due to the impacts of many factors, such as the operating
frequency, the outdoor ambient temperature, and the outlet water tempera-
ture, etc., so the real displacement ratio will change and the performance of
the system will also be affected.
In the previous section, the influence of vapor injection in triple-cylinder
operation mode on the performance has been analyzed by tested data. In this
section, the influence of the cylinder operation mode on the performance is
analyzed specifically in order to provide suggestions on the cylinder operation
mode selection under different conditions. Here the outlet water temperature
is also fixed at 41◦ C, and the system is operating with vapor injection.
1. To determine based on the outdoor ambient temperature
Given a heating capacity of 10 kW, the performance of both cylinder oper-
ation modes with vapor injection is tested, and shown in Table 7.6 and Figure
7.7.
TABLE 7.6
Comparison of performance in two-cylinder and triple-cylinder operation modes at
the same heating capacity
Outdoor
Cylinder Operating Heating Improvement
ambient Power
operation frequency capacity COP of COP
temperature (W)
◦ mode (Hz) (W) (%)
( C)
Triple-
56 10015 4271 2.34
cylinder
-12 Two- 11.4
73 10051 4775 2.10
cylinder
Triple-
49 10145 3795 2.67
cylinder
-6 Two- 9.9
63 10102 4157 2.43
cylinder
Triple-
42 9989 3244 3.08
cylinder
0 Two- 9.6
56 10057 3585 2.81
cylinder
Triple-
35 10061 2680 3.75
cylinder
7 Two- 9.0
47 9927 2889 3.44
cylinder
Triple-
29 10151 2399 4.23
cylinder
15 Two- 3.7
41 10118 2481 4.08
cylinder
From Table 7.6 and Figure 7.7(a), when outdoor ambient temperature
varies from −12◦ C to 7◦ C, the COPs in triple-cylinder operation mode are
always higher than those in two-cylinder operation mode. The improvement
ranges from 9.0% to 11.4%. However, when the outdoor ambient temperature
increases to 15◦ C, the improvement is only 3.7%.
In addition, when outdoor ambient temperature ranges from −12◦ C to
◦
15 C, the compressor frequencies in two-cylinder operation mode are 12–17
Hz higher than those in triple-cylinder operation mode, as shown in Figure
7.7(b).
In summary, with a heating capacity of 10kW, when outdoor ambient

temperature ranges from −12◦ C to 15◦ C, the COPs in triple-cylinder operation
mode are higher than those in two-cylinder operation mode.
4.54.5
3.7%
3.7%
With vapor injection 70.0 With vapor injection
Operating frequency (Hz)

4.0 Triple-cylinder 9.0%
9.0% Triple-cylinder
60.0

3.5 Two-cylinder Two-cylinder

COP
9.6%
9.6% 50.0
3.0 9.9%
9.9%
11.4% 40.0
11.4%
2.5
30.0
2.0
-15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20
Outdoor ambient temperatureć
(ć) Outdoor ambient temperature (ć)
ć
(a) COP varies with outdoor ambient tem- (b) Operating frequency varies with out-
perature door ambient temperature
FIGURE 7.7
COP and operating frequency vary with outdoor ambient temperature at the same
heating capacity
2. To determine based on operating frequency range of the com-

pressor
As shown in Figure 7.8, when the outdoor dry/wet bulb temperatures are
−12◦ C/-14◦ C and 7◦ C/6◦ C, the relations between the COP and the heating
capacity ratio for triple-cylinder and two-cylinder operation modes are estab-
lished. Here, the heating capacity ratio means the ratio of the heating capacity
to the rated heating capacity, which is 12kW.
From Figure 7.8, it is known that no matter that the outdoor ambient
temperature is −12◦ C or 7◦ C, with the increase of the heating capacity ratio,
COPs in both cylinder operation modes have the same tendency, that is,
increase at first and decrease later. Curves intersect where the heating capacity
ratio is about 0.4, which means that when the heating capacity is lower than
40% of the rated one, COP in two-cylinder operation mode is higher than
that in triple-cylinder operation mode, and vice versa. At outdoor ambient
temperature of 7◦ C, when the heating capacity ratio gets higher than 0.87,
the COP drops sharply.
7.4 System Performance Comparison

In this section, three different low temperature air source heat pump (water
chilling) packages, which have the same rated heating capacity (14kW), same
refrigerant R-410A but different types of compressors, are taken as examples
(a) Outdoor dry/wet bulb temperature −12◦ C/-14◦ C
(b) Outdoor dry/wet bulb temperature 7◦ C/6◦ C
FIGURE 7.8
for performance comparisons. The compressors are: the two-stage compressor

with variable volume ratio, the conventional two-stage compressor and the
single-stage compressor.
Except for the compressors and heat pump cycles, other components
and parameters, such as the water-refrigerant heat exchanger and the air-
refrigerant heat exchanger (area, heat exchange tube size, fin, etc.), air volume
flow rate, etc., are exactly the same.
7.4.1 Compressor parameters

These compressors used for comparisons are rolling piston type. The com-
pressor cylinder volumes, volume ratios and other parameters are shown in
Table 7.7. To be clear, for the conventional two-stage compression heat pump
system, two two-stage compressors are used in parallel here.
TABLE 7.7
Parameters of compressor of air source heat pump (water chilling) packages
Volume
(cm3 )
High-pressure cylinder 27.86
0.9 (Two-cylinder
Two-stage compressor Low-pressure cylinder
31.0 operation mode)
with with fixed volume
0.54 (Triple-cylinder
variable volume ratio Low-pressure cylinder
20.67 operation mode)
High-pressure cylinder 29.0
Two-stage compressor 0.73
Low-pressure cylinder 39.6
Single-stage
Cylinder 51.03 -
compressor
7.4.2 Comparison analysis

Test conditions for performance comparison are designed according to GB/T
18430.2-2016, GB/T 25127.2-2010 as well as on-site applications, as shown in
Table 7.8.
1. Rated heating condition
The tested results under the rated heating condition are shown in Table
7.9. When three heat pump systems obtain an equivalent heating capacity (14
kW), their descending order by COP is as follows: the variable volume ratio
two-stage compression cycle, the conventional two-stage compression cycle and
the single-stage compression cycle. Whereas, the COP of the variable volume
ratio two-stage compression heat pump system is 4.4% higher than that of the
conventional two-stage compression system, and 8.1% higher than that of the
single-stage compression system.
2. Low temperature condition I (outlet water temperature 45◦ C)
Under the low temperature condition I, where outlet water temperature
is 45◦ C, the performance data of heat pump systems at different outdoor
ambient temperatures are shown in Table 7.10.
In Table 7.10, at different outdoor ambient temperatures, experiment data
of single-stage compression heat pump system is used as the reference. Two
groups of tests are specially designed for the comparison between variable
volume ratio two-stage compression heat pump system and conventional two-
stage compression heat pump system.
One group is for heating capacity comparison when their COPs are equiv-
alent; the other one is for COP comparison when their heating capacities are
equivalent.
TABLE 7.8
Test conditions for performance comparison
Indoor heat exchanger Outdoor heat
(User side) exchanger
Test conditions
GW ater 1 TOutlet 2 TDr y 3 TW et 4
(m3 /h) (◦ C) (◦ C) (◦ C)
Rated condition
2.064 45 7 6
(45◦ C)
Low 1 -15 -
temperature 2 -20 -
2.064 45
condition I 3 -30 -
Heating (45◦ C)
4 -35 -
Low 1 -15 -
temperature 2 -20 -
2.064 35
condition II 3 -30 -
(35◦ C)
4 -35 -
1 Water flow rate, determined according to the standard cooling conditions given
in GB 18430.2;
2 Outlet water temperature;
3 Dry bulb temperature;
4 Wet bulb temperature.
Compared with the conventional two-stage compression heat pump system,

the variable volume ratio two-stage compression heat pump system can obtain
higher heating capacity by 18.8% to 28.7% when their COPs are equivalent, as
shown in Figure 7.9, and COP is 13.0% higher when their heating capacities
are equivalent, as shown in Figure 7.10.
Meanwhile, in Table 7.10, it can be calculated that the variable volume
ratio two-stage compression heat pump system has great advantages over the
single-stage compression heat pump system. When the outdoor ambient tem-
perature drops to −30◦ C, the single-stage compression heat pump is not able
to operate normally, while the variable volume ratio two-stage compression
heat pump can still achieve a heating capacity of 9.54 kW and COP of 1.53.
At outdoor ambient temperature of −15◦ C, the heating capacity (in the upper
row) and corresponding COP of the variable volume ratio two-stage compres-
sion heat pump system can be improved by 110.3% and 25.9% compared with
those of single-stage compression heat pump system, respectively, while at
−20◦ C, the improvements can still be 101.8% and 22.4%, respectively.
TABLE 7.9
Performance data under rated heating condition (outlet water temperature 45◦ C)
Heating capacity Power
Heat pump system type COP
(W) (W)
Single-stage compression cycle 14025 4539 3.09
Two-stage compression cycle 14094 4410 3.20
two-stage compression cycle 14030 4198 3.34

14.0 Two-stage system 27.7%
28.7%
12.0
10.0 22.1%
18.8%
8.0
6.0
4.0
2.0
1.0
-40 -35 -30 -25 -20 -15 -10
FIGURE 7.9
Heating capacity varies with outdoor ambient temperature at the equivalent COP
2.4

Two-stage system 13.0%
2.0 10.7%
1.8
COP
2.1%
1.6
1.4
1.2
1.0
-40 -35 -30 -25 -20 -15 -10
FIGURE 7.10
COP varies with outdoor ambient temperature at the equivalent heating capacity
TABLE 7.10
Performance data under different low temperature conditions (outlet water temper-
ature 45◦ C)
Outdoor ambient Heating

Heat pump system type Power COP
temperature capacity (W)
(◦ C) (W)
-35 Variable volume ratio 8218 6106 1.35
-20
Variable volume ratio 12830 7140 1.80
-15
3. Low temperature condition II (outlet water temperature 35◦ C)

Under the low temperature condition II with outlet water temperature of
35◦ C, the heating performance data of three heat pump systems at different
outdoor ambient temperatures are shown in Table 7.11.
From Table 7.11, it can be seen that when outdoor ambient temperature
ranges from −15 to −35◦ C, compared to conventional two-stage compression
heat pump system, the variable volume ratio two-stage compression heat pump
system can obtain higher heating capacities by 29.1% to 39.5% when their
COPs are equivalent, shown in Figure 7.11; and COPs are 1.2% to 25.0%
higher when their heating capacities are equivalent, shown in Figure 7.12.
Comparing Figure 7.11 and Figure7.12 with Figure 7.9 and Figure 7.10, it
can be seen that when the outlet water temperature is 35◦ C, the differences of
heating capacity and COP between the two systems are much more obvious
than those with an outlet water temperature of 45◦ C at the same outdoor
ambient temperature.
From Table 7.11, a similar malfunction is observed for the single-stage
compression heat pump system at low outdoor ambient temperature. What’s
more, it can be calculated that compared to the single-stage compression heat
TABLE 7.11
Performance data under different low temperature conditions (outlet water temper-
ature 35◦ C)
Outdoor ambient Heating

Heat pump system type Power COP
temperature capacity (W)
(◦ C) (W)
-20
-15
FIGURE 7.11
Heating capacity varies with outdoor ambient temperature at the equivalent COP
FIGURE 7.12
COP varies with outdoor ambient temperature at the equivalent heating capacity
pump system, the heating capacity (in the upper row) and corresponding COP
of the variable volume ratio two-stage compression heat pump system can be
increased by 133.8% and 35.4%, respectively, at outdoor ambient temperature
−15◦ C, while the improvements can still be 102.2% and 25.5%, respectively,
at outdoor ambient temperature −20◦ C.
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Index
Absorption heat pump, 2 134–136, 144, 158, 163,

Air conditioner, 2, 4, 7, 10, 23, 175, 176, 182–184, 187,
81–83, 85, 87, 88, 236, 238, 193, 197, 198, 201–203,
239, 243, 245, 271–275, 231, 237–240, 243, 244,
278–291, 295, 296, 299 249, 250, 253, 271, 272,
Air source heat pump, 2–15, 17, 18, 274, 278–280, 283–285,
20–25, 37, 50, 81–83, 85, 287, 288, 290, 292, 293,
87, 88, 96–99, 119, 176, 295, 298, 299, 309, 311,
179, 181, 182, 189–193, 326, 332, 334, 340, 343
197, 198, 201–203, 229, Condensation pressure, 206, 213,
231, 236–239, 242–247, 221, 224, 334
249, 250, 253, 259, Condensation temperature, 7, 22,
271–274, 293, 299, 308, 34, 37, 51–53, 55, 61, 65,
321, 322, 325–328, 66, 78, 80, 82, 83, 85, 87,
330–335, 340, 342, 344 88, 97, 101, 102, 194, 255,
Annual performance factor, 288, 258, 273, 274, 278, 285,
299, 311 288, 328, 331
Condensation-evaporator, 16, 17
Back edge angle, 114, 115, 133 Condenser, 2–6, 9–11, 13–17, 23,
Cascade heat pump, 16, 17, 23 30–32, 34, 35, 38–41, 44,
Check valve, 15, 306, 308 46, 47, 49–51, 55, 61,
Closed heat pump cycle, 2 65–70, 75, 78, 80, 183, 190,
Cloud point, 183 192, 193, 204, 211, 213,
Coefficient of Performance, 7, 29, 218, 221–224, 246, 255,
36, 45, 48, 81–85, 88, 174, 256, 258, 267, 274, 288,
238 292, 301, 302, 307, 312,
Cold climate region, 14, 15, 22–24, 321
87, 90, 182, 332 Cooling capacity, 25, 28, 32, 35, 36,
Compression mechanism, 12, 39, 45, 47, 48, 55, 57, 60,
110–112, 118, 175 61, 63, 64, 81, 98, 127, 174,
Compression work, 29, 30, 35, 47, 208, 275, 278, 299
48, 63, 64, 70, 71, 78, 79, Cylinder phase angle, 125, 160, 161
140
Compressor with variable volume Demagnetization current, 233
ratio, 23–25, 28, 43, 80–82, Depressurized water evaporative
85, 87, 88, 96–98, 110, 118, cooling equipment, 1
119, 122–126, 128, Discharge valve seat, 235
357
358 Index
Discharge pressure, 34, 50, 77, 80, Flash tank, 13, 23, 24, 40–42, 44–48,
99–106, 115–117, 132, 136, 50, 57, 61, 63, 65, 121,
141, 163, 194–196, 218, 212–218, 221–224, 229,
221, 222, 232, 276–278, 242, 272, 273, 292–294,
292–294, 302, 303, 315 332, 333
Discharge temperature, 7, 15–17, Flooded startup, 232–234
33, 34, 37, 39, 43, 45, 73, Floor heating system, 327, 330
75, 76, 177, 184, 187, 188, Flow coefficient, 250, 255, 256, 258
193, 194, 199, 211, 227, Four-way valve, 4, 5, 14, 15, 18–20,
228, 248, 258, 294, 303 201, 202, 243, 272, 292,
Displacement ratio, 49, 81, 98, 340 294, 302, 303, 315, 317,
Dry bulb temperature, 17, 263, 282, 332, 333
288, 291, 299, 313, 345 Front edge angle, 114, 115, 131, 133
Frost crack, 327
Economizer, 10
Gas moment, 149, 151, 152, 164
Electronic expansion valve, 3, 176,
Gas pressure pulsation, 125, 127
190, 201, 202, 204–217,
Gas refrigerant, 3, 9–13, 15, 19–21,
221, 223–226, 228, 242,
23, 24, 38–42, 44–46, 99,
246–248, 250–252, 255,
105, 110–116, 118–122,
292–294, 301–304, 308,
125, 127, 130, 133,
315, 317, 320–322
135–137, 140, 149, 177,
Energy efficiency ratio, 25, 29, 36,
184–189, 193, 195, 200,
48, 81, 289, 299, 312
204, 205, 212, 215, 240,
Enthalpy enhancement ratio, 48, 56,
246, 268–270
57, 61, 62, 64
Gas-liquid separator, 110, 111, 122,
Entrainment ratio, 256
123, 125, 127, 134, 192,
Evaporation pressure, 9, 34, 37, 38,
193, 198, 200, 222, 243,
180, 273, 334
245, 246, 248, 272,
Evaporation temperature, 8–10,
292–294, 302, 303,
180, 182–184, 236–238,
305–308, 315, 317, 320, 333
250, 253–255, 257–270,
273, 274, 278, 285, 288 Heating capacity, 6–10, 12–14,
Evaporator, 2–5, 8, 9, 11, 13, 15–17, 16–18, 22, 25, 29, 32–37,
23, 30, 33–35, 38–48, 51, 43, 45, 47, 49, 50, 55–77,
55, 63, 110, 111, 118, 177, 81, 98, 174, 192, 243, 247,
179, 180, 183, 184, 252–258, 267, 275–288,
190–193, 198, 205, 209, 293–299, 303, 307,
212, 215, 222–224, 246, 357 309–311, 313, 320,
338–342, 344–349
Fin-and-tube heat exchanger, 3, Heating mode, 238, 333
259, 261, 262, 326, 331, 335 Heating seasonal performance
First-step throttling, 13, 23, 44–46, factor, 289, 299
48, 50, 56, 57, 61, 63, 193, Height difference, 246
211, 213–215, 217, 221, High temperature heat source, 29,
223–226, 228–230, 256, 272 30, 32
Index 359
High-pressure accumulator, 15 191–195, 197, 198, 200,

High-pressure stage cylinder, 13, 204, 205, 207, 208,
23–25, 37–42, 44, 45, 211–216, 221, 224, 229,
49–51, 61, 63–65, 78, 80, 232–236, 243, 245–248,
81, 98, 99, 103, 134, 175, 293, 301, 317, 318
205, 207–209, 212–214, Liquid return, 177, 191, 193, 198,
216–219, 224, 229, 230, 200, 248
236, 237, 294, 302, 303 Liquid slugging, 8, 34, 191, 233
Hot-gas bypass defrosting, 19, 243, Longitudinal tube pitch, 261
245 Low temperature heat source, 1–3,
6, 28, 30
Indicated efficiency, 143 Low-pressure stage compressor, 14,
Indicated power, 143 15, 23, 37
Indicated work, 139–143 Low-pressure stage cylinder with
Indoor terminal, 325–327 fixed volume, 98–100, 103,
Integrated part load value, 88, 312 118, 122–126, 138,
Interfacial friction force, 246 158–161, 164, 175, 294, 303
Intermediate chamber, 118, Low-pressure stage cylinder with
121–127, 134, 135, 163, variable volume, 98–100,
164, 191, 193, 194 294, 303, 332
Intermediate temperature, 11, 79, Lubricant oil, 8, 22, 23, 34, 37, 41,
80, 261, 273–275, 301 110–113, 117, 135, 136,
Internal heat exchanger, 10, 11, 14, 152–154, 176–184, 186,
15, 38–40, 204–209, 242, 187, 189–197, 208, 231,
302 235, 245–248, 270, 292,
Interstage mixing chamber, 39, 301, 305–309, 316, 317
42–45, 99, 203–205, 207,
208, 212–216, 219, 221, Main bearing, 111, 124, 158–162,
224, 230, 233–236, 242, 165, 176
246, 272, 292, 301, 302, 332 Mass flow rate, 3, 9, 11, 13, 28, 29,
Isenthalpic process, 30, 35 31–33, 35, 37, 45, 46,
Isentropic compression process, 28, 48–50, 63, 80, 103, 106,
31, 34–36, 221 107, 125, 137–139, 213,
Isentropic efficiency, 14, 34, 36, 37, 215, 217, 230, 247, 249,
45, 47, 50, 61, 70, 72, 218, 250, 255–259, 267, 268, 288
221, 222, 288 Mild climate region, 90, 332
Isentropic expansion process, 28, 29 Mixture viscosity, 177, 194–196
Isentropic exponent, 101, 140, 219, Motor winding, 22, 37, 187, 191,
220 233–235
Isobaric process, 30, 35 Muffler, 111, 122–124, 126, 333
Isobaric specific heat, 105
Isothermal process, 28, 34 Normal startup, 197, 232, 233, 235
Leakage coefficient, 132, 135, 136
Liquid refrigerant, 3, 8–10, 23, 31, Oil discharge rate, 184–187, 189,
32, 34, 38–42, 45, 46, 110, 247, 248, 305
360 Index
Oil return, 8, 22, 23, 177, 180, 183, Reverse Carnot cycle, 28–30
189, 190, 198, 202, 231, Reverse flow, 213, 217, 218, 221,
246–248, 270, 292, 302, 225, 226, 229, 242
305–309, 315–317 Reverse-cycle defrosting, 243, 244
Oil separator, 246, 247, 292, Rolling piston compressor, 3, 12, 13,
302–308, 315–317, 332, 333 22, 23, 110, 111, 115–117,
Oil temperature superheat, 193–197 119, 122, 125, 126, 128,
Open-loop starting, 234, 235 131, 132, 134–136, 142,
Optimal volume ratio, 50–54, 68–70, 148, 166–168, 172,
72, 75, 77, 81–84, 87, 88, 176–178, 181, 184–187,
90, 95–98 189, 195, 196, 198, 280,
Out of step, 233, 243 295
Overall heat transfer coefficient,
329, 330 Screw compressor, 10, 12
Scroll compressor, 3, 10–13, 309, 360
Plate heat exchanger, 3, 301–304, Second-step throttling, 13, 23, 41,
315, 320, 326 42, 44, 45, 61, 202, 211,
Polytropic exponent, 99, 101, 102, 215, 216, 221, 222, 224,
130, 134, 140, 141 225, 253, 256, 257, 261,
Pour point, 177, 179, 181, 183 272, 293
Pressure coefficient, 77–81, 132, 134, Single-stage compression, 10–17, 22,
141 44, 45, 48–51, 55, 58,
Pressure difference, 3, 112, 121, 135, 60–63, 65, 66, 68–70, 74,
146, 190, 192, 232, 236, 75, 77, 201, 202, 205, 237,
240, 248, 304, 305 242, 249, 250, 252–254,
Pressure drop, 9, 25, 31, 34, 42, 50, 258, 259, 261, 263–269,
51, 55, 99, 190, 205, 249, 282, 283, 285, 286, 288,
250, 252, 253, 255–257, 290, 299, 309, 310, 313,
260, 266, 268, 270, 294, 332, 344–348
317 Solenoid valve, 15, 19, 20, 119, 120,
Pressure ratio, 8, 13, 16, 17, 22, 37, 201, 202, 229, 242, 272,
45, 55, 61, 63, 78, 80–82, 273, 292, 294, 301–306,
85, 102, 117, 140, 141, 308, 314–317, 319, 320,
218–221, 248, 285 332, 333
Specific thermal output, 329
Quality, 9, 46, 48, 50, 56, 57, 61, 63, Specific convective output, 329
64, 75, 76, 193, 194, 224, Specific enthalpy, 11, 31, 32, 34–36,
250, 255, 256, 259 39, 41, 43, 45–48, 50, 57,
Quasi two-stage scroll compressory, 61, 63, 105, 106, 258
13 Specific entropy, 28, 34
Specific radiant output, 329
Radiant floor, 327–331, 333 Specific volume, 8, 9, 33, 36, 37, 49,
Rated condition, 175, 345 50, 55, 60, 63, 104, 105,
Resistance moment, 144, 150–152, 135, 137, 138, 213, 219,
156, 163–166 221, 250, 255
Index 361
Specific work, 31–34, 36, 218 Triple-cylinder operation mode,

Starting frequency, 232 25, 85, 90, 98, 100, 103,
Stop valve, 292, 327 120, 137, 139, 141, 143,
Sub bearing, 111, 112, 123, 124, 162, 165, 166, 203,
158–160, 162, 163, 165, 235–238, 240, 241, 250,
176 273, 275, 277–279, 287,
Subcooling, 31, 32, 39, 50, 51, 55, 293, 298, 311, 332, 334,
61, 65–70, 75, 78, 82, 85, 336–342
88, 97, 126, 206, 213, 218, Tube-in-tube heat exchanger, 3,
222–224, 226–229, 253, 326, 335
255, 258, 267, 275, 293, Two-cylinder operation mode, 25,
301, 302, 315, 317–321, 85, 98, 99, 103, 119, 120,
335 125, 136, 138, 142, 160,
Suction pressure, 8, 9, 37, 77, 80, 162, 163, 165, 204,
99–106, 110, 115, 116, 131, 235–238, 240, 241, 243,
134–136, 141, 151, 163, 245, 273, 275–277, 279,
218, 221, 222, 248, 332, 335, 337, 341, 342
276–278, 292–294, 302, Two-layer separation temperature,
303, 315, 322 177, 183, 184
Suction temperature, 200, 294
Superheat, 30, 33, 34, 38–42, 44, 50, Unitary air-conditioning units, 4
51, 56, 61, 64–67, 70–76,
78, 82, 85, 88, 106, Valve seat, 235, 251, 357
193–197, 199, 200, Vane, 112, 113, 116–118, 120, 121,
205–211, 214, 216, 218, 128–131, 135, 136,
222, 224, 229, 246, 261, 144–149, 156, 157, 160,
321, 322, 359 173–175, 177, 191, 240
Supply water temperature, 328, 330, Vapor compression heat pump, 2,
331, 333 28, 30, 31
Vapor injection, 2, 10–13, 16, 22,
Temperature coefficient, 132, 135 25, 38, 45, 48, 63, 75, 80,
Thermal load, 25, 238, 274 98, 99, 103–107, 118, 119,
Thermal output, 328–330, 360 122–125, 127, 135–137,
Thermal storage container, 20, 21 188, 191, 193, 194, 197,
Thermal storage defrosting, 18, 20, 199, 200, 202, 204–209,
21 213–219, 221, 224–226,
Throttling device, 2, 3, 10, 11, 13, 229–232, 235, 236, 242,
15, 16, 19, 20, 23, 30–32, 243, 245, 272, 273,
35, 38, 39, 41, 42, 44, 45, 275–278, 292–294, 301,
51, 204, 256, 261, 272, 326, 302, 304, 315, 319–321,
332, 333 333–335, 337–341
Thrust bearing, 112, 158, 163, 165 Variable refrigerant flow, 247, 271
Total acid number, 177, 179, 180 Variable speed compressor, 80, 98,
Transportation distance, 43 236, 237
Transverse tube pitch, 261 Viscosity index, 177–179
362 Index
Volume flow rate, 8, 9, 22, 117, 119, Volumetric loss, 115, 132–134
121, 134, 138, 139, 275, VRF multi-split heat pump, 4, 23,
280, 285, 294, 303, 309, 247, 248, 271, 292, 302,
335, 343 314, 315
Volumetric coefficient, 132, 134, 141
Volumetric efficiency, 8, 9, 14, 36, Wall shear stress, 270
37, 45, 49–51, 61, 80, 81, Water content, 177, 179
99, 132, 135–139, 174, 177, Water/Ground source heat pump, 2
218 Working volume ratio, 49, 80, 81

Hui Huang (Editor) - Heat Pumps For Cold Climate Heating - Variable Volume Ratio Two-Stage Vapor Compression Air Source Heat Pump Technology and Applications-CRC Press (2020)

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Heat Pumps for Cold

and by CRC Press

© 2020 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trade-

ISBN: 978-0-367-46535-3 (hbk)

Visit the eResources: https://www.crcpress.com/search/results?kw=heat+pumps+for+

2 Analysis of Variable Volume Ratio Two-stage Compression

2.3.1 Theoretical model and calculation method of two-stage

3 Triple-cylinder Two-stage Compressor with Variable Volume

3.4.1 Motion and force analysis of motion mechanism for

4 Basic Principles of System Control 201

5 Optimization Analysis of Low Temperature Air Source Heat

6 Low Temperature Air-to-Air Heat Pump 271

7 Low Temperature Air-to-Water Heat Pump 325

compressor with variable volume ratio is a kind of superior technology in

Hui Huang currently serves as the Executive President of Gree Electric

Hui Huang, Xiangfei Liang, Bo Zheng

Refrigeration technology commenced when William Cullen in Scotland, pub-

1.1 Composition and Types of Air Source Heat Pumps

Throttling device Compressor

The condenser is a heat exchanger releasing heat to the high temperature

1.1.2 Types of air source heat pumps

1. Air-to-air heat pump

Indoor heat Outdoor heat

(a) Cooling operation mode

(b) Heating operation mode

Solar collector Hot water

Three-way valve Cold water

1.2 The Problems and Progress of Air Source Heat

operating range of the compressor, which may result in compressor overheat-

1.2.2 Analysis on heating capacity reduction of air source

3) The increase of suction specific volume and the decrease of volumetric

1.2.3 Low temperature air source heat pump technologies

The quasi two-stage compression technology with a scroll compressor has

3. Single-compressor two-stage compression technology

is composed of a low-pressure stage cylinder and a high-pressure stage cylin-

When the outdoor ambient temperature is higher, the refrigerant dis-

First-stage heat Second-stage

Throttling device Three-way valve

When the outdoor ambient temperature is higher, the second-stage (water-

Compared with the conventional single-stage compression heat pump sys-

Throttling device1 Compressor 1

Throttling device 2 Compressor 2

1.2.4 Defrosting method

of air source heat pump

2. Hot-gas bypass defrosting method

Indoor heat Outdoor heat

For continuous heating during defrosting, an electric heater is equipped

1.3 Variable Volume Ratio Two-stage Compression Air

of these technologies in cold and extremely cold climate regions, as described

1.3.2 Variable volume ratio two-stage compression air source

low-pressure gas refrigerant is compressed by the low-pressure stage cylinder

As shown in Figure 1.8, the double-compressor two-stage compression vari-

Xiangfei Liang, Hui Huang

2.5.1 Intermediate pressure without interstage vapor injection 99

This chapter mainly introduces the basic knowledge of a vapor compression

2.1 Basic Knowledge of Vapor Compression Heat Pump

qm,e = Te (s3 − s4 ) = Te ∆s (2.1)

where qm,e = specific cooling capacity, kJ/kg

During the isentropic expansion process (1→4), expansion work is gener-

w = qm,c − qm,e = (Tc − Te )∆s (2.3)

where w = specific compression work, kJ/kg

where COPth = theoretical coefficient of performance of the reverse Carnot